قصبو

<mediawiki xmlns="http://www.mediawiki.org/xml/export-0.11/" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.mediawiki.org/xml/export-0.11/ http://www.mediawiki.org/xml/export-0.11.xsd" version="0.11" xml:lang="sd">
  <siteinfo>
    <sitename>وڪيپيڊيا</sitename>
    <dbname>sdwiki</dbname>
    <base>https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%8F%DA%A9_%D8%B5%D9%81%D8%AD%D9%88</base>
    <generator>MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.13</generator>
    <case>first-letter</case>
    <namespaces>
      <namespace key="-2" case="first-letter">ذريعات</namespace>
      <namespace key="-1" case="first-letter">خاص</namespace>
      <namespace key="0" case="first-letter" />
      <namespace key="1" case="first-letter">بحث</namespace>
      <namespace key="2" case="first-letter">واپرائيندڙ</namespace>
      <namespace key="3" case="first-letter">واپرائيندڙ بحث</namespace>
      <namespace key="4" case="first-letter">وڪيپيڊيا</namespace>
      <namespace key="5" case="first-letter">وڪيپيڊيا بحث</namespace>
      <namespace key="6" case="first-letter">فائل</namespace>
      <namespace key="7" case="first-letter">فائل بحث</namespace>
      <namespace key="8" case="first-letter">ذريعات وڪي</namespace>
      <namespace key="9" case="first-letter">ذريعات وڪي بحث</namespace>
      <namespace key="10" case="first-letter">سانچو</namespace>
      <namespace key="11" case="first-letter">سانچو بحث</namespace>
      <namespace key="12" case="first-letter">مدد</namespace>
      <namespace key="13" case="first-letter">مدد بحث</namespace>
      <namespace key="14" case="first-letter">زمرو</namespace>
      <namespace key="15" case="first-letter">زمرو بحث</namespace>
      <namespace key="100" case="first-letter">باب</namespace>
      <namespace key="101" case="first-letter">باب بحث</namespace>
      <namespace key="710" case="first-letter">TimedText</namespace>
      <namespace key="711" case="first-letter">TimedText talk</namespace>
      <namespace key="828" case="first-letter">ماڊيول</namespace>
      <namespace key="829" case="first-letter">ماڊيول بحث</namespace>
      <namespace key="1728" case="first-letter">Event</namespace>
      <namespace key="1729" case="first-letter">Event talk</namespace>
    </namespaces>
  </siteinfo>
  <page>
    <title>قصبو</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>6546</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399385</id>
      <parentid>396539</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T09:33:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399385</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="85294" sha1="lfmecw1fj6vtzrc2g61hjthqwef4gpw" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Type of human settlement}}
{{pp-move}}
{{multiple image
| total_width       = 350px
| perrow            = 1/2/3/2/1
| image1            = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg
| alt1              = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading
| image2            = Porvoo in January.jpg
| alt2              = Old Town of Porvoo in January
| image3            = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg
| alt3              = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square
| image4            = Luftbild Davos2.jpg
| alt4              = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps
| image5            = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG
| alt5              = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica
| image6            = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| alt6              = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| image7            = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg
| alt7              = The Marian town of Fátima
| image8            = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg
| alt8              = The center of the inland town of Viljandi
| footer  = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون.
}}

'''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. 
[[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']]
قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن.

==تعريف==

==تاريخ== 
==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان==

=== افغانستان ===
{{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}}
[[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي &quot;شهر&quot; (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. 

. فارسي ٻولي. پشتو.  

=== البانيا ===
[[البانيا]] ۾ &quot;قيٽيزي&quot; (&lt;small&gt;qytezë&lt;/small&gt;) جو مطلب &quot;قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (&lt;small&gt;qytet&lt;/small&gt;) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو.


===آسٽريليا===
[[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.  

ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي.
===آئس لينڊ===
{{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]]

=== آسٽريا ===
{{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}

[[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ &lt;small&gt;2098&lt;/small&gt; ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Gemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Marktgemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) يا شهرن (&lt;small&gt;Städte&lt;/small&gt;) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;400&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;1200&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. 

آسٽريا جي &lt;small&gt;201&lt;/small&gt; شهرن مان، &lt;small&gt;15&lt;/small&gt; قانوني شهر (&lt;small&gt;Statutarstädte&lt;/small&gt;) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي.

=== برازيل ===
برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. 

=== بلغاريا ===
{{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]]
بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''وڏا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; ۽ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''ننڍا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. 

بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال &lt;small&gt;2005&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ &lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,500&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. 

=== ڀارت ===
[[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]]
ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا:
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف 
# آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل)

سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو.  

ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي.  
===پاڪستان===
{{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]]
پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو  آهي.

===پولينڊ===
{{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]]
پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن  مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}}

قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. 

=== جرمني ===
{{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]]
جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ &quot;اسٽاڊ&quot; (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، &quot;ڊورف&quot; (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو :

&quot;لينڊ اسٽاڊ&quot; (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان گهٽ)، 

&quot;ڪلين اسٽاڊ&quot;  (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt;)،

&quot;مٽل اسٽاڊ&quot; (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽

&quot;گروب اسٽاڊ&quot; (Großstadt: &quot;وڏو شهر&quot;؛ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;10,00,000&lt;/small&gt;) جي وچ ۾&lt;ref&gt;Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund&lt;/ref&gt;

اصطلاح &quot;گروسسٽڊٽ&quot; کي &quot;شهر&quot; طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ&quot; جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ &quot;اسٽيڊٽريچٽ&quot; سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ &quot;ميونسپلٽي&quot; (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا &quot;جيمينڊن&quot; ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. 

مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه.
===روس===
{{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}}

[[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]]

انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو &quot;گوروڊ&quot; (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. 

روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا.

===رومانيا===
{{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي.  
===Singapore===
{{main|New towns of Singapore}}

[[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]]
In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]].
===France===
[[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]]
From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}&lt;/ref&gt; but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all.

For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}.

===فلپائن===
{{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}}
[[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]]
فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن.

فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. 

فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن.

===Finland===
[[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]]
In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland.
===ڪينيڊا===
{{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}}
ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي.

ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي.

اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا).

=== Latvia ===
[[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]]
In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian.
=== Norway ===
In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]').

Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt; Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]]
The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}&lt;/ref&gt;
===Netherlands===
[[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]]
Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city.

For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities:
* {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more

Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}.


legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries.

The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law.

[[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}&lt;/ref&gt; Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &amp;#124; AMO }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from &quot;town&quot; to &quot;city&quot; to encourage investment.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Chile ===
In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity.

===Estonia===
In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}).

=== Hong Kong ===

{{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}}

[[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]]

Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]].

=== Iran ===
In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete.

There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city').
Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions.
Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]].

The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades.

Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'.

=== Iraq ===
The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities.

=== اٽلي ===
[[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|ڏکڻ اٽلي ۾ باسيليڪاٽا جي ميلانڊرو وادي ۾ هڪ شهر، سٽريانو ڊي لوسانيا]]
جيتوڻيڪ اطالوي ٻولي شهر (città)، شهر (cittadina يا paese) ۽ ڳوٺ (villaggio، پراڻي زماني جو، يا frazione، سڀ کان عام) لاءِ مختلف لفظ مهيا ڪري ٿي، پر ڪا به قانوني وصف موجود ناهي ته آبادين کي ڪيئن درجه بندي ڪيو وڃي. انتظامي طور تي، ٻنهي شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪميونٽي/ڪمون طور حڪمراني ڪئي ويندي آهي، جڏهن ته ڳوٺ شايد اڳوڻي جا ذيلي تقسيم هوندا. عام طور تي، روزاني تقرير ۾، هڪ شهر ڳوٺ کان وڏو يا وڌيڪ آبادي وارو ۽ شهر کان ننڍو هوندو آهي. مختلف شهر ۽ شهر گڏجي هڪ ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو (ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو) ٺاهي سگهن ٿا. هڪ شهر آس پاس جي شهرن جي حوالي سان ثقافتي، اقتصادي، يا سياسي طور تي نمايان برادري پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، هڪ شهر صدارتي فرمان ذريعي اهڙو ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، هڪ شهر هڪ آباد جڳهه ٿي سگهي ٿو جيڪو ٻئي هنڌ شهر جي طرز تي هوندو، پر ان کي ڪا به سرڪاري سڃاڻپ نه ملي آهي. قابل ذڪر استثنا موجود آهن: مثال طور، باسانو ڊيل گراپا، کي 1760 ۾ فرانسسڪو لوريڊن جي ڊوگل فرمان ذريعي città جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو ۽ ان کان پوءِ اهو لقب اختيار ڪيو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، 'شهر' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (ننڍي اکر P سان paese) کي 'ملڪ/قوم' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (عام طور تي وڏي اکر P سان Paese) سان مونجهارو نه هجڻ گهرجي.

=== Japan ===
In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a &quot;city centre&quot;. In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages.

The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000.

=== Korea ===
{{main|Eup (administrative division)}}

In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Lithuania ===
{{main|List of towns in Lithuania}}

In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}').

=== Malaysia ===
In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}).

===New Zealand===
{{expand-section|date=August 2025}}
In [[New Zealand]], the term &quot;town&quot; has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities.

===South Africa===
In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city.

=== Spain ===
In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city.

=== Sweden ===
{{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}}
[[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]]

The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]].

Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation.

For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.&lt;ref&gt;[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250907160031/https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html |date=2025-09-07 }}, Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt; This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.&lt;ref&gt;[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ukraine ===
[[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]]
In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)&lt;/ref&gt; Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]).

=== United Kingdom ===
{{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}}

==== England and Wales ====
{{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}}

[[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]]

In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a &quot;[[market town]]&quot;. Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities.

In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling.

In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest &quot;towns&quot; (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish).

Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns).

Additionally, there are &quot;[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s&quot; which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]].

Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]).

The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear.

[[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]]

It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town.

It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888.

The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as &quot;London town&quot;. (The &quot;[[City of London]]&quot; is the historical nucleus, informally known as the &quot;Square Mile&quot;, and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre.

In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== United States ===
[[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]]

In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name &quot;town&quot; has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=&lt;a href=&quot;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&quot;&gt;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&lt;/a&gt; |access-date=2025-09-04}}&lt;/ref&gt; They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot;&gt;[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.&lt;ref&gt;[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)&lt;/ref&gt;

Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections:

====California====
In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot; Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot;

Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot;, but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot; while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county.

====Georgia====
Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.&lt;ref name=&quot;Census Georgia 2010&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Census 2020&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.&lt;ref name=&quot;NGE&quot;&gt;Perry Hiott &amp; Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).&lt;/ref&gt;

====Hawaii====

In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &amp;#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Illinois====
In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,&lt;ref&gt;See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt; and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.&lt;ref&gt;See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)&lt;/ref&gt; In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.&lt;ref&gt;''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt;

====Indiana====
In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Louisiana====
In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Maryland====

While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt; The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]].

====Mississippi====
Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt; The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt;

====Nevada====

In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this &quot;semi-incorporated&quot; status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities.

====New England====
{{Main|New England town}}

[[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]]
In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council.  For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government.  In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population.

Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as &quot;minor civil divisions&quot; for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government.  For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns.  Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country.

====North Carolina====
In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt; there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government.  Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000.

====Oklahoma====
In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot; /&gt;  Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Pennsylvania====
In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]].

====South Carolina====
At incorporation,  municipalities may choose to be named either &quot;City of&quot; or &quot;Town of&quot;, however there is no legal difference between the two.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Tennessee====
Some Tennessee municipalities are called &quot;cities&quot; and others are called &quot;towns.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}&lt;/ref&gt; and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]].

====Texas====
In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as &quot;towns&quot; or &quot;villages&quot; (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]].

====Utah====
{{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}}
In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Virginia====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}}

In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population).  But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web  |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia  |access-date=31 May 2011  |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor.  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |archive-date=20 June 2010  }}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Washington====
{{Further|City government in Washington (state)}}
A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}&lt;/ref&gt; Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]).

====Wisconsin====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}}

{{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}}
[[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages.

====Wyoming====
A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered &quot;first-class cities&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]].

===ويتنام===
ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện).

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[ڳوٺ]]
* [[شهر]]
* [[صوبو]]
* [[ملڪ]]
* مسافر شهر 
* ڪمپني شهر 
* ترقي يافته ماحول
* آگ جو نشان 
* شهرن جون فهرستون 
* مقام 
* ميگالوپولس 
* پروٽو-شهر
* ٽائون چارٽر 
* ٽائون هال
* ٽائون جون حدون
* ٽائون جا مراعات 
* ٽائون اسڪوائر

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}} 
==ذريعا== 
==ٻاهرين لنڪس==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005]
* [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries.
* [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database

{{Types of administrative division}}

{{Authority control}}
[[زمرو:قصبو]] 
[[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]]  
[[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] 
[[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]]
[[زمرو:ڳتيل جايون بلحاظ قسم]]</text>
      <sha1>lfmecw1fj6vtzrc2g61hjthqwef4gpw</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399386</id>
      <parentid>399385</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T09:35:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399386</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="85295" sha1="72a0lvs9uhpxhwzvguw2kbgmni7w21s" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Type of human settlement}}
{{pp-move}}
{{multiple image
| total_width       = 350px
| perrow            = 1/2/3/2/1
| image1            = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg
| alt1              = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading
| image2            = Porvoo in January.jpg
| alt2              = Old Town of Porvoo in January
| image3            = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg
| alt3              = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square
| image4            = Luftbild Davos2.jpg
| alt4              = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps
| image5            = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG
| alt5              = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica
| image6            = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| alt6              = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| image7            = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg
| alt7              = The Marian town of Fátima
| image8            = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg
| alt8              = The center of the inland town of Viljandi
| footer  = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون.
}}

'''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن.

قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. 
[[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']]
قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. 

==تعريف==

==تاريخ== 
==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان==

=== افغانستان ===
{{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}}
[[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي &quot;شهر&quot; (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. 

. فارسي ٻولي. پشتو.  

=== البانيا ===
[[البانيا]] ۾ &quot;قيٽيزي&quot; (&lt;small&gt;qytezë&lt;/small&gt;) جو مطلب &quot;قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (&lt;small&gt;qytet&lt;/small&gt;) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو.


===آسٽريليا===
[[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.  

ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي.
===آئس لينڊ===
{{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]]

=== آسٽريا ===
{{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}

[[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ &lt;small&gt;2098&lt;/small&gt; ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Gemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Marktgemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) يا شهرن (&lt;small&gt;Städte&lt;/small&gt;) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;400&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;1200&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. 

آسٽريا جي &lt;small&gt;201&lt;/small&gt; شهرن مان، &lt;small&gt;15&lt;/small&gt; قانوني شهر (&lt;small&gt;Statutarstädte&lt;/small&gt;) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي.

=== برازيل ===
برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. 

=== بلغاريا ===
{{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]]
بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''وڏا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; ۽ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''ننڍا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. 

بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال &lt;small&gt;2005&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ &lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,500&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. 

=== ڀارت ===
[[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]]
ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا:
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف 
# آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل)

سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو.  

ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي.  
===پاڪستان===
{{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]]
پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو  آهي.

===پولينڊ===
{{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]]
پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن  مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}}

قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. 

=== جرمني ===
{{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]]
جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ &quot;اسٽاڊ&quot; (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، &quot;ڊورف&quot; (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو :

&quot;لينڊ اسٽاڊ&quot; (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان گهٽ)، 

&quot;ڪلين اسٽاڊ&quot;  (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt;)،

&quot;مٽل اسٽاڊ&quot; (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽

&quot;گروب اسٽاڊ&quot; (Großstadt: &quot;وڏو شهر&quot;؛ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;10,00,000&lt;/small&gt;) جي وچ ۾&lt;ref&gt;Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund&lt;/ref&gt;

اصطلاح &quot;گروسسٽڊٽ&quot; کي &quot;شهر&quot; طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ&quot; جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ &quot;اسٽيڊٽريچٽ&quot; سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ &quot;ميونسپلٽي&quot; (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا &quot;جيمينڊن&quot; ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. 

مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه.
===روس===
{{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}}

[[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]]

انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو &quot;گوروڊ&quot; (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. 

روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا.

===رومانيا===
{{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي.  
===Singapore===
{{main|New towns of Singapore}}

[[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]]
In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]].
===France===
[[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]]
From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}&lt;/ref&gt; but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all.

For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}.

===فلپائن===
{{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}}
[[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]]
فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن.

فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. 

فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن.

===Finland===
[[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]]
In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland.
===ڪينيڊا===
{{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}}
ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي.

ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي.

اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا).

=== Latvia ===
[[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]]
In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian.
=== Norway ===
In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]').

Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt; Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]]
The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}&lt;/ref&gt;
===Netherlands===
[[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]]
Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city.

For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities:
* {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more

Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}.


legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries.

The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law.

[[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}&lt;/ref&gt; Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &amp;#124; AMO }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from &quot;town&quot; to &quot;city&quot; to encourage investment.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Chile ===
In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity.

===Estonia===
In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}).

=== Hong Kong ===

{{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}}

[[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]]

Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]].

=== Iran ===
In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete.

There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city').
Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions.
Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]].

The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades.

Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'.

=== Iraq ===
The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities.

=== اٽلي ===
[[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|ڏکڻ اٽلي ۾ باسيليڪاٽا جي ميلانڊرو وادي ۾ هڪ شهر، سٽريانو ڊي لوسانيا]]
جيتوڻيڪ اطالوي ٻولي شهر (città)، شهر (cittadina يا paese) ۽ ڳوٺ (villaggio، پراڻي زماني جو، يا frazione، سڀ کان عام) لاءِ مختلف لفظ مهيا ڪري ٿي، پر ڪا به قانوني وصف موجود ناهي ته آبادين کي ڪيئن درجه بندي ڪيو وڃي. انتظامي طور تي، ٻنهي شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪميونٽي/ڪمون طور حڪمراني ڪئي ويندي آهي، جڏهن ته ڳوٺ شايد اڳوڻي جا ذيلي تقسيم هوندا. عام طور تي، روزاني تقرير ۾، هڪ شهر ڳوٺ کان وڏو يا وڌيڪ آبادي وارو ۽ شهر کان ننڍو هوندو آهي. مختلف شهر ۽ شهر گڏجي هڪ ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو (ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو) ٺاهي سگهن ٿا. هڪ شهر آس پاس جي شهرن جي حوالي سان ثقافتي، اقتصادي، يا سياسي طور تي نمايان برادري پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، هڪ شهر صدارتي فرمان ذريعي اهڙو ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، هڪ شهر هڪ آباد جڳهه ٿي سگهي ٿو جيڪو ٻئي هنڌ شهر جي طرز تي هوندو، پر ان کي ڪا به سرڪاري سڃاڻپ نه ملي آهي. قابل ذڪر استثنا موجود آهن: مثال طور، باسانو ڊيل گراپا، کي 1760 ۾ فرانسسڪو لوريڊن جي ڊوگل فرمان ذريعي città جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو ۽ ان کان پوءِ اهو لقب اختيار ڪيو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، 'شهر' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (ننڍي اکر P سان paese) کي 'ملڪ/قوم' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (عام طور تي وڏي اکر P سان Paese) سان مونجهارو نه هجڻ گهرجي.

=== Japan ===
In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a &quot;city centre&quot;. In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages.

The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000.

=== Korea ===
{{main|Eup (administrative division)}}

In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Lithuania ===
{{main|List of towns in Lithuania}}

In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}').

=== Malaysia ===
In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}).

===New Zealand===
{{expand-section|date=August 2025}}
In [[New Zealand]], the term &quot;town&quot; has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities.

===South Africa===
In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city.

=== Spain ===
In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city.

=== Sweden ===
{{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}}
[[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]]

The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]].

Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation.

For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.&lt;ref&gt;[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250907160031/https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html |date=2025-09-07 }}, Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt; This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.&lt;ref&gt;[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ukraine ===
[[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]]
In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)&lt;/ref&gt; Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]).

=== United Kingdom ===
{{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}}

==== England and Wales ====
{{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}}

[[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]]

In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a &quot;[[market town]]&quot;. Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities.

In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling.

In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest &quot;towns&quot; (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish).

Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns).

Additionally, there are &quot;[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s&quot; which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]].

Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]).

The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear.

[[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]]

It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town.

It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888.

The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as &quot;London town&quot;. (The &quot;[[City of London]]&quot; is the historical nucleus, informally known as the &quot;Square Mile&quot;, and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre.

In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== United States ===
[[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]]

In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name &quot;town&quot; has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=&lt;a href=&quot;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&quot;&gt;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&lt;/a&gt; |access-date=2025-09-04}}&lt;/ref&gt; They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot;&gt;[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.&lt;ref&gt;[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)&lt;/ref&gt;

Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections:

====California====
In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot; Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot;

Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot;, but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot; while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county.

====Georgia====
Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.&lt;ref name=&quot;Census Georgia 2010&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Census 2020&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.&lt;ref name=&quot;NGE&quot;&gt;Perry Hiott &amp; Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).&lt;/ref&gt;

====Hawaii====

In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &amp;#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Illinois====
In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,&lt;ref&gt;See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt; and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.&lt;ref&gt;See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)&lt;/ref&gt; In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.&lt;ref&gt;''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt;

====Indiana====
In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Louisiana====
In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Maryland====

While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt; The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]].

====Mississippi====
Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt; The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt;

====Nevada====

In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this &quot;semi-incorporated&quot; status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities.

====New England====
{{Main|New England town}}

[[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]]
In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council.  For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government.  In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population.

Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as &quot;minor civil divisions&quot; for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government.  For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns.  Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country.

====North Carolina====
In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt; there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government.  Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000.

====Oklahoma====
In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot; /&gt;  Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Pennsylvania====
In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]].

====South Carolina====
At incorporation,  municipalities may choose to be named either &quot;City of&quot; or &quot;Town of&quot;, however there is no legal difference between the two.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Tennessee====
Some Tennessee municipalities are called &quot;cities&quot; and others are called &quot;towns.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}&lt;/ref&gt; and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]].

====Texas====
In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as &quot;towns&quot; or &quot;villages&quot; (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]].

====Utah====
{{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}}
In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Virginia====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}}

In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population).  But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web  |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia  |access-date=31 May 2011  |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor.  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |archive-date=20 June 2010  }}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Washington====
{{Further|City government in Washington (state)}}
A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}&lt;/ref&gt; Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]).

====Wisconsin====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}}

{{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}}
[[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages.

====Wyoming====
A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered &quot;first-class cities&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]].

===ويتنام===
ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện).

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[ڳوٺ]]
* [[شهر]]
* [[صوبو]]
* [[ملڪ]]
* مسافر شهر 
* ڪمپني شهر 
* ترقي يافته ماحول
* آگ جو نشان 
* شهرن جون فهرستون 
* مقام 
* ميگالوپولس 
* پروٽو-شهر
* ٽائون چارٽر 
* ٽائون هال
* ٽائون جون حدون
* ٽائون جا مراعات 
* ٽائون اسڪوائر

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}} 
==ذريعا== 
==ٻاهرين لنڪس==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005]
* [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries.
* [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database

{{Types of administrative division}}

{{Authority control}}
[[زمرو:قصبو]] 
[[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]]  
[[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] 
[[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]]
[[زمرو:ڳتيل جايون بلحاظ قسم]]</text>
      <sha1>72a0lvs9uhpxhwzvguw2kbgmni7w21s</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399387</id>
      <parentid>399386</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T09:48:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* تاريخ */</comment>
      <origin>399387</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="86897" sha1="salf01rabyr3te6egbh9fyd48f2wqh0" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Type of human settlement}}
{{pp-move}}
{{multiple image
| total_width       = 350px
| perrow            = 1/2/3/2/1
| image1            = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg
| alt1              = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading
| image2            = Porvoo in January.jpg
| alt2              = Old Town of Porvoo in January
| image3            = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg
| alt3              = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square
| image4            = Luftbild Davos2.jpg
| alt4              = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps
| image5            = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG
| alt5              = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica
| image6            = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| alt6              = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| image7            = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg
| alt7              = The Marian town of Fátima
| image8            = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg
| alt8              = The center of the inland town of Viljandi
| footer  = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون.
}}

'''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن.

قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. 
[[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']]
قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. 

==تعريف==

==تاريخ==
رومن دور ۾ ولا هڪ ڳوٺاڻي آبادي هئي جيڪا هڪ مکيه رهائشي عمارت ۽ ثانوي عمارتن جي هڪ ٻي سلسلي سان ٺهيل هئي. اهو مرڪز هو جتان هڪ زرعي ملڪيت جو انتظام ڪيو ويندو هو. انهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڳوٺاڻي ولا يا ولا رسٽيڪا (country villa) سڏيو ويندو آهي جيڪي معمولي فارم هائوسز تي مشتمل آهن. رومن سلطنت دوران وڏين جائدادن جي مضبوط ٿيڻ سان شهر وڏن فارمن جو مرڪز بڻجي ويو. 

ڳوٺاڻي ۽ شهري آبادين جي وچ ۾ هڪ فرق پيدا ٿيو: 

ڳوٺاڻي ولا (ولا رسٽيڪا) جتان وسيلن جي استحصال جي هدايت ڪئي وئي هئي غلام مزدور رهندا هئا, چوپايو مال رکيو ويندو هو ۽ پيداوار کي ذخيرو ڪيو ويندو هو. شهري ولا (پارس اربانا) جنهن ۾ مالڪ رهندو هو ۽ جيڪي شهري حويلين جي عام طور تي اڏاوتي ۽ خوبصورتي جي شڪلن کي وڌيڪ اختيار ڪندا هئا. جڏهن پهرين صدي کان وڏي علائقائي ملڪيت کي سڌو سنئون مالڪ پاران استحصال ڪيل علائقي جي وچ ۾ ورهايو ويو ۽ اهو ڪرائيدار آبادگارن کي ڏنو ويو, شهري ولا, چوٿين صدي جي عام جاگيرداري جي شڪلن کي ظاهر ڪندي, مالڪن جي انتظامي طاقت جا مرڪز بڻجي ويا.

==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان==

=== افغانستان ===
{{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}}
[[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي &quot;شهر&quot; (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. 

. فارسي ٻولي. پشتو.  

=== البانيا ===
[[البانيا]] ۾ &quot;قيٽيزي&quot; (&lt;small&gt;qytezë&lt;/small&gt;) جو مطلب &quot;قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (&lt;small&gt;qytet&lt;/small&gt;) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو.


===آسٽريليا===
[[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.  

ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي.
===آئس لينڊ===
{{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]]

=== آسٽريا ===
{{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}

[[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ &lt;small&gt;2098&lt;/small&gt; ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Gemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Marktgemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) يا شهرن (&lt;small&gt;Städte&lt;/small&gt;) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;400&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;1200&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. 

آسٽريا جي &lt;small&gt;201&lt;/small&gt; شهرن مان، &lt;small&gt;15&lt;/small&gt; قانوني شهر (&lt;small&gt;Statutarstädte&lt;/small&gt;) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي.

=== برازيل ===
برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. 

=== بلغاريا ===
{{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]]
بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''وڏا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; ۽ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''ننڍا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. 

بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال &lt;small&gt;2005&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ &lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,500&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. 

=== ڀارت ===
[[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]]
ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا:
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف 
# آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل)

سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو.  

ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي.  
===پاڪستان===
{{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]]
پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو  آهي.

===پولينڊ===
{{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]]
پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن  مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}}

قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. 

=== جرمني ===
{{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]]
جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ &quot;اسٽاڊ&quot; (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، &quot;ڊورف&quot; (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو :

&quot;لينڊ اسٽاڊ&quot; (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان گهٽ)، 

&quot;ڪلين اسٽاڊ&quot;  (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt;)،

&quot;مٽل اسٽاڊ&quot; (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽

&quot;گروب اسٽاڊ&quot; (Großstadt: &quot;وڏو شهر&quot;؛ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;10,00,000&lt;/small&gt;) جي وچ ۾&lt;ref&gt;Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund&lt;/ref&gt;

اصطلاح &quot;گروسسٽڊٽ&quot; کي &quot;شهر&quot; طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ&quot; جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ &quot;اسٽيڊٽريچٽ&quot; سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ &quot;ميونسپلٽي&quot; (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا &quot;جيمينڊن&quot; ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. 

مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه.
===روس===
{{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}}

[[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]]

انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو &quot;گوروڊ&quot; (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. 

روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا.

===رومانيا===
{{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي.  
===Singapore===
{{main|New towns of Singapore}}

[[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]]
In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]].
===France===
[[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]]
From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}&lt;/ref&gt; but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all.

For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}.

===فلپائن===
{{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}}
[[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]]
فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن.

فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. 

فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن.

===Finland===
[[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]]
In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland.
===ڪينيڊا===
{{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}}
ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي.

ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي.

اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا).

=== Latvia ===
[[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]]
In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian.
=== Norway ===
In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]').

Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt; Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]]
The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}&lt;/ref&gt;
===Netherlands===
[[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]]
Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city.

For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities:
* {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more

Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}.


legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries.

The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law.

[[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}&lt;/ref&gt; Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &amp;#124; AMO }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from &quot;town&quot; to &quot;city&quot; to encourage investment.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Chile ===
In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity.

===Estonia===
In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}).

=== Hong Kong ===

{{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}}

[[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]]

Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]].

=== Iran ===
In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete.

There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city').
Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions.
Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]].

The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades.

Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'.

=== Iraq ===
The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities.

=== اٽلي ===
[[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|ڏکڻ اٽلي ۾ باسيليڪاٽا جي ميلانڊرو وادي ۾ هڪ شهر، سٽريانو ڊي لوسانيا]]
جيتوڻيڪ اطالوي ٻولي شهر (città)، شهر (cittadina يا paese) ۽ ڳوٺ (villaggio، پراڻي زماني جو، يا frazione، سڀ کان عام) لاءِ مختلف لفظ مهيا ڪري ٿي، پر ڪا به قانوني وصف موجود ناهي ته آبادين کي ڪيئن درجه بندي ڪيو وڃي. انتظامي طور تي، ٻنهي شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪميونٽي/ڪمون طور حڪمراني ڪئي ويندي آهي، جڏهن ته ڳوٺ شايد اڳوڻي جا ذيلي تقسيم هوندا. عام طور تي، روزاني تقرير ۾، هڪ شهر ڳوٺ کان وڏو يا وڌيڪ آبادي وارو ۽ شهر کان ننڍو هوندو آهي. مختلف شهر ۽ شهر گڏجي هڪ ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو (ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو) ٺاهي سگهن ٿا. هڪ شهر آس پاس جي شهرن جي حوالي سان ثقافتي، اقتصادي، يا سياسي طور تي نمايان برادري پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، هڪ شهر صدارتي فرمان ذريعي اهڙو ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، هڪ شهر هڪ آباد جڳهه ٿي سگهي ٿو جيڪو ٻئي هنڌ شهر جي طرز تي هوندو، پر ان کي ڪا به سرڪاري سڃاڻپ نه ملي آهي. قابل ذڪر استثنا موجود آهن: مثال طور، باسانو ڊيل گراپا، کي 1760 ۾ فرانسسڪو لوريڊن جي ڊوگل فرمان ذريعي città جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو ۽ ان کان پوءِ اهو لقب اختيار ڪيو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، 'شهر' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (ننڍي اکر P سان paese) کي 'ملڪ/قوم' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (عام طور تي وڏي اکر P سان Paese) سان مونجهارو نه هجڻ گهرجي.

=== Japan ===
In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a &quot;city centre&quot;. In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages.

The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000.

=== Korea ===
{{main|Eup (administrative division)}}

In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Lithuania ===
{{main|List of towns in Lithuania}}

In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}').

=== Malaysia ===
In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}).

===New Zealand===
{{expand-section|date=August 2025}}
In [[New Zealand]], the term &quot;town&quot; has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities.

===South Africa===
In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city.

=== Spain ===
In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city.

=== Sweden ===
{{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}}
[[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]]

The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]].

Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation.

For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.&lt;ref&gt;[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250907160031/https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html |date=2025-09-07 }}, Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt; This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.&lt;ref&gt;[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ukraine ===
[[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]]
In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)&lt;/ref&gt; Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]).

=== United Kingdom ===
{{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}}

==== England and Wales ====
{{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}}

[[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]]

In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a &quot;[[market town]]&quot;. Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities.

In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling.

In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest &quot;towns&quot; (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish).

Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns).

Additionally, there are &quot;[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s&quot; which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]].

Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]).

The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear.

[[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]]

It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town.

It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888.

The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as &quot;London town&quot;. (The &quot;[[City of London]]&quot; is the historical nucleus, informally known as the &quot;Square Mile&quot;, and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre.

In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== United States ===
[[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]]

In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name &quot;town&quot; has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=&lt;a href=&quot;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&quot;&gt;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&lt;/a&gt; |access-date=2025-09-04}}&lt;/ref&gt; They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot;&gt;[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.&lt;ref&gt;[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)&lt;/ref&gt;

Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections:

====California====
In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot; Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot;

Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot;, but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot; while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county.

====Georgia====
Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.&lt;ref name=&quot;Census Georgia 2010&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Census 2020&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.&lt;ref name=&quot;NGE&quot;&gt;Perry Hiott &amp; Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).&lt;/ref&gt;

====Hawaii====

In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &amp;#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Illinois====
In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,&lt;ref&gt;See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt; and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.&lt;ref&gt;See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)&lt;/ref&gt; In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.&lt;ref&gt;''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt;

====Indiana====
In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Louisiana====
In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Maryland====

While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt; The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]].

====Mississippi====
Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt; The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt;

====Nevada====

In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this &quot;semi-incorporated&quot; status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities.

====New England====
{{Main|New England town}}

[[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]]
In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council.  For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government.  In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population.

Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as &quot;minor civil divisions&quot; for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government.  For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns.  Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country.

====North Carolina====
In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt; there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government.  Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000.

====Oklahoma====
In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot; /&gt;  Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Pennsylvania====
In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]].

====South Carolina====
At incorporation,  municipalities may choose to be named either &quot;City of&quot; or &quot;Town of&quot;, however there is no legal difference between the two.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Tennessee====
Some Tennessee municipalities are called &quot;cities&quot; and others are called &quot;towns.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}&lt;/ref&gt; and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]].

====Texas====
In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as &quot;towns&quot; or &quot;villages&quot; (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]].

====Utah====
{{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}}
In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Virginia====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}}

In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population).  But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web  |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia  |access-date=31 May 2011  |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor.  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |archive-date=20 June 2010  }}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Washington====
{{Further|City government in Washington (state)}}
A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}&lt;/ref&gt; Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]).

====Wisconsin====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}}

{{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}}
[[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages.

====Wyoming====
A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered &quot;first-class cities&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]].

===ويتنام===
ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện).

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[ڳوٺ]]
* [[شهر]]
* [[صوبو]]
* [[ملڪ]]
* مسافر شهر 
* ڪمپني شهر 
* ترقي يافته ماحول
* آگ جو نشان 
* شهرن جون فهرستون 
* مقام 
* ميگالوپولس 
* پروٽو-شهر
* ٽائون چارٽر 
* ٽائون هال
* ٽائون جون حدون
* ٽائون جا مراعات 
* ٽائون اسڪوائر

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}} 
==ذريعا== 
==ٻاهرين لنڪس==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005]
* [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries.
* [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database

{{Types of administrative division}}

{{Authority control}}
[[زمرو:قصبو]] 
[[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]]  
[[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] 
[[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]]
[[زمرو:ڳتيل جايون بلحاظ قسم]]</text>
      <sha1>salf01rabyr3te6egbh9fyd48f2wqh0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399388</id>
      <parentid>399387</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T09:53:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399388</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="87001" sha1="3vsn06er2jucsgzsl4wz2ffjpgvfxsd" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Type of human settlement}}
{{pp-move}}
{{multiple image
| total_width       = 350px
| perrow            = 1/2/3/2/1
| image1            = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg
| alt1              = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading
| image2            = Porvoo in January.jpg
| alt2              = Old Town of Porvoo in January
| image3            = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg
| alt3              = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square
| image4            = Luftbild Davos2.jpg
| alt4              = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps
| image5            = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG
| alt5              = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica
| image6            = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| alt6              = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| image7            = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg
| alt7              = The Marian town of Fátima
| image8            = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg
| alt8              = The center of the inland town of Viljandi
| footer  = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون.
}}

'''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن.

قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. 
[[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']]
قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. 

==تعريف==

==تاريخ==
[[File:Çatalhöyük, 7400 BC, Konya, Turkey - UNESCO World Heritage Site, 08.jpg|thumb|Çatalhöyük]]
رومن دور ۾ ولا هڪ ڳوٺاڻي آبادي هئي جيڪا هڪ مکيه رهائشي عمارت ۽ ثانوي عمارتن جي هڪ ٻي سلسلي سان ٺهيل هئي. اهو مرڪز هو جتان هڪ زرعي ملڪيت جو انتظام ڪيو ويندو هو. انهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڳوٺاڻي ولا يا ولا رسٽيڪا (country villa) سڏيو ويندو آهي جيڪي معمولي فارم هائوسز تي مشتمل آهن. رومن سلطنت دوران وڏين جائدادن جي مضبوط ٿيڻ سان شهر وڏن فارمن جو مرڪز بڻجي ويو. 

ڳوٺاڻي ۽ شهري آبادين جي وچ ۾ هڪ فرق پيدا ٿيو: 

ڳوٺاڻي ولا (ولا رسٽيڪا) جتان وسيلن جي استحصال جي هدايت ڪئي وئي هئي غلام مزدور رهندا هئا, چوپايو مال رکيو ويندو هو ۽ پيداوار کي ذخيرو ڪيو ويندو هو. شهري ولا (پارس اربانا) جنهن ۾ مالڪ رهندو هو ۽ جيڪي شهري حويلين جي عام طور تي اڏاوتي ۽ خوبصورتي جي شڪلن کي وڌيڪ اختيار ڪندا هئا. جڏهن پهرين صدي کان وڏي علائقائي ملڪيت کي سڌو سنئون مالڪ پاران استحصال ڪيل علائقي جي وچ ۾ ورهايو ويو ۽ اهو ڪرائيدار آبادگارن کي ڏنو ويو, شهري ولا, چوٿين صدي جي عام جاگيرداري جي شڪلن کي ظاهر ڪندي, مالڪن جي انتظامي طاقت جا مرڪز بڻجي ويا.

==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان==

=== افغانستان ===
{{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}}
[[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي &quot;شهر&quot; (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. 

. فارسي ٻولي. پشتو.  

=== البانيا ===
[[البانيا]] ۾ &quot;قيٽيزي&quot; (&lt;small&gt;qytezë&lt;/small&gt;) جو مطلب &quot;قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (&lt;small&gt;qytet&lt;/small&gt;) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو.


===آسٽريليا===
[[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.  

ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي.
===آئس لينڊ===
{{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]]

=== آسٽريا ===
{{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}

[[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ &lt;small&gt;2098&lt;/small&gt; ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Gemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Marktgemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) يا شهرن (&lt;small&gt;Städte&lt;/small&gt;) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;400&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;1200&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. 

آسٽريا جي &lt;small&gt;201&lt;/small&gt; شهرن مان، &lt;small&gt;15&lt;/small&gt; قانوني شهر (&lt;small&gt;Statutarstädte&lt;/small&gt;) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي.

=== برازيل ===
برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. 

=== بلغاريا ===
{{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]]
بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''وڏا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; ۽ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''ننڍا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. 

بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال &lt;small&gt;2005&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ &lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,500&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. 

=== ڀارت ===
[[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]]
ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا:
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف 
# آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل)

سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو.  

ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي.  
===پاڪستان===
{{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]]
پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو  آهي.

===پولينڊ===
{{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]]
پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن  مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}}

قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. 

=== جرمني ===
{{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]]
جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ &quot;اسٽاڊ&quot; (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، &quot;ڊورف&quot; (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو :

&quot;لينڊ اسٽاڊ&quot; (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان گهٽ)، 

&quot;ڪلين اسٽاڊ&quot;  (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt;)،

&quot;مٽل اسٽاڊ&quot; (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽

&quot;گروب اسٽاڊ&quot; (Großstadt: &quot;وڏو شهر&quot;؛ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;10,00,000&lt;/small&gt;) جي وچ ۾&lt;ref&gt;Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund&lt;/ref&gt;

اصطلاح &quot;گروسسٽڊٽ&quot; کي &quot;شهر&quot; طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ&quot; جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ &quot;اسٽيڊٽريچٽ&quot; سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ &quot;ميونسپلٽي&quot; (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا &quot;جيمينڊن&quot; ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. 

مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه.
===روس===
{{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}}

[[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]]

انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو &quot;گوروڊ&quot; (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. 

روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا.

===رومانيا===
{{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي.  
===Singapore===
{{main|New towns of Singapore}}

[[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]]
In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]].
===France===
[[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]]
From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}&lt;/ref&gt; but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all.

For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}.

===فلپائن===
{{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}}
[[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]]
فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن.

فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. 

فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن.

===Finland===
[[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]]
In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland.
===ڪينيڊا===
{{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}}
ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي.

ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي.

اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا).

=== Latvia ===
[[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]]
In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian.
=== Norway ===
In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]').

Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt; Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]]
The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}&lt;/ref&gt;
===Netherlands===
[[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]]
Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city.

For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities:
* {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more

Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}.


legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries.

The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law.

[[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}&lt;/ref&gt; Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &amp;#124; AMO }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from &quot;town&quot; to &quot;city&quot; to encourage investment.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Chile ===
In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity.

===Estonia===
In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}).

=== Hong Kong ===

{{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}}

[[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]]

Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]].

=== Iran ===
In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete.

There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city').
Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions.
Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]].

The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades.

Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'.

=== Iraq ===
The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities.

=== اٽلي ===
[[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|ڏکڻ اٽلي ۾ باسيليڪاٽا جي ميلانڊرو وادي ۾ هڪ شهر، سٽريانو ڊي لوسانيا]]
جيتوڻيڪ اطالوي ٻولي شهر (città)، شهر (cittadina يا paese) ۽ ڳوٺ (villaggio، پراڻي زماني جو، يا frazione، سڀ کان عام) لاءِ مختلف لفظ مهيا ڪري ٿي، پر ڪا به قانوني وصف موجود ناهي ته آبادين کي ڪيئن درجه بندي ڪيو وڃي. انتظامي طور تي، ٻنهي شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪميونٽي/ڪمون طور حڪمراني ڪئي ويندي آهي، جڏهن ته ڳوٺ شايد اڳوڻي جا ذيلي تقسيم هوندا. عام طور تي، روزاني تقرير ۾، هڪ شهر ڳوٺ کان وڏو يا وڌيڪ آبادي وارو ۽ شهر کان ننڍو هوندو آهي. مختلف شهر ۽ شهر گڏجي هڪ ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو (ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو) ٺاهي سگهن ٿا. هڪ شهر آس پاس جي شهرن جي حوالي سان ثقافتي، اقتصادي، يا سياسي طور تي نمايان برادري پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، هڪ شهر صدارتي فرمان ذريعي اهڙو ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، هڪ شهر هڪ آباد جڳهه ٿي سگهي ٿو جيڪو ٻئي هنڌ شهر جي طرز تي هوندو، پر ان کي ڪا به سرڪاري سڃاڻپ نه ملي آهي. قابل ذڪر استثنا موجود آهن: مثال طور، باسانو ڊيل گراپا، کي 1760 ۾ فرانسسڪو لوريڊن جي ڊوگل فرمان ذريعي città جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو ۽ ان کان پوءِ اهو لقب اختيار ڪيو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، 'شهر' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (ننڍي اکر P سان paese) کي 'ملڪ/قوم' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (عام طور تي وڏي اکر P سان Paese) سان مونجهارو نه هجڻ گهرجي.

=== Japan ===
In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a &quot;city centre&quot;. In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages.

The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000.

=== Korea ===
{{main|Eup (administrative division)}}

In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Lithuania ===
{{main|List of towns in Lithuania}}

In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}').

=== Malaysia ===
In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}).

===New Zealand===
{{expand-section|date=August 2025}}
In [[New Zealand]], the term &quot;town&quot; has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities.

===South Africa===
In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city.

=== Spain ===
In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city.

=== Sweden ===
{{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}}
[[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]]

The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]].

Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation.

For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.&lt;ref&gt;[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250907160031/https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html |date=2025-09-07 }}, Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt; This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.&lt;ref&gt;[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ukraine ===
[[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]]
In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)&lt;/ref&gt; Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]).

=== United Kingdom ===
{{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}}

==== England and Wales ====
{{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}}

[[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]]

In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a &quot;[[market town]]&quot;. Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities.

In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling.

In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest &quot;towns&quot; (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish).

Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns).

Additionally, there are &quot;[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s&quot; which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]].

Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]).

The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear.

[[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]]

It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town.

It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888.

The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as &quot;London town&quot;. (The &quot;[[City of London]]&quot; is the historical nucleus, informally known as the &quot;Square Mile&quot;, and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre.

In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== United States ===
[[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]]

In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name &quot;town&quot; has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=&lt;a href=&quot;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&quot;&gt;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&lt;/a&gt; |access-date=2025-09-04}}&lt;/ref&gt; They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot;&gt;[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.&lt;ref&gt;[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)&lt;/ref&gt;

Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections:

====California====
In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot; Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot;

Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot;, but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot; while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county.

====Georgia====
Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.&lt;ref name=&quot;Census Georgia 2010&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Census 2020&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.&lt;ref name=&quot;NGE&quot;&gt;Perry Hiott &amp; Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).&lt;/ref&gt;

====Hawaii====

In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &amp;#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Illinois====
In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,&lt;ref&gt;See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt; and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.&lt;ref&gt;See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)&lt;/ref&gt; In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.&lt;ref&gt;''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt;

====Indiana====
In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Louisiana====
In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Maryland====

While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt; The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]].

====Mississippi====
Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt; The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt;

====Nevada====

In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this &quot;semi-incorporated&quot; status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities.

====New England====
{{Main|New England town}}

[[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]]
In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council.  For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government.  In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population.

Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as &quot;minor civil divisions&quot; for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government.  For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns.  Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country.

====North Carolina====
In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt; there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government.  Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000.

====Oklahoma====
In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot; /&gt;  Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Pennsylvania====
In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]].

====South Carolina====
At incorporation,  municipalities may choose to be named either &quot;City of&quot; or &quot;Town of&quot;, however there is no legal difference between the two.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Tennessee====
Some Tennessee municipalities are called &quot;cities&quot; and others are called &quot;towns.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}&lt;/ref&gt; and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]].

====Texas====
In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as &quot;towns&quot; or &quot;villages&quot; (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]].

====Utah====
{{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}}
In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Virginia====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}}

In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population).  But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web  |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia  |access-date=31 May 2011  |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor.  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |archive-date=20 June 2010  }}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Washington====
{{Further|City government in Washington (state)}}
A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}&lt;/ref&gt; Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]).

====Wisconsin====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}}

{{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}}
[[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages.

====Wyoming====
A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered &quot;first-class cities&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]].

===ويتنام===
ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện).

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[ڳوٺ]]
* [[شهر]]
* [[صوبو]]
* [[ملڪ]]
* مسافر شهر 
* ڪمپني شهر 
* ترقي يافته ماحول
* آگ جو نشان 
* شهرن جون فهرستون 
* مقام 
* ميگالوپولس 
* پروٽو-شهر
* ٽائون چارٽر 
* ٽائون هال
* ٽائون جون حدون
* ٽائون جا مراعات 
* ٽائون اسڪوائر

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}} 
==ذريعا== 
==ٻاهرين لنڪس==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005]
* [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries.
* [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database

{{Types of administrative division}}

{{Authority control}}
[[زمرو:قصبو]] 
[[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]]  
[[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] 
[[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]]
[[زمرو:ڳتيل جايون بلحاظ قسم]]</text>
      <sha1>3vsn06er2jucsgzsl4wz2ffjpgvfxsd</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399389</id>
      <parentid>399388</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T10:02:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* تاريخ */</comment>
      <origin>399389</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="87325" sha1="gmikbg35lh6r2ivieomhsgn7ne3jwqt" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Type of human settlement}}
{{pp-move}}
{{multiple image
| total_width       = 350px
| perrow            = 1/2/3/2/1
| image1            = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg
| alt1              = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading
| image2            = Porvoo in January.jpg
| alt2              = Old Town of Porvoo in January
| image3            = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg
| alt3              = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square
| image4            = Luftbild Davos2.jpg
| alt4              = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps
| image5            = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG
| alt5              = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica
| image6            = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| alt6              = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| image7            = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg
| alt7              = The Marian town of Fátima
| image8            = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg
| alt8              = The center of the inland town of Viljandi
| footer  = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون.
}}

'''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن.

قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. 
[[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']]
قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. 

==تعريف==

==تاريخ==
[[File:Çatalhöyük, 7400 BC, Konya, Turkey - UNESCO World Heritage Site, 08.jpg|thumb|&quot;چاتالهويڪ&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Çatalhöyük&lt;/small&gt;)، جيڪو [[ترڪي]] ۾ هڪ آثارِ قديمه وارو ماڳ آهي، کي قديم ترين آباد قصبو يا &quot;ابتدائي شهر&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Proto-city&lt;/small&gt;) سمجهيو ويندو هو، جنهن جو وجود تقريباً &lt;small&gt;7100&lt;/small&gt; ق.م. کان هو.]]
رومن دور ۾ ولا هڪ ڳوٺاڻي آبادي هئي جيڪا هڪ مکيه رهائشي عمارت ۽ ثانوي عمارتن جي هڪ ٻي سلسلي سان ٺهيل هئي. اهو مرڪز هو جتان هڪ زرعي ملڪيت جو انتظام ڪيو ويندو هو. انهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڳوٺاڻي ولا يا ولا رسٽيڪا (country villa) سڏيو ويندو آهي جيڪي معمولي فارم هائوسز تي مشتمل آهن. رومن سلطنت دوران وڏين جائدادن جي مضبوط ٿيڻ سان شهر وڏن فارمن جو مرڪز بڻجي ويو. 

ڳوٺاڻي ۽ شهري آبادين جي وچ ۾ هڪ فرق پيدا ٿيو: 

ڳوٺاڻي ولا (ولا رسٽيڪا) جتان وسيلن جي استحصال جي هدايت ڪئي وئي هئي غلام مزدور رهندا هئا, چوپايو مال رکيو ويندو هو ۽ پيداوار کي ذخيرو ڪيو ويندو هو. شهري ولا (پارس اربانا) جنهن ۾ مالڪ رهندو هو ۽ جيڪي شهري حويلين جي عام طور تي اڏاوتي ۽ خوبصورتي جي شڪلن کي وڌيڪ اختيار ڪندا هئا. جڏهن پهرين صدي کان وڏي علائقائي ملڪيت کي سڌو سنئون مالڪ پاران استحصال ڪيل علائقي جي وچ ۾ ورهايو ويو ۽ اهو ڪرائيدار آبادگارن کي ڏنو ويو, شهري ولا, چوٿين صدي جي عام جاگيرداري جي شڪلن کي ظاهر ڪندي, مالڪن جي انتظامي طاقت جا مرڪز بڻجي ويا.

==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان==

=== افغانستان ===
{{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}}
[[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي &quot;شهر&quot; (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. 

. فارسي ٻولي. پشتو.  

=== البانيا ===
[[البانيا]] ۾ &quot;قيٽيزي&quot; (&lt;small&gt;qytezë&lt;/small&gt;) جو مطلب &quot;قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (&lt;small&gt;qytet&lt;/small&gt;) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو.


===آسٽريليا===
[[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.  

ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي.
===آئس لينڊ===
{{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]]

=== آسٽريا ===
{{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}

[[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ &lt;small&gt;2098&lt;/small&gt; ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Gemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Marktgemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) يا شهرن (&lt;small&gt;Städte&lt;/small&gt;) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;400&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;1200&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. 

آسٽريا جي &lt;small&gt;201&lt;/small&gt; شهرن مان، &lt;small&gt;15&lt;/small&gt; قانوني شهر (&lt;small&gt;Statutarstädte&lt;/small&gt;) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي.

=== برازيل ===
برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. 

=== بلغاريا ===
{{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]]
بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''وڏا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; ۽ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''ننڍا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. 

بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال &lt;small&gt;2005&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ &lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,500&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. 

=== ڀارت ===
[[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]]
ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا:
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف 
# آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل)

سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو.  

ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي.  
===پاڪستان===
{{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]]
پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو  آهي.

===پولينڊ===
{{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]]
پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن  مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}}

قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. 

=== جرمني ===
{{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]]
جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ &quot;اسٽاڊ&quot; (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، &quot;ڊورف&quot; (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو :

&quot;لينڊ اسٽاڊ&quot; (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان گهٽ)، 

&quot;ڪلين اسٽاڊ&quot;  (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt;)،

&quot;مٽل اسٽاڊ&quot; (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽

&quot;گروب اسٽاڊ&quot; (Großstadt: &quot;وڏو شهر&quot;؛ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;10,00,000&lt;/small&gt;) جي وچ ۾&lt;ref&gt;Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund&lt;/ref&gt;

اصطلاح &quot;گروسسٽڊٽ&quot; کي &quot;شهر&quot; طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ&quot; جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ &quot;اسٽيڊٽريچٽ&quot; سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ &quot;ميونسپلٽي&quot; (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا &quot;جيمينڊن&quot; ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. 

مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه.
===روس===
{{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}}

[[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]]

انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو &quot;گوروڊ&quot; (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. 

روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا.

===رومانيا===
{{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي.  
===Singapore===
{{main|New towns of Singapore}}

[[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]]
In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]].
===France===
[[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]]
From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}&lt;/ref&gt; but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all.

For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}.

===فلپائن===
{{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}}
[[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]]
فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن.

فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. 

فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن.

===Finland===
[[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]]
In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland.
===ڪينيڊا===
{{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}}
ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي.

ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي.

اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا).

=== Latvia ===
[[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]]
In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian.
=== Norway ===
In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]').

Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt; Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]]
The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}&lt;/ref&gt;
===Netherlands===
[[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]]
Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city.

For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities:
* {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more

Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}.


legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries.

The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law.

[[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}&lt;/ref&gt; Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &amp;#124; AMO }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from &quot;town&quot; to &quot;city&quot; to encourage investment.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Chile ===
In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity.

===Estonia===
In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}).

=== Hong Kong ===

{{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}}

[[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]]

Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]].

=== Iran ===
In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete.

There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city').
Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions.
Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]].

The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades.

Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'.

=== Iraq ===
The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities.

=== اٽلي ===
[[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|ڏکڻ اٽلي ۾ باسيليڪاٽا جي ميلانڊرو وادي ۾ هڪ شهر، سٽريانو ڊي لوسانيا]]
جيتوڻيڪ اطالوي ٻولي شهر (città)، شهر (cittadina يا paese) ۽ ڳوٺ (villaggio، پراڻي زماني جو، يا frazione، سڀ کان عام) لاءِ مختلف لفظ مهيا ڪري ٿي، پر ڪا به قانوني وصف موجود ناهي ته آبادين کي ڪيئن درجه بندي ڪيو وڃي. انتظامي طور تي، ٻنهي شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪميونٽي/ڪمون طور حڪمراني ڪئي ويندي آهي، جڏهن ته ڳوٺ شايد اڳوڻي جا ذيلي تقسيم هوندا. عام طور تي، روزاني تقرير ۾، هڪ شهر ڳوٺ کان وڏو يا وڌيڪ آبادي وارو ۽ شهر کان ننڍو هوندو آهي. مختلف شهر ۽ شهر گڏجي هڪ ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو (ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو) ٺاهي سگهن ٿا. هڪ شهر آس پاس جي شهرن جي حوالي سان ثقافتي، اقتصادي، يا سياسي طور تي نمايان برادري پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، هڪ شهر صدارتي فرمان ذريعي اهڙو ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، هڪ شهر هڪ آباد جڳهه ٿي سگهي ٿو جيڪو ٻئي هنڌ شهر جي طرز تي هوندو، پر ان کي ڪا به سرڪاري سڃاڻپ نه ملي آهي. قابل ذڪر استثنا موجود آهن: مثال طور، باسانو ڊيل گراپا، کي 1760 ۾ فرانسسڪو لوريڊن جي ڊوگل فرمان ذريعي città جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو ۽ ان کان پوءِ اهو لقب اختيار ڪيو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، 'شهر' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (ننڍي اکر P سان paese) کي 'ملڪ/قوم' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (عام طور تي وڏي اکر P سان Paese) سان مونجهارو نه هجڻ گهرجي.

=== Japan ===
In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a &quot;city centre&quot;. In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages.

The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000.

=== Korea ===
{{main|Eup (administrative division)}}

In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Lithuania ===
{{main|List of towns in Lithuania}}

In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}').

=== Malaysia ===
In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}).

===New Zealand===
{{expand-section|date=August 2025}}
In [[New Zealand]], the term &quot;town&quot; has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities.

===South Africa===
In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city.

=== Spain ===
In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city.

=== Sweden ===
{{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}}
[[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]]

The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]].

Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation.

For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.&lt;ref&gt;[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250907160031/https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html |date=2025-09-07 }}, Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt; This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.&lt;ref&gt;[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ukraine ===
[[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]]
In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)&lt;/ref&gt; Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]).

=== United Kingdom ===
{{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}}

==== England and Wales ====
{{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}}

[[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]]

In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a &quot;[[market town]]&quot;. Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities.

In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling.

In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest &quot;towns&quot; (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish).

Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns).

Additionally, there are &quot;[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s&quot; which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]].

Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]).

The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear.

[[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]]

It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town.

It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888.

The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as &quot;London town&quot;. (The &quot;[[City of London]]&quot; is the historical nucleus, informally known as the &quot;Square Mile&quot;, and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre.

In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== United States ===
[[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]]

In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name &quot;town&quot; has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=&lt;a href=&quot;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&quot;&gt;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&lt;/a&gt; |access-date=2025-09-04}}&lt;/ref&gt; They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot;&gt;[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.&lt;ref&gt;[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)&lt;/ref&gt;

Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections:

====California====
In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot; Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot;

Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot;, but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot; while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county.

====Georgia====
Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.&lt;ref name=&quot;Census Georgia 2010&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Census 2020&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.&lt;ref name=&quot;NGE&quot;&gt;Perry Hiott &amp; Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).&lt;/ref&gt;

====Hawaii====

In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &amp;#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Illinois====
In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,&lt;ref&gt;See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt; and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.&lt;ref&gt;See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)&lt;/ref&gt; In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.&lt;ref&gt;''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt;

====Indiana====
In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Louisiana====
In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Maryland====

While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt; The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]].

====Mississippi====
Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt; The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt;

====Nevada====

In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this &quot;semi-incorporated&quot; status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities.

====New England====
{{Main|New England town}}

[[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]]
In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council.  For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government.  In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population.

Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as &quot;minor civil divisions&quot; for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government.  For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns.  Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country.

====North Carolina====
In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt; there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government.  Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000.

====Oklahoma====
In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot; /&gt;  Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Pennsylvania====
In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]].

====South Carolina====
At incorporation,  municipalities may choose to be named either &quot;City of&quot; or &quot;Town of&quot;, however there is no legal difference between the two.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Tennessee====
Some Tennessee municipalities are called &quot;cities&quot; and others are called &quot;towns.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}&lt;/ref&gt; and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]].

====Texas====
In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as &quot;towns&quot; or &quot;villages&quot; (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]].

====Utah====
{{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}}
In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Virginia====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}}

In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population).  But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web  |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia  |access-date=31 May 2011  |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor.  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |archive-date=20 June 2010  }}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Washington====
{{Further|City government in Washington (state)}}
A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}&lt;/ref&gt; Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]).

====Wisconsin====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}}

{{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}}
[[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages.

====Wyoming====
A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered &quot;first-class cities&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]].

===ويتنام===
ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện).

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[ڳوٺ]]
* [[شهر]]
* [[صوبو]]
* [[ملڪ]]
* مسافر شهر 
* ڪمپني شهر 
* ترقي يافته ماحول
* آگ جو نشان 
* شهرن جون فهرستون 
* مقام 
* ميگالوپولس 
* پروٽو-شهر
* ٽائون چارٽر 
* ٽائون هال
* ٽائون جون حدون
* ٽائون جا مراعات 
* ٽائون اسڪوائر

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}} 
==ذريعا== 
==ٻاهرين لنڪس==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005]
* [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries.
* [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database

{{Types of administrative division}}

{{Authority control}}
[[زمرو:قصبو]] 
[[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]]  
[[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] 
[[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]]
[[زمرو:ڳتيل جايون بلحاظ قسم]]</text>
      <sha1>gmikbg35lh6r2ivieomhsgn7ne3jwqt</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399390</id>
      <parentid>399389</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T10:04:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* تعريف */</comment>
      <origin>399390</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="92237" sha1="2dp4gz125fsaw05ol0g909a4nulef0v" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Type of human settlement}}
{{pp-move}}
{{multiple image
| total_width       = 350px
| perrow            = 1/2/3/2/1
| image1            = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg
| alt1              = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading
| image2            = Porvoo in January.jpg
| alt2              = Old Town of Porvoo in January
| image3            = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg
| alt3              = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square
| image4            = Luftbild Davos2.jpg
| alt4              = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps
| image5            = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG
| alt5              = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica
| image6            = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| alt6              = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| image7            = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg
| alt7              = The Marian town of Fátima
| image8            = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg
| alt8              = The center of the inland town of Viljandi
| footer  = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون.
}}

'''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن.

قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. 
[[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']]
قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. 

==تعريف==
In some cases, ''town'' is an alternative name for &quot;city&quot; or &quot;village&quot; (especially a small city or large village; and occasionally even [[hamlet (place)|hamlets]]). Sometimes, the word ''town'' is short for ''[[township]]''. In general, today towns can be differentiated from townships, villages, or hamlets on the basis of their economic character, in that most of a town's population will tend to derive their living from manufacturing industry, commerce, and public services rather than [[primary sector]] industries such as agriculture or related activities.

A place's population size is not a reliable determinant of urban character. In many areas of the world, e.g. in India at least until recent times, a large village might contain several times as many people as a small town. In the United Kingdom, there are historical cities [[List of urban areas in England by population|that are far smaller]] than the larger towns.
[[File:Moisakula - panoramio (1).jpg|thumb|[[Mõisaküla]] is a small town in the southern part of [[Estonia]], just next to the border of [[Latvia]]. The town's current population is less than 1,000 inhabitants.]]

The modern phenomenon of extensive [[suburb]]an growth, satellite urban development, and migration of city dwellers to villages has further complicated the definition of towns, creating communities urban in their economic and cultural characteristics but lacking other characteristics of urban localities.

Some forms of non-rural settlement, such as temporary mining locations, may be clearly non-rural, but have at best a questionable claim to be called a town.

Towns often exist as distinct governmental units, with legally defined borders and some or all of the appurtenances of local government (e.g. a police force). In the United States these are referred to as &quot;incorporated towns&quot;. In other cases the town lacks its own governance and is said to be &quot;unincorporated&quot;. The existence of an unincorporated town may be legally set out by other means, e.g. zoning districts. In the case of some [[planned community|planned communities]], the town exists legally in the form of covenants on the properties within the town. The [[United States census]] identifies many [[census-designated place]]s (CDPs) by the names of unincorporated towns which lie within them; however, those CDPs typically include rural and suburban areas and even surrounding villages and other towns.

[[File:View of Mariehamn, 2022.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of [[Mariehamn]], the town in [[Åland]] with over 10,000 inhabitants]]
The distinction between a town and a city similarly depends on the approach: a city may strictly be an administrative entity which has been granted that designation by law, but in informal usage, the term is also used to denote an urban locality of a particular size or importance: whereas a [[Middle Ages|medieval]] city may have possessed as few as 10,000 inhabitants, today some{{who|date=November 2014}} consider an urban place of fewer than 100,000 as a town, even though there are many officially designated cities that are much smaller than that.

Starting in March 2021, the then-193 [[member states of the United Nations]] have been involved in an effort led by EU aparatusses to agree on a common statistical definition of cities, towns and rural areas.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-04-02 |title=What makes a city a city? |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/-/wdn-20210402-1 |website=[[eurostat]] |quote=Humans have built cities for thousands of years, yet incredibly there was no definition of a city (or a town, or a region) agreed by all. Until now. A joint initiative led by Eurostat, DG REGIO and the JRC was adopted by the UN last month to establish global definitions for urban and rural areas. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;!--&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-manuals-and-guidelines/-/ks-02-20-499|title=Applying the Degree of Urbanisation — A methodological manual to define cities, towns and rural areas for international comparisons — 2021 edition|website=ec.europa.eu}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Failed verification|date=September 2023}}--&gt;

=== Age of towns scheme ===
Australian geographer [[Thomas Griffith Taylor]] proposed a classification of towns based on their age and pattern of [[land use]]. He identified five types of towns:&lt;ref&gt;Goodall, B. (1987) The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography. London: Penguin.&lt;/ref&gt;

* ''Infantile towns'', with no clear [[zoning]]
* ''Juvenile towns'', which have developed an area of [[Retailing|shops]]
* ''Adolescent towns'', where factories have started to appear
* ''Early mature towns'', with a separate area of [[Social class|high-class]] housing
* ''Mature towns'', with defined industrial, commercial and various types of residential area

[[File:Quincy Street Historic District Hancock 100 block N 2009.jpg|thumb|The city of [[Hancock, Michigan]] along Quincy Street]]

==تاريخ==
[[File:Çatalhöyük, 7400 BC, Konya, Turkey - UNESCO World Heritage Site, 08.jpg|thumb|&quot;چاتالهويڪ&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Çatalhöyük&lt;/small&gt;)، جيڪو [[ترڪي]] ۾ هڪ آثارِ قديمه وارو ماڳ آهي، کي قديم ترين آباد قصبو يا &quot;ابتدائي شهر&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Proto-city&lt;/small&gt;) سمجهيو ويندو هو، جنهن جو وجود تقريباً &lt;small&gt;7100&lt;/small&gt; ق.م. کان هو.]]
رومن دور ۾ ولا هڪ ڳوٺاڻي آبادي هئي جيڪا هڪ مکيه رهائشي عمارت ۽ ثانوي عمارتن جي هڪ ٻي سلسلي سان ٺهيل هئي. اهو مرڪز هو جتان هڪ زرعي ملڪيت جو انتظام ڪيو ويندو هو. انهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڳوٺاڻي ولا يا ولا رسٽيڪا (country villa) سڏيو ويندو آهي جيڪي معمولي فارم هائوسز تي مشتمل آهن. رومن سلطنت دوران وڏين جائدادن جي مضبوط ٿيڻ سان شهر وڏن فارمن جو مرڪز بڻجي ويو. 

ڳوٺاڻي ۽ شهري آبادين جي وچ ۾ هڪ فرق پيدا ٿيو: 

ڳوٺاڻي ولا (ولا رسٽيڪا) جتان وسيلن جي استحصال جي هدايت ڪئي وئي هئي غلام مزدور رهندا هئا, چوپايو مال رکيو ويندو هو ۽ پيداوار کي ذخيرو ڪيو ويندو هو. شهري ولا (پارس اربانا) جنهن ۾ مالڪ رهندو هو ۽ جيڪي شهري حويلين جي عام طور تي اڏاوتي ۽ خوبصورتي جي شڪلن کي وڌيڪ اختيار ڪندا هئا. جڏهن پهرين صدي کان وڏي علائقائي ملڪيت کي سڌو سنئون مالڪ پاران استحصال ڪيل علائقي جي وچ ۾ ورهايو ويو ۽ اهو ڪرائيدار آبادگارن کي ڏنو ويو, شهري ولا, چوٿين صدي جي عام جاگيرداري جي شڪلن کي ظاهر ڪندي, مالڪن جي انتظامي طاقت جا مرڪز بڻجي ويا.

==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان==

=== افغانستان ===
{{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}}
[[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي &quot;شهر&quot; (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. 

. فارسي ٻولي. پشتو.  

=== البانيا ===
[[البانيا]] ۾ &quot;قيٽيزي&quot; (&lt;small&gt;qytezë&lt;/small&gt;) جو مطلب &quot;قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (&lt;small&gt;qytet&lt;/small&gt;) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو.


===آسٽريليا===
[[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.  

ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي.
===آئس لينڊ===
{{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]]

=== آسٽريا ===
{{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}

[[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ &lt;small&gt;2098&lt;/small&gt; ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Gemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Marktgemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) يا شهرن (&lt;small&gt;Städte&lt;/small&gt;) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;400&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;1200&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. 

آسٽريا جي &lt;small&gt;201&lt;/small&gt; شهرن مان، &lt;small&gt;15&lt;/small&gt; قانوني شهر (&lt;small&gt;Statutarstädte&lt;/small&gt;) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي.

=== برازيل ===
برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. 

=== بلغاريا ===
{{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]]
بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''وڏا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; ۽ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''ننڍا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. 

بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال &lt;small&gt;2005&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ &lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,500&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. 

=== ڀارت ===
[[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]]
ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا:
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف 
# آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل)

سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو.  

ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي.  
===پاڪستان===
{{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]]
پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو  آهي.

===پولينڊ===
{{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]]
پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن  مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}}

قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. 

=== جرمني ===
{{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]]
جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ &quot;اسٽاڊ&quot; (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، &quot;ڊورف&quot; (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو :

&quot;لينڊ اسٽاڊ&quot; (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان گهٽ)، 

&quot;ڪلين اسٽاڊ&quot;  (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt;)،

&quot;مٽل اسٽاڊ&quot; (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽

&quot;گروب اسٽاڊ&quot; (Großstadt: &quot;وڏو شهر&quot;؛ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;10,00,000&lt;/small&gt;) جي وچ ۾&lt;ref&gt;Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund&lt;/ref&gt;

اصطلاح &quot;گروسسٽڊٽ&quot; کي &quot;شهر&quot; طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ&quot; جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ &quot;اسٽيڊٽريچٽ&quot; سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ &quot;ميونسپلٽي&quot; (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا &quot;جيمينڊن&quot; ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. 

مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه.
===روس===
{{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}}

[[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]]

انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو &quot;گوروڊ&quot; (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. 

روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا.

===رومانيا===
{{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي.  
===Singapore===
{{main|New towns of Singapore}}

[[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]]
In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]].
===France===
[[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]]
From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}&lt;/ref&gt; but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all.

For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}.

===فلپائن===
{{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}}
[[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]]
فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن.

فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. 

فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن.

===Finland===
[[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]]
In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland.
===ڪينيڊا===
{{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}}
ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي.

ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي.

اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا).

=== Latvia ===
[[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]]
In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian.
=== Norway ===
In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]').

Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt; Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]]
The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}&lt;/ref&gt;
===Netherlands===
[[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]]
Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city.

For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities:
* {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more

Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}.


legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries.

The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law.

[[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}&lt;/ref&gt; Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &amp;#124; AMO }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from &quot;town&quot; to &quot;city&quot; to encourage investment.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Chile ===
In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity.

===Estonia===
In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}).

=== Hong Kong ===

{{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}}

[[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]]

Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]].

=== Iran ===
In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete.

There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city').
Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions.
Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]].

The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades.

Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'.

=== Iraq ===
The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities.

=== اٽلي ===
[[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|ڏکڻ اٽلي ۾ باسيليڪاٽا جي ميلانڊرو وادي ۾ هڪ شهر، سٽريانو ڊي لوسانيا]]
جيتوڻيڪ اطالوي ٻولي شهر (città)، شهر (cittadina يا paese) ۽ ڳوٺ (villaggio، پراڻي زماني جو، يا frazione، سڀ کان عام) لاءِ مختلف لفظ مهيا ڪري ٿي، پر ڪا به قانوني وصف موجود ناهي ته آبادين کي ڪيئن درجه بندي ڪيو وڃي. انتظامي طور تي، ٻنهي شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪميونٽي/ڪمون طور حڪمراني ڪئي ويندي آهي، جڏهن ته ڳوٺ شايد اڳوڻي جا ذيلي تقسيم هوندا. عام طور تي، روزاني تقرير ۾، هڪ شهر ڳوٺ کان وڏو يا وڌيڪ آبادي وارو ۽ شهر کان ننڍو هوندو آهي. مختلف شهر ۽ شهر گڏجي هڪ ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو (ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو) ٺاهي سگهن ٿا. هڪ شهر آس پاس جي شهرن جي حوالي سان ثقافتي، اقتصادي، يا سياسي طور تي نمايان برادري پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، هڪ شهر صدارتي فرمان ذريعي اهڙو ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، هڪ شهر هڪ آباد جڳهه ٿي سگهي ٿو جيڪو ٻئي هنڌ شهر جي طرز تي هوندو، پر ان کي ڪا به سرڪاري سڃاڻپ نه ملي آهي. قابل ذڪر استثنا موجود آهن: مثال طور، باسانو ڊيل گراپا، کي 1760 ۾ فرانسسڪو لوريڊن جي ڊوگل فرمان ذريعي città جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو ۽ ان کان پوءِ اهو لقب اختيار ڪيو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، 'شهر' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (ننڍي اکر P سان paese) کي 'ملڪ/قوم' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (عام طور تي وڏي اکر P سان Paese) سان مونجهارو نه هجڻ گهرجي.

=== Japan ===
In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a &quot;city centre&quot;. In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages.

The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000.

=== Korea ===
{{main|Eup (administrative division)}}

In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Lithuania ===
{{main|List of towns in Lithuania}}

In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}').

=== Malaysia ===
In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}).

===New Zealand===
{{expand-section|date=August 2025}}
In [[New Zealand]], the term &quot;town&quot; has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities.

===South Africa===
In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city.

=== Spain ===
In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city.

=== Sweden ===
{{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}}
[[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]]

The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]].

Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation.

For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.&lt;ref&gt;[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250907160031/https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html |date=2025-09-07 }}, Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt; This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.&lt;ref&gt;[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ukraine ===
[[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]]
In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)&lt;/ref&gt; Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]).

=== United Kingdom ===
{{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}}

==== England and Wales ====
{{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}}

[[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]]

In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a &quot;[[market town]]&quot;. Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities.

In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling.

In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest &quot;towns&quot; (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish).

Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns).

Additionally, there are &quot;[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s&quot; which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]].

Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]).

The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear.

[[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]]

It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town.

It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888.

The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as &quot;London town&quot;. (The &quot;[[City of London]]&quot; is the historical nucleus, informally known as the &quot;Square Mile&quot;, and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre.

In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== United States ===
[[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]]

In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name &quot;town&quot; has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=&lt;a href=&quot;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&quot;&gt;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&lt;/a&gt; |access-date=2025-09-04}}&lt;/ref&gt; They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot;&gt;[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.&lt;ref&gt;[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)&lt;/ref&gt;

Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections:

====California====
In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot; Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot;

Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot;, but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot; while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county.

====Georgia====
Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.&lt;ref name=&quot;Census Georgia 2010&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Census 2020&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.&lt;ref name=&quot;NGE&quot;&gt;Perry Hiott &amp; Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).&lt;/ref&gt;

====Hawaii====

In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &amp;#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Illinois====
In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,&lt;ref&gt;See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt; and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.&lt;ref&gt;See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)&lt;/ref&gt; In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.&lt;ref&gt;''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt;

====Indiana====
In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Louisiana====
In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Maryland====

While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt; The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]].

====Mississippi====
Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt; The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt;

====Nevada====

In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this &quot;semi-incorporated&quot; status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities.

====New England====
{{Main|New England town}}

[[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]]
In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council.  For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government.  In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population.

Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as &quot;minor civil divisions&quot; for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government.  For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns.  Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country.

====North Carolina====
In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt; there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government.  Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000.

====Oklahoma====
In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot; /&gt;  Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Pennsylvania====
In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]].

====South Carolina====
At incorporation,  municipalities may choose to be named either &quot;City of&quot; or &quot;Town of&quot;, however there is no legal difference between the two.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Tennessee====
Some Tennessee municipalities are called &quot;cities&quot; and others are called &quot;towns.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}&lt;/ref&gt; and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]].

====Texas====
In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as &quot;towns&quot; or &quot;villages&quot; (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]].

====Utah====
{{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}}
In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Virginia====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}}

In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population).  But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web  |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia  |access-date=31 May 2011  |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor.  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |archive-date=20 June 2010  }}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Washington====
{{Further|City government in Washington (state)}}
A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}&lt;/ref&gt; Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]).

====Wisconsin====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}}

{{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}}
[[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages.

====Wyoming====
A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered &quot;first-class cities&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]].

===ويتنام===
ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện).

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[ڳوٺ]]
* [[شهر]]
* [[صوبو]]
* [[ملڪ]]
* مسافر شهر 
* ڪمپني شهر 
* ترقي يافته ماحول
* آگ جو نشان 
* شهرن جون فهرستون 
* مقام 
* ميگالوپولس 
* پروٽو-شهر
* ٽائون چارٽر 
* ٽائون هال
* ٽائون جون حدون
* ٽائون جا مراعات 
* ٽائون اسڪوائر

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}} 
==ذريعا== 
==ٻاهرين لنڪس==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005]
* [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries.
* [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database

{{Types of administrative division}}

{{Authority control}}
[[زمرو:قصبو]] 
[[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]]  
[[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] 
[[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]]
[[زمرو:ڳتيل جايون بلحاظ قسم]]</text>
      <sha1>2dp4gz125fsaw05ol0g909a4nulef0v</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399391</id>
      <parentid>399390</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T10:28:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* تعريف */</comment>
      <origin>399391</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="93213" sha1="f4otm51izvj7taztsdq3p3nfguzdl8g" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Type of human settlement}}
{{pp-move}}
{{multiple image
| total_width       = 350px
| perrow            = 1/2/3/2/1
| image1            = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg
| alt1              = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading
| image2            = Porvoo in January.jpg
| alt2              = Old Town of Porvoo in January
| image3            = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg
| alt3              = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square
| image4            = Luftbild Davos2.jpg
| alt4              = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps
| image5            = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG
| alt5              = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica
| image6            = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| alt6              = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| image7            = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg
| alt7              = The Marian town of Fátima
| image8            = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg
| alt8              = The center of the inland town of Viljandi
| footer  = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون.
}}

'''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن.

قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. 
[[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']]
قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. 

==تعريف==
In some cases, ''town'' is an alternative name for &quot;city&quot; or &quot;village&quot; (especially a small city or large village; and occasionally even [[hamlet (place)|hamlets]]). Sometimes, the word ''town'' is short for ''[[township]]''. In general, today towns can be differentiated from townships, villages, or hamlets on the basis of their economic character, in that most of a town's population will tend to derive their living from manufacturing industry, commerce, and public services rather than [[primary sector]] industries such as agriculture or related activities.

A place's population size is not a reliable determinant of urban character. In many areas of the world, e.g. in India at least until recent times, a large village might contain several times as many people as a small town. In the United Kingdom, there are historical cities [[List of urban areas in England by population|that are far smaller]] than the larger towns.
[[File:Moisakula - panoramio (1).jpg|thumb|[[Mõisaküla]] is a small town in the southern part of [[Estonia]], just next to the border of [[Latvia]]. The town's current population is less than 1,000 inhabitants.  The city of [[Hancock, Michigan]] along Quincy Street]]

The modern phenomenon of extensive [[suburb]]an growth, satellite urban development, and migration of city dwellers to villages has further complicated the definition of towns, creating communities urban in their economic and cultural characteristics but lacking other characteristics of urban localities.

Some forms of non-rural settlement, such as temporary mining locations, may be clearly non-rural, but have at best a questionable claim to be called a town.

Towns often exist as distinct governmental units, with legally defined borders and some or all of the appurtenances of local government (e.g. a police force). In the United States these are referred to as &quot;incorporated towns&quot;. In other cases the town lacks its own governance and is said to be &quot;unincorporated&quot;. The existence of an unincorporated town may be legally set out by other means, e.g. zoning districts. In the case of some [[planned community|planned communities]], the town exists legally in the form of covenants on the properties within the town. The [[United States census]] identifies many [[census-designated place]]s (CDPs) by the names of unincorporated towns which lie within them; however, those CDPs typically include rural and suburban areas and even surrounding villages and other towns.

[[File:View of Mariehamn, 2022.jpg|thumb|&lt;small&gt;'''ميريهام''' (Mariehamn) جو فضائي منظر؛ هي '''آلنڊ''' (Åland) جو هڪ قصبو آهي جتي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ماڻهو رهندا آهن.&lt;/small&gt;]]
شهر (&lt;small&gt;City&lt;/small&gt;) ۽ قصبي (&lt;small&gt;Town&lt;/small&gt;) جي وچ ۾ فرق جو دارومدار ان ڳالهه تي آهي ته ان کي ڪهڙي نقطه نظر کان ڏٺو پيو وڃي: قانوني لحاظ کان، &quot;شهر&quot; هڪ انتظامي حيثيت رکي سگهي ٿو جنهن کي قانون تحت اهو درجو ڏنو ويو هجي؛ پر عام يا غير رسمي استعمال ۾، هي اصطلاح ڪنهن خاص سائيز يا اهميت واري شهري علائقي لاءِ پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. جتي وچئين دور جي شهرن جي آبادي شايد صرف 10،000 هئي، اتي اڄڪلهه ڪجهه ماڻهو 100،000 کان گهٽ آبادي واري شهري علائقي کي ”قصبو“ سمجهن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ڪيترائي اهڙا شهر موجود آهن جن کي سرڪاري طور تي شهر جو درجو مليل آهي پر اهي ان کان گهڻا ننڍا آهن. 

مارچ &lt;small&gt;2021&lt;/small&gt; کان وٺي، گڏيل قومن جا &lt;small&gt;193&lt;/small&gt; ميمبر ملڪ، جن جي اڳواڻي يورپي يونين جا ادارا ڪري رهيا آهن، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي هڪ گڏيل شمارياتي تعريف تي اتفاق ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ۾ شامل رهيا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-04-02 |title=What makes a city a city? |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/-/wdn-20210402-1 |website=[[eurostat]] |quote=Humans have built cities for thousands of years, yet incredibly there was no definition of a city (or a town, or a region) agreed by all. Until now. A joint initiative led by Eurostat, DG REGIO and the JRC was adopted by the UN last month to establish global definitions for urban and rural areas. }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== قصبن جي عمر (يا ارتقائي مرحلن) بابت اسڪيم ===
آسٽريليا جي جاگرافيدان ٿامس گريفٿ ٽيلر قصبن جي عمر ۽ زمين جي استعمال جي نموني جي بنياد تي انهن جي درجا بندي پيش ڪئي. هن قصبن جا پنج قسم بيان ڪيا: &lt;ref&gt;Goodall, B. (1987) The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography. London: Penguin.&lt;/ref&gt;

* شروعاتي يا ”ٻالڪ“ قصبا (Infantile towns): جن ۾ علائقن جي ڪا واضح ورهاست (zoning) نه هوندي آهي. 
* اڀرندڙ يا ”نوجوان“ قصبا (Juvenile towns): جن ۾ دڪانن وارو علائقو ترقي ڪري چڪو هوندو آهي. 
* وڌندڙ يا ”بلوغت جي ويجهو“ قصبا (Adolescent towns): جتي ڪارخانا ظاهر ٿيڻ شروع ٿي ويندا آهن. 
* ابتدائي پختگي وارا قصبا (Early mature towns): جن ۾ اعليٰ درجي جي رهائشي علائقن لاءِ الڳ حصو هوندو آهي. 
* مڪمل پختگي وارا قصبا (Mature towns): جن ۾ صنعتي، تجارتي ۽ رهائشي علائقا واضح طور تي مقرر ٿيل هوندا آهن.

[[File:Quincy Street Historic District Hancock 100 block N 2009.jpg|thumb|The city of [[Hancock, Michigan]] along Quincy Street]]

==تاريخ==
[[File:Çatalhöyük, 7400 BC, Konya, Turkey - UNESCO World Heritage Site, 08.jpg|thumb|&quot;چاتالهويڪ&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Çatalhöyük&lt;/small&gt;)، جيڪو [[ترڪي]] ۾ هڪ آثارِ قديمه وارو ماڳ آهي، کي قديم ترين آباد قصبو يا &quot;ابتدائي شهر&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Proto-city&lt;/small&gt;) سمجهيو ويندو هو، جنهن جو وجود تقريباً &lt;small&gt;7100&lt;/small&gt; ق.م. کان هو.]]
رومن دور ۾ ولا هڪ ڳوٺاڻي آبادي هئي جيڪا هڪ مکيه رهائشي عمارت ۽ ثانوي عمارتن جي هڪ ٻي سلسلي سان ٺهيل هئي. اهو مرڪز هو جتان هڪ زرعي ملڪيت جو انتظام ڪيو ويندو هو. انهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڳوٺاڻي ولا يا ولا رسٽيڪا (country villa) سڏيو ويندو آهي جيڪي معمولي فارم هائوسز تي مشتمل آهن. رومن سلطنت دوران وڏين جائدادن جي مضبوط ٿيڻ سان شهر وڏن فارمن جو مرڪز بڻجي ويو. 

ڳوٺاڻي ۽ شهري آبادين جي وچ ۾ هڪ فرق پيدا ٿيو: 

ڳوٺاڻي ولا (ولا رسٽيڪا) جتان وسيلن جي استحصال جي هدايت ڪئي وئي هئي غلام مزدور رهندا هئا, چوپايو مال رکيو ويندو هو ۽ پيداوار کي ذخيرو ڪيو ويندو هو. شهري ولا (پارس اربانا) جنهن ۾ مالڪ رهندو هو ۽ جيڪي شهري حويلين جي عام طور تي اڏاوتي ۽ خوبصورتي جي شڪلن کي وڌيڪ اختيار ڪندا هئا. جڏهن پهرين صدي کان وڏي علائقائي ملڪيت کي سڌو سنئون مالڪ پاران استحصال ڪيل علائقي جي وچ ۾ ورهايو ويو ۽ اهو ڪرائيدار آبادگارن کي ڏنو ويو, شهري ولا, چوٿين صدي جي عام جاگيرداري جي شڪلن کي ظاهر ڪندي, مالڪن جي انتظامي طاقت جا مرڪز بڻجي ويا.

==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان==

=== افغانستان ===
{{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}}
[[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي &quot;شهر&quot; (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. 

. فارسي ٻولي. پشتو.  

=== البانيا ===
[[البانيا]] ۾ &quot;قيٽيزي&quot; (&lt;small&gt;qytezë&lt;/small&gt;) جو مطلب &quot;قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (&lt;small&gt;qytet&lt;/small&gt;) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو.


===آسٽريليا===
[[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.  

ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي.
===آئس لينڊ===
{{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]]

=== آسٽريا ===
{{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}

[[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ &lt;small&gt;2098&lt;/small&gt; ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Gemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Marktgemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) يا شهرن (&lt;small&gt;Städte&lt;/small&gt;) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;400&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;1200&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. 

آسٽريا جي &lt;small&gt;201&lt;/small&gt; شهرن مان، &lt;small&gt;15&lt;/small&gt; قانوني شهر (&lt;small&gt;Statutarstädte&lt;/small&gt;) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي.

=== برازيل ===
برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. 

=== بلغاريا ===
{{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]]
بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''وڏا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; ۽ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''ننڍا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. 

بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال &lt;small&gt;2005&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ &lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,500&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. 

=== ڀارت ===
[[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]]
ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا:
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف 
# آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل)

سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو.  

ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي.  
===پاڪستان===
{{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]]
پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو  آهي.

===پولينڊ===
{{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]]
پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن  مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}}

قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. 

=== جرمني ===
{{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]]
جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ &quot;اسٽاڊ&quot; (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، &quot;ڊورف&quot; (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو :

&quot;لينڊ اسٽاڊ&quot; (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان گهٽ)، 

&quot;ڪلين اسٽاڊ&quot;  (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt;)،

&quot;مٽل اسٽاڊ&quot; (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽

&quot;گروب اسٽاڊ&quot; (Großstadt: &quot;وڏو شهر&quot;؛ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;10,00,000&lt;/small&gt;) جي وچ ۾&lt;ref&gt;Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund&lt;/ref&gt;

اصطلاح &quot;گروسسٽڊٽ&quot; کي &quot;شهر&quot; طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ&quot; جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ &quot;اسٽيڊٽريچٽ&quot; سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ &quot;ميونسپلٽي&quot; (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا &quot;جيمينڊن&quot; ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. 

مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه.
===روس===
{{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}}

[[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]]

انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو &quot;گوروڊ&quot; (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. 

روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا.

===رومانيا===
{{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي.  
===Singapore===
{{main|New towns of Singapore}}

[[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]]
In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]].
===France===
[[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]]
From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}&lt;/ref&gt; but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all.

For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}.

===فلپائن===
{{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}}
[[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]]
فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن.

فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. 

فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن.

===Finland===
[[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]]
In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland.
===ڪينيڊا===
{{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}}
ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي.

ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي.

اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا).

=== Latvia ===
[[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]]
In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian.
=== Norway ===
In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]').

Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt; Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]]
The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}&lt;/ref&gt;
===Netherlands===
[[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]]
Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city.

For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities:
* {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more

Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}.


legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries.

The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law.

[[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}&lt;/ref&gt; Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &amp;#124; AMO }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from &quot;town&quot; to &quot;city&quot; to encourage investment.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Chile ===
In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity.

===Estonia===
In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}).

=== Hong Kong ===

{{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}}

[[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]]

Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]].

=== Iran ===
In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete.

There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city').
Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions.
Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]].

The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades.

Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'.

=== Iraq ===
The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities.

=== اٽلي ===
[[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|ڏکڻ اٽلي ۾ باسيليڪاٽا جي ميلانڊرو وادي ۾ هڪ شهر، سٽريانو ڊي لوسانيا]]
جيتوڻيڪ اطالوي ٻولي شهر (città)، شهر (cittadina يا paese) ۽ ڳوٺ (villaggio، پراڻي زماني جو، يا frazione، سڀ کان عام) لاءِ مختلف لفظ مهيا ڪري ٿي، پر ڪا به قانوني وصف موجود ناهي ته آبادين کي ڪيئن درجه بندي ڪيو وڃي. انتظامي طور تي، ٻنهي شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪميونٽي/ڪمون طور حڪمراني ڪئي ويندي آهي، جڏهن ته ڳوٺ شايد اڳوڻي جا ذيلي تقسيم هوندا. عام طور تي، روزاني تقرير ۾، هڪ شهر ڳوٺ کان وڏو يا وڌيڪ آبادي وارو ۽ شهر کان ننڍو هوندو آهي. مختلف شهر ۽ شهر گڏجي هڪ ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو (ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو) ٺاهي سگهن ٿا. هڪ شهر آس پاس جي شهرن جي حوالي سان ثقافتي، اقتصادي، يا سياسي طور تي نمايان برادري پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، هڪ شهر صدارتي فرمان ذريعي اهڙو ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، هڪ شهر هڪ آباد جڳهه ٿي سگهي ٿو جيڪو ٻئي هنڌ شهر جي طرز تي هوندو، پر ان کي ڪا به سرڪاري سڃاڻپ نه ملي آهي. قابل ذڪر استثنا موجود آهن: مثال طور، باسانو ڊيل گراپا، کي 1760 ۾ فرانسسڪو لوريڊن جي ڊوگل فرمان ذريعي città جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو ۽ ان کان پوءِ اهو لقب اختيار ڪيو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، 'شهر' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (ننڍي اکر P سان paese) کي 'ملڪ/قوم' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (عام طور تي وڏي اکر P سان Paese) سان مونجهارو نه هجڻ گهرجي.

=== Japan ===
In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a &quot;city centre&quot;. In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages.

The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000.

=== Korea ===
{{main|Eup (administrative division)}}

In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Lithuania ===
{{main|List of towns in Lithuania}}

In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}').

=== Malaysia ===
In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}).

===New Zealand===
{{expand-section|date=August 2025}}
In [[New Zealand]], the term &quot;town&quot; has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities.

===South Africa===
In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city.

=== Spain ===
In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city.

=== Sweden ===
{{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}}
[[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]]

The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]].

Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation.

For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.&lt;ref&gt;[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250907160031/https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html |date=2025-09-07 }}, Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt; This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.&lt;ref&gt;[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ukraine ===
[[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]]
In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)&lt;/ref&gt; Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]).

=== United Kingdom ===
{{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}}

==== England and Wales ====
{{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}}

[[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]]

In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a &quot;[[market town]]&quot;. Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities.

In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling.

In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest &quot;towns&quot; (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish).

Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns).

Additionally, there are &quot;[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s&quot; which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]].

Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]).

The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear.

[[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]]

It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town.

It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888.

The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as &quot;London town&quot;. (The &quot;[[City of London]]&quot; is the historical nucleus, informally known as the &quot;Square Mile&quot;, and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre.

In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== United States ===
[[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]]

In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name &quot;town&quot; has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=&lt;a href=&quot;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&quot;&gt;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&lt;/a&gt; |access-date=2025-09-04}}&lt;/ref&gt; They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot;&gt;[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.&lt;ref&gt;[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)&lt;/ref&gt;

Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections:

====California====
In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot; Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot;

Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot;, but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot; while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county.

====Georgia====
Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.&lt;ref name=&quot;Census Georgia 2010&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Census 2020&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.&lt;ref name=&quot;NGE&quot;&gt;Perry Hiott &amp; Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).&lt;/ref&gt;

====Hawaii====

In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &amp;#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Illinois====
In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,&lt;ref&gt;See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt; and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.&lt;ref&gt;See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)&lt;/ref&gt; In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.&lt;ref&gt;''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt;

====Indiana====
In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Louisiana====
In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Maryland====

While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt; The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]].

====Mississippi====
Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt; The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt;

====Nevada====

In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this &quot;semi-incorporated&quot; status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities.

====New England====
{{Main|New England town}}

[[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]]
In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council.  For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government.  In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population.

Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as &quot;minor civil divisions&quot; for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government.  For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns.  Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country.

====North Carolina====
In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt; there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government.  Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000.

====Oklahoma====
In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot; /&gt;  Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Pennsylvania====
In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]].

====South Carolina====
At incorporation,  municipalities may choose to be named either &quot;City of&quot; or &quot;Town of&quot;, however there is no legal difference between the two.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Tennessee====
Some Tennessee municipalities are called &quot;cities&quot; and others are called &quot;towns.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}&lt;/ref&gt; and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]].

====Texas====
In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as &quot;towns&quot; or &quot;villages&quot; (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]].

====Utah====
{{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}}
In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Virginia====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}}

In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population).  But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web  |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia  |access-date=31 May 2011  |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor.  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |archive-date=20 June 2010  }}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Washington====
{{Further|City government in Washington (state)}}
A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}&lt;/ref&gt; Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]).

====Wisconsin====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}}

{{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}}
[[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages.

====Wyoming====
A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered &quot;first-class cities&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]].

===ويتنام===
ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện).

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[ڳوٺ]]
* [[شهر]]
* [[صوبو]]
* [[ملڪ]]
* مسافر شهر 
* ڪمپني شهر 
* ترقي يافته ماحول
* آگ جو نشان 
* شهرن جون فهرستون 
* مقام 
* ميگالوپولس 
* پروٽو-شهر
* ٽائون چارٽر 
* ٽائون هال
* ٽائون جون حدون
* ٽائون جا مراعات 
* ٽائون اسڪوائر

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}} 
==ذريعا== 
==ٻاهرين لنڪس==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005]
* [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries.
* [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database

{{Types of administrative division}}

{{Authority control}}
[[زمرو:قصبو]] 
[[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]]  
[[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] 
[[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]]
[[زمرو:ڳتيل جايون بلحاظ قسم]]</text>
      <sha1>f4otm51izvj7taztsdq3p3nfguzdl8g</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399393</id>
      <parentid>399391</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T10:39:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* تعريف */</comment>
      <origin>399393</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="95895" sha1="l16dvjif83oxgu11yy7bfg08akmfp8y" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Type of human settlement}}
{{pp-move}}
{{multiple image
| total_width       = 350px
| perrow            = 1/2/3/2/1
| image1            = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg
| alt1              = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading
| image2            = Porvoo in January.jpg
| alt2              = Old Town of Porvoo in January
| image3            = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg
| alt3              = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square
| image4            = Luftbild Davos2.jpg
| alt4              = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps
| image5            = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG
| alt5              = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica
| image6            = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| alt6              = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| image7            = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg
| alt7              = The Marian town of Fátima
| image8            = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg
| alt8              = The center of the inland town of Viljandi
| footer  = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون.
}}

'''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن.

قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. 
[[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']]
قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. 

==تعريف==
In some cases, ''town'' is an alternative name for &quot;city&quot; or &quot;village&quot; (especially a small city or large village; and occasionally even [[hamlet (place)|hamlets]]). Sometimes, the word ''town'' is short for ''[[township]]''. In general, today towns can be differentiated from townships, villages, or hamlets on the basis of their economic character, in that most of a town's population will tend to derive their living from manufacturing industry, commerce, and public services rather than [[primary sector]] industries such as agriculture or related activities.

A place's population size is not a reliable determinant of urban character. In many areas of the world, e.g. in India at least until recent times, a large village might contain several times as many people as a small town. In the United Kingdom, there are historical cities [[List of urban areas in England by population|that are far smaller]] than the larger towns.
[[File:Moisakula - panoramio (1).jpg|thumb|مويسڪولا (Mõisaküla) ايسٽونيا جي ڏکڻ واري حصي ۾، لاتويا جي سرحد سان لڳل هڪ ننڍڙو قصبو آهي. هن قصبي جي موجوده آبادي 1,000 کان گهٽ آهي.]]

شهرن جي ڀرپاسي وارن علائقن ۾ وسيع پکيڙ (سيٽلائيٽ شهري ترقي) ۽ شهرين جو ڳوٺن ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ واري جديد رجحان، شهرن جي تعريف کي وڌيڪ پيچيده بڻائي ڇڏيو آهي؛ ان سان اهڙيون وسنديون وجود ۾ اچن ٿيون جيڪي پنهنجي معاشي ۽ ثقافتي خصوصيتن جي لحاظ کان ته شهري هونديون آهن، پر انهن ۾ شهري علائقن جون ٻيون خاصيتون موجود نه هونديون آهن. * غير ڳوٺاڻي آبادڪاريءَ جون ڪجهه صورتون (جهڙوڪ عارضي مائننگ يا کاڻين وارا علائقا) واضح طور تي غير ڳوٺاڻيون هونديون آهن، پر انهن کي ”شهر“ سڏڻ جو دعويٰ مشڪوڪ يا بحث طلب هوندو آهي. * شهر اڪثر ڪري الڳ انتظامي يا سرڪاري يونٽن طور موجود هوندا آهن، جن جون حدون قانوني طور تي مقرر ٿيل هونديون آهن ۽ انهن وٽ مقامي حڪومت جون ڪجهه يا سموريون سهولتون (جهڙوڪ پوليس فورس) موجود هونديون آهن. آمريڪا ۾، انهن کي ”انڪارپوريٽيڊ ٽائونز“ (قانوني حيثيت رکندڙ شهر) چيو ويندو آهي. ٻين حالتن ۾، شهر وٽ پنهنجو انتظامي نظام نه هوندو آهي ۽ ان کي ”ان-انڪارپوريٽيڊ“ (غير قانوني طور تي الڳ انتظامي حيثيت نه رکندڙ) چيو ويندو آهي. اهڙي شهر جو وجود قانوني طور تي ٻين طريقن سان، مثال طور ”زوننگ“ وارن علائقن ذريعي، طئي ٿي سگهي ٿو. ڪجهه منصوبابندي ڪيل آبادين (planned communities) جي صورت ۾، شهر جو قانوني وجود ان علائقي اندر موجود ملڪيتن تي لاڳو ٿيندڙ معاهدن يا شرطن (covenants) جي صورت ۾ هوندو آهي. آمريڪا جي مردم شماري ۾ ڪيترن ئي اهڙن علائقن جي نشاندهي ڪئي ويندي آهي جن کي ”مردم شماري لاءِ مقرر ڪيل علائقا“ (CDPs) چيو ويندو آهي ۽ اهي غير انتظامي شهرن جي نالن سان سڃاتا ويندا آهن؛ جڏهن ته، انهن CDPs ۾ عام طور تي ڳوٺاڻا ۽ شهري ڀرپاسي وارا علائقا، ۽ ان سان گڏ ڀرپاسي جا ڳوٺ ۽ ٻيا ننڍا شهر به شامل هوندا آهن.

modern phenomenon of extensive [[suburb]]an growth, satellite urban development, and migration of city dwellers to villages has further complicated the definition of towns, creating communities urban in their economic and cultural characteristics but lacking other characteristics of urban localities.

Some forms of non-rural settlement, such as temporary mining locations, may be clearly non-rural, but have at best a questionable claim to be called a town.

Towns often exist as distinct governmental units, with legally defined borders and some or all of the appurtenances of local government (e.g. a police force). In the United States these are referred to as &quot;incorporated towns&quot;. In other cases the town lacks its own governance and is said to be &quot;unincorporated&quot;. The existence of an unincorporated town may be legally set out by other means, e.g. zoning districts. In the case of some [[planned community|planned communities]], the town exists legally in the form of covenants on the properties within the town. The [[United States census]] identifies many [[census-designated place]]s (CDPs) by the names of unincorporated towns which lie within them; however, those CDPs typically include rural and suburban areas and even surrounding villages and other towns.

[[File:View of Mariehamn, 2022.jpg|thumb|&lt;small&gt;'''ميريهام''' (Mariehamn) جو فضائي منظر؛ هي '''آلنڊ''' (Åland) جو هڪ قصبو آهي جتي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ماڻهو رهندا آهن.&lt;/small&gt;]]
شهر (&lt;small&gt;City&lt;/small&gt;) ۽ قصبي (&lt;small&gt;Town&lt;/small&gt;) جي وچ ۾ فرق جو دارومدار ان ڳالهه تي آهي ته ان کي ڪهڙي نقطه نظر کان ڏٺو پيو وڃي: قانوني لحاظ کان، &quot;شهر&quot; هڪ انتظامي حيثيت رکي سگهي ٿو جنهن کي قانون تحت اهو درجو ڏنو ويو هجي؛ پر عام يا غير رسمي استعمال ۾، هي اصطلاح ڪنهن خاص سائيز يا اهميت واري شهري علائقي لاءِ پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. جتي وچئين دور جي شهرن جي آبادي شايد صرف 10،000 هئي، اتي اڄڪلهه ڪجهه ماڻهو 100،000 کان گهٽ آبادي واري شهري علائقي کي ”قصبو“ سمجهن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ڪيترائي اهڙا شهر موجود آهن جن کي سرڪاري طور تي شهر جو درجو مليل آهي پر اهي ان کان گهڻا ننڍا آهن. 

مارچ &lt;small&gt;2021&lt;/small&gt; کان وٺي، گڏيل قومن جا &lt;small&gt;193&lt;/small&gt; ميمبر ملڪ، جن جي اڳواڻي يورپي يونين جا ادارا ڪري رهيا آهن، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي هڪ گڏيل شمارياتي تعريف تي اتفاق ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ۾ شامل رهيا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-04-02 |title=What makes a city a city? |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/-/wdn-20210402-1 |website=[[eurostat]] |quote=Humans have built cities for thousands of years, yet incredibly there was no definition of a city (or a town, or a region) agreed by all. Until now. A joint initiative led by Eurostat, DG REGIO and the JRC was adopted by the UN last month to establish global definitions for urban and rural areas. }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== قصبن جي عمر (يا ارتقائي مرحلن) بابت اسڪيم ===
آسٽريليا جي جاگرافيدان ٿامس گريفٿ ٽيلر قصبن جي عمر ۽ زمين جي استعمال جي نموني جي بنياد تي انهن جي درجا بندي پيش ڪئي. هن قصبن جا پنج قسم بيان ڪيا: &lt;ref&gt;Goodall, B. (1987) The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography. London: Penguin.&lt;/ref&gt;

* شروعاتي يا ”ٻالڪ“ قصبا (Infantile towns): جن ۾ علائقن جي ڪا واضح ورهاست (zoning) نه هوندي آهي. 
* اڀرندڙ يا ”نوجوان“ قصبا (Juvenile towns): جن ۾ دڪانن وارو علائقو ترقي ڪري چڪو هوندو آهي. 
* وڌندڙ يا ”بلوغت جي ويجهو“ قصبا (Adolescent towns): جتي ڪارخانا ظاهر ٿيڻ شروع ٿي ويندا آهن. 
* ابتدائي پختگي وارا قصبا (Early mature towns): جن ۾ اعليٰ درجي جي رهائشي علائقن لاءِ الڳ حصو هوندو آهي. 
* مڪمل پختگي وارا قصبا (Mature towns): جن ۾ صنعتي، تجارتي ۽ رهائشي علائقا واضح طور تي مقرر ٿيل هوندا آهن.

[[File:Quincy Street Historic District Hancock 100 block N 2009.jpg|thumb|هنڪاڪ، ڪوئنزي اسٽريٽ، مشي گن، آمريڪا جي ڀرسان هڪ قصبو.]]

==تاريخ==
[[File:Çatalhöyük, 7400 BC, Konya, Turkey - UNESCO World Heritage Site, 08.jpg|thumb|&quot;چاتالهويڪ&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Çatalhöyük&lt;/small&gt;)، جيڪو [[ترڪي]] ۾ هڪ آثارِ قديمه وارو ماڳ آهي، کي قديم ترين آباد قصبو يا &quot;ابتدائي شهر&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Proto-city&lt;/small&gt;) سمجهيو ويندو هو، جنهن جو وجود تقريباً &lt;small&gt;7100&lt;/small&gt; ق.م. کان هو.]]
رومن دور ۾ ولا هڪ ڳوٺاڻي آبادي هئي جيڪا هڪ مکيه رهائشي عمارت ۽ ثانوي عمارتن جي هڪ ٻي سلسلي سان ٺهيل هئي. اهو مرڪز هو جتان هڪ زرعي ملڪيت جو انتظام ڪيو ويندو هو. انهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڳوٺاڻي ولا يا ولا رسٽيڪا (country villa) سڏيو ويندو آهي جيڪي معمولي فارم هائوسز تي مشتمل آهن. رومن سلطنت دوران وڏين جائدادن جي مضبوط ٿيڻ سان شهر وڏن فارمن جو مرڪز بڻجي ويو. 

ڳوٺاڻي ۽ شهري آبادين جي وچ ۾ هڪ فرق پيدا ٿيو: 

ڳوٺاڻي ولا (ولا رسٽيڪا) جتان وسيلن جي استحصال جي هدايت ڪئي وئي هئي غلام مزدور رهندا هئا, چوپايو مال رکيو ويندو هو ۽ پيداوار کي ذخيرو ڪيو ويندو هو. شهري ولا (پارس اربانا) جنهن ۾ مالڪ رهندو هو ۽ جيڪي شهري حويلين جي عام طور تي اڏاوتي ۽ خوبصورتي جي شڪلن کي وڌيڪ اختيار ڪندا هئا. جڏهن پهرين صدي کان وڏي علائقائي ملڪيت کي سڌو سنئون مالڪ پاران استحصال ڪيل علائقي جي وچ ۾ ورهايو ويو ۽ اهو ڪرائيدار آبادگارن کي ڏنو ويو, شهري ولا, چوٿين صدي جي عام جاگيرداري جي شڪلن کي ظاهر ڪندي, مالڪن جي انتظامي طاقت جا مرڪز بڻجي ويا.

==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان==

=== افغانستان ===
{{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}}
[[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي &quot;شهر&quot; (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. 

. فارسي ٻولي. پشتو.  

=== البانيا ===
[[البانيا]] ۾ &quot;قيٽيزي&quot; (&lt;small&gt;qytezë&lt;/small&gt;) جو مطلب &quot;قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (&lt;small&gt;qytet&lt;/small&gt;) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو.


===آسٽريليا===
[[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.  

ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي.
===آئس لينڊ===
{{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]]

=== آسٽريا ===
{{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}

[[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ &lt;small&gt;2098&lt;/small&gt; ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Gemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Marktgemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) يا شهرن (&lt;small&gt;Städte&lt;/small&gt;) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;400&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;1200&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. 

آسٽريا جي &lt;small&gt;201&lt;/small&gt; شهرن مان، &lt;small&gt;15&lt;/small&gt; قانوني شهر (&lt;small&gt;Statutarstädte&lt;/small&gt;) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي.

=== برازيل ===
برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. 

=== بلغاريا ===
{{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]]
بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''وڏا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; ۽ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''ننڍا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. 

بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال &lt;small&gt;2005&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ &lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,500&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. 

=== ڀارت ===
[[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]]
ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا:
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف 
# آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل)

سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو.  

ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي.  
===پاڪستان===
{{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]]
پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو  آهي.

===پولينڊ===
{{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]]
پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن  مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}}

قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. 

=== جرمني ===
{{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]]
جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ &quot;اسٽاڊ&quot; (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، &quot;ڊورف&quot; (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو :

&quot;لينڊ اسٽاڊ&quot; (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان گهٽ)، 

&quot;ڪلين اسٽاڊ&quot;  (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt;)،

&quot;مٽل اسٽاڊ&quot; (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽

&quot;گروب اسٽاڊ&quot; (Großstadt: &quot;وڏو شهر&quot;؛ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;10,00,000&lt;/small&gt;) جي وچ ۾&lt;ref&gt;Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund&lt;/ref&gt;

اصطلاح &quot;گروسسٽڊٽ&quot; کي &quot;شهر&quot; طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ&quot; جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ &quot;اسٽيڊٽريچٽ&quot; سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ &quot;ميونسپلٽي&quot; (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا &quot;جيمينڊن&quot; ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. 

مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه.
===روس===
{{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}}

[[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]]

انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو &quot;گوروڊ&quot; (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. 

روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا.

===رومانيا===
{{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي.  
===Singapore===
{{main|New towns of Singapore}}

[[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]]
In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]].
===France===
[[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]]
From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}&lt;/ref&gt; but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all.

For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}.

===فلپائن===
{{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}}
[[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]]
فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن.

فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. 

فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن.

===Finland===
[[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]]
In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland.
===ڪينيڊا===
{{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}}
ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي.

ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي.

اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا).

=== Latvia ===
[[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]]
In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian.
=== Norway ===
In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]').

Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt; Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]]
The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}&lt;/ref&gt;
===Netherlands===
[[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]]
Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city.

For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities:
* {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more

Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}.


legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries.

The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law.

[[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}&lt;/ref&gt; Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &amp;#124; AMO }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from &quot;town&quot; to &quot;city&quot; to encourage investment.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Chile ===
In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity.

===Estonia===
In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}).

=== Hong Kong ===

{{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}}

[[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]]

Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]].

=== Iran ===
In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete.

There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city').
Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions.
Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]].

The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades.

Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'.

=== Iraq ===
The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities.

=== اٽلي ===
[[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|ڏکڻ اٽلي ۾ باسيليڪاٽا جي ميلانڊرو وادي ۾ هڪ شهر، سٽريانو ڊي لوسانيا]]
جيتوڻيڪ اطالوي ٻولي شهر (città)، شهر (cittadina يا paese) ۽ ڳوٺ (villaggio، پراڻي زماني جو، يا frazione، سڀ کان عام) لاءِ مختلف لفظ مهيا ڪري ٿي، پر ڪا به قانوني وصف موجود ناهي ته آبادين کي ڪيئن درجه بندي ڪيو وڃي. انتظامي طور تي، ٻنهي شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪميونٽي/ڪمون طور حڪمراني ڪئي ويندي آهي، جڏهن ته ڳوٺ شايد اڳوڻي جا ذيلي تقسيم هوندا. عام طور تي، روزاني تقرير ۾، هڪ شهر ڳوٺ کان وڏو يا وڌيڪ آبادي وارو ۽ شهر کان ننڍو هوندو آهي. مختلف شهر ۽ شهر گڏجي هڪ ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو (ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو) ٺاهي سگهن ٿا. هڪ شهر آس پاس جي شهرن جي حوالي سان ثقافتي، اقتصادي، يا سياسي طور تي نمايان برادري پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، هڪ شهر صدارتي فرمان ذريعي اهڙو ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، هڪ شهر هڪ آباد جڳهه ٿي سگهي ٿو جيڪو ٻئي هنڌ شهر جي طرز تي هوندو، پر ان کي ڪا به سرڪاري سڃاڻپ نه ملي آهي. قابل ذڪر استثنا موجود آهن: مثال طور، باسانو ڊيل گراپا، کي 1760 ۾ فرانسسڪو لوريڊن جي ڊوگل فرمان ذريعي città جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو ۽ ان کان پوءِ اهو لقب اختيار ڪيو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، 'شهر' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (ننڍي اکر P سان paese) کي 'ملڪ/قوم' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (عام طور تي وڏي اکر P سان Paese) سان مونجهارو نه هجڻ گهرجي.

=== Japan ===
In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a &quot;city centre&quot;. In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages.

The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000.

=== Korea ===
{{main|Eup (administrative division)}}

In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Lithuania ===
{{main|List of towns in Lithuania}}

In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}').

=== Malaysia ===
In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}).

===New Zealand===
{{expand-section|date=August 2025}}
In [[New Zealand]], the term &quot;town&quot; has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities.

===South Africa===
In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city.

=== Spain ===
In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city.

=== Sweden ===
{{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}}
[[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]]

The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]].

Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation.

For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.&lt;ref&gt;[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250907160031/https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html |date=2025-09-07 }}, Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt; This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.&lt;ref&gt;[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ukraine ===
[[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]]
In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)&lt;/ref&gt; Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]).

=== United Kingdom ===
{{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}}

==== England and Wales ====
{{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}}

[[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]]

In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a &quot;[[market town]]&quot;. Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities.

In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling.

In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest &quot;towns&quot; (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish).

Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns).

Additionally, there are &quot;[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s&quot; which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]].

Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]).

The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear.

[[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]]

It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town.

It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888.

The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as &quot;London town&quot;. (The &quot;[[City of London]]&quot; is the historical nucleus, informally known as the &quot;Square Mile&quot;, and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre.

In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== United States ===
[[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]]

In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name &quot;town&quot; has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=&lt;a href=&quot;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&quot;&gt;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&lt;/a&gt; |access-date=2025-09-04}}&lt;/ref&gt; They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot;&gt;[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.&lt;ref&gt;[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)&lt;/ref&gt;

Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections:

====California====
In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot; Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot;

Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot;, but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot; while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county.

====Georgia====
Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.&lt;ref name=&quot;Census Georgia 2010&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Census 2020&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.&lt;ref name=&quot;NGE&quot;&gt;Perry Hiott &amp; Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).&lt;/ref&gt;

====Hawaii====

In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &amp;#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Illinois====
In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,&lt;ref&gt;See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt; and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.&lt;ref&gt;See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)&lt;/ref&gt; In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.&lt;ref&gt;''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt;

====Indiana====
In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Louisiana====
In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Maryland====

While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt; The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]].

====Mississippi====
Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt; The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt;

====Nevada====

In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this &quot;semi-incorporated&quot; status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities.

====New England====
{{Main|New England town}}

[[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]]
In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council.  For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government.  In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population.

Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as &quot;minor civil divisions&quot; for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government.  For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns.  Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country.

====North Carolina====
In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt; there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government.  Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000.

====Oklahoma====
In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot; /&gt;  Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Pennsylvania====
In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]].

====South Carolina====
At incorporation,  municipalities may choose to be named either &quot;City of&quot; or &quot;Town of&quot;, however there is no legal difference between the two.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Tennessee====
Some Tennessee municipalities are called &quot;cities&quot; and others are called &quot;towns.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}&lt;/ref&gt; and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]].

====Texas====
In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as &quot;towns&quot; or &quot;villages&quot; (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]].

====Utah====
{{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}}
In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Virginia====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}}

In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population).  But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web  |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia  |access-date=31 May 2011  |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor.  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |archive-date=20 June 2010  }}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Washington====
{{Further|City government in Washington (state)}}
A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}&lt;/ref&gt; Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]).

====Wisconsin====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}}

{{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}}
[[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages.

====Wyoming====
A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered &quot;first-class cities&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]].

===ويتنام===
ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện).

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[ڳوٺ]]
* [[شهر]]
* [[صوبو]]
* [[ملڪ]]
* مسافر شهر 
* ڪمپني شهر 
* ترقي يافته ماحول
* آگ جو نشان 
* شهرن جون فهرستون 
* مقام 
* ميگالوپولس 
* پروٽو-شهر
* ٽائون چارٽر 
* ٽائون هال
* ٽائون جون حدون
* ٽائون جا مراعات 
* ٽائون اسڪوائر

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}} 
==ذريعا== 
==ٻاهرين لنڪس==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005]
* [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries.
* [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database

{{Types of administrative division}}

{{Authority control}}
[[زمرو:قصبو]] 
[[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]]  
[[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] 
[[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]]
[[زمرو:ڳتيل جايون بلحاظ قسم]]</text>
      <sha1>l16dvjif83oxgu11yy7bfg08akmfp8y</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399403</id>
      <parentid>399393</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T11:11:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* تعريف */</comment>
      <origin>399403</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="95266" sha1="26ziahvcdsbm4wehp85zpvpck779cel" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Type of human settlement}}
{{pp-move}}
{{multiple image
| total_width       = 350px
| perrow            = 1/2/3/2/1
| image1            = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg
| alt1              = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading
| image2            = Porvoo in January.jpg
| alt2              = Old Town of Porvoo in January
| image3            = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg
| alt3              = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square
| image4            = Luftbild Davos2.jpg
| alt4              = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps
| image5            = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG
| alt5              = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica
| image6            = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| alt6              = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| image7            = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg
| alt7              = The Marian town of Fátima
| image8            = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg
| alt8              = The center of the inland town of Viljandi
| footer  = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون.
}}

'''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن.

قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. 
[[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']]
قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. 

==تعريف==
ڪجهه حالتن ۾، لفظ &quot;قصبو&quot; (&lt;small&gt;town&lt;/small&gt;) [[شھر|شهر]] يا [[ڳوٺ]] لاءِ، خاص طور تي ننڍي شهر يا وڏي ڳوٺ، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ته ننڍڙين آبادين يا ڳوٺڙن (&lt;small&gt;hamlets&lt;/small&gt;) لاءِ به، متبادل طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن، ٽائون جو لفظ ٽائون شپ (&lt;small&gt;township&lt;/small&gt;) جو مختصر روپ به هوندو آهي. عام طور تي، اڄڪلهه قصبن کي ٽائون شپس، ڳوٺن يا ننڍڙين آبادين کان انهن جي معاشي نوعيت جي بنياد تي الڳ سڃاڻي سگهجي ٿو؛ ڇاڪاڻ ته ڪنهن ٽائون جي اڪثر آبادي پنهنجو گذر-سفر زراعت يا ان سان لاڳاپيل سرگرمين، يعني بنيادي شعبي جي صنعتن جي بدران پيداواري صنعت، واپار ۽ عوامي خدمتن ذريعي ڪندي آهي. ڪنهن هنڌ جي آباديءَ جو مقدار اتان جي شهري نوعيت جو ڪو پڪو يا قابلِ اعتماد معيار ناهي، دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾، مثال طور ڀارت يا پاڪستان ۾ (گهٽ ۾ گهٽ تازي وقت تائين)، هڪ وڏي ڳوٺ جي آبادي ڪنهن ننڍي شهر جي ڀيٽ ۾ ڪيترائي ڀيرا وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. برطانيا ۾ اهڙا تاريخي شهر موجود آهن جيڪي ڪجهه وڏن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ تمام ننڍا آهن. [[File:Moisakula - panoramio (1).jpg|thumb|مويسڪولا (&lt;small&gt;Mõisaküla&lt;/small&gt;) [[اسٽونيا|ايسٽونيا]] جي ڏکڻ واري حصي ۾، [[ليٽويا|لاتويا]] جي حد سان لڳل هڪ ننڍڙو قصبو آهي. هن قصبي جي موجوده آبادي &lt;small&gt;1,000&lt;/small&gt; کان گهٽ آهي.]]

شهرن جي ڀرپاسي وارن علائقن ۾ وسيع پکيڙ، سيٽلائيٽ شهري ترقي ۽ شهرين جو ڳوٺن ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ وارو جديد رجحان، شهرن جي تعريف کي وڌيڪ پيچيده بڻائي ڇڏيو آهي؛ ان سان اهڙيون وسنديون وجود ۾ اچن ٿيون جيڪي پنهنجي معاشي ۽ ثقافتي خصوصيتن جي لحاظ کان ته شهري هونديون آهن، پر انهن ۾ شهري علائقن جون ٻيون خاصيتون موجود نه هونديون آهن. 

غير ڳوٺاڻي آبادڪاريءَ جون ڪجهه صورتون، جهڙوڪ عارضي کاڻين وارا علائقا، واضح طور تي غير ڳوٺاڻيون هونديون آهن، پر انهن کي &quot;قصبو&quot; سڏڻ جو دعويٰ مشڪوڪ يا بحث طلب هوندو آهي.

قصبا اڪثر ڪري الڳ انتظامي يا سرڪاري يونٽن طور موجود هوندا آهن، جن جون حدون قانوني طور تي مقرر ٿيل هونديون آهن ۽ انهن وٽ مقامي حڪومت جون ڪجهه يا سموريون سهولتون (جهڙوڪ پوليس فورس) موجود هونديون آهن. آمريڪا ۾، انهن کي ”انڪارپوريٽيڊ ٽائونز“ (قانوني حيثيت رکندڙ قصبا) چيو ويندو آهي. ٻين حالتن ۾، قصبي وٽ پنهنجو انتظامي نظام نه هوندو آهي ۽ ان کي ”ان-انڪارپوريٽيڊ“ (غير قانوني طور تي الڳ انتظامي حيثيت نه رکندڙ قصبا) چيو ويندو آهي. اهڙي قصبي جو وجود قانوني طور تي ٻين طريقن سان، مثال طور ”زوننگ“ وارن علائقن ذريعي، طئي ٿي سگهي ٿو. ڪجهه منصوبابندي ڪيل آبادين جي صورت ۾، قصبي جو قانوني وجود ان علائقي اندر موجود ملڪيتن تي لاڳو ٿيندڙ معاهدن يا شرطن (covenants) جي صورت ۾ هوندو آهي. آمريڪا جي مردم شماري ۾ ڪيترن ئي اهڙن علائقن جي نشاندهي ڪئي ويندي آهي جن کي ”مردم شماري لاءِ مقرر ڪيل علائقا“ (CDPs) چيو ويندو آهي ۽ اهي غير انتظامي قصبن جي نالن سان سڃاتا ويندا آهن؛ جڏهن ته، انهن CDPs ۾ عام طور تي ڳوٺاڻا ۽ شهري ڀرپاسي وارا علائقا ۽ ان سان گڏ ڀرپاسي جا ڳوٺ ۽ ٻيا ننڍا شهر به شامل هوندا آهن.

[[File:View of Mariehamn, 2022.jpg|thumb|&lt;small&gt;'''ميريهام''' (Mariehamn) جو فضائي منظر؛ هي '''آلنڊ''' (Åland) جو هڪ قصبو آهي جتي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ماڻهو رهندا آهن.&lt;/small&gt;]]
شهر (&lt;small&gt;City&lt;/small&gt;) ۽ قصبي (&lt;small&gt;Town&lt;/small&gt;) جي وچ ۾ فرق جو دارومدار ان ڳالهه تي آهي ته ان کي ڪهڙي نقطه نظر کان ڏٺو پيو وڃي: قانوني لحاظ کان، &quot;شهر&quot; هڪ انتظامي حيثيت رکي سگهي ٿو جنهن کي قانون تحت اهو درجو ڏنو ويو هجي؛ پر عام يا غير رسمي استعمال ۾، هي اصطلاح ڪنهن خاص سائيز يا اهميت واري شهري علائقي لاءِ پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. جتي وچئين دور جي شهرن جي آبادي شايد صرف 10،000 هئي، اتي اڄڪلهه ڪجهه ماڻهو 100،000 کان گهٽ آبادي واري شهري علائقي کي ”قصبو“ سمجهن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ڪيترائي اهڙا شهر موجود آهن جن کي سرڪاري طور تي شهر جو درجو مليل آهي پر اهي ان کان گهڻا ننڍا آهن. 

مارچ &lt;small&gt;2021&lt;/small&gt; کان وٺي، گڏيل قومن جا &lt;small&gt;193&lt;/small&gt; ميمبر ملڪ، جن جي اڳواڻي يورپي يونين جا ادارا ڪري رهيا آهن، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي هڪ گڏيل شمارياتي تعريف تي اتفاق ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ۾ شامل رهيا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-04-02 |title=What makes a city a city? |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/-/wdn-20210402-1 |website=[[eurostat]] |quote=Humans have built cities for thousands of years, yet incredibly there was no definition of a city (or a town, or a region) agreed by all. Until now. A joint initiative led by Eurostat, DG REGIO and the JRC was adopted by the UN last month to establish global definitions for urban and rural areas. }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== قصبن جي عمر (يا ارتقائي مرحلن) بابت اسڪيم ===
آسٽريليا جي جاگرافيدان ٿامس گريفٿ ٽيلر قصبن جي عمر ۽ زمين جي استعمال جي نموني جي بنياد تي انهن جي درجا بندي پيش ڪئي. هن قصبن جا پنج قسم بيان ڪيا: &lt;ref&gt;Goodall, B. (1987) The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography. London: Penguin.&lt;/ref&gt;

* شروعاتي يا ”ٻالڪ“ قصبا (Infantile towns): جن ۾ علائقن جي ڪا واضح ورهاست (zoning) نه هوندي آهي. 
* اڀرندڙ يا ”نوجوان“ قصبا (Juvenile towns): جن ۾ دڪانن وارو علائقو ترقي ڪري چڪو هوندو آهي. 
* وڌندڙ يا ”بلوغت جي ويجهو“ قصبا (Adolescent towns): جتي ڪارخانا ظاهر ٿيڻ شروع ٿي ويندا آهن. 
* ابتدائي پختگي وارا قصبا (Early mature towns): جن ۾ اعليٰ درجي جي رهائشي علائقن لاءِ الڳ حصو هوندو آهي. 
* مڪمل پختگي وارا قصبا (Mature towns): جن ۾ صنعتي، تجارتي ۽ رهائشي علائقا واضح طور تي مقرر ٿيل هوندا آهن.

[[File:Quincy Street Historic District Hancock 100 block N 2009.jpg|thumb|هنڪاڪ، ڪوئنزي اسٽريٽ، مشي گن، آمريڪا جي ڀرسان هڪ قصبو.]]

==تاريخ==
[[File:Çatalhöyük, 7400 BC, Konya, Turkey - UNESCO World Heritage Site, 08.jpg|thumb|&quot;چاتالهويڪ&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Çatalhöyük&lt;/small&gt;)، جيڪو [[ترڪي]] ۾ هڪ آثارِ قديمه وارو ماڳ آهي، کي قديم ترين آباد قصبو يا &quot;ابتدائي شهر&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Proto-city&lt;/small&gt;) سمجهيو ويندو هو، جنهن جو وجود تقريباً &lt;small&gt;7100&lt;/small&gt; ق.م. کان هو.]]
رومن دور ۾ ولا هڪ ڳوٺاڻي آبادي هئي جيڪا هڪ مکيه رهائشي عمارت ۽ ثانوي عمارتن جي هڪ ٻي سلسلي سان ٺهيل هئي. اهو مرڪز هو جتان هڪ زرعي ملڪيت جو انتظام ڪيو ويندو هو. انهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڳوٺاڻي ولا يا ولا رسٽيڪا (country villa) سڏيو ويندو آهي جيڪي معمولي فارم هائوسز تي مشتمل آهن. رومن سلطنت دوران وڏين جائدادن جي مضبوط ٿيڻ سان شهر وڏن فارمن جو مرڪز بڻجي ويو. 

ڳوٺاڻي ۽ شهري آبادين جي وچ ۾ هڪ فرق پيدا ٿيو: 

ڳوٺاڻي ولا (ولا رسٽيڪا) جتان وسيلن جي استحصال جي هدايت ڪئي وئي هئي غلام مزدور رهندا هئا, چوپايو مال رکيو ويندو هو ۽ پيداوار کي ذخيرو ڪيو ويندو هو. شهري ولا (پارس اربانا) جنهن ۾ مالڪ رهندو هو ۽ جيڪي شهري حويلين جي عام طور تي اڏاوتي ۽ خوبصورتي جي شڪلن کي وڌيڪ اختيار ڪندا هئا. جڏهن پهرين صدي کان وڏي علائقائي ملڪيت کي سڌو سنئون مالڪ پاران استحصال ڪيل علائقي جي وچ ۾ ورهايو ويو ۽ اهو ڪرائيدار آبادگارن کي ڏنو ويو, شهري ولا, چوٿين صدي جي عام جاگيرداري جي شڪلن کي ظاهر ڪندي, مالڪن جي انتظامي طاقت جا مرڪز بڻجي ويا.

==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان==

=== افغانستان ===
{{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}}
[[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي &quot;شهر&quot; (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. 

. فارسي ٻولي. پشتو.  

=== البانيا ===
[[البانيا]] ۾ &quot;قيٽيزي&quot; (&lt;small&gt;qytezë&lt;/small&gt;) جو مطلب &quot;قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (&lt;small&gt;qytet&lt;/small&gt;) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو.


===آسٽريليا===
[[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.  

ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي.
===آئس لينڊ===
{{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]]

=== آسٽريا ===
{{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}

[[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ &lt;small&gt;2098&lt;/small&gt; ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Gemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Marktgemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) يا شهرن (&lt;small&gt;Städte&lt;/small&gt;) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;400&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;1200&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. 

آسٽريا جي &lt;small&gt;201&lt;/small&gt; شهرن مان، &lt;small&gt;15&lt;/small&gt; قانوني شهر (&lt;small&gt;Statutarstädte&lt;/small&gt;) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي.

=== برازيل ===
برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. 

=== بلغاريا ===
{{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]]
بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''وڏا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; ۽ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''ننڍا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. 

بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال &lt;small&gt;2005&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ &lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,500&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. 

=== ڀارت ===
[[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]]
ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا:
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف 
# آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل)

سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو.  

ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي.  
===پاڪستان===
{{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]]
پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو  آهي.

===پولينڊ===
{{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]]
پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن  مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}}

قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. 

=== جرمني ===
{{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]]
جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ &quot;اسٽاڊ&quot; (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، &quot;ڊورف&quot; (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو :

&quot;لينڊ اسٽاڊ&quot; (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان گهٽ)، 

&quot;ڪلين اسٽاڊ&quot;  (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt;)،

&quot;مٽل اسٽاڊ&quot; (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽

&quot;گروب اسٽاڊ&quot; (Großstadt: &quot;وڏو شهر&quot;؛ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;10,00,000&lt;/small&gt;) جي وچ ۾&lt;ref&gt;Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund&lt;/ref&gt;

اصطلاح &quot;گروسسٽڊٽ&quot; کي &quot;شهر&quot; طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ&quot; جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ &quot;اسٽيڊٽريچٽ&quot; سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ &quot;ميونسپلٽي&quot; (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا &quot;جيمينڊن&quot; ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. 

مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه.
===روس===
{{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}}

[[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]]

انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو &quot;گوروڊ&quot; (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. 

روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا.

===رومانيا===
{{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي.  
===Singapore===
{{main|New towns of Singapore}}

[[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]]
In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]].
===France===
[[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]]
From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}&lt;/ref&gt; but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all.

For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}.

===فلپائن===
{{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}}
[[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]]
فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن.

فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. 

فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن.

===Finland===
[[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]]
In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland.
===ڪينيڊا===
{{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}}
ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي.

ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي.

اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا).

=== Latvia ===
[[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]]
In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian.
=== Norway ===
In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]').

Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt; Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]]
The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}&lt;/ref&gt;
===Netherlands===
[[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]]
Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city.

For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities:
* {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more

Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}.


legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries.

The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law.

[[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}&lt;/ref&gt; Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &amp;#124; AMO }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from &quot;town&quot; to &quot;city&quot; to encourage investment.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Chile ===
In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity.

===Estonia===
In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}).

=== Hong Kong ===

{{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}}

[[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]]

Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]].

=== Iran ===
In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete.

There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city').
Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions.
Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]].

The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades.

Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'.

=== Iraq ===
The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities.

=== اٽلي ===
[[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|ڏکڻ اٽلي ۾ باسيليڪاٽا جي ميلانڊرو وادي ۾ هڪ شهر، سٽريانو ڊي لوسانيا]]
جيتوڻيڪ اطالوي ٻولي شهر (città)، شهر (cittadina يا paese) ۽ ڳوٺ (villaggio، پراڻي زماني جو، يا frazione، سڀ کان عام) لاءِ مختلف لفظ مهيا ڪري ٿي، پر ڪا به قانوني وصف موجود ناهي ته آبادين کي ڪيئن درجه بندي ڪيو وڃي. انتظامي طور تي، ٻنهي شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪميونٽي/ڪمون طور حڪمراني ڪئي ويندي آهي، جڏهن ته ڳوٺ شايد اڳوڻي جا ذيلي تقسيم هوندا. عام طور تي، روزاني تقرير ۾، هڪ شهر ڳوٺ کان وڏو يا وڌيڪ آبادي وارو ۽ شهر کان ننڍو هوندو آهي. مختلف شهر ۽ شهر گڏجي هڪ ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو (ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو) ٺاهي سگهن ٿا. هڪ شهر آس پاس جي شهرن جي حوالي سان ثقافتي، اقتصادي، يا سياسي طور تي نمايان برادري پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، هڪ شهر صدارتي فرمان ذريعي اهڙو ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، هڪ شهر هڪ آباد جڳهه ٿي سگهي ٿو جيڪو ٻئي هنڌ شهر جي طرز تي هوندو، پر ان کي ڪا به سرڪاري سڃاڻپ نه ملي آهي. قابل ذڪر استثنا موجود آهن: مثال طور، باسانو ڊيل گراپا، کي 1760 ۾ فرانسسڪو لوريڊن جي ڊوگل فرمان ذريعي città جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو ۽ ان کان پوءِ اهو لقب اختيار ڪيو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، 'شهر' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (ننڍي اکر P سان paese) کي 'ملڪ/قوم' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (عام طور تي وڏي اکر P سان Paese) سان مونجهارو نه هجڻ گهرجي.

=== Japan ===
In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a &quot;city centre&quot;. In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages.

The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000.

=== Korea ===
{{main|Eup (administrative division)}}

In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Lithuania ===
{{main|List of towns in Lithuania}}

In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}').

=== Malaysia ===
In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}).

===New Zealand===
{{expand-section|date=August 2025}}
In [[New Zealand]], the term &quot;town&quot; has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities.

===South Africa===
In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city.

=== Spain ===
In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city.

=== Sweden ===
{{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}}
[[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]]

The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]].

Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation.

For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.&lt;ref&gt;[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250907160031/https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html |date=2025-09-07 }}, Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt; This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.&lt;ref&gt;[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ukraine ===
[[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]]
In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)&lt;/ref&gt; Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]).

=== United Kingdom ===
{{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}}

==== England and Wales ====
{{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}}

[[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]]

In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a &quot;[[market town]]&quot;. Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities.

In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling.

In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest &quot;towns&quot; (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish).

Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns).

Additionally, there are &quot;[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s&quot; which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]].

Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]).

The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear.

[[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]]

It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town.

It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888.

The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as &quot;London town&quot;. (The &quot;[[City of London]]&quot; is the historical nucleus, informally known as the &quot;Square Mile&quot;, and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre.

In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== United States ===
[[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]]

In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name &quot;town&quot; has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=&lt;a href=&quot;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&quot;&gt;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&lt;/a&gt; |access-date=2025-09-04}}&lt;/ref&gt; They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot;&gt;[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.&lt;ref&gt;[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)&lt;/ref&gt;

Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections:

====California====
In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot; Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot;

Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot;, but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot; while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county.

====Georgia====
Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.&lt;ref name=&quot;Census Georgia 2010&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Census 2020&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.&lt;ref name=&quot;NGE&quot;&gt;Perry Hiott &amp; Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).&lt;/ref&gt;

====Hawaii====

In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &amp;#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Illinois====
In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,&lt;ref&gt;See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt; and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.&lt;ref&gt;See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)&lt;/ref&gt; In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.&lt;ref&gt;''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt;

====Indiana====
In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Louisiana====
In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Maryland====

While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt; The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]].

====Mississippi====
Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt; The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt;

====Nevada====

In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this &quot;semi-incorporated&quot; status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities.

====New England====
{{Main|New England town}}

[[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]]
In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council.  For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government.  In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population.

Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as &quot;minor civil divisions&quot; for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government.  For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns.  Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country.

====North Carolina====
In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt; there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government.  Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000.

====Oklahoma====
In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot; /&gt;  Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Pennsylvania====
In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]].

====South Carolina====
At incorporation,  municipalities may choose to be named either &quot;City of&quot; or &quot;Town of&quot;, however there is no legal difference between the two.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Tennessee====
Some Tennessee municipalities are called &quot;cities&quot; and others are called &quot;towns.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}&lt;/ref&gt; and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]].

====Texas====
In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as &quot;towns&quot; or &quot;villages&quot; (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]].

====Utah====
{{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}}
In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Virginia====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}}

In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population).  But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web  |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia  |access-date=31 May 2011  |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor.  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |archive-date=20 June 2010  }}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Washington====
{{Further|City government in Washington (state)}}
A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}&lt;/ref&gt; Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]).

====Wisconsin====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}}

{{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}}
[[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages.

====Wyoming====
A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered &quot;first-class cities&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]].

===ويتنام===
ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện).

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[ڳوٺ]]
* [[شهر]]
* [[صوبو]]
* [[ملڪ]]
* مسافر شهر 
* ڪمپني شهر 
* ترقي يافته ماحول
* آگ جو نشان 
* شهرن جون فهرستون 
* مقام 
* ميگالوپولس 
* پروٽو-شهر
* ٽائون چارٽر 
* ٽائون هال
* ٽائون جون حدون
* ٽائون جا مراعات 
* ٽائون اسڪوائر

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}} 
==ذريعا== 
==ٻاهرين لنڪس==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005]
* [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries.
* [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database

{{Types of administrative division}}

{{Authority control}}
[[زمرو:قصبو]] 
[[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]]  
[[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] 
[[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]]
[[زمرو:ڳتيل جايون بلحاظ قسم]]</text>
      <sha1>26ziahvcdsbm4wehp85zpvpck779cel</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399404</id>
      <parentid>399403</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T11:16:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* پڻ ڏسو */</comment>
      <origin>399404</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="95108" sha1="kr8jzfkl9rzixvbvctfkc8ewra352yf" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Type of human settlement}}
{{pp-move}}
{{multiple image
| total_width       = 350px
| perrow            = 1/2/3/2/1
| image1            = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg
| alt1              = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading
| image2            = Porvoo in January.jpg
| alt2              = Old Town of Porvoo in January
| image3            = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg
| alt3              = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square
| image4            = Luftbild Davos2.jpg
| alt4              = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps
| image5            = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG
| alt5              = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica
| image6            = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| alt6              = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| image7            = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg
| alt7              = The Marian town of Fátima
| image8            = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg
| alt8              = The center of the inland town of Viljandi
| footer  = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون.
}}

'''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن.

قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. 
[[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']]
قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. 

==تعريف==
ڪجهه حالتن ۾، لفظ &quot;قصبو&quot; (&lt;small&gt;town&lt;/small&gt;) [[شھر|شهر]] يا [[ڳوٺ]] لاءِ، خاص طور تي ننڍي شهر يا وڏي ڳوٺ، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ته ننڍڙين آبادين يا ڳوٺڙن (&lt;small&gt;hamlets&lt;/small&gt;) لاءِ به، متبادل طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن، ٽائون جو لفظ ٽائون شپ (&lt;small&gt;township&lt;/small&gt;) جو مختصر روپ به هوندو آهي. عام طور تي، اڄڪلهه قصبن کي ٽائون شپس، ڳوٺن يا ننڍڙين آبادين کان انهن جي معاشي نوعيت جي بنياد تي الڳ سڃاڻي سگهجي ٿو؛ ڇاڪاڻ ته ڪنهن ٽائون جي اڪثر آبادي پنهنجو گذر-سفر زراعت يا ان سان لاڳاپيل سرگرمين، يعني بنيادي شعبي جي صنعتن جي بدران پيداواري صنعت، واپار ۽ عوامي خدمتن ذريعي ڪندي آهي. ڪنهن هنڌ جي آباديءَ جو مقدار اتان جي شهري نوعيت جو ڪو پڪو يا قابلِ اعتماد معيار ناهي، دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾، مثال طور ڀارت يا پاڪستان ۾ (گهٽ ۾ گهٽ تازي وقت تائين)، هڪ وڏي ڳوٺ جي آبادي ڪنهن ننڍي شهر جي ڀيٽ ۾ ڪيترائي ڀيرا وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. برطانيا ۾ اهڙا تاريخي شهر موجود آهن جيڪي ڪجهه وڏن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ تمام ننڍا آهن. [[File:Moisakula - panoramio (1).jpg|thumb|مويسڪولا (&lt;small&gt;Mõisaküla&lt;/small&gt;) [[اسٽونيا|ايسٽونيا]] جي ڏکڻ واري حصي ۾، [[ليٽويا|لاتويا]] جي حد سان لڳل هڪ ننڍڙو قصبو آهي. هن قصبي جي موجوده آبادي &lt;small&gt;1,000&lt;/small&gt; کان گهٽ آهي.]]

شهرن جي ڀرپاسي وارن علائقن ۾ وسيع پکيڙ، سيٽلائيٽ شهري ترقي ۽ شهرين جو ڳوٺن ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ وارو جديد رجحان، شهرن جي تعريف کي وڌيڪ پيچيده بڻائي ڇڏيو آهي؛ ان سان اهڙيون وسنديون وجود ۾ اچن ٿيون جيڪي پنهنجي معاشي ۽ ثقافتي خصوصيتن جي لحاظ کان ته شهري هونديون آهن، پر انهن ۾ شهري علائقن جون ٻيون خاصيتون موجود نه هونديون آهن. 

غير ڳوٺاڻي آبادڪاريءَ جون ڪجهه صورتون، جهڙوڪ عارضي کاڻين وارا علائقا، واضح طور تي غير ڳوٺاڻيون هونديون آهن، پر انهن کي &quot;قصبو&quot; سڏڻ جو دعويٰ مشڪوڪ يا بحث طلب هوندو آهي.

قصبا اڪثر ڪري الڳ انتظامي يا سرڪاري يونٽن طور موجود هوندا آهن، جن جون حدون قانوني طور تي مقرر ٿيل هونديون آهن ۽ انهن وٽ مقامي حڪومت جون ڪجهه يا سموريون سهولتون (جهڙوڪ پوليس فورس) موجود هونديون آهن. آمريڪا ۾، انهن کي ”انڪارپوريٽيڊ ٽائونز“ (قانوني حيثيت رکندڙ قصبا) چيو ويندو آهي. ٻين حالتن ۾، قصبي وٽ پنهنجو انتظامي نظام نه هوندو آهي ۽ ان کي ”ان-انڪارپوريٽيڊ“ (غير قانوني طور تي الڳ انتظامي حيثيت نه رکندڙ قصبا) چيو ويندو آهي. اهڙي قصبي جو وجود قانوني طور تي ٻين طريقن سان، مثال طور ”زوننگ“ وارن علائقن ذريعي، طئي ٿي سگهي ٿو. ڪجهه منصوبابندي ڪيل آبادين جي صورت ۾، قصبي جو قانوني وجود ان علائقي اندر موجود ملڪيتن تي لاڳو ٿيندڙ معاهدن يا شرطن (covenants) جي صورت ۾ هوندو آهي. آمريڪا جي مردم شماري ۾ ڪيترن ئي اهڙن علائقن جي نشاندهي ڪئي ويندي آهي جن کي ”مردم شماري لاءِ مقرر ڪيل علائقا“ (CDPs) چيو ويندو آهي ۽ اهي غير انتظامي قصبن جي نالن سان سڃاتا ويندا آهن؛ جڏهن ته، انهن CDPs ۾ عام طور تي ڳوٺاڻا ۽ شهري ڀرپاسي وارا علائقا ۽ ان سان گڏ ڀرپاسي جا ڳوٺ ۽ ٻيا ننڍا شهر به شامل هوندا آهن.

[[File:View of Mariehamn, 2022.jpg|thumb|&lt;small&gt;'''ميريهام''' (Mariehamn) جو فضائي منظر؛ هي '''آلنڊ''' (Åland) جو هڪ قصبو آهي جتي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ماڻهو رهندا آهن.&lt;/small&gt;]]
شهر (&lt;small&gt;City&lt;/small&gt;) ۽ قصبي (&lt;small&gt;Town&lt;/small&gt;) جي وچ ۾ فرق جو دارومدار ان ڳالهه تي آهي ته ان کي ڪهڙي نقطه نظر کان ڏٺو پيو وڃي: قانوني لحاظ کان، &quot;شهر&quot; هڪ انتظامي حيثيت رکي سگهي ٿو جنهن کي قانون تحت اهو درجو ڏنو ويو هجي؛ پر عام يا غير رسمي استعمال ۾، هي اصطلاح ڪنهن خاص سائيز يا اهميت واري شهري علائقي لاءِ پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. جتي وچئين دور جي شهرن جي آبادي شايد صرف 10،000 هئي، اتي اڄڪلهه ڪجهه ماڻهو 100،000 کان گهٽ آبادي واري شهري علائقي کي ”قصبو“ سمجهن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ڪيترائي اهڙا شهر موجود آهن جن کي سرڪاري طور تي شهر جو درجو مليل آهي پر اهي ان کان گهڻا ننڍا آهن. 

مارچ &lt;small&gt;2021&lt;/small&gt; کان وٺي، گڏيل قومن جا &lt;small&gt;193&lt;/small&gt; ميمبر ملڪ، جن جي اڳواڻي يورپي يونين جا ادارا ڪري رهيا آهن، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي هڪ گڏيل شمارياتي تعريف تي اتفاق ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ۾ شامل رهيا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-04-02 |title=What makes a city a city? |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/-/wdn-20210402-1 |website=[[eurostat]] |quote=Humans have built cities for thousands of years, yet incredibly there was no definition of a city (or a town, or a region) agreed by all. Until now. A joint initiative led by Eurostat, DG REGIO and the JRC was adopted by the UN last month to establish global definitions for urban and rural areas. }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== قصبن جي عمر (يا ارتقائي مرحلن) بابت اسڪيم ===
آسٽريليا جي جاگرافيدان ٿامس گريفٿ ٽيلر قصبن جي عمر ۽ زمين جي استعمال جي نموني جي بنياد تي انهن جي درجا بندي پيش ڪئي. هن قصبن جا پنج قسم بيان ڪيا: &lt;ref&gt;Goodall, B. (1987) The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography. London: Penguin.&lt;/ref&gt;

* شروعاتي يا ”ٻالڪ“ قصبا (Infantile towns): جن ۾ علائقن جي ڪا واضح ورهاست (zoning) نه هوندي آهي. 
* اڀرندڙ يا ”نوجوان“ قصبا (Juvenile towns): جن ۾ دڪانن وارو علائقو ترقي ڪري چڪو هوندو آهي. 
* وڌندڙ يا ”بلوغت جي ويجهو“ قصبا (Adolescent towns): جتي ڪارخانا ظاهر ٿيڻ شروع ٿي ويندا آهن. 
* ابتدائي پختگي وارا قصبا (Early mature towns): جن ۾ اعليٰ درجي جي رهائشي علائقن لاءِ الڳ حصو هوندو آهي. 
* مڪمل پختگي وارا قصبا (Mature towns): جن ۾ صنعتي، تجارتي ۽ رهائشي علائقا واضح طور تي مقرر ٿيل هوندا آهن.

[[File:Quincy Street Historic District Hancock 100 block N 2009.jpg|thumb|هنڪاڪ، ڪوئنزي اسٽريٽ، مشي گن، آمريڪا جي ڀرسان هڪ قصبو.]]

==تاريخ==
[[File:Çatalhöyük, 7400 BC, Konya, Turkey - UNESCO World Heritage Site, 08.jpg|thumb|&quot;چاتالهويڪ&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Çatalhöyük&lt;/small&gt;)، جيڪو [[ترڪي]] ۾ هڪ آثارِ قديمه وارو ماڳ آهي، کي قديم ترين آباد قصبو يا &quot;ابتدائي شهر&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Proto-city&lt;/small&gt;) سمجهيو ويندو هو، جنهن جو وجود تقريباً &lt;small&gt;7100&lt;/small&gt; ق.م. کان هو.]]
رومن دور ۾ ولا هڪ ڳوٺاڻي آبادي هئي جيڪا هڪ مکيه رهائشي عمارت ۽ ثانوي عمارتن جي هڪ ٻي سلسلي سان ٺهيل هئي. اهو مرڪز هو جتان هڪ زرعي ملڪيت جو انتظام ڪيو ويندو هو. انهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڳوٺاڻي ولا يا ولا رسٽيڪا (country villa) سڏيو ويندو آهي جيڪي معمولي فارم هائوسز تي مشتمل آهن. رومن سلطنت دوران وڏين جائدادن جي مضبوط ٿيڻ سان شهر وڏن فارمن جو مرڪز بڻجي ويو. 

ڳوٺاڻي ۽ شهري آبادين جي وچ ۾ هڪ فرق پيدا ٿيو: 

ڳوٺاڻي ولا (ولا رسٽيڪا) جتان وسيلن جي استحصال جي هدايت ڪئي وئي هئي غلام مزدور رهندا هئا, چوپايو مال رکيو ويندو هو ۽ پيداوار کي ذخيرو ڪيو ويندو هو. شهري ولا (پارس اربانا) جنهن ۾ مالڪ رهندو هو ۽ جيڪي شهري حويلين جي عام طور تي اڏاوتي ۽ خوبصورتي جي شڪلن کي وڌيڪ اختيار ڪندا هئا. جڏهن پهرين صدي کان وڏي علائقائي ملڪيت کي سڌو سنئون مالڪ پاران استحصال ڪيل علائقي جي وچ ۾ ورهايو ويو ۽ اهو ڪرائيدار آبادگارن کي ڏنو ويو, شهري ولا, چوٿين صدي جي عام جاگيرداري جي شڪلن کي ظاهر ڪندي, مالڪن جي انتظامي طاقت جا مرڪز بڻجي ويا.

==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان==

=== افغانستان ===
{{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}}
[[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي &quot;شهر&quot; (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. 

. فارسي ٻولي. پشتو.  

=== البانيا ===
[[البانيا]] ۾ &quot;قيٽيزي&quot; (&lt;small&gt;qytezë&lt;/small&gt;) جو مطلب &quot;قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (&lt;small&gt;qytet&lt;/small&gt;) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو.


===آسٽريليا===
[[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.  

ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي.
===آئس لينڊ===
{{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]]

=== آسٽريا ===
{{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}

[[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ &lt;small&gt;2098&lt;/small&gt; ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Gemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Marktgemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) يا شهرن (&lt;small&gt;Städte&lt;/small&gt;) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;400&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;1200&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. 

آسٽريا جي &lt;small&gt;201&lt;/small&gt; شهرن مان، &lt;small&gt;15&lt;/small&gt; قانوني شهر (&lt;small&gt;Statutarstädte&lt;/small&gt;) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي.

=== برازيل ===
برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. 

=== بلغاريا ===
{{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]]
بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''وڏا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; ۽ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''ننڍا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. 

بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال &lt;small&gt;2005&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ &lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,500&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. 

=== ڀارت ===
[[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]]
ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا:
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف 
# آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل)

سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو.  

ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي.  
===پاڪستان===
{{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]]
پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو  آهي.

===پولينڊ===
{{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]]
پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن  مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}}

قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. 

=== جرمني ===
{{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]]
جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ &quot;اسٽاڊ&quot; (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، &quot;ڊورف&quot; (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو :

&quot;لينڊ اسٽاڊ&quot; (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان گهٽ)، 

&quot;ڪلين اسٽاڊ&quot;  (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt;)،

&quot;مٽل اسٽاڊ&quot; (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽

&quot;گروب اسٽاڊ&quot; (Großstadt: &quot;وڏو شهر&quot;؛ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;10,00,000&lt;/small&gt;) جي وچ ۾&lt;ref&gt;Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund&lt;/ref&gt;

اصطلاح &quot;گروسسٽڊٽ&quot; کي &quot;شهر&quot; طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ&quot; جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ &quot;اسٽيڊٽريچٽ&quot; سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ &quot;ميونسپلٽي&quot; (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا &quot;جيمينڊن&quot; ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. 

مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه.
===روس===
{{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}}

[[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]]

انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو &quot;گوروڊ&quot; (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. 

روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا.

===رومانيا===
{{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي.  
===Singapore===
{{main|New towns of Singapore}}

[[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]]
In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]].
===France===
[[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]]
From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}&lt;/ref&gt; but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all.

For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}.

===فلپائن===
{{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}}
[[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]]
فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن.

فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. 

فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن.

===Finland===
[[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]]
In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland.
===ڪينيڊا===
{{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}}
ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي.

ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي.

اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا).

=== Latvia ===
[[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]]
In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian.
=== Norway ===
In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]').

Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt; Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]]
The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}&lt;/ref&gt;
===Netherlands===
[[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]]
Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city.

For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities:
* {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more

Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}.


legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries.

The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law.

[[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}&lt;/ref&gt; Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &amp;#124; AMO }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from &quot;town&quot; to &quot;city&quot; to encourage investment.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Chile ===
In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity.

===Estonia===
In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}).

=== Hong Kong ===

{{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}}

[[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]]

Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]].

=== Iran ===
In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete.

There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city').
Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions.
Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]].

The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades.

Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'.

=== Iraq ===
The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities.

=== اٽلي ===
[[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|ڏکڻ اٽلي ۾ باسيليڪاٽا جي ميلانڊرو وادي ۾ هڪ شهر، سٽريانو ڊي لوسانيا]]
جيتوڻيڪ اطالوي ٻولي شهر (città)، شهر (cittadina يا paese) ۽ ڳوٺ (villaggio، پراڻي زماني جو، يا frazione، سڀ کان عام) لاءِ مختلف لفظ مهيا ڪري ٿي، پر ڪا به قانوني وصف موجود ناهي ته آبادين کي ڪيئن درجه بندي ڪيو وڃي. انتظامي طور تي، ٻنهي شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪميونٽي/ڪمون طور حڪمراني ڪئي ويندي آهي، جڏهن ته ڳوٺ شايد اڳوڻي جا ذيلي تقسيم هوندا. عام طور تي، روزاني تقرير ۾، هڪ شهر ڳوٺ کان وڏو يا وڌيڪ آبادي وارو ۽ شهر کان ننڍو هوندو آهي. مختلف شهر ۽ شهر گڏجي هڪ ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو (ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو) ٺاهي سگهن ٿا. هڪ شهر آس پاس جي شهرن جي حوالي سان ثقافتي، اقتصادي، يا سياسي طور تي نمايان برادري پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، هڪ شهر صدارتي فرمان ذريعي اهڙو ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، هڪ شهر هڪ آباد جڳهه ٿي سگهي ٿو جيڪو ٻئي هنڌ شهر جي طرز تي هوندو، پر ان کي ڪا به سرڪاري سڃاڻپ نه ملي آهي. قابل ذڪر استثنا موجود آهن: مثال طور، باسانو ڊيل گراپا، کي 1760 ۾ فرانسسڪو لوريڊن جي ڊوگل فرمان ذريعي città جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو ۽ ان کان پوءِ اهو لقب اختيار ڪيو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، 'شهر' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (ننڍي اکر P سان paese) کي 'ملڪ/قوم' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (عام طور تي وڏي اکر P سان Paese) سان مونجهارو نه هجڻ گهرجي.

=== Japan ===
In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a &quot;city centre&quot;. In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages.

The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000.

=== Korea ===
{{main|Eup (administrative division)}}

In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Lithuania ===
{{main|List of towns in Lithuania}}

In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}').

=== Malaysia ===
In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}).

===New Zealand===
{{expand-section|date=August 2025}}
In [[New Zealand]], the term &quot;town&quot; has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities.

===South Africa===
In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city.

=== Spain ===
In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city.

=== Sweden ===
{{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}}
[[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]]

The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]].

Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation.

For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.&lt;ref&gt;[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250907160031/https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html |date=2025-09-07 }}, Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt; This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.&lt;ref&gt;[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ukraine ===
[[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]]
In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)&lt;/ref&gt; Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]).

=== United Kingdom ===
{{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}}

==== England and Wales ====
{{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}}

[[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]]

In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a &quot;[[market town]]&quot;. Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities.

In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling.

In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest &quot;towns&quot; (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish).

Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns).

Additionally, there are &quot;[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s&quot; which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]].

Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]).

The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear.

[[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]]

It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town.

It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888.

The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as &quot;London town&quot;. (The &quot;[[City of London]]&quot; is the historical nucleus, informally known as the &quot;Square Mile&quot;, and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre.

In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== United States ===
[[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]]

In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name &quot;town&quot; has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=&lt;a href=&quot;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&quot;&gt;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&lt;/a&gt; |access-date=2025-09-04}}&lt;/ref&gt; They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot;&gt;[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.&lt;ref&gt;[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)&lt;/ref&gt;

Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections:

====California====
In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot; Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot;

Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot;, but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot; while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county.

====Georgia====
Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.&lt;ref name=&quot;Census Georgia 2010&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Census 2020&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.&lt;ref name=&quot;NGE&quot;&gt;Perry Hiott &amp; Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).&lt;/ref&gt;

====Hawaii====

In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &amp;#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Illinois====
In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,&lt;ref&gt;See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt; and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.&lt;ref&gt;See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)&lt;/ref&gt; In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.&lt;ref&gt;''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt;

====Indiana====
In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Louisiana====
In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Maryland====

While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt; The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]].

====Mississippi====
Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt; The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt;

====Nevada====

In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this &quot;semi-incorporated&quot; status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities.

====New England====
{{Main|New England town}}

[[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]]
In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council.  For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government.  In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population.

Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as &quot;minor civil divisions&quot; for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government.  For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns.  Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country.

====North Carolina====
In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt; there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government.  Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000.

====Oklahoma====
In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot; /&gt;  Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Pennsylvania====
In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]].

====South Carolina====
At incorporation,  municipalities may choose to be named either &quot;City of&quot; or &quot;Town of&quot;, however there is no legal difference between the two.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Tennessee====
Some Tennessee municipalities are called &quot;cities&quot; and others are called &quot;towns.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}&lt;/ref&gt; and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]].

====Texas====
In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as &quot;towns&quot; or &quot;villages&quot; (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]].

====Utah====
{{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}}
In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Virginia====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}}

In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population).  But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web  |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia  |access-date=31 May 2011  |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor.  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |archive-date=20 June 2010  }}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Washington====
{{Further|City government in Washington (state)}}
A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}&lt;/ref&gt; Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]).

====Wisconsin====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}}

{{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}}
[[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages.

====Wyoming====
A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered &quot;first-class cities&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]].

===ويتنام===
ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện).

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[ڳوٺ]]
* [[شهر]]
* [[صوبو]]
* [[ملڪ]]
* [[شهري علائقو|شهري علائقا]]
* [[ٻهراڙي علائقو|ٻهراڙي علائقا]]
* [[مقامي آبادي]]
* [[ميگالوپولس]]

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}} 
==ذريعا== 
==ٻاهرين لنڪس==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005]
* [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries.
* [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database

{{Types of administrative division}}

{{Authority control}}
[[زمرو:قصبو]] 
[[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]]  
[[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] 
[[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]]
[[زمرو:ڳتيل جايون بلحاظ قسم]]</text>
      <sha1>kr8jzfkl9rzixvbvctfkc8ewra352yf</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399405</id>
      <parentid>399404</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T11:18:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* ٻاهرين لنڪس */</comment>
      <origin>399405</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="95074" sha1="nxw0gpkzbzk5h7490fcaopgimvl9uez" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Type of human settlement}}
{{pp-move}}
{{multiple image
| total_width       = 350px
| perrow            = 1/2/3/2/1
| image1            = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg
| alt1              = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading
| image2            = Porvoo in January.jpg
| alt2              = Old Town of Porvoo in January
| image3            = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg
| alt3              = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square
| image4            = Luftbild Davos2.jpg
| alt4              = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps
| image5            = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG
| alt5              = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica
| image6            = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| alt6              = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| image7            = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg
| alt7              = The Marian town of Fátima
| image8            = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg
| alt8              = The center of the inland town of Viljandi
| footer  = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون.
}}

'''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن.

قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. 
[[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']]
قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. 

==تعريف==
ڪجهه حالتن ۾، لفظ &quot;قصبو&quot; (&lt;small&gt;town&lt;/small&gt;) [[شھر|شهر]] يا [[ڳوٺ]] لاءِ، خاص طور تي ننڍي شهر يا وڏي ڳوٺ، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ته ننڍڙين آبادين يا ڳوٺڙن (&lt;small&gt;hamlets&lt;/small&gt;) لاءِ به، متبادل طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن، ٽائون جو لفظ ٽائون شپ (&lt;small&gt;township&lt;/small&gt;) جو مختصر روپ به هوندو آهي. عام طور تي، اڄڪلهه قصبن کي ٽائون شپس، ڳوٺن يا ننڍڙين آبادين کان انهن جي معاشي نوعيت جي بنياد تي الڳ سڃاڻي سگهجي ٿو؛ ڇاڪاڻ ته ڪنهن ٽائون جي اڪثر آبادي پنهنجو گذر-سفر زراعت يا ان سان لاڳاپيل سرگرمين، يعني بنيادي شعبي جي صنعتن جي بدران پيداواري صنعت، واپار ۽ عوامي خدمتن ذريعي ڪندي آهي. ڪنهن هنڌ جي آباديءَ جو مقدار اتان جي شهري نوعيت جو ڪو پڪو يا قابلِ اعتماد معيار ناهي، دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾، مثال طور ڀارت يا پاڪستان ۾ (گهٽ ۾ گهٽ تازي وقت تائين)، هڪ وڏي ڳوٺ جي آبادي ڪنهن ننڍي شهر جي ڀيٽ ۾ ڪيترائي ڀيرا وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. برطانيا ۾ اهڙا تاريخي شهر موجود آهن جيڪي ڪجهه وڏن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ تمام ننڍا آهن. [[File:Moisakula - panoramio (1).jpg|thumb|مويسڪولا (&lt;small&gt;Mõisaküla&lt;/small&gt;) [[اسٽونيا|ايسٽونيا]] جي ڏکڻ واري حصي ۾، [[ليٽويا|لاتويا]] جي حد سان لڳل هڪ ننڍڙو قصبو آهي. هن قصبي جي موجوده آبادي &lt;small&gt;1,000&lt;/small&gt; کان گهٽ آهي.]]

شهرن جي ڀرپاسي وارن علائقن ۾ وسيع پکيڙ، سيٽلائيٽ شهري ترقي ۽ شهرين جو ڳوٺن ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ وارو جديد رجحان، شهرن جي تعريف کي وڌيڪ پيچيده بڻائي ڇڏيو آهي؛ ان سان اهڙيون وسنديون وجود ۾ اچن ٿيون جيڪي پنهنجي معاشي ۽ ثقافتي خصوصيتن جي لحاظ کان ته شهري هونديون آهن، پر انهن ۾ شهري علائقن جون ٻيون خاصيتون موجود نه هونديون آهن. 

غير ڳوٺاڻي آبادڪاريءَ جون ڪجهه صورتون، جهڙوڪ عارضي کاڻين وارا علائقا، واضح طور تي غير ڳوٺاڻيون هونديون آهن، پر انهن کي &quot;قصبو&quot; سڏڻ جو دعويٰ مشڪوڪ يا بحث طلب هوندو آهي.

قصبا اڪثر ڪري الڳ انتظامي يا سرڪاري يونٽن طور موجود هوندا آهن، جن جون حدون قانوني طور تي مقرر ٿيل هونديون آهن ۽ انهن وٽ مقامي حڪومت جون ڪجهه يا سموريون سهولتون (جهڙوڪ پوليس فورس) موجود هونديون آهن. آمريڪا ۾، انهن کي ”انڪارپوريٽيڊ ٽائونز“ (قانوني حيثيت رکندڙ قصبا) چيو ويندو آهي. ٻين حالتن ۾، قصبي وٽ پنهنجو انتظامي نظام نه هوندو آهي ۽ ان کي ”ان-انڪارپوريٽيڊ“ (غير قانوني طور تي الڳ انتظامي حيثيت نه رکندڙ قصبا) چيو ويندو آهي. اهڙي قصبي جو وجود قانوني طور تي ٻين طريقن سان، مثال طور ”زوننگ“ وارن علائقن ذريعي، طئي ٿي سگهي ٿو. ڪجهه منصوبابندي ڪيل آبادين جي صورت ۾، قصبي جو قانوني وجود ان علائقي اندر موجود ملڪيتن تي لاڳو ٿيندڙ معاهدن يا شرطن (covenants) جي صورت ۾ هوندو آهي. آمريڪا جي مردم شماري ۾ ڪيترن ئي اهڙن علائقن جي نشاندهي ڪئي ويندي آهي جن کي ”مردم شماري لاءِ مقرر ڪيل علائقا“ (CDPs) چيو ويندو آهي ۽ اهي غير انتظامي قصبن جي نالن سان سڃاتا ويندا آهن؛ جڏهن ته، انهن CDPs ۾ عام طور تي ڳوٺاڻا ۽ شهري ڀرپاسي وارا علائقا ۽ ان سان گڏ ڀرپاسي جا ڳوٺ ۽ ٻيا ننڍا شهر به شامل هوندا آهن.

[[File:View of Mariehamn, 2022.jpg|thumb|&lt;small&gt;'''ميريهام''' (Mariehamn) جو فضائي منظر؛ هي '''آلنڊ''' (Åland) جو هڪ قصبو آهي جتي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ماڻهو رهندا آهن.&lt;/small&gt;]]
شهر (&lt;small&gt;City&lt;/small&gt;) ۽ قصبي (&lt;small&gt;Town&lt;/small&gt;) جي وچ ۾ فرق جو دارومدار ان ڳالهه تي آهي ته ان کي ڪهڙي نقطه نظر کان ڏٺو پيو وڃي: قانوني لحاظ کان، &quot;شهر&quot; هڪ انتظامي حيثيت رکي سگهي ٿو جنهن کي قانون تحت اهو درجو ڏنو ويو هجي؛ پر عام يا غير رسمي استعمال ۾، هي اصطلاح ڪنهن خاص سائيز يا اهميت واري شهري علائقي لاءِ پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. جتي وچئين دور جي شهرن جي آبادي شايد صرف 10،000 هئي، اتي اڄڪلهه ڪجهه ماڻهو 100،000 کان گهٽ آبادي واري شهري علائقي کي ”قصبو“ سمجهن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ڪيترائي اهڙا شهر موجود آهن جن کي سرڪاري طور تي شهر جو درجو مليل آهي پر اهي ان کان گهڻا ننڍا آهن. 

مارچ &lt;small&gt;2021&lt;/small&gt; کان وٺي، گڏيل قومن جا &lt;small&gt;193&lt;/small&gt; ميمبر ملڪ، جن جي اڳواڻي يورپي يونين جا ادارا ڪري رهيا آهن، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي هڪ گڏيل شمارياتي تعريف تي اتفاق ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ۾ شامل رهيا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-04-02 |title=What makes a city a city? |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/-/wdn-20210402-1 |website=[[eurostat]] |quote=Humans have built cities for thousands of years, yet incredibly there was no definition of a city (or a town, or a region) agreed by all. Until now. A joint initiative led by Eurostat, DG REGIO and the JRC was adopted by the UN last month to establish global definitions for urban and rural areas. }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== قصبن جي عمر (يا ارتقائي مرحلن) بابت اسڪيم ===
آسٽريليا جي جاگرافيدان ٿامس گريفٿ ٽيلر قصبن جي عمر ۽ زمين جي استعمال جي نموني جي بنياد تي انهن جي درجا بندي پيش ڪئي. هن قصبن جا پنج قسم بيان ڪيا: &lt;ref&gt;Goodall, B. (1987) The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography. London: Penguin.&lt;/ref&gt;

* شروعاتي يا ”ٻالڪ“ قصبا (Infantile towns): جن ۾ علائقن جي ڪا واضح ورهاست (zoning) نه هوندي آهي. 
* اڀرندڙ يا ”نوجوان“ قصبا (Juvenile towns): جن ۾ دڪانن وارو علائقو ترقي ڪري چڪو هوندو آهي. 
* وڌندڙ يا ”بلوغت جي ويجهو“ قصبا (Adolescent towns): جتي ڪارخانا ظاهر ٿيڻ شروع ٿي ويندا آهن. 
* ابتدائي پختگي وارا قصبا (Early mature towns): جن ۾ اعليٰ درجي جي رهائشي علائقن لاءِ الڳ حصو هوندو آهي. 
* مڪمل پختگي وارا قصبا (Mature towns): جن ۾ صنعتي، تجارتي ۽ رهائشي علائقا واضح طور تي مقرر ٿيل هوندا آهن.

[[File:Quincy Street Historic District Hancock 100 block N 2009.jpg|thumb|هنڪاڪ، ڪوئنزي اسٽريٽ، مشي گن، آمريڪا جي ڀرسان هڪ قصبو.]]

==تاريخ==
[[File:Çatalhöyük, 7400 BC, Konya, Turkey - UNESCO World Heritage Site, 08.jpg|thumb|&quot;چاتالهويڪ&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Çatalhöyük&lt;/small&gt;)، جيڪو [[ترڪي]] ۾ هڪ آثارِ قديمه وارو ماڳ آهي، کي قديم ترين آباد قصبو يا &quot;ابتدائي شهر&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Proto-city&lt;/small&gt;) سمجهيو ويندو هو، جنهن جو وجود تقريباً &lt;small&gt;7100&lt;/small&gt; ق.م. کان هو.]]
رومن دور ۾ ولا هڪ ڳوٺاڻي آبادي هئي جيڪا هڪ مکيه رهائشي عمارت ۽ ثانوي عمارتن جي هڪ ٻي سلسلي سان ٺهيل هئي. اهو مرڪز هو جتان هڪ زرعي ملڪيت جو انتظام ڪيو ويندو هو. انهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڳوٺاڻي ولا يا ولا رسٽيڪا (country villa) سڏيو ويندو آهي جيڪي معمولي فارم هائوسز تي مشتمل آهن. رومن سلطنت دوران وڏين جائدادن جي مضبوط ٿيڻ سان شهر وڏن فارمن جو مرڪز بڻجي ويو. 

ڳوٺاڻي ۽ شهري آبادين جي وچ ۾ هڪ فرق پيدا ٿيو: 

ڳوٺاڻي ولا (ولا رسٽيڪا) جتان وسيلن جي استحصال جي هدايت ڪئي وئي هئي غلام مزدور رهندا هئا, چوپايو مال رکيو ويندو هو ۽ پيداوار کي ذخيرو ڪيو ويندو هو. شهري ولا (پارس اربانا) جنهن ۾ مالڪ رهندو هو ۽ جيڪي شهري حويلين جي عام طور تي اڏاوتي ۽ خوبصورتي جي شڪلن کي وڌيڪ اختيار ڪندا هئا. جڏهن پهرين صدي کان وڏي علائقائي ملڪيت کي سڌو سنئون مالڪ پاران استحصال ڪيل علائقي جي وچ ۾ ورهايو ويو ۽ اهو ڪرائيدار آبادگارن کي ڏنو ويو, شهري ولا, چوٿين صدي جي عام جاگيرداري جي شڪلن کي ظاهر ڪندي, مالڪن جي انتظامي طاقت جا مرڪز بڻجي ويا.

==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان==

=== افغانستان ===
{{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}}
[[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي &quot;شهر&quot; (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. 

. فارسي ٻولي. پشتو.  

=== البانيا ===
[[البانيا]] ۾ &quot;قيٽيزي&quot; (&lt;small&gt;qytezë&lt;/small&gt;) جو مطلب &quot;قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (&lt;small&gt;qytet&lt;/small&gt;) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو.


===آسٽريليا===
[[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.  

ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي.
===آئس لينڊ===
{{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]]

=== آسٽريا ===
{{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}

[[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ &lt;small&gt;2098&lt;/small&gt; ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Gemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Marktgemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) يا شهرن (&lt;small&gt;Städte&lt;/small&gt;) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;400&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;1200&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. 

آسٽريا جي &lt;small&gt;201&lt;/small&gt; شهرن مان، &lt;small&gt;15&lt;/small&gt; قانوني شهر (&lt;small&gt;Statutarstädte&lt;/small&gt;) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي.

=== برازيل ===
برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. 

=== بلغاريا ===
{{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]]
بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''وڏا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; ۽ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''ننڍا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. 

بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال &lt;small&gt;2005&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ &lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,500&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. 

=== ڀارت ===
[[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]]
ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا:
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف 
# آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل)

سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو.  

ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي.  
===پاڪستان===
{{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]]
پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو  آهي.

===پولينڊ===
{{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]]
پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن  مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}}

قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. 

=== جرمني ===
{{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]]
جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ &quot;اسٽاڊ&quot; (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، &quot;ڊورف&quot; (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو :

&quot;لينڊ اسٽاڊ&quot; (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان گهٽ)، 

&quot;ڪلين اسٽاڊ&quot;  (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt;)،

&quot;مٽل اسٽاڊ&quot; (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽

&quot;گروب اسٽاڊ&quot; (Großstadt: &quot;وڏو شهر&quot;؛ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;10,00,000&lt;/small&gt;) جي وچ ۾&lt;ref&gt;Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund&lt;/ref&gt;

اصطلاح &quot;گروسسٽڊٽ&quot; کي &quot;شهر&quot; طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ&quot; جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ &quot;اسٽيڊٽريچٽ&quot; سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ &quot;ميونسپلٽي&quot; (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا &quot;جيمينڊن&quot; ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. 

مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه.
===روس===
{{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}}

[[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]]

انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو &quot;گوروڊ&quot; (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. 

روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا.

===رومانيا===
{{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي.  
===Singapore===
{{main|New towns of Singapore}}

[[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]]
In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]].
===France===
[[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]]
From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}&lt;/ref&gt; but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all.

For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}.

===فلپائن===
{{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}}
[[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]]
فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن.

فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. 

فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن.

===Finland===
[[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]]
In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland.
===ڪينيڊا===
{{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}}
ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي.

ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي.

اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا).

=== Latvia ===
[[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]]
In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian.
=== Norway ===
In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]').

Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt; Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]]
The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}&lt;/ref&gt;
===Netherlands===
[[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]]
Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city.

For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities:
* {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more

Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}.


legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries.

The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law.

[[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}&lt;/ref&gt; Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &amp;#124; AMO }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from &quot;town&quot; to &quot;city&quot; to encourage investment.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Chile ===
In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity.

===Estonia===
In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}).

=== Hong Kong ===

{{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}}

[[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]]

Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]].

=== Iran ===
In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete.

There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city').
Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions.
Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]].

The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades.

Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'.

=== Iraq ===
The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities.

=== اٽلي ===
[[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|ڏکڻ اٽلي ۾ باسيليڪاٽا جي ميلانڊرو وادي ۾ هڪ شهر، سٽريانو ڊي لوسانيا]]
جيتوڻيڪ اطالوي ٻولي شهر (città)، شهر (cittadina يا paese) ۽ ڳوٺ (villaggio، پراڻي زماني جو، يا frazione، سڀ کان عام) لاءِ مختلف لفظ مهيا ڪري ٿي، پر ڪا به قانوني وصف موجود ناهي ته آبادين کي ڪيئن درجه بندي ڪيو وڃي. انتظامي طور تي، ٻنهي شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪميونٽي/ڪمون طور حڪمراني ڪئي ويندي آهي، جڏهن ته ڳوٺ شايد اڳوڻي جا ذيلي تقسيم هوندا. عام طور تي، روزاني تقرير ۾، هڪ شهر ڳوٺ کان وڏو يا وڌيڪ آبادي وارو ۽ شهر کان ننڍو هوندو آهي. مختلف شهر ۽ شهر گڏجي هڪ ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو (ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو) ٺاهي سگهن ٿا. هڪ شهر آس پاس جي شهرن جي حوالي سان ثقافتي، اقتصادي، يا سياسي طور تي نمايان برادري پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، هڪ شهر صدارتي فرمان ذريعي اهڙو ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، هڪ شهر هڪ آباد جڳهه ٿي سگهي ٿو جيڪو ٻئي هنڌ شهر جي طرز تي هوندو، پر ان کي ڪا به سرڪاري سڃاڻپ نه ملي آهي. قابل ذڪر استثنا موجود آهن: مثال طور، باسانو ڊيل گراپا، کي 1760 ۾ فرانسسڪو لوريڊن جي ڊوگل فرمان ذريعي città جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو ۽ ان کان پوءِ اهو لقب اختيار ڪيو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، 'شهر' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (ننڍي اکر P سان paese) کي 'ملڪ/قوم' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (عام طور تي وڏي اکر P سان Paese) سان مونجهارو نه هجڻ گهرجي.

=== Japan ===
In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a &quot;city centre&quot;. In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages.

The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000.

=== Korea ===
{{main|Eup (administrative division)}}

In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Lithuania ===
{{main|List of towns in Lithuania}}

In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}').

=== Malaysia ===
In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}).

===New Zealand===
{{expand-section|date=August 2025}}
In [[New Zealand]], the term &quot;town&quot; has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities.

===South Africa===
In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city.

=== Spain ===
In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city.

=== Sweden ===
{{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}}
[[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]]

The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]].

Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation.

For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.&lt;ref&gt;[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250907160031/https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html |date=2025-09-07 }}, Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt; This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.&lt;ref&gt;[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ukraine ===
[[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]]
In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)&lt;/ref&gt; Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]).

=== United Kingdom ===
{{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}}

==== England and Wales ====
{{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}}

[[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]]

In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a &quot;[[market town]]&quot;. Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities.

In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling.

In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest &quot;towns&quot; (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish).

Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns).

Additionally, there are &quot;[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s&quot; which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]].

Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]).

The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear.

[[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]]

It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town.

It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888.

The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as &quot;London town&quot;. (The &quot;[[City of London]]&quot; is the historical nucleus, informally known as the &quot;Square Mile&quot;, and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre.

In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== United States ===
[[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|The tiny farming community of [[Wyatt, Indiana]]]]

In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name &quot;town&quot; has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=&lt;a href=&quot;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&quot;&gt;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&lt;/a&gt; |access-date=2025-09-04}}&lt;/ref&gt; They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot;&gt;[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.&lt;ref&gt;[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)&lt;/ref&gt;

Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections:

====California====
In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot; Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot;

Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot;, but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot; while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county.

====Georgia====
Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.&lt;ref name=&quot;Census Georgia 2010&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Census 2020&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.&lt;ref name=&quot;NGE&quot;&gt;Perry Hiott &amp; Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).&lt;/ref&gt;

====Hawaii====

In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &amp;#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Illinois====
In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,&lt;ref&gt;See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt; and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.&lt;ref&gt;See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)&lt;/ref&gt; In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.&lt;ref&gt;''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt;

====Indiana====
In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Louisiana====
In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Maryland====

While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt; The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]].

====Mississippi====
Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt; The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt;

====Nevada====

In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this &quot;semi-incorporated&quot; status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities.

====New England====
{{Main|New England town}}

[[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|A downtown of [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]]]
In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council.  For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government.  In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population.

Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as &quot;minor civil divisions&quot; for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government.  For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns.  Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country.

====North Carolina====
In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt; there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government.  Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000.

====Oklahoma====
In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot; /&gt;  Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Pennsylvania====
In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]].

====South Carolina====
At incorporation,  municipalities may choose to be named either &quot;City of&quot; or &quot;Town of&quot;, however there is no legal difference between the two.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Tennessee====
Some Tennessee municipalities are called &quot;cities&quot; and others are called &quot;towns.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}&lt;/ref&gt; and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]].

====Texas====
In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as &quot;towns&quot; or &quot;villages&quot; (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]].

====Utah====
{{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}}
In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Virginia====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}}

In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population).  But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web  |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia  |access-date=31 May 2011  |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor.  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |archive-date=20 June 2010  }}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Washington====
{{Further|City government in Washington (state)}}
A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}&lt;/ref&gt; Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]).

====Wisconsin====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}}

{{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}}
[[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages.

====Wyoming====
A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered &quot;first-class cities&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]].

===ويتنام===
ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện).

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[ڳوٺ]]
* [[شهر]]
* [[صوبو]]
* [[ملڪ]]
* [[شهري علائقو|شهري علائقا]]
* [[ٻهراڙي علائقو|ٻهراڙي علائقا]]
* [[مقامي آبادي]]
* [[ميگالوپولس]]

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}} 
==ذريعا== 
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005]
* [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries.
* [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database

{{Authority control}}
[[زمرو:قصبو]] 
[[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]]  
[[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] 
[[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]]
[[زمرو:ڳتيل جايون بلحاظ قسم]]</text>
      <sha1>nxw0gpkzbzk5h7490fcaopgimvl9uez</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399406</id>
      <parentid>399405</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T11:52:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* United States */</comment>
      <origin>399406</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="95145" sha1="jisb33na3ydi927c72zs9lnsbqq4sur" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Type of human settlement}}
{{pp-move}}
{{multiple image
| total_width       = 350px
| perrow            = 1/2/3/2/1
| image1            = St Mary's Church, Castle Street 1.jpg
| alt1              = Castle Street in the town venter of Reading
| image2            = Porvoo in January.jpg
| alt2              = Old Town of Porvoo in January
| image3            = Lemgo - Marktplatz mit Rathaus.jpg
| alt3              = Lemgo Town Hall at the market square
| image4            = Luftbild Davos2.jpg
| alt4              = The alpine town of Davos in the Swiss Alps
| image5            = View from tower of church st michal during skalica days.JPG
| alt5              = View from tower of St. Michal Church in Skalica
| image6            = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| alt6              = Monkey_Forest_Street_of_Ubud_200507.jpg
| image7            = Fatima 0549 (19531851070).jpg
| alt7              = The Marian town of Fátima
| image8            = Viljandi, Estonia (7182836211).jpg
| alt8              = The center of the inland town of Viljandi
| footer  = کاٻي کان ساڄي، مٿي کان: [[انگلينڊ]] ۾ ريڊنگ، [[فنلينڊ]] ۾ پوروو، [[جرمني]] ۾ ليمگو، [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۾ ڊيووس، [[سلوواڪيا]] ۾ اسڪاليڪا، [[بالي]] ([[انڊونيشيا]]) ۾ اوبود، [[پرتگال]] ۾ فاطمه، [[ايسٽونيا]] ۾ ولجندي ٽائون.
}}

'''قصبو''' (Town) هڪ قسم جي انساني آباديءَ جو قسم آهي، جٿي ڪجهه ماڻھو آباد ھجن ۽ انھن جو تعداد عموماً ھزارن ۾ ھجي. ھي [[ڳوٺ]] کان وڏو ۽ [[شھر]] کان ننڍو ھوندو آھي.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; عالمي سطح تي، قصبا مختلف ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، جن ۾ زرعي سروس سينٽرن کان وٺي ميٽروپوليٽن علائقن اندر مضافاتي برادرين تائين شامل آهن.

قصبي کي فرق ڪرڻ جا معيار عالمي سطح تي مختلف هوندا آهن، اڪثر ڪري آبادي جي سائيز، معاشي ڪردار، انتظامي حيثيت، يا تاريخي اهميت جهڙن عنصرن تي منحصر هوندا آهن. ڪجهه علائقن ۾، قصبن کي رسمي طور تي قانوني چارٽرن يا سرڪاري عهدن ذريعي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته ٻين ۾، اصطلاح غير رسمي طور تي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. قصبن ۾ عام طور تي مرڪزي خدمتون، انفراسٽرڪچر، ۽ گورننس شامل آهن، جهڙوڪ ميونسپل اختيارين، ۽ انهن جي علائقن اندر واپار، تعليم ۽ ثقافتي سرگرمين لاءِ مرڪز طور ڪم ڪن ٿا. 
[[عڪس:Shahrak-e Namak Abrud villas.jpg|alt=قصبو|thumb|220x220 عڪسلون|'''قصبو''']]
قصبي جو تصور ثقافتي ۽ قانوني طور تي مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، برطانيه ۾، هڪ قصبو تاريخي طور تي مارڪيٽ ٽائون جي عهدي يا شاهي چارٽر مان پنهنجي حيثيت حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته آمريڪا ۾، اصطلاح اڪثر ڪري شامل ٿيل ميونسپلٽيز تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪجهه ملڪن ۾، جهڙوڪ آسٽريليا ۽ ڪينيڊا، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي وچ ۾ فرق آبادي جي حد تي ٻڌل آهي. 

==تعريف==
ڪجهه حالتن ۾، لفظ &quot;قصبو&quot; (&lt;small&gt;town&lt;/small&gt;) [[شھر|شهر]] يا [[ڳوٺ]] لاءِ، خاص طور تي ننڍي شهر يا وڏي ڳوٺ، ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ته ننڍڙين آبادين يا ڳوٺڙن (&lt;small&gt;hamlets&lt;/small&gt;) لاءِ به، متبادل طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن، ٽائون جو لفظ ٽائون شپ (&lt;small&gt;township&lt;/small&gt;) جو مختصر روپ به هوندو آهي. عام طور تي، اڄڪلهه قصبن کي ٽائون شپس، ڳوٺن يا ننڍڙين آبادين کان انهن جي معاشي نوعيت جي بنياد تي الڳ سڃاڻي سگهجي ٿو؛ ڇاڪاڻ ته ڪنهن ٽائون جي اڪثر آبادي پنهنجو گذر-سفر زراعت يا ان سان لاڳاپيل سرگرمين، يعني بنيادي شعبي جي صنعتن جي بدران پيداواري صنعت، واپار ۽ عوامي خدمتن ذريعي ڪندي آهي. ڪنهن هنڌ جي آباديءَ جو مقدار اتان جي شهري نوعيت جو ڪو پڪو يا قابلِ اعتماد معيار ناهي، دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾، مثال طور ڀارت يا پاڪستان ۾ (گهٽ ۾ گهٽ تازي وقت تائين)، هڪ وڏي ڳوٺ جي آبادي ڪنهن ننڍي شهر جي ڀيٽ ۾ ڪيترائي ڀيرا وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. برطانيا ۾ اهڙا تاريخي شهر موجود آهن جيڪي ڪجهه وڏن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ تمام ننڍا آهن. [[File:Moisakula - panoramio (1).jpg|thumb|مويسڪولا (&lt;small&gt;Mõisaküla&lt;/small&gt;) [[اسٽونيا|ايسٽونيا]] جي ڏکڻ واري حصي ۾، [[ليٽويا|لاتويا]] جي حد سان لڳل هڪ ننڍڙو قصبو آهي. هن قصبي جي موجوده آبادي &lt;small&gt;1,000&lt;/small&gt; کان گهٽ آهي.]]

شهرن جي ڀرپاسي وارن علائقن ۾ وسيع پکيڙ، سيٽلائيٽ شهري ترقي ۽ شهرين جو ڳوٺن ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ وارو جديد رجحان، شهرن جي تعريف کي وڌيڪ پيچيده بڻائي ڇڏيو آهي؛ ان سان اهڙيون وسنديون وجود ۾ اچن ٿيون جيڪي پنهنجي معاشي ۽ ثقافتي خصوصيتن جي لحاظ کان ته شهري هونديون آهن، پر انهن ۾ شهري علائقن جون ٻيون خاصيتون موجود نه هونديون آهن. 

غير ڳوٺاڻي آبادڪاريءَ جون ڪجهه صورتون، جهڙوڪ عارضي کاڻين وارا علائقا، واضح طور تي غير ڳوٺاڻيون هونديون آهن، پر انهن کي &quot;قصبو&quot; سڏڻ جو دعويٰ مشڪوڪ يا بحث طلب هوندو آهي.

قصبا اڪثر ڪري الڳ انتظامي يا سرڪاري يونٽن طور موجود هوندا آهن، جن جون حدون قانوني طور تي مقرر ٿيل هونديون آهن ۽ انهن وٽ مقامي حڪومت جون ڪجهه يا سموريون سهولتون (جهڙوڪ پوليس فورس) موجود هونديون آهن. آمريڪا ۾، انهن کي ”انڪارپوريٽيڊ ٽائونز“ (قانوني حيثيت رکندڙ قصبا) چيو ويندو آهي. ٻين حالتن ۾، قصبي وٽ پنهنجو انتظامي نظام نه هوندو آهي ۽ ان کي ”ان-انڪارپوريٽيڊ“ (غير قانوني طور تي الڳ انتظامي حيثيت نه رکندڙ قصبا) چيو ويندو آهي. اهڙي قصبي جو وجود قانوني طور تي ٻين طريقن سان، مثال طور ”زوننگ“ وارن علائقن ذريعي، طئي ٿي سگهي ٿو. ڪجهه منصوبابندي ڪيل آبادين جي صورت ۾، قصبي جو قانوني وجود ان علائقي اندر موجود ملڪيتن تي لاڳو ٿيندڙ معاهدن يا شرطن (covenants) جي صورت ۾ هوندو آهي. آمريڪا جي مردم شماري ۾ ڪيترن ئي اهڙن علائقن جي نشاندهي ڪئي ويندي آهي جن کي ”مردم شماري لاءِ مقرر ڪيل علائقا“ (CDPs) چيو ويندو آهي ۽ اهي غير انتظامي قصبن جي نالن سان سڃاتا ويندا آهن؛ جڏهن ته، انهن CDPs ۾ عام طور تي ڳوٺاڻا ۽ شهري ڀرپاسي وارا علائقا ۽ ان سان گڏ ڀرپاسي جا ڳوٺ ۽ ٻيا ننڍا شهر به شامل هوندا آهن.

[[File:View of Mariehamn, 2022.jpg|thumb|&lt;small&gt;'''ميريهام''' (Mariehamn) جو فضائي منظر؛ هي '''آلنڊ''' (Åland) جو هڪ قصبو آهي جتي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ماڻهو رهندا آهن.&lt;/small&gt;]]
شهر (&lt;small&gt;City&lt;/small&gt;) ۽ قصبي (&lt;small&gt;Town&lt;/small&gt;) جي وچ ۾ فرق جو دارومدار ان ڳالهه تي آهي ته ان کي ڪهڙي نقطه نظر کان ڏٺو پيو وڃي: قانوني لحاظ کان، &quot;شهر&quot; هڪ انتظامي حيثيت رکي سگهي ٿو جنهن کي قانون تحت اهو درجو ڏنو ويو هجي؛ پر عام يا غير رسمي استعمال ۾، هي اصطلاح ڪنهن خاص سائيز يا اهميت واري شهري علائقي لاءِ پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. جتي وچئين دور جي شهرن جي آبادي شايد صرف 10،000 هئي، اتي اڄڪلهه ڪجهه ماڻهو 100،000 کان گهٽ آبادي واري شهري علائقي کي ”قصبو“ سمجهن ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ڪيترائي اهڙا شهر موجود آهن جن کي سرڪاري طور تي شهر جو درجو مليل آهي پر اهي ان کان گهڻا ننڍا آهن. 

مارچ &lt;small&gt;2021&lt;/small&gt; کان وٺي، گڏيل قومن جا &lt;small&gt;193&lt;/small&gt; ميمبر ملڪ، جن جي اڳواڻي يورپي يونين جا ادارا ڪري رهيا آهن، شهرن، قصبن ۽ ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي هڪ گڏيل شمارياتي تعريف تي اتفاق ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ۾ شامل رهيا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-04-02 |title=What makes a city a city? |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/-/wdn-20210402-1 |website=[[eurostat]] |quote=Humans have built cities for thousands of years, yet incredibly there was no definition of a city (or a town, or a region) agreed by all. Until now. A joint initiative led by Eurostat, DG REGIO and the JRC was adopted by the UN last month to establish global definitions for urban and rural areas. }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== قصبن جي عمر (يا ارتقائي مرحلن) بابت اسڪيم ===
آسٽريليا جي جاگرافيدان ٿامس گريفٿ ٽيلر قصبن جي عمر ۽ زمين جي استعمال جي نموني جي بنياد تي انهن جي درجا بندي پيش ڪئي. هن قصبن جا پنج قسم بيان ڪيا: &lt;ref&gt;Goodall, B. (1987) The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography. London: Penguin.&lt;/ref&gt;

* شروعاتي يا ”ٻالڪ“ قصبا (Infantile towns): جن ۾ علائقن جي ڪا واضح ورهاست (zoning) نه هوندي آهي. 
* اڀرندڙ يا ”نوجوان“ قصبا (Juvenile towns): جن ۾ دڪانن وارو علائقو ترقي ڪري چڪو هوندو آهي. 
* وڌندڙ يا ”بلوغت جي ويجهو“ قصبا (Adolescent towns): جتي ڪارخانا ظاهر ٿيڻ شروع ٿي ويندا آهن. 
* ابتدائي پختگي وارا قصبا (Early mature towns): جن ۾ اعليٰ درجي جي رهائشي علائقن لاءِ الڳ حصو هوندو آهي. 
* مڪمل پختگي وارا قصبا (Mature towns): جن ۾ صنعتي، تجارتي ۽ رهائشي علائقا واضح طور تي مقرر ٿيل هوندا آهن.

[[File:Quincy Street Historic District Hancock 100 block N 2009.jpg|thumb|هنڪاڪ، ڪوئنزي اسٽريٽ، مشي گن، آمريڪا جي ڀرسان هڪ قصبو.]]

==تاريخ==
[[File:Çatalhöyük, 7400 BC, Konya, Turkey - UNESCO World Heritage Site, 08.jpg|thumb|&quot;چاتالهويڪ&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Çatalhöyük&lt;/small&gt;)، جيڪو [[ترڪي]] ۾ هڪ آثارِ قديمه وارو ماڳ آهي، کي قديم ترين آباد قصبو يا &quot;ابتدائي شهر&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Proto-city&lt;/small&gt;) سمجهيو ويندو هو، جنهن جو وجود تقريباً &lt;small&gt;7100&lt;/small&gt; ق.م. کان هو.]]
رومن دور ۾ ولا هڪ ڳوٺاڻي آبادي هئي جيڪا هڪ مکيه رهائشي عمارت ۽ ثانوي عمارتن جي هڪ ٻي سلسلي سان ٺهيل هئي. اهو مرڪز هو جتان هڪ زرعي ملڪيت جو انتظام ڪيو ويندو هو. انهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڳوٺاڻي ولا يا ولا رسٽيڪا (country villa) سڏيو ويندو آهي جيڪي معمولي فارم هائوسز تي مشتمل آهن. رومن سلطنت دوران وڏين جائدادن جي مضبوط ٿيڻ سان شهر وڏن فارمن جو مرڪز بڻجي ويو. 

ڳوٺاڻي ۽ شهري آبادين جي وچ ۾ هڪ فرق پيدا ٿيو: 

ڳوٺاڻي ولا (ولا رسٽيڪا) جتان وسيلن جي استحصال جي هدايت ڪئي وئي هئي غلام مزدور رهندا هئا, چوپايو مال رکيو ويندو هو ۽ پيداوار کي ذخيرو ڪيو ويندو هو. شهري ولا (پارس اربانا) جنهن ۾ مالڪ رهندو هو ۽ جيڪي شهري حويلين جي عام طور تي اڏاوتي ۽ خوبصورتي جي شڪلن کي وڌيڪ اختيار ڪندا هئا. جڏهن پهرين صدي کان وڏي علائقائي ملڪيت کي سڌو سنئون مالڪ پاران استحصال ڪيل علائقي جي وچ ۾ ورهايو ويو ۽ اهو ڪرائيدار آبادگارن کي ڏنو ويو, شهري ولا, چوٿين صدي جي عام جاگيرداري جي شڪلن کي ظاهر ڪندي, مالڪن جي انتظامي طاقت جا مرڪز بڻجي ويا.

==ملڪ جي لحاظ کان==

=== افغانستان ===
{{Further|افغانستان ۾ شهرن جي فهرست}}
[[افغانستان]] ۾ هڪ شهر ۽ هڪ قصبي ٻنهي کي &quot;شهر&quot; (دري: شهر؛ پشتو: زار: {{langx|ps|ښار}}) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/raverty/ |title=A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to other oriental tongues |last=Raverty |first=Henry G. |date=1860 |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=4 May 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جي 34 صوبن مان هر هڪ جي گاديءَ ۾ [[ڪابل]] جهڙو وڏو شهر, جنهن جي آبادي پنج لک کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن تي مشتمل هجي يا [[نورستان|نورستان صوبي]] جو گاديءَ جي هنڌ، پارون جهڙو شهر، جنهن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ هجي, شامل ٿي سگهي ٿو. 

. فارسي ٻولي. پشتو.  

=== البانيا ===
[[البانيا]] ۾ &quot;قيٽيزي&quot; (&lt;small&gt;qytezë&lt;/small&gt;) جو مطلب &quot;قصبو آهي جيڪو شهر (&lt;small&gt;qytet&lt;/small&gt;) جي لفظ سان تمام گهڻو ملندڙ جلندڙ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به آباديءَ لاءِ اصطلاح جو ڪو به سرڪاري استعمال ناهي. الباني ۾، قيٽيزي جو مطلب 'ننڍو شهر' يا 'نئون شهر' آهي، جڏهن ته قديم زماني ۾ اهو قلعي جي ڀتين اندر هڪ ننڍڙي رهائشي مرڪز جو حوالو ڏيندو هو.


===آسٽريليا===
[[آسٽريليا]] ۾، آبادي جي اڪثر ڳوٺاڻن ۽ علائقائي مرڪزن کي قصبو سڏيو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪيترن ئي ننڍن قصبن ۾ 200 کان گهٽ آبادي &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web | publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics | title=Frequently Asked Questions | date=21 March 2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Frequently+Asked+Questions#Anchor12 | access-date=16 August 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; هوندي آهي. ننڍي ۾ ننڍي کي ٽائون شپ طور بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.  

ان کان علاوه، ڪجهه مقامي سرڪاري ادارن کي سرڪاري طور تي [[ڪوئينزلينڊ|ڪوئنزلينڊ]]، [[ڏکڻ آسٽريليا]]، مغربي آسٽريليا ۽ اترين علائقي ۽ اڳ ۾ (1990 جي ڏهاڪي تائين) وڪٽوريا ۾ پڻ, قصبن جي طور تي اسٽائل ڪيو ويو آهي.
===آئس لينڊ===
{{Main|آئس لينڊ جي شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:A street in Húsavík.jpg|thumb|[[آئس لينڊ]] ۾ هوساويڪ (Húsavík) جو قصبو]]

=== آسٽريا ===
{{see also|آسٽريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}

[[آسٽريا]] جو قانوني نظام ڳوٺن، شهرن ۽ قصبن ۾ فرق نٿو ڪري. ملڪ کي بنيادي طور تي برابر درجو رکندڙ &lt;small&gt;2098&lt;/small&gt; ميونسپلٽيز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Gemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي. وڏين ميونسپلٽيز کي مارڪيٽ ٽائونز (جرمن: &lt;small&gt;Marktgemeinden&lt;/small&gt;) يا شهرن (&lt;small&gt;Städte&lt;/small&gt;) طور نامزد ڪيو ويو آهي، پر اهي فرق خالص علامتي آهن ۽ اضافي قانوني ذميواريون نه ڏيندا آهن. ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون برادريون آهن جن کي شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي دور ماضي ۾ علائقائي آبادي جا مرڪز هئا. مثال طور رتنبرگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;400&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. هارڊيگ شهر ۾ لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;1200&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو رهن ٿا. ڪو به غير شامل ٿيل علائقو ناهي. 

آسٽريا جي &lt;small&gt;201&lt;/small&gt; شهرن مان، &lt;small&gt;15&lt;/small&gt; قانوني شهر (&lt;small&gt;Statutarstädte&lt;/small&gt;) آهن. هڪ قانوني شهر هڪ اهڙو شهر آهي جيڪو ميونسپلٽي جي دائري کان علاوه ضلعي انتظامي اختيار جي فرضن سان گڏ هوندو آهي. حيثيت ڪنهن به اضافي خودمختياري سان نه ايندي آهي: ضلعي انتظامي اختيار بنيادي طور تي صرف سروس سينٽر آهن جيڪي شهري قومي حڪومت سان رابطو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندا آهن، مثال طور ڊرائيونگ لائسنس يا پاسپورٽ لاءِ درخواست ڏيڻ لاءِ. قومي حڪومت عام طور تي صوبن کي پنهنجي طرفان رابطي جي انهن نقطن کي هلائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪندي آهي؛ قانوني شهرن جي صورت ۾، ميونسپلٽي کي اڳتي وڌڻو پوندو آهي.

=== برازيل ===
برازيل ۾، 1938 کان وٺي، اهو بيان ڪيو ويو هو ته ميونسپلٽيز جي سيٽ شهر جي درجي ۾ منتقل ٿيندي ۽ ان کي نالو ڏيندي ۽ ضلعن کي انهن جي لاڳاپيل سيٽن جي نالي سان نامزد ڪيو ويندو، ۽ جيڪڏهن اهي ميونسپل سيٽون نه هجن ها، ته انهن وٽ قصبي جو درجو هوندو. 

=== بلغاريا ===
{{Main|بلغاريا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Peshtera--downtown.jpg|thumb|پيشتيرا، [[بلگاريا|بلغاريا]] جو قصبو]]
بلغاريا وارا عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'قصبي' ۾ فرق نٿا ڪن. پڻ روزمره جي ٻولي ۽ ميڊيا ۾ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''وڏا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; ۽ &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''ننڍا شهر'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; اصطلاح استعمال ۾ آهن. &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; عام طور تي صوفيا، پلوڊيو، ورنا ۽ برگاس کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جن جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان وڌيڪ آهي, روس ۽ اسٽارزگورا کي اڪثر ڪري شامل ڪيو ويندو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته نسبتاً ترقي يافته انفراسٽرڪچر ۽ آبادي &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,00,000&lt;/small&gt; جي حد کان وڌيڪ آهي. صوبائي گاديءَ واري شهرن کي پڻ &quot;وڏا شهر&quot; سڏڻ ڏکيو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته، عام طور تي، اهي گهٽ ترقي يافته آهن ۽ انهن جي آبادي گهٽجي رهي آهي، ڪجهه ۾ 30,000 کان گهٽ آبادي آهي. 

بلغاريا ۾ وزيرن جي ڪائونسل بيان ڪري ٿي ته آباديءَ کي ڇا چئبو آهي، جڏهن ته بلغاريا جو صدر هر آباديءَ کي ان جو لقب ڏئي ٿو. سال &lt;small&gt;2005&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ اهو شرط هو ته ڳوٺ جيڪي پاڻ کي شهر جي طور تي درجه بندي ڪرڻ چاهين ٿا انهن وٽ سماجي ۽ ٽيڪنيڪل انفراسٽرڪچر هجڻ گهرجي، انهي سان گڏ &lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,500&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن کان گهٽ آبادي نه هجڻ گهرجي. ريسورٽ آبادين لاءِ گهرجون گهٽ آهن، آبادي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,000&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن جي هجڻ گهرجي پر انفراسٽرڪچر جون گهرجون برقرار آهن. 

=== ڀارت ===
[[File:One of the high streets in Paravur.jpg|right|thumb|ڀارت جي قصبي پاراور ۾ هڪ گهٽي]]
ڀارت جي 2011 جي مردم شماري ٻن قسمن جي قصبن کي بيان ڪري ٿي: قانوني قصبا ۽ مردم شماري قصبا. قانوني قصبن کي ميونسپلٽي، ڪارپوريشن، ڪينٽونمينٽ بورڊ يا نوٽيفائيڊ ٽائون ايريا ڪميٽي سان گڏ سڀني هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. مردم شماري قصبا انهن هنڌن جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا آهن جيڪي هيٺ ڏنل معيارن کي پورو ڪن ٿا:
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ آبادي 5,000
# گهٽ ۾ گهٽ %75 مرد ڪم ڪندڙ آبادي غير زرعي سرگرمين ۾ مصروف 
# آبادي جي کثافت گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 400 / چورس ڪلوميٽر (1,000 في چورس ميل)

سڀني قانوني قصبن، مردم شماري قصبن ۽ ٻاهرين واڌ کي, ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي برعڪس, شهري آباديون سمجهيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Some Concepts and Definitions|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/13-concept-34.pdf|publisher=Census of India|access-date=7 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

ڀارت ۾ قصبن ۾ عام طور تي بنيادي ڍانچي جهڙوڪ دڪان، بجلي، بٽومينائيزڊ روڊ، پوسٽ آفيسون، بينڪ، ٽيليفون سهولتون، هاءِ اسڪول ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪجهه سرڪاري آفيسون هونديون آهن. انهن شهرن ۾ رهندڙ انساني آبادي ڪجهه هزار ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجھ شهر اهڙا آهن جن کي مين روڊ ٽائون سڏيو وڃي ٿو.  

ڪرناٽڪا رياست ۾، شهرن کي ڪنڙ ٻولي ۾ پيٽ يا پورو طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح پٽانا ('شهر') يا اورو، جنهن جو عام طور تي مطلب 'جڳهه' آهي، شهرن لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. انتظامي ڪائونسل جيڪا انهن شهرن کي هلائي ٿي ان کي ڪنڙ ۾ پورو سبهي يا ناگارا سبهي سڏيو ويندو آهي، شهر جي حدن اندر رهندڙ ماڻهن جي تعداد تي منحصر آهي.  
===پاڪستان===
{{Main|پاڪستان جي شهرن/قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Thari Road - panoramio - kamran.solangi (1).jpg|thumb|[[سيٺارجا]]، [[سنڌ]]]]
پاڪستان ۾، 2023ع جي مردم شماري مطابق، ڪنهن علائقي کي ”قصبو“ (Town) سڏرائڻ لاءِ اتي جي آبادي 10,000 کان وڌيڪ ۽ 100,000 کان گهٽ هجڻ لازمي آهي. پاڪستان ۾، هڪ قصبو عام طور تي ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ ٻهراڙي وارن علائقن سان گھريل هوندو آهي ۽ مارڪيٽ طور ڪم ڪندو آهي. هاري پنهنجا فصل وڪڻڻ ۽ پنهنجو سامان خريد ڪرڻ لاءِ آڻيندا آهن. تقريبن قصبن ۾ هڪ هاءِ اسڪول ۽ هڪ ڳوٺاڻي صحت مرڪز هوندو  آهي.

===پولينڊ===
{{Main|پولينڊ ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}} 
[[File:Zamość. Ratusz..jpg|thumb|right|[[پولينڊ]] ۾ زاموسچ ([[Zamość]]) هڪ مثالي يوٽوپيائي شهر آهي. ان کي 1992 ۾ [[عالمي ورثو ماڳ|يونيسڪو جي عالمي ورثي واري]] جڳهه قرار ڏنو ويو.]]
پولش ٻولي ۾، شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به لساني فرق ناهي، ٻنهي جو ترجمو مياسٽو ({{lang|pl|miasto}}) آهي. ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ مياسٽو آهي، جيڪو ڳوٺاڻن آبادين جي قسمن کان مختلف آباديءَ جي هڪ صورت آهي: ڳوٺ (wieś)، پرزيسيوولڪ، اوساڊا، يا ڪولونيا، پولينڊ ۾ مقامي علائقن ۽ انهن جي حصن جي درجه بندي ڏسو. شهر سڀ کان وڏيون ميونسپلٽيون آهن، جن کي شهر جي ميئر (پريزيڊن  مياسٽا، {{lang|pl|prezydent miasta}} لفظي طور تي ترجمو: شهر جو صدر) پاران منظم ڪرڻ جي ذريعي سڃاڻپ ڪئي ويندي آهي، بجاءِ شهر جي ميئر (برميسٽرز) جي شهر جي ايگزيڪيوٽو جي سربراهه جي طور تي، ان ڪري غير رسمي طور تي مياسٽو پريزيڊنڪي سڏيو ويندو آهي، اهڙي امتياز سان خودڪار طريقي سان ميونسپلٽيون يا ته 100,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسين (في الحال 37) يا انهن کي ڏنو ويندو آهي جيڪي پوويٽ حقن سان شهر جي حيثيت مان لطف اندوز ٿين ٿا (في الحال 66). 2022 تائين، سڀئي اڳوڻو گروپ بعد ۾ فٽ ٿين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ ماضي ۾ هميشه ائين نه هو. بهرحال، تاريخي يا سياسي سببن جي ڪري ڪيتريون ئي استثناون آهن، جڏهن ڪا ميونسپلٽي انهن ٻنهي شرطن مان ڪنهن کي به پورو نه ڪري ٿي پر ان جي باوجود شهر جي حيثيت رکي ٿي، جنهن ۾ پولينڊ جي اڳوڻي وائيووڊشپ (1975-1998) جي صرف 3 گاديءَ جا هنڌ شامل آهن جيڪي مٿي ذڪر ڪيل معيارن کي پورو نه ٿا ڪن، انهي سان گڏ 38 وڌيڪ ميونسپلٽيون جيڪي ڪنهن به ذڪر ڪيل درجي ۾ نه ٿيون اچن پر ان جي باوجود غير واضح تاريخي سببن جي ڪري اڳئين ڏنل حيثيت کي برقرار رکڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي آهي. شهرن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مياستيڪزڪو سڏيو وڃي ٿو، هڪ معمولي چوڻي جيڪا ڪجهه هزار رهاڪن سان علائقن لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي. اهڙن علائقن ۾ هڪ ٽائون ميئر (برميسٽرز) ٽائون سربراهه طور هوندو آهي. {{lang|pl|burmistrz}}

قصبن/شهر جا حق سرڪاري قانون سازي ذريعي عطا ڪيا ويندا آهن؛ نوان قصبا/شهر حڪومت پاران سال جي پهرين ڏينهن کان لاڳو ٿيندڙ سالياني ضابطي ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. ڪجھ آباديون ڳوٺ ئي رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ڪيترن ئي ننڍن شهرن کان وڌيڪ آهي، بنيادي طور تي يورپي زرعي فنڊ فار رورل ڊولپمينٽ جي اهليت نه وڃائڻ لاءِ. 30 اپريل 2022 تائين، پولينڊ ۾ ڪل 2477 گمينا (gmina: ميونسپلٽيون) آهن، جن ۾ 1513 ڳوٺاڻا گمينا شامل آهن، جڏهن ته باقي 968 ۾ شهر ۽ قصبا شامل آهن. انهن مان، 666 شهر شهري-ڳوٺاڻي گمينا جو حصو آهن جڏهن ته 302 شهر ۽ قصبا شهري گمينا جي طور تي الڳ الڳ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 107 شهر شامل آهن (هڪ صدارتي مياسٽا جي حڪومت هيٺ)، جنهن ۾ 66 شهر پوويٽ حقن سان گڏ آهن. آخري گروپ ۾ 37 شهر 100,000 کان وڌيڪ آهن، جن ۾ 18 شهر شامل آهن جيڪي وائيووڊ يا وائيووڊشپ سيجمڪ جي سيٽ طور ڪم ڪن ٿا، جن کي غير رسمي طور تي وائيووڊشپ شهر سڏيو ويندو آهي. 

=== جرمني ===
{{Main|جرمني ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
[[File:Putbus (2011-05-21) 14.JPG|thumb|جرمني جي روگن ٻيٽ تي پٽبس]]
جرمن عام طور تي 'شهر' ۽ 'شهر' جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. ٻنهي لاءِ جرمن لفظ &quot;اسٽاڊ&quot; (Stadt) آهي، جيئن ته اهو ڪيترن ئي ٻين ٻولين ۾ آهي جيڪي انهن تصورن جي وچ ۾ فرق نه ٿا ڪن. 'ڳوٺ' لاءِ لفظ، هڪ ننڍي آبادي جي طور تي، &quot;ڊورف&quot; (Dorf) آهي. جڏهن ته، سال 1887ع جي بين الاقوامي شمارياتي ڪانفرنس اسٽاڊ جي مختلف سائزن کي انهن جي آبادي جي سائيز جي بنياد تي، هن ريت بيان ڪيو :

&quot;لينڊ اسٽاڊ&quot; (Landstadt: 'ٻهراڙي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان گهٽ)، 

&quot;ڪلين اسٽاڊ&quot;  (Kleinstadt: 'ننڍو شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt;)،

&quot;مٽل اسٽاڊ&quot; (Mittelstadt: 'وچولي شهر'؛ &lt;small&gt;20,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; ۽

&quot;گروب اسٽاڊ&quot; (Großstadt: &quot;وڏو شهر&quot;؛ &lt;small&gt;1,00,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;10,00,000&lt;/small&gt;) جي وچ ۾&lt;ref&gt;Universität Dortmund: [http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf Kleine und mittlere Städte – Blaupausen der Großstadt?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222110058/http://www.raumplanung.uni-dortmund.de/srp/web/dokumente/downloads/64_SRPapers%20Nr.1.pdf |date=2024-02-22 }}, Dokumentation des Expertenkolloquiums am 29. April 2004 in Dortmund&lt;/ref&gt;

اصطلاح &quot;گروسسٽڊٽ&quot; کي &quot;شهر&quot; طور ترجمو ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، جرمن شايد ملينينسٽڊٽ&quot; جي ڳالهه ڪن، هڪ اهڙو شهر جنهن ۾ هڪ کان پنج ملين آبادي هجي (جهڙوڪ ڪولون، ميونخ، هيمبرگ ۽ برلن). ان کان علاوه، پنج ملين کان وڌيڪ آبادي واري شهر کي اڪثر ڪري ميگاسٽڊٽ (عام طور تي ميگا سٽي جي طور تي ترجمو ڪيو ويندو آهي) سڏيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Megastadt |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/geographie/megastadt/4993 |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=www.spektrum.de |language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تاريخي طور تي، ڪيتريون ئي آباديون وچين دور ۾ &quot;اسٽيڊٽريچٽ&quot; سان نوازيو ويو ۽ هڪ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; بڻجي ويون. جديد جرمن ٻولي جي استعمال ۾، تاريخي اهميت، مرڪزي ڪمن جي موجودگي (تعليم، پرچون وغيره) ۽ شهري جڳهه جي آبادي جي کثافت کي پڻ &quot;اسٽيڊٽ&quot; جي خاصيتن جي طور تي ورتو وڃي ٿو. جديد مقامي حڪومتي تنظيم هر رياست جي قانونن جي تابع آهي ۽ هڪ &quot;ميونسپلٽي&quot; (ميونسپلٽي) جو حوالو ڏئي ٿي، قطع نظر ان جي تاريخي عنوان جي. جڏهن ته گهڻا &quot;جيمينڊن&quot; ({{Lang|de|Gemeinde}}) مقامي حڪومت جي هڪ اعليٰ درجي تي لينڊڪريس ( {{Lang|de|Landkreis}}: ضلعو) جو حصو بڻجن ٿا، وڏن شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪريسفري اسٽيٽٽ جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ميونسپلٽي ۽ ضلعي جي ٻنهي طاقتن کي گڏ ڪري ٿي. 

مختلف رياستن ۾ عهدا آسٽريا جي رياستن ۽ علائقن وانگر مختلف آهن، ۽ رياست کان رياست تائين مختلف آهن. ڪجھ جرمن رياستن ۾، لفظ Markt ('مارڪيٽ')، Marktflecken (ٻئي ڏکڻ جرمني ۾ استعمال ٿيندا آهن) يا Flecken ('اسپاٽ'؛ اتر جرمني مثال طور لوئر سيڪسني ۾) Gemeinde ۽ Stadt جي وچ ۾ هڪ شهر جهڙي رهائشي برادري کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا جنهن جي ٻاهرين ڪنوربيشن علائقي کي خاص اهميت آهي. تاريخي طور تي انهن وٽ Marktrecht (مارڪيٽ ساڄي) هئي پر مڪمل شهر جا مراعات نه هئا؛ مارڪيٽ ٽائون ڏسو. هڪ مخصوص آباديءَ جو قانوني فرق ان جي عام عهدي کان مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو (مثال طور Samtgemeinde - ڳوٺن جي هڪ گروپ لاءِ هڪ قانوني اصطلاح [Dorf, pl. Dörfer] جنهن ۾ ميونسپلٽيز [Gemeinde, pl. Gemeinden] کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيل عام مقامي حڪومت). قصبه.
===روس===
{{Main|روس ۾ آباد علائقن جا قسم}}

[[File:Vyborg SevernyVal3-5 006 8242.jpg|thumb|روس جي لينن گراڊ اوبلاسٽ ۾ وائبرگ قصبو]]

انگريزي جي برعڪس، روسي ٻولي شهر ۽ قصبي جي اصطلاحن ۾ فرق نٿي ڪري - ٻنهي جو ترجمو &quot;گوروڊ&quot; (город) طور ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اصطلاح گوروڊ شهري قسم جي آبادين تي پڻ لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي حيثيت هڪ شهر/ڳوٺ جي حيثيت وانگر ناهي. 

روس ۾، شهر/قصبي (گوروڊ) جي حيثيت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي کي پورا ڪرڻ جي ضرورت جا معيار مختلف وفاقي مضمونن ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن. عام طور تي، هن حيثيت لاءِ قابليت حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ، هڪ آباد ٿيل علائقي ۾ 12,000 کان وڌيڪ رهواسي هجڻ گهرجن ۽ 85 سيڪڙو کان گهٽ آبادي جو قبضو زراعت کان سواءِ هجڻ گهرجي. جڏهن ته، آباد ٿيل علائقا جن کي اڳ ۾ شهر/قصبي جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو پر هاڻي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڃا تائين تاريخي سببن جي ڪري حيثيت برقرار رکي سگهن ٿا.

===رومانيا===
{{Main|رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن جي فهرست}}
رومانيا ۾ شهر ۽ قصبي جي وچ ۾ ڪو به سرڪاري فرق ناهي (روماني ۾ ٻنهي لاءِ لفظ oraş آهي). رومانيا ۾ شهرن ۽ قصبن کي يا ته oraş municipiu، جيڪا وڏن شهري علائقن کي ڏني وئي آهي، يا ننڍن شهري علائقن کي صرف oraş جي حيثيت حاصل ٿي سگهي ٿي. ڪجهه آباديون ڳوٺ (ڪميون) رهنديون آهن جيتوڻيڪ انهن جي آبادي ٻين ننڍن قصبن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي.  
===Singapore===
{{main|New towns of Singapore}}

[[File:1 2014 panorama bishan park aerial gopro dji phantom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bishan, Singapore|Bishan]], one of Singapore's towns, is the 38th biggest in terms of geographical size and the 21st most populated planning area in the country.]]
In Singapore, towns are large-scale satellite housing developments which are designed to be self-contained. It includes public housing units, a town centre and other amenities.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Maisy|date=July 2014|title=Estimating the distortionary effects of ethnic quotas in Singapore using housing transactions|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=115|pages=131–145|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.006|s2cid=52236776 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/real-estate_papers/9|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Helmed by a hierarchy of commercial developments, ranging from a town centre to precinct-level outlets, there is no need to venture out of town to meet the most common needs of residences. Employment can be found in industrial estates located within several towns. Educational, health care, and recreational needs are also taken care of with the provision of schools, hospitals, parks, sports complexes, and so on. The most populous town in the country is [[Bedok]].
===France===
[[File:Salins les Bains 2.JPG|thumb|The town of [[Salins-les-Bains]], France]]
From an administrative standpoint, the smallest level of local authorities are all called [[Communes of France|''communes'']]. They can have anywhere from a handful to millions of inhabitants, and France has 36,000 of them. The French term for ''town'' is ''{{ill|bourg (town)|lt=bourg|fr|Bourg|vertical-align=sup}}''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/bourg |title=BOURG: Définition de BOURG |date=n.d. |website=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales' |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=fr |trans-title=BOURG: Definition of BOURG }}&lt;/ref&gt; but French laws generally do not distinguish between towns and cities which are all commonly called {{Lang|fr|villes}}. However, some laws do treat these authorities differently based on the population and different rules apply to the three big cities Paris, [[Lyon]] and [[Marseille]]. For historical reasons, [[List of French villages destroyed in World War I|six communes]] in the [[Meuse (department)|Meuse]] département exist as independent administrative entities despite having no inhabitants at all.

For statistical purposes, the national statistical institute ([[INSEE]]) operates a distinction between urban areas with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants and bigger communes, the latter being called {{lang|fr|villes}}. Smaller settlements are usually called {{lang|fr|villages}}.

===فلپائن===
{{Main|List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|Municipalities of the Philippines}}
[[File:Loboc Bohol 1.jpg|thumb|قصبي لوبوڪ، بوهول جو مرڪز]]
فلپائن ۾، قصبي جو مقامي سرڪاري برابر ميونسپلٽي (فلپائني: بيان) آهي. ملڪ ۾ هر ميونسپلٽي يا قصبي ۾ هڪ ميئر (الڪالڊ) ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر (بائيس الڪالڊ) سان گڏوگڏ مقامي قصبي جو آفيسر (سنگنيانگ بيان) هوندا آهن. فلپائن جا قصبا، ٻي صورت ۾ ميونسپلٽيون سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن ۽ برادرين تي مشتمل آهن جن کي بارنگي سڏيو ويندو آهي جن ۾ هڪ يا ڪجهه ڪلسٽر) بارنگي (ن) قصبا مرڪز (poblacion) طور ڪم ڪندا آهن.

فلپائن جي شهرن ۾ منفرد ڳالهه اها آهي ته انهن وٽ مقرر ڪيل بجيٽ، آبادي ۽ زمين جون گهرجون هونديون آهن ته جيئن اهي اهڙي طرح بڻجي سگهن، يعني هڪ بارنگي، يا اهڙي قسم جي ڪلسٽر کان، هڪ شهر ڏانهن، يا شهر بڻجي سگهن، يعني شهر کان شهر ڏانهن. ترتيب وار، انهن جون مثالون ڊيوائو ڊيل نارٽ صوبي ۾ بي. اي. دوجالي جو شهر آهن، جيڪو 1998 ۾ پنجن بارنگي جي هڪ ڪلستر مان ٺاهيو ويو هو، ۽ ايل سلواڊور جو شهر، جيڪو 2007 ۾ هڪ شهر کان هڪ شهر ۾ تبديل ٿيو هو. فلپائن ۾ هر شهر کي ان جي سالياني آمدني ۽ بجيٽ جي لحاظ کان درجه بندي ڪيو ويو هو. 

فلپائن جي شهرن (لنگسوڊ يا سيوداد) ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ هڪ تيز، درجي بندي فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ملڪ ۾ شهر قانوني طور تي شهرن کان الڳ آهن، جيڪي عام طور تي وڏا ۽ وڌيڪ آبادي وارا آهن (ڪجهه ننڍا ۽ گهٽ آبادي وارا) ۽ جيڪي سياسي ۽ معاشي حيثيت شهرن کان مٿي آهن. ان کي وڌيڪ سپورٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ نيشنل ڊپارٽمينٽ آف فنانس پاران لاڳو ڪيل آمدني جي درجه بندي سسٽم پاران اشارو ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر پنهنجي لاڳاپيل درجابندي ۾ اچي ويا جيڪي ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته اهي اهڙا آهن جيئن فلپائن جي قانون تحت بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. بهرحال، ٻئي شهر ۽ شهر برابر طور تي مقامي حڪومتي يونٽن (LGUs) جي حيثيت سان حصيداري ڪن ٿا جيڪي صوبن ۽ علائقن سان تعلق رکن ٿا؛ ٻئي هر هڪ بارنگي تي مشتمل آهن ۽ هڪ ميئر ۽ هڪ نائب ميئر جي نگراني ۾ آهن جيڪي انهن جي لاڳاپيل LGU قانون ساز ڪائونسلن پاران مڪمل ڪيا ويا آهن. تنهن هوندي به، ان جي باوجود فلپائن جا ڪجهه شهر فلپائن جي ڪجهه شهرن جهڙوڪ روڊريگيز، ريزال، سانتا ماريا، بولاڪان ۽ منگلانلا کان تمام وڏا آهن، سيبو اصل ۾ ڪجهه علائقائي مرڪزن کان وڏا آهن.

===Finland===
[[File:Vammala, Onkiniemenkatu.jpg|thumb|The town of [[Sastamala]], Finland]]
In Finland, there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|fi|kaupunki}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs; although when talking about the word ''town'', the word {{lang|fi|pikkukaupunki}} is used ({{lang|fi|pikku}} means 'little' or 'small'). There are over one hundred [[Municipalities of Finland|municipal towns]] in Finland.
===ڪينيڊا===
{{Main|ڪينيڊا ۾ قصبن جي فهرست|ڪينيڊا ۾ ميونسپل حڪومت}}
ڪينيڊا ۾ هڪ قصبي جي قانوني تعريف صوبي يا علائقي جي لحاظ کان مختلف هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته هر هڪ کي پنهنجي حدن اندر شهرن، شهرن ۽ ٻين قسمن جي ميونسپل تنظيمن کي بيان ڪرڻ ۽ قانون سازي ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل آهي.

ڪيوبيڪ صوبو ان لحاظ کان منفرد آهي ته اهو شهرن ۽ شهرن جي وچ ۾ قانون جي تحت ڪو به فرق نٿو ڪري. فرانسيسي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ وِل جي وچ ۾ ڪو به وچولي سطح ناهي (ميونسپلٽي هڪ انتظامي اصطلاح آهي جيڪو عام طور تي قانوني طور تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو، نه ته جاگرافيائي وجود تي)، تنهن ڪري ٻنهي کي وِل جي واحد قانوني حيثيت هيٺ گڏ ڪيو ويو آهي. جڏهن ته انگريزي ڳالهائيندڙن ۾ هڪ غير رسمي ترجيح موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي ته ڪنهن به انفرادي وِل کي عام طور تي شهر يا شهر طور حوالو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، قانون جي تحت اهڙو فرق ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪو به فرق ۽ ڪو به مقصدي قانوني معيار موجود ناهي.

اونٽاريو ميونسپلٽيز کي اجازت ڏئي ٿو ته اهي جيڪو به انتظامي اصطلاح چاهين، شهرن، شهرن ۽ ڳوٺن جي وچ ۾ ڪو به قانوني فرق نه هجڻ جي ڪري چونڊي سگهن. ان جي بدران، ٽورانٽو ۽ اوٽاوا جي استثنا سان، سڀئي ميونسپلٽيز ميونسپلٽيز ايڪٽ جي تحت ٽن قانوني درجن مان هڪ ۾ اچي وڃن ٿيون: سنگل ٽائر (يعني شهر جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي اندر واقع آهن پر جيڪي ميونسپل مقصدن لاءِ الڳ سمجهيا وڃن ٿا جهڙوڪ هيملٽن)، لوئر ٽائر (يعني ميونسپلٽيز جيڪي هڪ علائقي يا ڪائونٽي جو حصو آهن جهڙوڪ سينٽ ڪيٿرائنز)، يا اپر ٽائر (يعني علائقائي ميونسپلٽيز جهڙوڪ نياگرا).

=== Latvia ===
[[File:Valka, Semināra iela (1).JPG|thumb|The town of [[Valka]], [[Latvia]]]]
In [[Latvia]], towns and cities are indiscriminately called {{lang|lv|pilsēta}} in singular form. The name is a [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of two Latvian words: {{lang|lv|pils}} ('castle') and {{lang|lv|sēta}} ('fence'), making it very obvious what is meant by the word – what is situated between the castle and the castle fence. However, a city can be called {{lang|lv|lielpilsēta}} (big city) or ''mazpilsēta'' (small city/town) in reference to its size. Latvia also has administrative units such as state cities({{ill|valstspilsēta|lv|Valstspilsēta|vertical-align=sup}}) A village is called {{lang|lv|ciemats}} or {{lang|lv|ciems}} in Latvian.
=== Norway ===
In Norway, ''city'' and ''town'' both translate to [[By (city or town)|''by'']], even if a city may be referred to as {{lang|no|storby}} ('large town'). They are all part of and administered as a ''[[Municipalities of Norway|kommune]]'' ('[[municipality]]').

Norway has had inland the northernmost city in the world: Hammerfest.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Nikel |first=David |date=2020-07-05 |title=Hammerfest: The Town of Norway's High North |url=https://www.lifeinnorway.net/hammerfest-norway/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Life in Norway |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hammerfest: In The Far North of Norway |url=https://www.scandi.co.uk/travel/hammerfest/ |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=SCANDI |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt; Now the record is held by New Ålesund on the Norwegian island Svalbard.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Northernmost Cities |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/northernmost-cities |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Brygga i Tønsberg.JPG|thumb|The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]]. Originally a [[market town]], it is today a big city.]]
The oldest town in Norway is [[Tønsberg]], founded during the [[Viking Age]]. The year when the town was founded and which person who founded it is unknown, but [[Snorri Sturluson]] says in the [[Saga of Harald Fairhair]] that the [[market town]] existed before the [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] in the year 872. Nowadays Tønsberg is considered a city ({{lang|no|storby}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Tønsbergs historie|url=https://www.visitvestfold.com/no/tonsberg/artikler/tonsbergs-historie/|website=Visit Vestfold|access-date=16 October 2023|language=nb}}&lt;/ref&gt;
===Netherlands===
[[File:41012 Zuidhavenpoort zierikzee Met Noordhavenpoort.jpg|thumb|The small town of [[Zierikzee]], Netherlands]]
Before 1848 there was a legal distinction between {{lang|nl|stad}} and non-{{lang|nl|stad}} parts of the country, but the word no longer has any legal significance. About 220 places were granted {{lang|nl|stadsrechten}} ('city rights') and are still so called for historical and traditional reasons, though the word is also used for large urban areas that never obtained such rights. Because of this, in the Netherlands, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|nl|stad}}. A hamlet ({{lang|nl|gehucht}}) usually has fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, a village ({{lang|nl|dorp}}) ranges from 1,000 up to 25,000 inhabitants, and a place above 25,000 can call itself either village or city, mostly depending on historic reasons or size of the place. As an example, [[The Hague]] never gained city rights, but because of its size – more than half a million inhabitants – it is regarded as a city. [[Staverden]], with only 40 inhabitants, would be a hamlet, but because of its city rights it may call itself a city.

For statistical purposes, the Netherlands has three sorts of cities:
* {{lang|nl|kleine stad}} (small city): 50,000–99,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|middelgrote stad}} (medium-sized city): 100,000–249,999 inhabitants
* {{lang|nl|grote stad}} (large city): 250,000 or more

Only [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]] are regarded as a {{lang|nl|grote stad}}.


legal definition of a town in Canada varies by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province or territory]], as each has jurisdiction over defining and legislating towns, cities and other types of municipal organization within its own boundaries.

The province of [[Quebec]] is unique in that it makes no distinction under law between towns and cities. There is no intermediate level in French between {{lang|fr|village}} and {{lang|fr|ville}} (''municipality'' is an administrative term usually applied to a legal, not geographical entity), so both are combined under the single legal status of ''[[ville]]''. While an informal preference may exist among English speakers as to whether any individual {{lang|fr|ville}} is commonly referred to as a city or as a town, no distinction and no objective legal criteria exist to make such a distinction under law.

[[Ontario]] allows municipalities to select whichever administrative term they like with no legal distinction existing between towns, townships, cities, and villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www2.oboa.on.ca/digitizer/pdf/106.pdf | title=The municipal councillor's guide 2014 | access-date=16 August 2024 | website=www2.oboa.on.ca}}&lt;/ref&gt; Instead all municipalities, with the exception of Toronto and Ottawa, fall into one of three legal categories under the Municipalities Act: Single-tier (I.e. towns that are located within a region or county but that are considered separate for municipal purposes such as [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]), lower-tier (i.e. municipalities that are part of a region or county such as [[St. Catharines]]), or upper-tier (i.e. regional municipalities such as [[Regional Municipality of Niagara|Niagara]]).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities | title=Ontario Municipalities &amp;#124; AMO }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Accordingly, many larger municipalities continue to use the title of town due to it better reflecting the character of the municipality. For example, [[Oakville, Ontario|Oakville]] (2021 Population: 213,759) is the largest municipality to use the title of town to reflect its largely suburban character while other municipalities such as [[Richmond Hill, Ontario|Richmond Hill]] (2021 Population: 202,022) have opted to change their status from &quot;town&quot; to &quot;city&quot; to encourage investment.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkregion.com/news/council/richmond-hill-changes-status-from-town-to-city/article_d325a940-7cba-5c36-b905-5b42ee49de06.html? | title=Richmond Hill changes status from town to city | date=26 March 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Chile ===
In [[Chile]], towns (Spanish: {{lang|es|pueblos}}) are defined by the National Statistics Institute (INE) as an urban entity with a population from 2001 to 5000 or an area with a population from 1001 to 2000 and an established economic activity.

===Estonia===
In [[Estonia]], there is no distinction between a town and a city as the word {{lang|et|linn}} is used for both bigger and smaller settlements, which are bigger than villages and boroughs. There are 30 [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipal towns]] ({{lang|et|omavalitsuslik linn}}) in Estonia and a [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|further 17 towns]], which have merged with a municipal parish ({{lang|et|vallasisene linn}}).

=== Hong Kong ===

{{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong#Towns|l1 = List of cities and towns in Hong Kong}}

[[File:ShatinTownHall 20070529.jpg|thumb|Nearly every town in Hong Kong has its own town hall. The picture shows the [[Sha Tin Town Hall]] in the town of [[Sha Tin]].]]

Hong Kong started developing new towns in the 1950s, to accommodate exponential population increase. The first new towns included [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]] and [[Kwun Tong]]. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, another stage of new town developments was launched. Nine new towns have been developed so far. Land use is carefully planned and development provides plenty of room for public housing projects. Rail transport is usually available at a later stage. The first towns are [[Sha Tin New Town|Sha Tin]], [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tsuen Wan]], [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] and [[Tseung Kwan O]]. [[Tuen Mun New Town|Tuen Mun]] was intended to be self-reliant, but was not successful and turned into a [[bedroom community]] like the other new towns. More recent developments are [[Tin Shui Wai New Town|Tin Shui Wai]] and [[North Lantau New Town|North Lantau (Tung Chung-Tai Ho)]].

=== Iran ===
In contemporary [[Persian language|Persian]] texts, no distinction is made between ''city'' and ''town''; both translate as {{lang|fa-latn|Shahr}} ({{lang|fa|شهر}}). In older Persian texts (until the first half of the 20th century), the Arabic word {{lang|ar|Qasabeh}} ({{lang|ar|قصبه}}) was used for a town. However, in the past 50 years,{{As of?|date=February 2022}} this word has become obsolete.

There is a word in Persian which is used for special sort of satellite townships and city neighborhoods. It is {{lang|fa|Shahrak}} ({{lang|fa|شهرک}}), (lit.: 'small city').
Another smaller type of town or neighborhood in a big city is called {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} ({{lang|fa|کوی}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrak}} and {{lang|fa-latn|Kuy}} each have different legal definitions.
Large cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Mashhad]], [[Isfahan]], [[Tabriz]], etc. which have millions inhabitants are referred to as {{lang|fa-latn|Kalan-shahr}} ({{lang|fa|کلان‌شهر}}), [[metropole]].

The pace in which different large villages have gained city status in [[Iran]] shows a dramatic increase in the last two decades.

Bigger cities and towns usually are centers of a [[township]] (in Persian: {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} ({{lang|fa|شهرستان}}). {{lang|fa-latn|Shahrestan}} itself is a subdivision of {{lang|fa-latn|Ostan}} ({{lang|fa|استان}}), 'province'.

=== Iraq ===
The word {{lang|ar-latn|Jarayeh}} ({{lang|ar|جرَية}}) is used to describe villages, the word {{lang|ar-latn|Garmat}} ({{lang|ar|كَرمة}}) to describe towns, and the word {{lang|ar-latn|Wilaya}} ({{lang|ar|ولاية}}) to describe cities.

=== اٽلي ===
[[File:Satriano_di_Lucania_centro.JPG|thumb|ڏکڻ اٽلي ۾ باسيليڪاٽا جي ميلانڊرو وادي ۾ هڪ شهر، سٽريانو ڊي لوسانيا]]
جيتوڻيڪ اطالوي ٻولي شهر (città)، شهر (cittadina يا paese) ۽ ڳوٺ (villaggio، پراڻي زماني جو، يا frazione، سڀ کان عام) لاءِ مختلف لفظ مهيا ڪري ٿي، پر ڪا به قانوني وصف موجود ناهي ته آبادين کي ڪيئن درجه بندي ڪيو وڃي. انتظامي طور تي، ٻنهي شهرن ۽ شهرن کي ڪميونٽي/ڪمون طور حڪمراني ڪئي ويندي آهي، جڏهن ته ڳوٺ شايد اڳوڻي جا ذيلي تقسيم هوندا. عام طور تي، روزاني تقرير ۾، هڪ شهر ڳوٺ کان وڏو يا وڌيڪ آبادي وارو ۽ شهر کان ننڍو هوندو آهي. مختلف شهر ۽ شهر گڏجي هڪ ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو (ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو) ٺاهي سگهن ٿا. هڪ شهر آس پاس جي شهرن جي حوالي سان ثقافتي، اقتصادي، يا سياسي طور تي نمايان برادري پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان کان علاوه، هڪ شهر صدارتي فرمان ذريعي اهڙو ٿي سگهي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، هڪ شهر هڪ آباد جڳهه ٿي سگهي ٿو جيڪو ٻئي هنڌ شهر جي طرز تي هوندو، پر ان کي ڪا به سرڪاري سڃاڻپ نه ملي آهي. قابل ذڪر استثنا موجود آهن: مثال طور، باسانو ڊيل گراپا، کي 1760 ۾ فرانسسڪو لوريڊن جي ڊوگل فرمان ذريعي città جو درجو ڏنو ويو هو ۽ ان کان پوءِ اهو لقب اختيار ڪيو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، 'شهر' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (ننڍي اکر P سان paese) کي 'ملڪ/قوم' لاءِ اطالوي لفظ (عام طور تي وڏي اکر P سان Paese) سان مونجهارو نه هجڻ گهرجي.

=== Japan ===
In Japan, city status (市 ''[[Cities of Japan|shi]]'') was traditionally reserved for only a few particularly large settlements. Over time however the necessary conditions to be a city have been watered down and today the only loose rules that apply are having a population over 50,000 and over 60% of the population in a &quot;city centre&quot;. In recent times many small villages and towns have merged in order to form a city despite seeming geographically to be just a collection of villages.

The distinction between towns (町 ''[[Towns of Japan|machi/chō]]'') and villages (村 ''[[Villages of Japan|mura/son]]'') is largely unwritten and purely one of population size when the settlement was founded with villages having under 10,000 and towns 10,000–50,000.

=== Korea ===
{{main|Eup (administrative division)}}

In both of South Korea and North Korea, towns are called ''[[Eup (administrative division)|eup]]'' ({{lang|ko|읍}}). Most cities in North Korea are built around a central square. Perhaps it is to symbolize the importance of the society over the individual, or just a handy place for mass gatherings and celebrations.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=22 October 2020 |title=What is a North Korean City Really Like? – Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/what-is-a-north-korean-city-really-like |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=koryogroup.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Lithuania ===
{{main|List of towns in Lithuania}}

In [[Lithuania]]n, a city is called ''{{ill|miestas|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' and a town is called ''{{ill|miestelis|lt|vertical-align=sup}}'' (literally 'small {{Lang|lt|miestas}}'). [[Metropolis]]es are called {{ill|lt=''didmiestis''|didmiestis|lt|didmiestis|vertical-align=sup}} (literally 'big {{Lang|lt|miestas}}').

=== Malaysia ===
In [[Malaysia]], a town ({{langx|ms|bandar}} or ''kota'') is the area administered by a municipal council ({{lang|ms|Majlis Perbandaran}}).

===New Zealand===
{{expand-section|date=August 2025}}
In [[New Zealand]], the term &quot;town&quot; has no current statutory meaning. Certain towns are regionally part of cities.

===South Africa===
In South Africa the [[Afrikaans]] term {{lang|af|dorp}} is used interchangeably with the English equivalent ''town''. A town is a settlement that has a size that is smaller than that of a city.

=== Spain ===
In Spain, the equivalent of town would be {{lang|es|villa}}, a population unit between a village ({{lang|es|pueblo}}) and a city ({{lang|es|ciudad}}), and is not defined by the number of inhabitants, but by some historical rights and privileges dating from the Middle Ages, such as the right to hold a market or fair. For instance, while [[Madrid]] is technically a {{lang|es|villa}}, [[Barcelona]], with a smaller population, is known as a city.

=== Sweden ===
{{See also|Stad (Sweden)|Köping}}
[[File:Övre Finngränd 7 Sta Maria 29 Visby Gotland.jpg|thumbnail|View towards [[Visby Cathedral|St Mary's Cathedral]] in [[Visby]], Sweden. Visby is one of the most well-preserved former [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] cities in Sweden and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Today it is the seat of [[Gotland Municipality]].]]

The Swedish language does not differentiate between towns and cities in the English sense of the words; both words are commonly translated as {{lang|sv|stad}}, a term which has no legal significance today. The term {{lang|sv|tätort}} is used for an [[Urban areas in Sweden|urban area]] or a locality, which however is a statistical rather than an administrative concept and encompasses densely settled villages with only 200 inhabitants as well as the major cities. The word ''[[köping]]'' corresponds to an English ''[[market town]]'' ''(chipping)'' or German ''[[wikt:Markt|Markt]]'' but is mainly of historical significance, as the term is not used today and only survives in some [[toponym]]s. Some towns with names ending in {{Lang|sv|-köping}} are cities with over 100,000 inhabitants today, e.g. [[Linköping]].

Before 1971, 132 larger [[Municipality|municipalities]] in Sweden enjoyed special royal charters as {{Lang|sv|[[Stad (Sweden)|stad]]}} instead of ''[[kommun]]'' (which is similar to a US [[county (United States)|county]]). However, since 1971 all municipalities are officially defined as {{lang|sv|kommun}}, thus making no legal difference between, for instance, [[Stockholm]] and a small countryside municipality. Every urban area that was a {{lang|sv|stad}} before 1971 is still often referred to as a {{lang|sv|stad}} in daily speech. Since the 1980s, 14 of these municipalities have branded themselves as {{lang|sv|stad}} again, although this has no legal or administrative significance, as they still have to refer to themselves as {{lang|sv|kommun}} in all legal documentation.

For statistical purposes, [[Statistics Sweden]] officially defines a {{lang|sv|stad}} as an urban area of at least 10,000 inhabitants. Since 2017 it also defines a {{lang|sv|storstad}} (literally 'big town') as a municipality with a population of at least 200,000 of which at least 200,000 are in its largest {{lang|sv|tätort}}.&lt;ref&gt;[https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html Kommungruppsindelning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250907160031/https://skr.se/tjanster/kommunerlandsting/faktakommunerochlandsting/kommungruppsindelning.2051.html |date=2025-09-07 }}, Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt; This means that [[Stockholm]], [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]] are {{lang|sv|storstäder}}, i.e. 'major cities', while [[Uppsala]], with a population of approximately 230,000 in the municipality, which covers an unusually large area, almost three times larger than the combined land area of the municipalities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö, is not. The largest contiguous urban area within Uppsala municipality has a population of well below 200,000, while the population of both Malmö municipality, with a land area only 1/14 the size of Uppsala municipality, and Malmö {{lang|sv|tätort}}, i.e. contiguous urban area, is well over 300,000, and the population of the [[Metropolitan Malmö|Malmö Metropolitan Area]], with a land area only slightly larger than Uppsala Municipality, is well over 700,000. A difference in the size and population of the urban area between Uppsala and the smallest {{lang|sv|storstad}} in Sweden, Malmö, is the reason Statistics Sweden changed the definition of {{lang|sv|storstad}} in 2017.&lt;ref&gt;[https://unt.se/nyheter/uppsala/beskedet-uppsala-blir-ingen-storstad-4451151.aspx Uppsala blir ingen storstad], Upsala Nya Tidning. Retrieved 16 May 2020&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ukraine ===
[[File:Богородчани, 4 державна пожежно-рятувальна частина у ДСНС України, 2.jpg|thumb|Fire station in town of [[Bohorodchany]]]]
In Ukraine the term ''town'' ({{lang|uk|містечко}}, {{lang|uk-latn|mistechko}}) existed from the Medieval period until 1925, when it was replaced by the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]] with ''[[urban type settlement]]''.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023834/http://ukrlit.org/slovnyk/%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE Mistechko]. Public electronic dictionary of Ukrainian language (ukrlit.org)&lt;/ref&gt; Historically, a town in the Ukrainian lands was a smaller populated place that was chartered under the [[German town law]] and had a market square (see [[Market town]]).

=== United Kingdom ===
{{Main|City status in the United Kingdom}}

==== England and Wales ====
{{Main|List of urban areas in England by population|list of urban areas in Wales by population}}

[[File:Rugby town centre.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional English town centre at [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]]]]

In England and Wales, a town traditionally was a settlement which had a charter to hold a [[Market (place)|market]] or [[fair]] and therefore became a &quot;[[market town]]&quot;. Market towns were distinguished from villages in that they were the economic hub of a surrounding area, and were usually larger and had more facilities.

In parallel with popular usage, however, there are many technical and official definitions of what constitutes a town, to which various interested parties cling.

In modern official usage the term ''town'' is employed either for old market towns, or for settlements which have a [[town council]], or for settlements which elsewhere would be classed a city, but which do not have [[city status in the United Kingdom|the legal right]] to call themselves such. Any parish council can decide to describe itself as a town council, but this will usually only apply to the smallest &quot;towns&quot; (because larger towns will be larger than a single civil parish).

Not all settlements which are commonly described as towns have a town council or borough council. In fact, because of many successive changes to the structure of local government, there are now few large towns which are represented by a body closely related to their historic borough council. These days, a smaller town will usually be part of a local authority which covers several towns. And where a larger town ''is'' the seat of a local authority, the authority will usually cover a much wider area than the town itself (either a large rural hinterland, or several other, smaller towns).

Additionally, there are &quot;[[New towns in the United Kingdom|new town]]s&quot; which were created during the 20th century, such as [[Basildon]], [[Redditch]] and [[Telford]].

Some settlements which describe themselves as towns (e.g. [[Shipston-on-Stour]], [[Warwickshire]]) are smaller than some large villages (e.g. [[Kidlington]], [[Oxfordshire]]).

The status of a ''city'' is reserved for places that have [[letters patent]] entitling them to the name, historically associated with the possession of a cathedral. Some large municipalities (such as [[Northampton]] and [[Bournemouth]]) are legally [[borough]]s but not cities, whereas some cities are quite small — such as [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] or [[St David's]]. The city of [[Brighton and Hove]] was created from the two former towns and some surrounding villages, and within the city the correct term for the former distinct entities is somewhat unclear.

[[File:Windhill.jpg|thumb|[[Bishop's Stortford]]]]

It appears that a city may become a town, though perhaps only through administrative error: [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in Kent had been a city for centuries but, when in 1998 the [[Medway]] district was created, a bureaucratic blunder meant that Rochester lost its official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and is now technically a town.

It is often thought that towns with [[cathedral|bishops' seats]] rank automatically as cities: however, [[Chelmsford]] was a town until 5 June 2012 despite being the seat of the [[diocese of Chelmsford]], created in 1914. [[St Asaph]], which is the seat of the [[diocese of St Asaph]], only became a city on 1 June 2012 though the diocese was founded in the mid-sixth century. In reality, the pre-qualification of having a cathedral of the established [[Church of England]], and the formerly established [[Church in Wales]] or [[Church of Ireland]], ceased to apply from 1888.

The word ''town'' can also be used as a general term for urban areas, including cities and in a few cases, districts within cities. In this usage, a city is a type of town; a large one, with a certain status. For example, central [[Greater London]] is sometimes referred to colloquially as &quot;London town&quot;. (The &quot;[[City of London]]&quot; is the historical nucleus, informally known as the &quot;Square Mile&quot;, and is administratively separate from the rest of Greater London, while the [[City of Westminster]] is also technically a city and is also a [[London borough]].) [[Camden Town]] and [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]] are districts of London, as [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]] is a district of [[Edinburgh]] – actually the Georgian centre.

In recent years the division between cities and towns has grown, leading to the establishment of groups like the Centre for Towns, who work to highlight the issues facing many towns.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.centrefortowns.org/about-us|title=About Us|last=Design|first=Concom Website|website=Centre For Towns|language=en-gb|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; Towns also became a significant issue in the [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2020 Labour Party leadership election]], with [[Lisa Nandy]] making significant reference to Labour needing to win back smaller towns which have swung away from the party.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/economy/house/house-magazine/107129/lisa-nandy-mp-britains-towns-are-short-changed-cities|title=Lisa Nandy MP: Britain's towns are short-changed as cities capture an ever-greater share of foreign investment|last=PoliticsHome.com|date=8 October 2019|website=PoliticsHome.com|language=en|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گڏيل رياستون ===
[[File:Wyatt-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|واياٽ، [[انڊيانا]] ۾ هڪ ننڍڙي زرعي برادري]]

In the United States, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name &quot;town&quot; has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live. In the six New England states, a town is a kind of municipality that is like a city, but smaller. For example, in Pennsylvania, a town is a specific type of incorporated municipality, distinct from townships and boroughs, with only one town, Bloomsburg, officially designated as such under state law.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pennsylvania Municipalities: Classifications |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development |url=&lt;a href=&quot;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&quot;&gt;https://dced.pa.gov/local-government/municipal-statistics/&lt;/a&gt; |access-date=2025-09-04}}&lt;/ref&gt; They're originally based around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=State and Local Government |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/ |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; In some instances, the term ''town'' refers to a small incorporated municipality of less than a population threshold specified by state statute, while in others a town can be significantly larger. Some states do not use the term ''town'' at all, while in others the term has no official meaning and is used informally to refer to a populated place, of any size, whether incorporated or unincorporated. In some other states, the words ''town'' and ''city'' are legally interchangeable. The [[Census of Governments]] treats jurisdictions called towns in the [[New England]] states, [[Minnesota]], [[New York (state)|New York]], and [[Wisconsin]] as [[civil township|townships]] rather than municipalities.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot;&gt;[https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2024/econ/2022ISD.pdf Individual State Descriptions: 2022], 2022 [[United States Census of Governments|Census of Governments]], [[United States Census Bureau]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Small-town life has been a major theme in American literature, especially stories of rejection by young people leaving for the metropolis.&lt;ref&gt;[[Miles Orvell]], ''The Death and Life of Main Street: Small Towns in American Memory, Space, and Community'' (University of North Carolina Press; 2012)&lt;/ref&gt;

Since the use of the term varies considerably by state, individual usages are presented in the following sections:

====California====
In [[California]], the words ''town'' and ''city'' are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code §§ 34500–34504).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/codes/california/code-gov/title-4/division-2/part-1/chapter-3/|title=2024 California Code :: Government Code - GOV :: TITLE 4 - GOVERNMENT OF CITIES :: DIVISION 2 - ORGANIZATION AND BOUNDARIES :: PART 1 - ORGANIZATION :: CHAPTER 3 - Corporate Name|website=Justia Law}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a [[municipal charter|charter]] that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot; Government Code §§ 34500–34504 apply to cities organized as [[general-law municipality|general law cities]], which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as &quot;City of (Name)&quot; or &quot;Town of (Name).&quot;

Some cities change what they are referred to as. The sign in front of the municipal offices in [[Los Gatos, California]], for example, reads &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot;, but the words engraved on the building above the front entrance when the city hall was built read &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; There are also signs at the municipal corporation limit, some of which welcome visitors to the &quot;City of Los Gatos&quot; while older, adjacent signs welcome people to the &quot;Town of Los Gatos.&quot; Meanwhile, the village does not exist in California as a municipal corporation. Instead, the word ''town'' is commonly used to indicate any unincorporated community that might otherwise be known as an unincorporated village. Additionally, some people may still use the word ''town'' as shorthand for ''township'', which is not an incorporated municipality but an administrative division of a county.

====Georgia====
Georgia is divided into 159 [[County (United States)|counties]] and contains 535 [[Municipal corporation|municipalities]] consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities.&lt;ref name=&quot;Census Georgia 2010&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-12.pdf|title=Georgia: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| website = [[2010 United States census]]| access-date = 8 August 2016|page=III-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Census 2020&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/document/docs/default-source/reapportionment-document-library/2020-census-count-by-city-population.pdf?sfvrsn=274928ba_2|title= 2020 Census Count by Georgia City Population | access-date = 17 April 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns.&lt;ref name=&quot;NGE&quot;&gt;Perry Hiott &amp; Chris Dobbs, [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/georgias-city-governments Georgia's City Governments], ''New Georgia Encyclopedia'' (last updated 12 November 2015).&lt;/ref&gt;

====Hawaii====

In Hawaii, the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism has the statutory authority to establish, modify, or abolish the statistical boundaries for cities, town, and. villages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911174516/https://casetext.com/statute/hawaii-revised-statutes/division-1-government/title-4-state-organization-and-administration-generally/chapter-26-executive-and-administrative-departments/part-i-organization-generally/section-26-18-department-of-business-economic-development-and-tourism|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2024|title=Section 26-18 - Department of business, economic development, and tourism, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 26-18 &amp;#124; Casetext Search + Citator|website=casetext.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the only municipal government in Hawaii is the City and County of [[Honolulu]].&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Illinois====
In [[Illinois]], the word ''town'' has been used both to denote a subdivision of a county called a township,&lt;ref&gt;See the Township Code, 60 ILCS 1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt; and to denote a form of municipality similar to a [[village]], in that it is generally governed by a president and trustees rather than a mayor.&lt;ref&gt;See ''Phillips v. Town of Scales Mound'', 195 Ill. 353, 357, 63 N.E. 180 (1902)&lt;/ref&gt; In some areas a town may be incorporated legally as a village (meaning it has at large trustees) or a city (meaning it has aldermen from districts) and absorb the duties of the [[coterminous municipality|township it is coterminous with]] (maintenance of birth records, certain welfare items). [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]] are examples of towns in this manner. Under the current Illinois Municipal Code, an incorporated or unincorporated town may choose to incorporate as a city or as a village, but other forms of incorporation are no longer allowed.&lt;ref&gt;''See generally'' Article 2 of the Illinois Municipal Code, 65 ILCS 5/2‑1‑1 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt;

====Indiana====
In [[Indiana]], a ''town'' is differentiated from a ''city'' in that a town can not become a city until it has a population of at least 2,000. The form of government is also different from that of a city in that the town council is both the legislative and executive branches of government. The mayor is selected by the council from within its ranks and operates as a [[first among equals]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Town vs. City|url=http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|website=Townofclarksville.com|access-date=11 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908020047/http://www.townofclarksville.com/town_vs_city.php|archive-date=8 September 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Louisiana====
In [[Louisiana]], a town is defined as being a municipal government having a population of 1,001 to 4,999 inhabitants.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt;

====Maryland====

While a town is generally considered a smaller entity than a city, the two terms are legally interchangeable in Maryland.&lt;ref name=&quot;isd2022&quot; /&gt; The only exception is the [[independent city]] of [[Baltimore]], which is a special case, as it was created by the [[Constitution of Maryland]].

====Mississippi====
Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| title = Municipal Government| date = October 2014| publisher = Secretary of State| work = State of Mississippi| access-date = 10 August 2016| page = 381| url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126110031/http://www.sos.ms.gov/Education-Publications/Documents/BlueBook/10-2014-Municipal-Government.pdf| archive-date = 26 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt; The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.&lt;ref name=&quot;MississippiLaw&quot; /&gt;

====Nevada====

In [[Nevada]], a town has a form of government, but is not considered to be incorporated. It generally provides a limited range of services, such as [[Land-use planning]] and recreation, while leaving most services to the county. Many communities have found this &quot;semi-incorporated&quot; status attractive; the state has only 20 incorporated [[List of cities in Nevada|cities]], and towns as large as [[Paradise, Nevada|Paradise]] (186,020 in 2000 Census), home of the [[Las Vegas Strip]]. Most [[county seat]]s are also towns, not cities.

====نيو انگلينڊ====
[[File:Downtown Ipswich MA.jpg|thumb|اپسوچ، [[مئساچوسٽس|مئساچوسيٽس]] جو هڪ مضافاتي علائقو]]
In the six [[New England]] states, a [[New England town|town]] is the most prevalent minor civil division, and in most cases, are a more important form of government than the county. In [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]] and seven out of fourteen counties in [[Massachusetts]], in fact, counties only exist as boundaries for state services and chambers of commerce at most, and have no independent legal functions. In [[New Hampshire]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]], counties function at a limited scope, and are still not as important in northern New England as they are outside of the northeast. In all six states, towns perform functions that in most states would be county functions. The defining feature of a New England town, as opposed to a city, is that a [[town meeting]] and a [[board of selectmen]] serve as the main form of government for a town, while cities are run by a mayor and a city council.  For example, [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] is a town, even though it is fairly urban, because of its form of government.  In the three southern New England states, the entire land area is divided into towns and cities, while the three northern states have small areas that are unincorporated. In Vermont and New Hampshire, the population of these areas is practically nonexistent, while in Maine, unincorporated areas make up roughly half of the state's area but only one percent of the state's population.

Though the U.S. Census Bureau defines New England towns as &quot;minor civil divisions&quot; for statistical purposes, all New England towns are [[municipal corporations]] equivalent to cities in all legal respects, except for form of government.  For statistical purposes, the Census Bureau uses [[census-designated place]]s for the built-up population centers within towns, though these have no legal or social recognition for residents of those towns.  Similarly, the Census Bureau uses a special designation for [[urban areas]] within New England, the [[New England city and town area]], instead of the [[metropolitan statistical area]] it uses in the rest of the country.

====North Carolina====
In [[North Carolina]], all cities, towns, and villages are incorporated as [[List of municipalities in North Carolina|municipalities]]. According to the North Carolina League of Municipalities,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website = North Carolina League of Municipalities|title = How NC Cities Work|url=https://www.nclm.org/advocacy/how-nc-cities-work |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516211303/http://www.nclm.org/resource-center/Pages/How-Municipalities-Work.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt; there is no legal distinction among a city, town, or village—it is a matter of preference of the local government.  Some North Carolina cities have populations as small as 1,000 residents, while some towns, such as [[Cary, North Carolina|Cary]], have populations of greater than 100,000.

====Oklahoma====
In [[Oklahoma]], according to the state's municipal code, ''city'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a city in accordance with the laws of the state, whereas ''town'' means a municipality which has incorporated as a town in accordance with the laws of the state, and ''municipality'' means any incorporated city or town.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75748 |title= 11 O.S. 1–102 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 1-102, Definitions)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The term ''village'' is not defined or used in the act.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw1&quot; /&gt;  Any community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a town; however, if the resident population is one thousand or more, a town or community of people residing in compact form may become incorporated as a city.&lt;ref name=&quot;OklahomaLaw2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=75750|title= 11 O.S. 2–101 (Oklahoma Statutes, Title 11, Cities and Towns; Chapter 1, Oklahoma Municipal Code; Section 2-101, Incorporation of a Municipality)|publisher=Oklahoma State Courts Network|access-date=14 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Pennsylvania====
In [[Pennsylvania]], the incorporated divisions are townships, boroughs, and cities, of which boroughs are equivalent to towns (example: [[State College, Pennsylvania|State College]] is a borough). However, one borough is incorporated as a town: [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]].

====South Carolina====
At incorporation,  municipalities may choose to be named either &quot;City of&quot; or &quot;Town of&quot;, however there is no legal difference between the two.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c007.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 7 – Municipal Corporations |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; All municipalities are responsible for providing local service including law enforcement, fire protection, waste and water management, planning and zoning, recreational facilities, and street lighting.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c001.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 1 – Incorporation |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Municipalities may incorporate with one of three forms of government: 141 chose [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]], 95 chose [[Municipal council|council]], and 33 chose [[Council–manager government|council–manager]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.scstatehouse.gov/code/t05c005.php |title=Code of Laws – Title 5 – Chapter 5 – Selection Of Forms Of Municipal Government |publisher=Scstatehouse.gov |access-date=25 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Tennessee====
Some Tennessee municipalities are called &quot;cities&quot; and others are called &quot;towns.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |title=Tennessee 2000 Population Summary |publisher=Office of Local Government, Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116203543/http://www.comptroller.state.tn.us/lg/2000city.htm |archive-date=16 January 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.gov/tacir/PDF_FILES/Taxes/State%20Shared%20Taxes04.pdf |title=State Tax Sharing, Fairness, and Local Government Finances in Tennessee |work=Tennessee.gov |publisher=[[Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations]] |date=January 2004 |page=xiv |access-date=7 November 2008 |quote=There are 348 cities in Tennessee and each is characterized as either a city or a town (in our state, there is no legal distinction between the two).}}&lt;/ref&gt; and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of [[municipal charter]].

====Texas====
In [[Texas]], although some municipalities refer to themselves as &quot;towns&quot; or &quot;villages&quot; (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered [[List of municipalities in Texas|cities]].

====Utah====
{{see also|List of municipalities in Utah}}
In [[Utah]], the legal use of the terms ''town'' and ''city'' is based on population. A municipality with a population of 1,000 or more is a city, while less than 1,000 is a town. In addition, cities are divided into five separate classes based on the population.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|title=Utah Code, Title 10, Chapter 2, Section 301|publisher=Utah State Legislature|access-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808233054/http://le.utah.gov/~code/TITLE10/htm/10_02_030100.htm|archive-date=8 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Virginia====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Virginia#Towns}}

In [[Virginia]], a town is an incorporated municipality similar to a city (though with a smaller required minimum population).  But while cities are by Virginia law independent of counties, towns are contained within counties.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web  |author=Charles A. Grymes|url=http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |title=County vs. Town vs. City in Virginia  |access-date=31 May 2011  |quote=Cities own and maintain their roads, while Virginia counties (except for Arlington and Henrico) rely upon [[Virginia Department of Transportation|VDOT]] for road maintenance. Cities get a fixed allocation of state funding for building and maintaining those roads, while counties must compete with each other and other VDOT priorities for a substantial portion of their road budget. Cities have been granted more authorities, such as the right of city councils to issue bonds to build roads without a voter referendum (counties must get voter approval in a referendum before issuing road bonds). In Virginia, towns have distinct boundaries, established by the [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] or by courts guided by laws passed by the legislature. Towns are not independent from counties; residents of towns are still residents of the county in which the town is located. For example, residents of the four towns of [[Haymarket, Virginia|Haymarket]], [[Quantico, Virginia|Quantico]], [[Dumfries, Virginia|Dumfries]], and [[Occoquan, Virginia|Occoquan]] are also residents of [[Prince William County, Virginia|Prince William County]]. They pay both town and county property taxes, and town residents get to vote for a town council/mayor.  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620092601/http://virginiaplaces.org/vagupnova/countytowncity.html  |archive-date=20 June 2010  }}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Washington====
{{Further|City government in Washington (state)}}
A town in the state of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] is a municipality that has a population of less than 1,500 at incorporation, however an existing town can reorganize as a code city.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx |title=Classification of Washington Cities |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620001644/http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/governance/locgov31.aspx }}&lt;/ref&gt; Town government authority is limited relative to [[city (Washington)|cities]], the other main classification of municipalities in the state.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |title=A Comparison of the Powers of a Town and a Noncharter Code City |publisher=Municipal Research and Services Center of Washington |access-date=14 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725204227/http://www.mrsc.org/Subjects/Management/forms/townandcodecity.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; {{As of|2012|post=,}} most municipalities in Washington are cities (see: [[List of towns in Washington]]).

====Wisconsin====
{{main|Administrative divisions of Wisconsin}}

{{See also|List of towns in Wisconsin}}
[[Wisconsin]] has towns which are areas outside of incorporated cities and villages. These towns retain the name of the civil township from which they evolved and are often the same name as a neighboring city. Some towns, especially those in urban areas, have services similar to those of incorporated cities, such as police departments. These towns will, from time to time, incorporate into cities, such as [[Fox Crossing, Wisconsin|Fox Crossing]] in 2016 from the former town of [[Menasha (town), Wisconsin|Menasha]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |title=Incorporation Information – Town of Menasha Town of Menasha |access-date=4 March 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211054509/http://www.town-menasha.com/town-of-menasha-incorporation-update/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Often this is to avoid annexation into neighboring cities and villages.

====Wyoming====
A [[Wyoming]] statute indicates towns are incorporated municipalities with populations of less than 4,000. Municipalities of 4,000 or more residents are considered &quot;first-class cities&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx|title=Title 15 – Cities and Towns; Chapter 1 – General Provisions; Article 1 – Powers and Miscellaneous Matters; 15-1-101. Definitions|publisher=State of Wyoming|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102125427/https://wyoleg.gov/statutes/compress/title15.docx}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Some examples are [[Moorcroft, Wyoming]] and [[Sundance, Wyoming]].

===ويتنام===
ويتنام ۾، هڪ ضلعي سطح جو شهر (ويٽنامي: thị xã) هڪ صوبي (tỉnh) يا ميونسپلٽي (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương) هيٺان، ٻيو ذيلي تقسيم آهي. هڪ ڪميون-سطح وارو شهر (thị trấn) هڪ ٽيون-سطح (ڪميون-سطح) سب ڊويزن، هڪ ضلعي هيٺان (huyện).

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[ڳوٺ]]
* [[شهر]]
* [[صوبو]]
* [[ملڪ]]
* [[شهري علائقو|شهري علائقا]]
* [[ٻهراڙي علائقو|ٻهراڙي علائقا]]
* [[مقامي آبادي]]
* [[ميگالوپولس]]

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}} 
==ذريعا== 
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9f0b5791ed98061fca256f1900128409?OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics: Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005]
* [http://www.open-site.org/Regional Open-Site Regional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129142135/http://www.open-site.org/Regional |date=2021-01-29 }} — Contains information about towns in numerous countries.
* [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226080929/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France — Access to Geopolis Database

{{Authority control}}
[[زمرو:قصبو]] 
[[زمرو:آباد جڳھون]]  
[[زمرو:انساني آبادي]] 
[[زمرو:آبادين جي جاگرافي]]
[[زمرو:ڳتيل جايون بلحاظ قسم]]</text>
      <sha1>jisb33na3ydi927c72zs9lnsbqq4sur</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>منطق</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>9802</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399208</id>
      <parentid>399159</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T13:55:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399208</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="50477" sha1="e3f6mhu5q244a0h9cmrquj1v1jn1cs9" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ (True) يا ڪوڙ (False) هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (Psychologism) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (Truth table) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (input variable) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (Argument) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (Inference) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' (Sound argument) اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابدڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (Inference to the best explanation) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>e3f6mhu5q244a0h9cmrquj1v1jn1cs9</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399209</id>
      <parentid>399208</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T13:58:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399209</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="50470" sha1="cxqozjkmjut7t71hxxgkgla8e5yp91x" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (Truth table) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (input variable) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (Argument) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (Inference) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' (Sound argument) اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابدڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (Inference to the best explanation) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>cxqozjkmjut7t71hxxgkgla8e5yp91x</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399210</id>
      <parentid>399209</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T13:59:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399210</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="50483" sha1="c16r4wjuoxth8r5w6dk49xueyz9qcab" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (Argument) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (Inference) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' (Sound argument) اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابدڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (Inference to the best explanation) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>c16r4wjuoxth8r5w6dk49xueyz9qcab</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399211</id>
      <parentid>399210</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T14:01:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399211</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="50487" sha1="fq0r8v991robg4dja4rvtu9h0d4y4sl" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (Argument) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (Inference) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابدڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>fq0r8v991robg4dja4rvtu9h0d4y4sl</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399212</id>
      <parentid>399211</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T14:02:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399212</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="50500" sha1="he4vr51dibtzjf58hhsni1r3imk5lfh" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابدڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>he4vr51dibtzjf58hhsni1r3imk5lfh</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399213</id>
      <parentid>399212</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T14:06:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* توسيعي استدلال */</comment>
      <origin>399213</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="50694" sha1="a3xt2b1eg4th1wyuxo26gp10ao7dsm9" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>a3xt2b1eg4th1wyuxo26gp10ao7dsm9</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399214</id>
      <parentid>399213</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T14:10:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399214</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="50500" sha1="fbeb3ge8yk1i7ma0jrvlrz7jiv3ugb9" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>fbeb3ge8yk1i7ma0jrvlrz7jiv3ugb9</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399215</id>
      <parentid>399214</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T14:10:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399215</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="50694" sha1="gn6xe2sk64pmxt728dz7v5xhjru22ew" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>gn6xe2sk64pmxt728dz7v5xhjru22ew</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399216</id>
      <parentid>399215</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T14:12:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399216</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="55614" sha1="3w99qemxyd80ksf7i27xlx28izq8478" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (False dilemma) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (Form) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (Denying the antecedent) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اوٿيلو ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اوٿيلو ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اوٿيلو مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابہام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابہام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}

مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}

لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>3w99qemxyd80ksf7i27xlx28izq8478</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399217</id>
      <parentid>399216</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T14:13:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399217</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="55600" sha1="6wq35kpopukjx7llrjay3cfgj3nz6y8" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (False dilemma) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (Form) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (Denying the antecedent) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>6wq35kpopukjx7llrjay3cfgj3nz6y8</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399218</id>
      <parentid>399217</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T14:16:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399218</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="57760" sha1="4rymnhdf3ex9ykn7v3axj2xvdvhk7g2" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>4rymnhdf3ex9ykn7v3axj2xvdvhk7g2</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399219</id>
      <parentid>399218</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T14:18:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399219</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="63042" sha1="kkxb3d4mq1mothe5i1wppxpuy5lu154" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (Formal system) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (Proof system) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (Semantics) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (Syntactic rules) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (Well-formed formula) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (Proof system) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (Conjunction introduction) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (Natural deduction) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (Sequent calculus) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (Semantics) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (Truth value) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (Sound) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل''' (Complete) تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>kkxb3d4mq1mothe5i1wppxpuy5lu154</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399220</id>
      <parentid>399219</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T14:23:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399220</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="69399" sha1="6r5n04g36qjd6dfzoowipg1t7aqdgej" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (Semantics) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (Conjunction introduction) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (Natural deduction) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (Sequent calculus) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]

ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}

ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.

مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}

ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}

مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>6r5n04g36qjd6dfzoowipg1t7aqdgej</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399221</id>
      <parentid>399220</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T14:25:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399221</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="69430" sha1="4hsaw3xxha7btjjwixo1wpke4ou3znj" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]

ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}

ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.

مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}

ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}

مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>4hsaw3xxha7btjjwixo1wpke4ou3znj</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399222</id>
      <parentid>399221</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T14:26:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399222</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="69425" sha1="dvgxvpjq8a8gp2ohn9n8oggd972t20g" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>dvgxvpjq8a8gp2ohn9n8oggd972t20g</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399223</id>
      <parentid>399222</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T14:29:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399223</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="74693" sha1="d9j5us45mn4v7c278rmurq9shmd9u7c" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>d9j5us45mn4v7c278rmurq9shmd9u7c</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399224</id>
      <parentid>399223</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T14:37:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* پهرين درجي جو منطق */</comment>
      <origin>399224</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="80283" sha1="bxtgkb5w2vo4qbp3n2dy25fqk49md6r" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (Higher-order logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (Quantification) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن (Individuals) تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>bxtgkb5w2vo4qbp3n2dy25fqk49md6r</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399225</id>
      <parentid>399224</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T14:41:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399225</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="85236" sha1="sebf7jzcg1dz7wb4eqh36d637aj9wja" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (Quantification) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن (Individuals) تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>sebf7jzcg1dz7wb4eqh36d637aj9wja</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399226</id>
      <parentid>399225</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T14:42:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399226</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="85230" sha1="7t002j1rmbqtvybio909489hao4m385" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (ڪوانٽيفڪيشن) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>7t002j1rmbqtvybio909489hao4m385</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399227</id>
      <parentid>399226</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T14:47:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399227</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="91125" sha1="54d3bq5v2hagzwwy4r4be42l0ejzl9u" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (ڪوانٽيفڪيشن) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}

==تحقيق جا شعبا==

منطق جو مطالعو مختلف علمي شعبن ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪيترن ئي حالتن ۾ ان جي رسمي طريقن کي انهن موضوعن تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي پاڻ منطق جي دائري کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[اخلاقيات]] يا [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Logic and other disciplines|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10}}

ٻين حالتن ۾ خود منطق ئي ڪنهن ٻئي علمي شعبي ۾ تحقيق جو موضوع بڻجي ٿي. اهو مختلف طريقن سان ٿي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، منطق جي بنيادي تصورن سان لاڳاپيل فلسفياتي مفروضن جو جائزو وٺڻ، منطقي نظامن کي رياضيائي بناوتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جو تجزيو ڪرڻ، يا رسمي منطقي نظامن جي تجريدي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ۽ ڀيٽ ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Features and problems of logic|2a1=Gödel|2y=1984|2pp=447–469|2loc=Russell's mathematical logic|3a1=Monk|3y=1976|3pp=1–9|3loc=Introduction}}

===منطق جو فلسفو ۽ فلسفياتي منطق===
{{Main|منطق جو فلسفو|فلسفياتي منطق}}

'''منطق جو فلسفو''' (فلاسافي آف لاجڪ) فلسفي جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطق جي دائري، ماهيت ۽ بنيادي نوعيت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} ان ۾ انهن ڪيترن ئي مفروضن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيڪي منطق ۾ ضمني طور قبول ڪيا ويندا آهن، جيئن ان جي بنيادي تصورن جي تعريف يا انهن سان لاڳاپيل [[مابعدالطبيعات|مابعدالطبيعي]] مفروضا.{{sfn|Jacquette|2006|loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|pp=1–12}}

هي شعبي منطقي نظامن جي درجابندي ۽ انهن سان وابسته [[وجوديات|وجودياتي]] وابستگين (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪمٽمينٽ) جو پڻ مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=§Problems of ontology}}

'''فلسفياتي منطق''' (فلاسافيڪل لاجڪ) منطق جي فلسفي جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطقي طريقن کي فلسفي جي مسئلن تي لاڳو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Burgess|2y=2009|2loc=1. Classical logic}}
اهو استعمال گهڻو ڪري [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي]] يا [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظامن]] جي صورت ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Goble|1y=2001|1loc=Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32}}

===مابعد منطق===
{{Main|مابعد منطق}}

'''مابعد منطق''' (ميٽالاجڪ) اهو علمي شعبو آهي، جيڪو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.

مثال طور، جڏهن ڪو نئون رسمي منطقي نظام تيار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ته مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو معلوم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته ان نظام ۾ ڪهڙا فارمولا ثابت ڪري سگهجن ٿا. اهي اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته ڇا اهڙو [[الگورٿم]] تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو هر فارمولي لاءِ ثبوت ڳولي سگهي، ۽ ڇا ان نظام ۾ هر قابلِ ثبوت فارمولو لازمي طور [[منطقي صداقت]] (Tautology) آهي.

اهي مختلف منطقي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ تقابلي مطالعو پڻ ڪندا آهن ته جيئن انهن جون منفرد خاصيتون واضح ٿي سگهن.

مابعد منطق جو هڪ بنيادي موضوع [[نحو]] (سنٽيڪس) ۽ [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) جي وچ ۾ تعلق آهي. رسمي منطقي نظام جا نحوي ضابطا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدمات مان نتيجا ڪيئن اخذ ڪيا وڃن، يعني ثبوت ڪيئن ترتيب ڏنا وڃن. جڏهن⁠ته معنيات اهو طئي ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙا جملا سچا آهن ۽ ڪهڙا ڪوڙا. انهيءَ بنياد تي دليل جي صحت جو تعين ڪيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صحيح دليل ۾ اهو ناممڪن هوندو آهي ته مقدمات سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو هجي.

نحو ۽ معنيات جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي بابت اهم سوالن ۾ اهو شامل آهي ته ڇا هر صحيح دليل قابلِ ثبوت آهي، ۽ ڇا هر قابلِ ثبوت دليل لازمي طور صحيح به هوندو آهي.

مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته منطقي نظام [[مڪمليت]] (ڪمپليٽنيس)، [[صحت (منطق)|صحت]] (سائونڊنيس) ۽ [[هم آهنگي (منطق)|هم آهنگي]] (ڪنسسٽنسي) جون خاصيتون رکن ٿا يا نه. ان کان علاوه، اهي اهو به ڏسندا آهن ته اهي نظام [[فيصلي پذيري]] (ڊسائيڊبلٽي) رکن ٿا يا نه، ۽ انهن جي [[اظهاري قوت]] ڪيتري آهي.

انهن موضوعن جي تحقيق دوران مابعد منطق گهڻو ڪري تجريدي رياضيائي استدلال تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جنهن جو مقصد انهن مسئلن بابت صحيح، عام ۽ جامع نتيجا حاصل ڪرڻ هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1pp=xliii–xliv|2a1=Sider|2y=2010|2pp=4–6|3a1=Schagrin}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>54d3bq5v2hagzwwy4r4be42l0ejzl9u</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399228</id>
      <parentid>399227</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T14:52:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399228</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="95443" sha1="l8020huo7ubxclbkqk3kldfixoekm01" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (ڪوانٽيفڪيشن) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}

==تحقيق جا شعبا==

منطق جو مطالعو مختلف علمي شعبن ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪيترن ئي حالتن ۾ ان جي رسمي طريقن کي انهن موضوعن تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي پاڻ منطق جي دائري کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[اخلاقيات]] يا [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Logic and other disciplines|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10}}

ٻين حالتن ۾ خود منطق ئي ڪنهن ٻئي علمي شعبي ۾ تحقيق جو موضوع بڻجي ٿي. اهو مختلف طريقن سان ٿي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، منطق جي بنيادي تصورن سان لاڳاپيل فلسفياتي مفروضن جو جائزو وٺڻ، منطقي نظامن کي رياضيائي بناوتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جو تجزيو ڪرڻ، يا رسمي منطقي نظامن جي تجريدي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ۽ ڀيٽ ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Features and problems of logic|2a1=Gödel|2y=1984|2pp=447–469|2loc=Russell's mathematical logic|3a1=Monk|3y=1976|3pp=1–9|3loc=Introduction}}

===منطق جو فلسفو ۽ فلسفياتي منطق===
{{Main|منطق جو فلسفو|فلسفياتي منطق}}

'''منطق جو فلسفو''' (فلاسافي آف لاجڪ) فلسفي جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطق جي دائري، ماهيت ۽ بنيادي نوعيت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} ان ۾ انهن ڪيترن ئي مفروضن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيڪي منطق ۾ ضمني طور قبول ڪيا ويندا آهن، جيئن ان جي بنيادي تصورن جي تعريف يا انهن سان لاڳاپيل [[مابعدالطبيعات|مابعدالطبيعي]] مفروضا.{{sfn|Jacquette|2006|loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|pp=1–12}}

هي شعبي منطقي نظامن جي درجابندي ۽ انهن سان وابسته [[وجوديات|وجودياتي]] وابستگين (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪمٽمينٽ) جو پڻ مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=§Problems of ontology}}

'''فلسفياتي منطق''' (فلاسافيڪل لاجڪ) منطق جي فلسفي جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطقي طريقن کي فلسفي جي مسئلن تي لاڳو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Burgess|2y=2009|2loc=1. Classical logic}}
اهو استعمال گهڻو ڪري [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي]] يا [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظامن]] جي صورت ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Goble|1y=2001|1loc=Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32}}

===مابعد منطق===
{{Main|مابعد منطق}}

'''مابعد منطق''' (ميٽالاجڪ) اهو علمي شعبو آهي، جيڪو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.

مثال طور، جڏهن ڪو نئون رسمي منطقي نظام تيار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ته مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو معلوم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته ان نظام ۾ ڪهڙا فارمولا ثابت ڪري سگهجن ٿا. اهي اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته ڇا اهڙو [[الگورٿم]] تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو هر فارمولي لاءِ ثبوت ڳولي سگهي، ۽ ڇا ان نظام ۾ هر قابلِ ثبوت فارمولو لازمي طور [[منطقي صداقت]] (Tautology) آهي.

اهي مختلف منطقي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ تقابلي مطالعو پڻ ڪندا آهن ته جيئن انهن جون منفرد خاصيتون واضح ٿي سگهن.

مابعد منطق جو هڪ بنيادي موضوع [[نحو]] (سنٽيڪس) ۽ [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) جي وچ ۾ تعلق آهي. رسمي منطقي نظام جا نحوي ضابطا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدمات مان نتيجا ڪيئن اخذ ڪيا وڃن، يعني ثبوت ڪيئن ترتيب ڏنا وڃن. جڏهن⁠ته معنيات اهو طئي ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙا جملا سچا آهن ۽ ڪهڙا ڪوڙا. انهيءَ بنياد تي دليل جي صحت جو تعين ڪيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صحيح دليل ۾ اهو ناممڪن هوندو آهي ته مقدمات سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو هجي.

نحو ۽ معنيات جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي بابت اهم سوالن ۾ اهو شامل آهي ته ڇا هر صحيح دليل قابلِ ثبوت آهي، ۽ ڇا هر قابلِ ثبوت دليل لازمي طور صحيح به هوندو آهي.

مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته منطقي نظام [[مڪمليت]] (ڪمپليٽنيس)، [[صحت (منطق)|صحت]] (سائونڊنيس) ۽ [[هم آهنگي (منطق)|هم آهنگي]] (ڪنسسٽنسي) جون خاصيتون رکن ٿا يا نه. ان کان علاوه، اهي اهو به ڏسندا آهن ته اهي نظام [[فيصلي پذيري]] (ڊسائيڊبلٽي) رکن ٿا يا نه، ۽ انهن جي [[اظهاري قوت]] ڪيتري آهي.

انهن موضوعن جي تحقيق دوران مابعد منطق گهڻو ڪري تجريدي رياضيائي استدلال تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جنهن جو مقصد انهن مسئلن بابت صحيح، عام ۽ جامع نتيجا حاصل ڪرڻ هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1pp=xliii–xliv|2a1=Sider|2y=2010|2pp=4–6|3a1=Schagrin}}

===رياضيائي منطق===
{{Main|رياضيائي منطق}}

[[File:Russell1907-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=برٽرينڊ رسل جو تصوير|[[برٽرينڊ رسل]] رياضيائي منطق جي ترقي ۾ ڪيترائي اهم علمي حصا ورتا.{{sfn|Irvine|2022}}]]

اصطلاح '''رياضيائي منطق''' (Mathematical logic) ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[رسمي منطق]] جي مترادف طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر وڌيڪ محدود معنيٰ ۾ اهو رياضيات جي اندر منطق جي مطالعي ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. ان جون اهم شاخون [[ماڊل نظريو]]، [[ثبوت جو نظريو]]، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) ۽ [[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Li|1y=2010|1p=ix|2a1=Rautenberg|2y=2010|2p=15|3a1=Quine|3y=1981|3p=1|4a1=Stolyar|4y=1984|4p=2}}

رياضيائي منطق جي تحقيق جو وڏو حصو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي رياضيائي خاصيتن جي مطالعي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. ان سان گڏ اهو پڻ ڏٺو ويندو آهي ته منطق کي رياضيائي استدلال جي تجزيي يا [[رياضيات جا بنياد|رياضيات جي منطقي بنيادن]] جي قيام لاءِ ڪيئن استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfn|Stolyar|1984|pp=3–6}}

ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ رياضيائي منطق جو هڪ اهم مقصد [[منطق پرستي]] (لاجڪئزم) واري پروگرام کي اڳتي وڌائڻ هو، جنهن جي شروعات [[گاٽلوب فريگي]]، [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] جهڙن فلسفي-منطق دانن ڪئي هئي. هن پروگرام موجب سڀئي رياضيائي نظريا اصل ۾ منطقي [[منطقي صداقت|صداقتون]] (Tautologies) آهن، ۽ ان کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ رياضيات کي منطق تائين محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي. پر هن پروگرام کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جون گهڻيون ڪوششون ناڪام ويون. مثال طور، فريگي جو منصوبو سندس ڪتاب '' گرُنڊگيزيٽسي:Grundgesetze'' (بنيادي قانون) ۾ [[رسل جو تضاد|رسل جي تضاد]] سبب متاثر ٿيو، جڏهن⁠ته [[هلبرٽ جو پروگرام]] [[گوڊل جا نامڪمليت جا نظريا|گوڊل جي نامڪمليت جي نظرين]] سبب ناڪام ثابت ٿيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|1loc=Gödel's incompleteness theorems|2a1=Linsky|2y=2011|2p=4|3a1=Richardson|3y=1998|3p=15}}

[[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) جي شروعات [[جارج ڪينٽر]] لامحدوديت جي مطالعي دوران ڪئي. هي شعبي رياضيائي منطق جي ڪيترن ئي اهم ۽ پيچيده مسئلن جو سرچشمو بڻيو، جن ۾ [[ڪينٽر جو نظريو]]، [[اختيار جو اصول]] (اگزيوم آف چوائس)، [[مسلسل مفروضي]] (ڪنٽينيوئم ھيپوٿيسز) جي آزاديءَ جو سوال، ۽ [[وڏي ڪارڊينل]] (لارج ڪارڊينل) اصولن بابت جديد بحث شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Bagaria|1y=2021|2a1=Cunningham}}

[[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) رياضيائي منطق جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا حسابي مسئلن کي حل ڪرڻ لاءِ مؤثر طريقن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان جو هڪ بنيادي مقصد اهو معلوم ڪرڻ آهي ته ڪنهن خاص مسئلي کي [[الگورٿم]] ذريعي حل ڪرڻ ممڪن آهي يا نه. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صحيح عددن بابت ڪو خاص دعويٰ ڏني وڃي، ته هي شعبي اهو جاچيندو آهي ته ڇا اهڙو الگورٿم تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو اهو طئي ڪري سگهي ته اها دعويٰ صحيح آهي يا غلط. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ [[ٽيورنگ مشين]] (Turing machine) سميت مختلف نظرياتي ماڊلن ۽ اوزارن کي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006a|1loc=Computability Theory|2a1=Leary|2a2=Kristiansen|2y=2015|2p=195}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>l8020huo7ubxclbkqk3kldfixoekm01</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399229</id>
      <parentid>399228</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T14:54:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399229</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="95452" sha1="2mbyy5imx1qc84j3ow73dktqhbst3px" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (ڪوانٽيفڪيشن) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}

==تحقيق جا شعبا==

منطق جو مطالعو مختلف علمي شعبن ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪيترن ئي حالتن ۾ ان جي رسمي طريقن کي انهن موضوعن تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي پاڻ منطق جي دائري کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[اخلاقيات]] يا [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Logic and other disciplines|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10}}

ٻين حالتن ۾ خود منطق ئي ڪنهن ٻئي علمي شعبي ۾ تحقيق جو موضوع بڻجي ٿي. اهو مختلف طريقن سان ٿي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، منطق جي بنيادي تصورن سان لاڳاپيل فلسفياتي مفروضن جو جائزو وٺڻ، منطقي نظامن کي رياضيائي بناوتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جو تجزيو ڪرڻ، يا رسمي منطقي نظامن جي تجريدي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ۽ ڀيٽ ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Features and problems of logic|2a1=Gödel|2y=1984|2pp=447–469|2loc=Russell's mathematical logic|3a1=Monk|3y=1976|3pp=1–9|3loc=Introduction}}

===منطق جو فلسفو ۽ فلسفياتي منطق===
{{Main|منطق جو فلسفو|فلسفياتي منطق}}

'''منطق جو فلسفو''' (فلاسافي آف لاجڪ) فلسفي جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطق جي دائري، ماهيت ۽ بنيادي نوعيت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} ان ۾ انهن ڪيترن ئي مفروضن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيڪي منطق ۾ ضمني طور قبول ڪيا ويندا آهن، جيئن ان جي بنيادي تصورن جي تعريف يا انهن سان لاڳاپيل [[مابعدالطبيعات|مابعدالطبيعي]] مفروضا.{{sfn|Jacquette|2006|loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|pp=1–12}}

هي شعبي منطقي نظامن جي درجابندي ۽ انهن سان وابسته [[وجوديات|وجودياتي]] وابستگين (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪمٽمينٽ) جو پڻ مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=§Problems of ontology}}

'''فلسفياتي منطق''' (فلاسافيڪل لاجڪ) منطق جي فلسفي جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطقي طريقن کي فلسفي جي مسئلن تي لاڳو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Burgess|2y=2009|2loc=1. Classical logic}}
اهو استعمال گهڻو ڪري [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي]] يا [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظامن]] جي صورت ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Goble|1y=2001|1loc=Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32}}

===مابعد منطق===
{{Main|مابعد منطق}}

'''مابعد منطق''' (ميٽالاجڪ) اهو علمي شعبو آهي، جيڪو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.

مثال طور، جڏهن ڪو نئون رسمي منطقي نظام تيار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ته مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو معلوم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته ان نظام ۾ ڪهڙا فارمولا ثابت ڪري سگهجن ٿا. اهي اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته ڇا اهڙو [[الگورٿم]] تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو هر فارمولي لاءِ ثبوت ڳولي سگهي، ۽ ڇا ان نظام ۾ هر قابلِ ثبوت فارمولو لازمي طور [[منطقي صداقت]] (Tautology) آهي.

اهي مختلف منطقي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ تقابلي مطالعو پڻ ڪندا آهن ته جيئن انهن جون منفرد خاصيتون واضح ٿي سگهن.

مابعد منطق جو هڪ بنيادي موضوع [[نحو]] (سنٽيڪس) ۽ [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) جي وچ ۾ تعلق آهي. رسمي منطقي نظام جا نحوي ضابطا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدمات مان نتيجا ڪيئن اخذ ڪيا وڃن، يعني ثبوت ڪيئن ترتيب ڏنا وڃن. جڏهن⁠ته معنيات اهو طئي ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙا جملا سچا آهن ۽ ڪهڙا ڪوڙا. انهيءَ بنياد تي دليل جي صحت جو تعين ڪيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صحيح دليل ۾ اهو ناممڪن هوندو آهي ته مقدمات سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو هجي.

نحو ۽ معنيات جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي بابت اهم سوالن ۾ اهو شامل آهي ته ڇا هر صحيح دليل قابلِ ثبوت آهي، ۽ ڇا هر قابلِ ثبوت دليل لازمي طور صحيح به هوندو آهي.

مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته منطقي نظام [[مڪمليت]] (ڪمپليٽنيس)، [[صحت (منطق)|صحت]] (سائونڊنيس) ۽ [[هم آهنگي (منطق)|هم آهنگي]] (ڪنسسٽنسي) جون خاصيتون رکن ٿا يا نه. ان کان علاوه، اهي اهو به ڏسندا آهن ته اهي نظام [[فيصلي پذيري]] (ڊسائيڊبلٽي) رکن ٿا يا نه، ۽ انهن جي [[اظهاري قوت]] ڪيتري آهي.

انهن موضوعن جي تحقيق دوران مابعد منطق گهڻو ڪري تجريدي رياضيائي استدلال تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جنهن جو مقصد انهن مسئلن بابت صحيح، عام ۽ جامع نتيجا حاصل ڪرڻ هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1pp=xliii–xliv|2a1=Sider|2y=2010|2pp=4–6|3a1=Schagrin}}

===رياضيائي منطق===
{{Main|رياضيائي منطق}}

[[File:Russell1907-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=برٽرينڊ رسل جو تصوير|[[برٽرينڊ رسل]] رياضيائي منطق جي ترقي ۾ ڪيترائي اهم علمي حصا ورتا.{{sfn|Irvine|2022}}]]

اصطلاح '''رياضيائي منطق''' (ميٿميٽيڪل لاجڪ) ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[رسمي منطق]] جي مترادف طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر وڌيڪ محدود معنيٰ ۾ اهو رياضيات جي اندر منطق جي مطالعي ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. ان جون اهم شاخون [[ماڊل نظريو]]، [[ثبوت جو نظريو]]، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) ۽ [[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Li|1y=2010|1p=ix|2a1=Rautenberg|2y=2010|2p=15|3a1=Quine|3y=1981|3p=1|4a1=Stolyar|4y=1984|4p=2}}

رياضيائي منطق جي تحقيق جو وڏو حصو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي رياضيائي خاصيتن جي مطالعي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. ان سان گڏ اهو پڻ ڏٺو ويندو آهي ته منطق کي رياضيائي استدلال جي تجزيي يا [[رياضيات جا بنياد|رياضيات جي منطقي بنيادن]] جي قيام لاءِ ڪيئن استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfn|Stolyar|1984|pp=3–6}}

ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ رياضيائي منطق جو هڪ اهم مقصد [[منطق پرستي]] (لاجڪئزم) واري پروگرام کي اڳتي وڌائڻ هو، جنهن جي شروعات [[گاٽلوب فريگي]]، [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] جهڙن فلسفي-منطق دانن ڪئي هئي. هن پروگرام موجب سڀئي رياضيائي نظريا اصل ۾ منطقي [[منطقي صداقت|صداقتون]] (Tautologies) آهن، ۽ ان کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ رياضيات کي منطق تائين محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي. پر هن پروگرام کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جون گهڻيون ڪوششون ناڪام ويون. مثال طور، فريگي جو منصوبو سندس ڪتاب '' گرُنڊگيزيٽسي:Grundgesetze'' (بنيادي قانون) ۾ [[رسل جو تضاد|رسل جي تضاد]] سبب متاثر ٿيو، جڏهن⁠ته [[هلبرٽ جو پروگرام]] [[گوڊل جا نامڪمليت جا نظريا|گوڊل جي نامڪمليت جي نظرين]] سبب ناڪام ثابت ٿيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|1loc=Gödel's incompleteness theorems|2a1=Linsky|2y=2011|2p=4|3a1=Richardson|3y=1998|3p=15}}

[[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) جي شروعات [[جارج ڪينٽر]] لامحدوديت جي مطالعي دوران ڪئي. هي شعبي رياضيائي منطق جي ڪيترن ئي اهم ۽ پيچيده مسئلن جو سرچشمو بڻيو، جن ۾ [[ڪينٽر جو نظريو]]، [[اختيار جو اصول]] (اگزيوم آف چوائس)، [[مسلسل مفروضي]] (ڪنٽينيوئم ھيپوٿيسز) جي آزاديءَ جو سوال، ۽ [[وڏي ڪارڊينل]] (لارج ڪارڊينل) اصولن بابت جديد بحث شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Bagaria|1y=2021|2a1=Cunningham}}

[[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) رياضيائي منطق جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا حسابي مسئلن کي حل ڪرڻ لاءِ مؤثر طريقن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان جو هڪ بنيادي مقصد اهو معلوم ڪرڻ آهي ته ڪنهن خاص مسئلي کي [[الگورٿم]] ذريعي حل ڪرڻ ممڪن آهي يا نه. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صحيح عددن بابت ڪو خاص دعويٰ ڏني وڃي، ته هي شعبي اهو جاچيندو آهي ته ڇا اهڙو الگورٿم تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو اهو طئي ڪري سگهي ته اها دعويٰ صحيح آهي يا غلط. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ [[ٽيورنگ مشين]] (Turing machine) سميت مختلف نظرياتي ماڊلن ۽ اوزارن کي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006a|1loc=Computability Theory|2a1=Leary|2a2=Kristiansen|2y=2015|2p=195}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>2mbyy5imx1qc84j3ow73dktqhbst3px</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399231</id>
      <parentid>399229</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T14:58:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399231</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="98570" sha1="c4j4apdyxq7bv7vww0cahrnigodaucn" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (ڪوانٽيفڪيشن) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}

==تحقيق جا شعبا==

منطق جو مطالعو مختلف علمي شعبن ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪيترن ئي حالتن ۾ ان جي رسمي طريقن کي انهن موضوعن تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي پاڻ منطق جي دائري کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[اخلاقيات]] يا [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Logic and other disciplines|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10}}

ٻين حالتن ۾ خود منطق ئي ڪنهن ٻئي علمي شعبي ۾ تحقيق جو موضوع بڻجي ٿي. اهو مختلف طريقن سان ٿي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، منطق جي بنيادي تصورن سان لاڳاپيل فلسفياتي مفروضن جو جائزو وٺڻ، منطقي نظامن کي رياضيائي بناوتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جو تجزيو ڪرڻ، يا رسمي منطقي نظامن جي تجريدي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ۽ ڀيٽ ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Features and problems of logic|2a1=Gödel|2y=1984|2pp=447–469|2loc=Russell's mathematical logic|3a1=Monk|3y=1976|3pp=1–9|3loc=Introduction}}

===منطق جو فلسفو ۽ فلسفياتي منطق===
{{Main|منطق جو فلسفو|فلسفياتي منطق}}

'''منطق جو فلسفو''' (فلاسافي آف لاجڪ) فلسفي جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطق جي دائري، ماهيت ۽ بنيادي نوعيت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} ان ۾ انهن ڪيترن ئي مفروضن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيڪي منطق ۾ ضمني طور قبول ڪيا ويندا آهن، جيئن ان جي بنيادي تصورن جي تعريف يا انهن سان لاڳاپيل [[مابعدالطبيعات|مابعدالطبيعي]] مفروضا.{{sfn|Jacquette|2006|loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|pp=1–12}}

هي شعبي منطقي نظامن جي درجابندي ۽ انهن سان وابسته [[وجوديات|وجودياتي]] وابستگين (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪمٽمينٽ) جو پڻ مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=§Problems of ontology}}

'''فلسفياتي منطق''' (فلاسافيڪل لاجڪ) منطق جي فلسفي جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطقي طريقن کي فلسفي جي مسئلن تي لاڳو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Burgess|2y=2009|2loc=1. Classical logic}}
اهو استعمال گهڻو ڪري [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي]] يا [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظامن]] جي صورت ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Goble|1y=2001|1loc=Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32}}

===مابعد منطق===
{{Main|مابعد منطق}}

'''مابعد منطق''' (ميٽالاجڪ) اهو علمي شعبو آهي، جيڪو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.

مثال طور، جڏهن ڪو نئون رسمي منطقي نظام تيار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ته مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو معلوم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته ان نظام ۾ ڪهڙا فارمولا ثابت ڪري سگهجن ٿا. اهي اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته ڇا اهڙو [[الگورٿم]] تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو هر فارمولي لاءِ ثبوت ڳولي سگهي، ۽ ڇا ان نظام ۾ هر قابلِ ثبوت فارمولو لازمي طور [[منطقي صداقت]] (Tautology) آهي.

اهي مختلف منطقي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ تقابلي مطالعو پڻ ڪندا آهن ته جيئن انهن جون منفرد خاصيتون واضح ٿي سگهن.

مابعد منطق جو هڪ بنيادي موضوع [[نحو]] (سنٽيڪس) ۽ [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) جي وچ ۾ تعلق آهي. رسمي منطقي نظام جا نحوي ضابطا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدمات مان نتيجا ڪيئن اخذ ڪيا وڃن، يعني ثبوت ڪيئن ترتيب ڏنا وڃن. جڏهن⁠ته معنيات اهو طئي ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙا جملا سچا آهن ۽ ڪهڙا ڪوڙا. انهيءَ بنياد تي دليل جي صحت جو تعين ڪيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صحيح دليل ۾ اهو ناممڪن هوندو آهي ته مقدمات سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو هجي.

نحو ۽ معنيات جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي بابت اهم سوالن ۾ اهو شامل آهي ته ڇا هر صحيح دليل قابلِ ثبوت آهي، ۽ ڇا هر قابلِ ثبوت دليل لازمي طور صحيح به هوندو آهي.

مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته منطقي نظام [[مڪمليت]] (ڪمپليٽنيس)، [[صحت (منطق)|صحت]] (سائونڊنيس) ۽ [[هم آهنگي (منطق)|هم آهنگي]] (ڪنسسٽنسي) جون خاصيتون رکن ٿا يا نه. ان کان علاوه، اهي اهو به ڏسندا آهن ته اهي نظام [[فيصلي پذيري]] (ڊسائيڊبلٽي) رکن ٿا يا نه، ۽ انهن جي [[اظهاري قوت]] ڪيتري آهي.

انهن موضوعن جي تحقيق دوران مابعد منطق گهڻو ڪري تجريدي رياضيائي استدلال تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جنهن جو مقصد انهن مسئلن بابت صحيح، عام ۽ جامع نتيجا حاصل ڪرڻ هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1pp=xliii–xliv|2a1=Sider|2y=2010|2pp=4–6|3a1=Schagrin}}

===رياضيائي منطق===
{{Main|رياضيائي منطق}}

[[File:Russell1907-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=برٽرينڊ رسل جو تصوير|[[برٽرينڊ رسل]] رياضيائي منطق جي ترقي ۾ ڪيترائي اهم علمي حصا ورتا.{{sfn|Irvine|2022}}]]

اصطلاح '''رياضيائي منطق''' (ميٿميٽيڪل لاجڪ) ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[رسمي منطق]] جي مترادف طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر وڌيڪ محدود معنيٰ ۾ اهو رياضيات جي اندر منطق جي مطالعي ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. ان جون اهم شاخون [[ماڊل نظريو]]، [[ثبوت جو نظريو]]، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) ۽ [[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Li|1y=2010|1p=ix|2a1=Rautenberg|2y=2010|2p=15|3a1=Quine|3y=1981|3p=1|4a1=Stolyar|4y=1984|4p=2}}

رياضيائي منطق جي تحقيق جو وڏو حصو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي رياضيائي خاصيتن جي مطالعي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. ان سان گڏ اهو پڻ ڏٺو ويندو آهي ته منطق کي رياضيائي استدلال جي تجزيي يا [[رياضيات جا بنياد|رياضيات جي منطقي بنيادن]] جي قيام لاءِ ڪيئن استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfn|Stolyar|1984|pp=3–6}}

ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ رياضيائي منطق جو هڪ اهم مقصد [[منطق پرستي]] (لاجڪئزم) واري پروگرام کي اڳتي وڌائڻ هو، جنهن جي شروعات [[گاٽلوب فريگي]]، [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] جهڙن فلسفي-منطق دانن ڪئي هئي. هن پروگرام موجب سڀئي رياضيائي نظريا اصل ۾ منطقي [[منطقي صداقت|صداقتون]] (Tautologies) آهن، ۽ ان کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ رياضيات کي منطق تائين محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي. پر هن پروگرام کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جون گهڻيون ڪوششون ناڪام ويون. مثال طور، فريگي جو منصوبو سندس ڪتاب '' گرُنڊگيزيٽسي:Grundgesetze'' (بنيادي قانون) ۾ [[رسل جو تضاد|رسل جي تضاد]] سبب متاثر ٿيو، جڏهن⁠ته [[هلبرٽ جو پروگرام]] [[گوڊل جا نامڪمليت جا نظريا|گوڊل جي نامڪمليت جي نظرين]] سبب ناڪام ثابت ٿيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|1loc=Gödel's incompleteness theorems|2a1=Linsky|2y=2011|2p=4|3a1=Richardson|3y=1998|3p=15}}

[[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) جي شروعات [[جارج ڪينٽر]] لامحدوديت جي مطالعي دوران ڪئي. هي شعبي رياضيائي منطق جي ڪيترن ئي اهم ۽ پيچيده مسئلن جو سرچشمو بڻيو، جن ۾ [[ڪينٽر جو نظريو]]، [[اختيار جو اصول]] (اگزيوم آف چوائس)، [[مسلسل مفروضي]] (ڪنٽينيوئم ھيپوٿيسز) جي آزاديءَ جو سوال، ۽ [[وڏي ڪارڊينل]] (لارج ڪارڊينل) اصولن بابت جديد بحث شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Bagaria|1y=2021|2a1=Cunningham}}

[[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) رياضيائي منطق جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا حسابي مسئلن کي حل ڪرڻ لاءِ مؤثر طريقن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان جو هڪ بنيادي مقصد اهو معلوم ڪرڻ آهي ته ڪنهن خاص مسئلي کي [[الگورٿم]] ذريعي حل ڪرڻ ممڪن آهي يا نه. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صحيح عددن بابت ڪو خاص دعويٰ ڏني وڃي، ته هي شعبي اهو جاچيندو آهي ته ڇا اهڙو الگورٿم تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو اهو طئي ڪري سگهي ته اها دعويٰ صحيح آهي يا غلط. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ [[ٽيورنگ مشين]] (Turing machine) سميت مختلف نظرياتي ماڊلن ۽ اوزارن کي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006a|1loc=Computability Theory|2a1=Leary|2a2=Kristiansen|2y=2015|2p=195}}

===حسابياتي منطق===
{{Main|حسابياتي منطق|ڪمپيوٽر سائنس ۾ منطق}}

[[File:TransistorANDgate.png|thumb|ٽرانزسٽرن جي مدد سان تيار ڪيل هڪ AND گيٽ جو خاڪو. [[منطقي عطف]] (AND) [[بولين منطق]] جي بنيادي عملن مان هڪ آهي، جنهن کي برقي طور مختلف طريقن سان، مثال طور ٻن [[ٽرانزسٽر]]ن ذريعي، عمل ۾ آڻي سگهجي ٿو.]]

'''حسابياتي منطق''' (ڪمپيوٽيشنل لاجڪ) منطق ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ڪمپيوٽرن جي ذريعي رياضيائي استدلال ۽ رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عملي صورت ڏيڻ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان ۾، مثال طور، [[خودڪار نظريي ثابت ڪندڙ]] (آٽوميٽڪ ٿيورم پروور) شامل آهن، جيڪي [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] استعمال ڪندي، بغير انساني مداخلت جي، مقدمات مان گهربل نتيجي تائين مرحليوار ثبوت تيار ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Paulson|1y=2018|1pp=1–14|2a1=Castaño|2y=2018|2p=2|3a1=Wile|3a2=Goss|3a3=Roesner|3y=2005|3p=447}}

[[منطقي پروگرامنگ]] (لاجڪ پروگرامنگ) جون ٻوليون خاص طور اهڙي نموني تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن، جو حقيقتن کي منطقي فارمولن جي صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ۽ انهن مان استدلال ذريعي نوان نتيجا اخذ ڪري سگهجن. مثال طور، [[پرولاگ]] (Prolog) محمولي منطق تي ٻڌل هڪ منطقي پروگرامنگ ٻولي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Clocksin|1a2=Mellish|1y=2003|1pp=237–238, 252–255, 257|1loc=The Relation of Prolog to Logic|2a1=Daintith|2a2=Wright|2y=2008|2loc=Logic Programming Languages}}

ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽنگ سان لاڳاپيل مسئلن جي حل لاءِ پڻ منطقي تصورن کي استعمال ڪندا آهن. هن ميدان ۾ [[ڪلاڊ شينن]] جو ڪم انتهائي اثرائتو رهيو، جنهن ڏيکاريو ته [[بولين منطق]] کي ڪمپيوٽرن جي برقي سرڪٽن کي سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=O'Regan|1y=2016|1p=49|2a1=Calderbank|2a2=Sloane|2y=2001|2p=768}}

اهو ڪم [[منطقي دروازو|منطقي دروازن]] (لاجڪ گيٽ) ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي اهڙا برقي سرڪٽ هوندا آهن، جن ۾ هڪ يا وڌيڪ ان پُٽ ۽ عام طور هڪ آئوٽ پُٽ هوندو آهي. انهن ۾ منطقي قضين جي صداقت جا قدر برقي وولٽيج جي سطحن جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهڙيءَ طرح، سرڪٽ جي ان پُٽن تي مناسب وولٽيج لاڳو ڪري ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ جي وولٽيج کي ماپي، مختلف منطقي عملن جي نقل (سميوليشن) ڪئي ويندي آهي.{{sfn|Daintith|Wright|2008|loc=Logic Gate}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>c4j4apdyxq7bv7vww0cahrnigodaucn</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399232</id>
      <parentid>399231</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T15:07:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399232</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="101050" sha1="bovrnfjoxtjm6ztmc0co34awv6bbsaa" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (ڪوانٽيفڪيشن) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}

==تحقيق جا شعبا==

منطق جو مطالعو مختلف علمي شعبن ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪيترن ئي حالتن ۾ ان جي رسمي طريقن کي انهن موضوعن تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي پاڻ منطق جي دائري کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[اخلاقيات]] يا [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Logic and other disciplines|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10}}

ٻين حالتن ۾ خود منطق ئي ڪنهن ٻئي علمي شعبي ۾ تحقيق جو موضوع بڻجي ٿي. اهو مختلف طريقن سان ٿي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، منطق جي بنيادي تصورن سان لاڳاپيل فلسفياتي مفروضن جو جائزو وٺڻ، منطقي نظامن کي رياضيائي بناوتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جو تجزيو ڪرڻ، يا رسمي منطقي نظامن جي تجريدي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ۽ ڀيٽ ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Features and problems of logic|2a1=Gödel|2y=1984|2pp=447–469|2loc=Russell's mathematical logic|3a1=Monk|3y=1976|3pp=1–9|3loc=Introduction}}

===منطق جو فلسفو ۽ فلسفياتي منطق===
{{Main|منطق جو فلسفو|فلسفياتي منطق}}

'''منطق جو فلسفو''' (فلاسافي آف لاجڪ) فلسفي جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطق جي دائري، ماهيت ۽ بنيادي نوعيت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} ان ۾ انهن ڪيترن ئي مفروضن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيڪي منطق ۾ ضمني طور قبول ڪيا ويندا آهن، جيئن ان جي بنيادي تصورن جي تعريف يا انهن سان لاڳاپيل [[مابعدالطبيعات|مابعدالطبيعي]] مفروضا.{{sfn|Jacquette|2006|loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|pp=1–12}}

هي شعبي منطقي نظامن جي درجابندي ۽ انهن سان وابسته [[وجوديات|وجودياتي]] وابستگين (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪمٽمينٽ) جو پڻ مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=§Problems of ontology}}

'''فلسفياتي منطق''' (فلاسافيڪل لاجڪ) منطق جي فلسفي جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطقي طريقن کي فلسفي جي مسئلن تي لاڳو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Burgess|2y=2009|2loc=1. Classical logic}}
اهو استعمال گهڻو ڪري [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي]] يا [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظامن]] جي صورت ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Goble|1y=2001|1loc=Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32}}

===مابعد منطق===
{{Main|مابعد منطق}}

'''مابعد منطق''' (ميٽالاجڪ) اهو علمي شعبو آهي، جيڪو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.

مثال طور، جڏهن ڪو نئون رسمي منطقي نظام تيار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ته مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو معلوم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته ان نظام ۾ ڪهڙا فارمولا ثابت ڪري سگهجن ٿا. اهي اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته ڇا اهڙو [[الگورٿم]] تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو هر فارمولي لاءِ ثبوت ڳولي سگهي، ۽ ڇا ان نظام ۾ هر قابلِ ثبوت فارمولو لازمي طور [[منطقي صداقت]] (Tautology) آهي.

اهي مختلف منطقي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ تقابلي مطالعو پڻ ڪندا آهن ته جيئن انهن جون منفرد خاصيتون واضح ٿي سگهن.

مابعد منطق جو هڪ بنيادي موضوع [[نحو]] (سنٽيڪس) ۽ [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) جي وچ ۾ تعلق آهي. رسمي منطقي نظام جا نحوي ضابطا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدمات مان نتيجا ڪيئن اخذ ڪيا وڃن، يعني ثبوت ڪيئن ترتيب ڏنا وڃن. جڏهن⁠ته معنيات اهو طئي ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙا جملا سچا آهن ۽ ڪهڙا ڪوڙا. انهيءَ بنياد تي دليل جي صحت جو تعين ڪيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صحيح دليل ۾ اهو ناممڪن هوندو آهي ته مقدمات سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو هجي.

نحو ۽ معنيات جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي بابت اهم سوالن ۾ اهو شامل آهي ته ڇا هر صحيح دليل قابلِ ثبوت آهي، ۽ ڇا هر قابلِ ثبوت دليل لازمي طور صحيح به هوندو آهي.

مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته منطقي نظام [[مڪمليت]] (ڪمپليٽنيس)، [[صحت (منطق)|صحت]] (سائونڊنيس) ۽ [[هم آهنگي (منطق)|هم آهنگي]] (ڪنسسٽنسي) جون خاصيتون رکن ٿا يا نه. ان کان علاوه، اهي اهو به ڏسندا آهن ته اهي نظام [[فيصلي پذيري]] (ڊسائيڊبلٽي) رکن ٿا يا نه، ۽ انهن جي [[اظهاري قوت]] ڪيتري آهي.

انهن موضوعن جي تحقيق دوران مابعد منطق گهڻو ڪري تجريدي رياضيائي استدلال تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جنهن جو مقصد انهن مسئلن بابت صحيح، عام ۽ جامع نتيجا حاصل ڪرڻ هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1pp=xliii–xliv|2a1=Sider|2y=2010|2pp=4–6|3a1=Schagrin}}

===رياضيائي منطق===
{{Main|رياضيائي منطق}}

[[File:Russell1907-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=برٽرينڊ رسل جو تصوير|[[برٽرينڊ رسل]] رياضيائي منطق جي ترقي ۾ ڪيترائي اهم علمي حصا ورتا.{{sfn|Irvine|2022}}]]

اصطلاح '''رياضيائي منطق''' (ميٿميٽيڪل لاجڪ) ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[رسمي منطق]] جي مترادف طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر وڌيڪ محدود معنيٰ ۾ اهو رياضيات جي اندر منطق جي مطالعي ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. ان جون اهم شاخون [[ماڊل نظريو]]، [[ثبوت جو نظريو]]، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) ۽ [[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Li|1y=2010|1p=ix|2a1=Rautenberg|2y=2010|2p=15|3a1=Quine|3y=1981|3p=1|4a1=Stolyar|4y=1984|4p=2}}

رياضيائي منطق جي تحقيق جو وڏو حصو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي رياضيائي خاصيتن جي مطالعي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. ان سان گڏ اهو پڻ ڏٺو ويندو آهي ته منطق کي رياضيائي استدلال جي تجزيي يا [[رياضيات جا بنياد|رياضيات جي منطقي بنيادن]] جي قيام لاءِ ڪيئن استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfn|Stolyar|1984|pp=3–6}}

ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ رياضيائي منطق جو هڪ اهم مقصد [[منطق پرستي]] (لاجڪئزم) واري پروگرام کي اڳتي وڌائڻ هو، جنهن جي شروعات [[گاٽلوب فريگي]]، [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] جهڙن فلسفي-منطق دانن ڪئي هئي. هن پروگرام موجب سڀئي رياضيائي نظريا اصل ۾ منطقي [[منطقي صداقت|صداقتون]] (Tautologies) آهن، ۽ ان کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ رياضيات کي منطق تائين محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي. پر هن پروگرام کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جون گهڻيون ڪوششون ناڪام ويون. مثال طور، فريگي جو منصوبو سندس ڪتاب '' گرُنڊگيزيٽسي:Grundgesetze'' (بنيادي قانون) ۾ [[رسل جو تضاد|رسل جي تضاد]] سبب متاثر ٿيو، جڏهن⁠ته [[هلبرٽ جو پروگرام]] [[گوڊل جا نامڪمليت جا نظريا|گوڊل جي نامڪمليت جي نظرين]] سبب ناڪام ثابت ٿيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|1loc=Gödel's incompleteness theorems|2a1=Linsky|2y=2011|2p=4|3a1=Richardson|3y=1998|3p=15}}

[[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) جي شروعات [[جارج ڪينٽر]] لامحدوديت جي مطالعي دوران ڪئي. هي شعبي رياضيائي منطق جي ڪيترن ئي اهم ۽ پيچيده مسئلن جو سرچشمو بڻيو، جن ۾ [[ڪينٽر جو نظريو]]، [[اختيار جو اصول]] (اگزيوم آف چوائس)، [[مسلسل مفروضي]] (ڪنٽينيوئم ھيپوٿيسز) جي آزاديءَ جو سوال، ۽ [[وڏي ڪارڊينل]] (لارج ڪارڊينل) اصولن بابت جديد بحث شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Bagaria|1y=2021|2a1=Cunningham}}

[[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) رياضيائي منطق جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا حسابي مسئلن کي حل ڪرڻ لاءِ مؤثر طريقن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان جو هڪ بنيادي مقصد اهو معلوم ڪرڻ آهي ته ڪنهن خاص مسئلي کي [[الگورٿم]] ذريعي حل ڪرڻ ممڪن آهي يا نه. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صحيح عددن بابت ڪو خاص دعويٰ ڏني وڃي، ته هي شعبي اهو جاچيندو آهي ته ڇا اهڙو الگورٿم تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو اهو طئي ڪري سگهي ته اها دعويٰ صحيح آهي يا غلط. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ [[ٽيورنگ مشين]] (Turing machine) سميت مختلف نظرياتي ماڊلن ۽ اوزارن کي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006a|1loc=Computability Theory|2a1=Leary|2a2=Kristiansen|2y=2015|2p=195}}

===حسابياتي منطق===
{{Main|حسابياتي منطق|ڪمپيوٽر سائنس ۾ منطق}}

[[File:TransistorANDgate.png|thumb|ٽرانزسٽرن جي مدد سان تيار ڪيل هڪ AND گيٽ جو خاڪو. [[منطقي عطف]] (AND) [[بولين منطق]] جي بنيادي عملن مان هڪ آهي، جنهن کي برقي طور مختلف طريقن سان، مثال طور ٻن [[ٽرانزسٽر]]ن ذريعي، عمل ۾ آڻي سگهجي ٿو.]]

'''حسابياتي منطق''' (ڪمپيوٽيشنل لاجڪ) منطق ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ڪمپيوٽرن جي ذريعي رياضيائي استدلال ۽ رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عملي صورت ڏيڻ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان ۾، مثال طور، [[خودڪار نظريي ثابت ڪندڙ]] (آٽوميٽڪ ٿيورم پروور) شامل آهن، جيڪي [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] استعمال ڪندي، بغير انساني مداخلت جي، مقدمات مان گهربل نتيجي تائين مرحليوار ثبوت تيار ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Paulson|1y=2018|1pp=1–14|2a1=Castaño|2y=2018|2p=2|3a1=Wile|3a2=Goss|3a3=Roesner|3y=2005|3p=447}}

[[منطقي پروگرامنگ]] (لاجڪ پروگرامنگ) جون ٻوليون خاص طور اهڙي نموني تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن، جو حقيقتن کي منطقي فارمولن جي صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ۽ انهن مان استدلال ذريعي نوان نتيجا اخذ ڪري سگهجن. مثال طور، [[پرولاگ]] (Prolog) محمولي منطق تي ٻڌل هڪ منطقي پروگرامنگ ٻولي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Clocksin|1a2=Mellish|1y=2003|1pp=237–238, 252–255, 257|1loc=The Relation of Prolog to Logic|2a1=Daintith|2a2=Wright|2y=2008|2loc=Logic Programming Languages}}

ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽنگ سان لاڳاپيل مسئلن جي حل لاءِ پڻ منطقي تصورن کي استعمال ڪندا آهن. هن ميدان ۾ [[ڪلاڊ شينن]] جو ڪم انتهائي اثرائتو رهيو، جنهن ڏيکاريو ته [[بولين منطق]] کي ڪمپيوٽرن جي برقي سرڪٽن کي سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=O'Regan|1y=2016|1p=49|2a1=Calderbank|2a2=Sloane|2y=2001|2p=768}}

اهو ڪم [[منطقي دروازو|منطقي دروازن]] (لاجڪ گيٽ) ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي اهڙا برقي سرڪٽ هوندا آهن، جن ۾ هڪ يا وڌيڪ ان پُٽ ۽ عام طور هڪ آئوٽ پُٽ هوندو آهي. انهن ۾ منطقي قضين جي صداقت جا قدر برقي وولٽيج جي سطحن جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهڙيءَ طرح، سرڪٽ جي ان پُٽن تي مناسب وولٽيج لاڳو ڪري ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ جي وولٽيج کي ماپي، مختلف منطقي عملن جي نقل (سميوليشن) ڪئي ويندي آهي.{{sfn|Daintith|Wright|2008|loc=Logic Gate}}

===قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات===
{{Main|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات}}

'''قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) منطق، [[لسانيات]] ۽ [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]] جي گڏيل ذيلي شاخ آهي. [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) ٻوليءَ جي معنائن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته رسمي معنيات علامتي منطق ۽ رياضيات جا رسمي اوزار استعمال ڪندي [[قدرتي ٻولي]] جي اظهارَن جي معنائن بابت درست ۽ منظم نظريا پيش ڪري ٿي.

رسمي معنيات عام طور معنٰي کي [[صدق جون شرطون]] (ٽرٿ ڪنڊيشنر) سان وابسته ڪري سمجهي ٿي؛ يعني اها جاچ ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙين حالتن ۾ ڪو جملو سچو يا ڪوڙو ٿيندو. هن شعبي جي بنيادي اصولن مان هڪ [[ترڪيبي اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) آهي، جنهن موجب ڪنهن پيچيده اظهار جي معنٰي ان جي جزن جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي پاڻ ۾ ڳانڍاپي جي طريقي سان طئي ٿيندي آهي. مثال طور، فعل واري فقري &quot;هلڻ ۽ ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنٰي انفرادي اظهارَن &quot;هلڻ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.

رسمي معنيات جا ڪيترائي نظريا [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. ان جو مطلب آهي ته اهي [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) استعمال ڪري هڪ نمونو (ماڊل) تيار ڪندا آهن ۽ پوءِ ان نموني جي عنصرن جي حوالي سان ٻوليءَ جي اظهارَن جي معنائن جي تشريح ڪندا آهن. مثال طور، اصطلاح &quot;هلڻ&quot; کي نموني ۾ موجود انهن سڀني فردن جي مجموعي طور سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي هلڻ جي خاصيت رکن ٿا.

هن شعبي جا شروعاتي ۽ اثرائتا مفڪر [[رچرڊ مونٽيگ]] ۽ [[باربرا پارٽي]] هئا، جن پنهنجي تجزين جو بنيادي مرڪز انگريزي ٻوليءَ کي بڻايو.{{sfnm|1a1=Janssen|1a2=Zimmermann|1y=2021|1pp=3–4|2a1=Partee|2y=2016|3a1=King|3y=2009|3pp=557–558|4a1=Aloni|4a2=Dekker|4y=2016|4pp=22–23}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>bovrnfjoxtjm6ztmc0co34awv6bbsaa</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399233</id>
      <parentid>399232</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T15:09:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399233</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="104450" sha1="f5o2xglu2gkwytd0xvvljpzpmw6sj6c" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (ڪوانٽيفڪيشن) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}

==تحقيق جا شعبا==

منطق جو مطالعو مختلف علمي شعبن ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪيترن ئي حالتن ۾ ان جي رسمي طريقن کي انهن موضوعن تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي پاڻ منطق جي دائري کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[اخلاقيات]] يا [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Logic and other disciplines|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10}}

ٻين حالتن ۾ خود منطق ئي ڪنهن ٻئي علمي شعبي ۾ تحقيق جو موضوع بڻجي ٿي. اهو مختلف طريقن سان ٿي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، منطق جي بنيادي تصورن سان لاڳاپيل فلسفياتي مفروضن جو جائزو وٺڻ، منطقي نظامن کي رياضيائي بناوتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جو تجزيو ڪرڻ، يا رسمي منطقي نظامن جي تجريدي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ۽ ڀيٽ ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Features and problems of logic|2a1=Gödel|2y=1984|2pp=447–469|2loc=Russell's mathematical logic|3a1=Monk|3y=1976|3pp=1–9|3loc=Introduction}}

===منطق جو فلسفو ۽ فلسفياتي منطق===
{{Main|منطق جو فلسفو|فلسفياتي منطق}}

'''منطق جو فلسفو''' (فلاسافي آف لاجڪ) فلسفي جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطق جي دائري، ماهيت ۽ بنيادي نوعيت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} ان ۾ انهن ڪيترن ئي مفروضن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيڪي منطق ۾ ضمني طور قبول ڪيا ويندا آهن، جيئن ان جي بنيادي تصورن جي تعريف يا انهن سان لاڳاپيل [[مابعدالطبيعات|مابعدالطبيعي]] مفروضا.{{sfn|Jacquette|2006|loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|pp=1–12}}

هي شعبي منطقي نظامن جي درجابندي ۽ انهن سان وابسته [[وجوديات|وجودياتي]] وابستگين (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪمٽمينٽ) جو پڻ مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=§Problems of ontology}}

'''فلسفياتي منطق''' (فلاسافيڪل لاجڪ) منطق جي فلسفي جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطقي طريقن کي فلسفي جي مسئلن تي لاڳو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Burgess|2y=2009|2loc=1. Classical logic}}
اهو استعمال گهڻو ڪري [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي]] يا [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظامن]] جي صورت ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Goble|1y=2001|1loc=Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32}}

===مابعد منطق===
{{Main|مابعد منطق}}

'''مابعد منطق''' (ميٽالاجڪ) اهو علمي شعبو آهي، جيڪو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.

مثال طور، جڏهن ڪو نئون رسمي منطقي نظام تيار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ته مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو معلوم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته ان نظام ۾ ڪهڙا فارمولا ثابت ڪري سگهجن ٿا. اهي اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته ڇا اهڙو [[الگورٿم]] تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو هر فارمولي لاءِ ثبوت ڳولي سگهي، ۽ ڇا ان نظام ۾ هر قابلِ ثبوت فارمولو لازمي طور [[منطقي صداقت]] (Tautology) آهي.

اهي مختلف منطقي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ تقابلي مطالعو پڻ ڪندا آهن ته جيئن انهن جون منفرد خاصيتون واضح ٿي سگهن.

مابعد منطق جو هڪ بنيادي موضوع [[نحو]] (سنٽيڪس) ۽ [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) جي وچ ۾ تعلق آهي. رسمي منطقي نظام جا نحوي ضابطا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدمات مان نتيجا ڪيئن اخذ ڪيا وڃن، يعني ثبوت ڪيئن ترتيب ڏنا وڃن. جڏهن⁠ته معنيات اهو طئي ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙا جملا سچا آهن ۽ ڪهڙا ڪوڙا. انهيءَ بنياد تي دليل جي صحت جو تعين ڪيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صحيح دليل ۾ اهو ناممڪن هوندو آهي ته مقدمات سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو هجي.

نحو ۽ معنيات جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي بابت اهم سوالن ۾ اهو شامل آهي ته ڇا هر صحيح دليل قابلِ ثبوت آهي، ۽ ڇا هر قابلِ ثبوت دليل لازمي طور صحيح به هوندو آهي.

مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته منطقي نظام [[مڪمليت]] (ڪمپليٽنيس)، [[صحت (منطق)|صحت]] (سائونڊنيس) ۽ [[هم آهنگي (منطق)|هم آهنگي]] (ڪنسسٽنسي) جون خاصيتون رکن ٿا يا نه. ان کان علاوه، اهي اهو به ڏسندا آهن ته اهي نظام [[فيصلي پذيري]] (ڊسائيڊبلٽي) رکن ٿا يا نه، ۽ انهن جي [[اظهاري قوت]] ڪيتري آهي.

انهن موضوعن جي تحقيق دوران مابعد منطق گهڻو ڪري تجريدي رياضيائي استدلال تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جنهن جو مقصد انهن مسئلن بابت صحيح، عام ۽ جامع نتيجا حاصل ڪرڻ هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1pp=xliii–xliv|2a1=Sider|2y=2010|2pp=4–6|3a1=Schagrin}}

===رياضيائي منطق===
{{Main|رياضيائي منطق}}

[[File:Russell1907-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=برٽرينڊ رسل جو تصوير|[[برٽرينڊ رسل]] رياضيائي منطق جي ترقي ۾ ڪيترائي اهم علمي حصا ورتا.{{sfn|Irvine|2022}}]]

اصطلاح '''رياضيائي منطق''' (ميٿميٽيڪل لاجڪ) ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[رسمي منطق]] جي مترادف طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر وڌيڪ محدود معنيٰ ۾ اهو رياضيات جي اندر منطق جي مطالعي ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. ان جون اهم شاخون [[ماڊل نظريو]]، [[ثبوت جو نظريو]]، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) ۽ [[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Li|1y=2010|1p=ix|2a1=Rautenberg|2y=2010|2p=15|3a1=Quine|3y=1981|3p=1|4a1=Stolyar|4y=1984|4p=2}}

رياضيائي منطق جي تحقيق جو وڏو حصو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي رياضيائي خاصيتن جي مطالعي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. ان سان گڏ اهو پڻ ڏٺو ويندو آهي ته منطق کي رياضيائي استدلال جي تجزيي يا [[رياضيات جا بنياد|رياضيات جي منطقي بنيادن]] جي قيام لاءِ ڪيئن استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfn|Stolyar|1984|pp=3–6}}

ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ رياضيائي منطق جو هڪ اهم مقصد [[منطق پرستي]] (لاجڪئزم) واري پروگرام کي اڳتي وڌائڻ هو، جنهن جي شروعات [[گاٽلوب فريگي]]، [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] جهڙن فلسفي-منطق دانن ڪئي هئي. هن پروگرام موجب سڀئي رياضيائي نظريا اصل ۾ منطقي [[منطقي صداقت|صداقتون]] (Tautologies) آهن، ۽ ان کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ رياضيات کي منطق تائين محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي. پر هن پروگرام کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جون گهڻيون ڪوششون ناڪام ويون. مثال طور، فريگي جو منصوبو سندس ڪتاب '' گرُنڊگيزيٽسي:Grundgesetze'' (بنيادي قانون) ۾ [[رسل جو تضاد|رسل جي تضاد]] سبب متاثر ٿيو، جڏهن⁠ته [[هلبرٽ جو پروگرام]] [[گوڊل جا نامڪمليت جا نظريا|گوڊل جي نامڪمليت جي نظرين]] سبب ناڪام ثابت ٿيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|1loc=Gödel's incompleteness theorems|2a1=Linsky|2y=2011|2p=4|3a1=Richardson|3y=1998|3p=15}}

[[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) جي شروعات [[جارج ڪينٽر]] لامحدوديت جي مطالعي دوران ڪئي. هي شعبي رياضيائي منطق جي ڪيترن ئي اهم ۽ پيچيده مسئلن جو سرچشمو بڻيو، جن ۾ [[ڪينٽر جو نظريو]]، [[اختيار جو اصول]] (اگزيوم آف چوائس)، [[مسلسل مفروضي]] (ڪنٽينيوئم ھيپوٿيسز) جي آزاديءَ جو سوال، ۽ [[وڏي ڪارڊينل]] (لارج ڪارڊينل) اصولن بابت جديد بحث شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Bagaria|1y=2021|2a1=Cunningham}}

[[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) رياضيائي منطق جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا حسابي مسئلن کي حل ڪرڻ لاءِ مؤثر طريقن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان جو هڪ بنيادي مقصد اهو معلوم ڪرڻ آهي ته ڪنهن خاص مسئلي کي [[الگورٿم]] ذريعي حل ڪرڻ ممڪن آهي يا نه. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صحيح عددن بابت ڪو خاص دعويٰ ڏني وڃي، ته هي شعبي اهو جاچيندو آهي ته ڇا اهڙو الگورٿم تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو اهو طئي ڪري سگهي ته اها دعويٰ صحيح آهي يا غلط. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ [[ٽيورنگ مشين]] (Turing machine) سميت مختلف نظرياتي ماڊلن ۽ اوزارن کي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006a|1loc=Computability Theory|2a1=Leary|2a2=Kristiansen|2y=2015|2p=195}}

===حسابياتي منطق===
{{Main|حسابياتي منطق|ڪمپيوٽر سائنس ۾ منطق}}

[[File:TransistorANDgate.png|thumb|ٽرانزسٽرن جي مدد سان تيار ڪيل هڪ AND گيٽ جو خاڪو. [[منطقي عطف]] (AND) [[بولين منطق]] جي بنيادي عملن مان هڪ آهي، جنهن کي برقي طور مختلف طريقن سان، مثال طور ٻن [[ٽرانزسٽر]]ن ذريعي، عمل ۾ آڻي سگهجي ٿو.]]

'''حسابياتي منطق''' (ڪمپيوٽيشنل لاجڪ) منطق ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ڪمپيوٽرن جي ذريعي رياضيائي استدلال ۽ رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عملي صورت ڏيڻ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان ۾، مثال طور، [[خودڪار نظريي ثابت ڪندڙ]] (آٽوميٽڪ ٿيورم پروور) شامل آهن، جيڪي [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] استعمال ڪندي، بغير انساني مداخلت جي، مقدمات مان گهربل نتيجي تائين مرحليوار ثبوت تيار ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Paulson|1y=2018|1pp=1–14|2a1=Castaño|2y=2018|2p=2|3a1=Wile|3a2=Goss|3a3=Roesner|3y=2005|3p=447}}

[[منطقي پروگرامنگ]] (لاجڪ پروگرامنگ) جون ٻوليون خاص طور اهڙي نموني تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن، جو حقيقتن کي منطقي فارمولن جي صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ۽ انهن مان استدلال ذريعي نوان نتيجا اخذ ڪري سگهجن. مثال طور، [[پرولاگ]] (Prolog) محمولي منطق تي ٻڌل هڪ منطقي پروگرامنگ ٻولي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Clocksin|1a2=Mellish|1y=2003|1pp=237–238, 252–255, 257|1loc=The Relation of Prolog to Logic|2a1=Daintith|2a2=Wright|2y=2008|2loc=Logic Programming Languages}}

ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽنگ سان لاڳاپيل مسئلن جي حل لاءِ پڻ منطقي تصورن کي استعمال ڪندا آهن. هن ميدان ۾ [[ڪلاڊ شينن]] جو ڪم انتهائي اثرائتو رهيو، جنهن ڏيکاريو ته [[بولين منطق]] کي ڪمپيوٽرن جي برقي سرڪٽن کي سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=O'Regan|1y=2016|1p=49|2a1=Calderbank|2a2=Sloane|2y=2001|2p=768}}

اهو ڪم [[منطقي دروازو|منطقي دروازن]] (لاجڪ گيٽ) ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي اهڙا برقي سرڪٽ هوندا آهن، جن ۾ هڪ يا وڌيڪ ان پُٽ ۽ عام طور هڪ آئوٽ پُٽ هوندو آهي. انهن ۾ منطقي قضين جي صداقت جا قدر برقي وولٽيج جي سطحن جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهڙيءَ طرح، سرڪٽ جي ان پُٽن تي مناسب وولٽيج لاڳو ڪري ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ جي وولٽيج کي ماپي، مختلف منطقي عملن جي نقل (سميوليشن) ڪئي ويندي آهي.{{sfn|Daintith|Wright|2008|loc=Logic Gate}}

===قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات===
{{Main|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات}}

'''قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) منطق، [[لسانيات]] ۽ [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]] جي گڏيل ذيلي شاخ آهي. [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) ٻوليءَ جي معنائن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته رسمي معنيات علامتي منطق ۽ رياضيات جا رسمي اوزار استعمال ڪندي [[قدرتي ٻولي]] جي اظهارَن جي معنائن بابت درست ۽ منظم نظريا پيش ڪري ٿي.

رسمي معنيات عام طور معنٰي کي [[صدق جون شرطون]] (ٽرٿ ڪنڊيشنر) سان وابسته ڪري سمجهي ٿي؛ يعني اها جاچ ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙين حالتن ۾ ڪو جملو سچو يا ڪوڙو ٿيندو. هن شعبي جي بنيادي اصولن مان هڪ [[ترڪيبي اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) آهي، جنهن موجب ڪنهن پيچيده اظهار جي معنٰي ان جي جزن جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي پاڻ ۾ ڳانڍاپي جي طريقي سان طئي ٿيندي آهي. مثال طور، فعل واري فقري &quot;هلڻ ۽ ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنٰي انفرادي اظهارَن &quot;هلڻ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.

رسمي معنيات جا ڪيترائي نظريا [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. ان جو مطلب آهي ته اهي [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) استعمال ڪري هڪ نمونو (ماڊل) تيار ڪندا آهن ۽ پوءِ ان نموني جي عنصرن جي حوالي سان ٻوليءَ جي اظهارَن جي معنائن جي تشريح ڪندا آهن. مثال طور، اصطلاح &quot;هلڻ&quot; کي نموني ۾ موجود انهن سڀني فردن جي مجموعي طور سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي هلڻ جي خاصيت رکن ٿا.

هن شعبي جا شروعاتي ۽ اثرائتا مفڪر [[رچرڊ مونٽيگ]] ۽ [[باربرا پارٽي]] هئا، جن پنهنجي تجزين جو بنيادي مرڪز انگريزي ٻوليءَ کي بڻايو.{{sfnm|1a1=Janssen|1a2=Zimmermann|1y=2021|1pp=3–4|2a1=Partee|2y=2016|3a1=King|3y=2009|3pp=557–558|4a1=Aloni|4a2=Dekker|4y=2016|4pp=22–23}}

===منطق جي علمُ المعرفت===
{{Main|منطق جي علمُ المعرفت}}

'''منطق جو علمُ المعرفت''' (ايپسٽيمولاجي آف لاجڪ) هن ڳالهه جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو ته انسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوي ٿي ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا ڪا تجويز منطقي طور سچي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Schechter}} هن ۾ اهڙا سوال شامل آهن، جيئن: {{lang|la|modus ponens}} استدلال جو صحيح قاعدو ڇو آهي؟ يا تضاد هميشه ڪوڙا ڇو سمجهيا وڃن ٿا؟{{sfn|Warren|2020|loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic}}

روايتي طور تي غالب نظريو اهو رهيو آهي ته اهڙي قسم جي منطقي ڄاڻ [[قبلي علم]] (''a priori'') سان واسطو رکي ٿي.{{sfn|Schechter}} هن نظرئي موجب، اڪثر اهو دليل ڏنو ويندو آهي ته [[ذهن]] وٽ هڪ خاص صلاحيت هوندي آهي، جيڪا خالص خيالن جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي پرکڻ جي قابل هوندي آهي، ۽ اها ئي صلاحيت منطقي سچائين کي سمجهڻ جو ذريعو پڻ آهي.{{sfn|Gómez-Torrente|2019}}

هڪ ٻيو ويجهو نظريو منطق جي قاعدن کي [[اصطلاحيت]] (ڪنوينشنلزم) يا لساني روايتن جي بنياد تي سمجهي ٿو. هن راءِ موجب، منطق جا قانون تعريف جي لحاظ کان سچا آهن، تنهنڪري اهي بنيادي طور غيرتڪراري آهن؛ اهي رڳو منطقي اصطلاحن جي معنائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Gómez-Torrente|2y=2019|3a1=Warren|3y=2020|3loc=1. What is Conventionalism}}

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[هلري پٽنم]] ۽ [[پينيلوپي ميڊي]]، هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪن ٿا ته منطق کي مڪمل طور قبلي علم ذريعي ڄاڻي سگهجي ٿو. انهن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي سچايون [[تجربي تي ٻڌل علم]] (امپريڪل نالج) سان به لاڳاپيل آهن. هن راءِ کي عام طور ان دعويٰ سان گڏ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي ته منطق جا قانون دنيا جي بناوت ۾ موجود عام ۽ آفاقي قاعدن جو اظهار ڪن ٿا. ان مطابق، انهن قاعدن کي [[بنيادي سائنسون|بنيادي سائنسن]] ۾ موجود عام نمونن ۽ اصولن جي مطالعي ذريعي به سمجهي سگهجي ٿو.

مثال طور، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم ميڪانيات]] جون ڪجهه دريافتون روايتي منطق جي [[ورڇ جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڊسٽريبيوٽوٽي) کي چئلينج ڪن ٿيون، جنهن موجب فارمولو &lt;math&gt;A \land (B \lor C)&lt;/math&gt; هم معنيٰ آهي &lt;math&gt;(A \land B) \lor (A \land C)&lt;/math&gt; سان. هن دعويٰ کي ان ڳالهه جي تجربي تي ٻڌل دليل طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم منطق]] روايتي منطق کان وڌيڪ مناسب منطقي نظام آهي، ۽ ان کي روايتي منطق جي جاءِ وٺڻ گهرجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Chua|1y=2017|1pp=631–636|2a1=Wilce|2y=2021|3a1=Putnam|3y=1969|3pp=216–241}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>f5o2xglu2gkwytd0xvvljpzpmw6sj6c</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399234</id>
      <parentid>399233</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T15:11:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399234</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="114312" sha1="dsx9xfnm2cuyw5mylxssfy9grmj0zca" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==تاريخ==
{{Main|منطق جي تاريخ}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=330
| image1= Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg
| alt1= ارسطو جو مجسمو
| image2= Avicenne - Avicenna - Ibn_Sina (980-1037) CIPB2067.jpg
| alt2= ابن سينا جو پورٽريٽ
| image3= Guillaume Occam.jpg
| alt3= وليم آف اوڪهم جو پورٽريٽ
| image4= Wismar Marienkirche Bronzebüste Gottlob Frege (01-1).JPG
| alt4= گوٽلوب فريگي جو مجسمو
| footer= مٿيون قطار: [[ارسطو]]، جنهن مغربي منطق جي بنيادي روايت قائم ڪئي؛{{sfn|Groarke}} ۽ [[ابن سينا]]، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ تي پنهنجو منطقي نظام متعارف ڪرايو.{{sfn|Lagerlund|2018}} هيٺيون قطار: [[وليم آف اوڪهم]]، وچئين دور جي علمي فڪر جي اهم شخصيت؛{{sfn|Spade|Panaccio|2019}} ۽ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]]، جديد علامتي منطق جي بانيَن مان هڪ.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900|3a=Klement|3y=1995a}}
}}

قديم دور ۾ منطق ڪيترين ئي تهذيبن ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان الڳ نموني ترقي ڪئي. شروعاتي اهم مفڪرن مان هڪ [[ارسطو]] هو، جنهن پنهنجي ڪتابن ''[[اورگينون]]'' ۽ ''[[Prior Analytics]]'' ۾ '''اصطلاحي منطق''' (Term logic) کي منظم صورت ڏني.{{sfnm|1a1=Kline|1y=1972|1loc=&quot;A major achievement of Aristotle was the founding of the science of logic&quot;, p. 53|2a1=Łukasiewicz|2y=1957|2p=7|3a1=Liu|3a2=Guo|3y=2023|3p=15}} هن [[شرطي قياس]] (Hypothetical syllogism){{sfn|Lear|1980|p=34}} ۽ [[زماني موڊل منطق]] (Temporal modal logic) جي به بنياد وڌي.{{sfnm|1a1=Knuuttila|1y=1980|1p=71|2a1=Fisher|2a2=Gabbay|2a3=Vila|2y=2005|2p=119}} ارسطو [[استقرائي منطق]] (Inductive logic){{sfn|Berman|2009|p=133}} ۽ نون منطقي تصورن، جهڙوڪ [[اصطلاح]]، [[محموليت]] (Predicables)، قياس ۽ تجويزن تي پڻ اهم بحث ڪيو. ارسطوي منطق کي قديم ۽ وچئين دور ۾، يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر ٻنهي ۾ وڏي اهميت حاصل رهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} ۽ اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي شروعات تائين اهو غالب منطقي نظام رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} اڄ جي دور ۾ جيتوڻيڪ ان جي جاءِ جديد منطق ورتي آهي، پر ان جا ڪيترائي بنيادي خيال اڃا به جديد منطقي نظامن ۾ موجود آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|loc=1. Introduction}}

[[ابن سينا]] (Avicenna) ابن سيناوي منطق جو باني هو، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] جي ميدان ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ ورتي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hasse|1y=2008|2a1=Lagerlund|2y=2018}} سندس خيالن جو اثر [[البرٽس ميگنس]] ۽ [[وليم آف اوڪهم]] جهڙن يورپي مفڪرن تي به پيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Washell|1y=1973|1pp=445–450|2a1=Kneale|2a2=Kneale|2y=1962|2pp=229, 266}} ابن سينا شرطي قياس{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} ۽ [[تجويزي منطق]] (Propositional calculus){{sfn|Goodman|1992|p=188}} تي اهم تحريرون لکيون. هن زماني ۽ امڪان کي گڏائيندڙ هڪ نئون قياسي نظريو تيار ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[زماني منطق]] ۽ [[موڊل منطق]] جا عنصر شامل هئا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Spade|loc=Arabic Logic}} هن استقرائي منطق جا به طريقا بيان ڪيا، جهڙوڪ موافقت، اختلاف ۽ گڏيل تبديلي جا طريقا، جيڪي [[سائنسي طريقو|سائنسي طريقي]] لاءِ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا.{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} [[فخر الدين رازي]] پڻ هڪ اثرائتو مسلمان منطق دان هو. هن ارسطوي قياس تي تنقيد ڪئي ۽ استقرائي منطق جو اهڙو ابتدائي نظام پيش ڪيو، جنهن بعد ۾ [[جان اسٽوارٽ مل]] جي استقرائي منطق جي اڳواٽ نشاندهي ڪئي.{{sfn|Iqbal|2013|pp=99–115|loc=The Spirit of Muslim Culture}}

وچئين دور ۾ ارسطو جي منطقي ڪتابن جا ڪيترائي ترجما ۽ تشريحون تيار ڪيون ويون. [[بوئٿيوس]] جا ڪم خاص طور تي گهڻو اثرائتا رهيا. هن نه رڳو ارسطو جي تصنيفن کي لاطيني ۾ ترجمو ڪيو، پر منطق بابت درسي ڪتاب پڻ لکيا.{{sfnm|1a1=Marenbon|1y=2021|1loc=Introduction; 3. The Logical Text-Books|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade}} بعد ۾ ابن سينا ۽ [[ابن رشد]] (Averroes) جهڙن اسلامي فلسفين جي تحريرن مان پڻ فائدو ورتو ويو، جنهن سان وچئين دور جي عيسائي عالمن کي قديم يوناني فڪر تائين وڌيڪ رسائي ملي. سنه 1323ع ۾ وليم آف اوڪهم جو مشهور ڪتاب ''{{lang|la|[[Summa Logicae]]}}'' شايع ٿيو، جيڪو منطق جو جامع رسالو آهي ۽ جنهن ۾ منطقي تجويزن، انهن جي قسمن ۽ سندن صدق جي شرطن بابت منظم بحث ڪيو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|2a1=Hasse|2y=2008|3a1=Spade|3a2=Panaccio|3y=2019}}

چيني فلسفي ۾ [[نالن جو مذهب]] (School of Names) ۽ [[موهزم]] (Mohism) خاص اهميت رکندا هئا. نالن جي مذهب ٻوليءَ جي استعمال ۽ منطقي تضادن تي ڌيان ڏنو. مثال طور [[گونگسن لانگ]] مشهور ''اڇي گهوڙي جو تضاد'' (White Horse Paradox) پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ دليل ڏنو ويو ته &quot;اڇو گهوڙو، گهوڙو ناهي.&quot; موهزم پڻ منطق ۾ ٻوليءَ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪيو ۽ ان کي اخلاقيات سان ڳنڍڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Willman|1y=2022|2a1=Rošker|2y=2015|2pp=301–309}}

هندستان ۾ منطق جو مطالعو بنيادي طور [[نيايه]]، [[ٻڌ مت]] ۽ [[جين مت]] جي فڪري روايتن ۾ ٿيو. ان کي الڳ علمي شعبي طور نه، پر علمُ المعرفت، مناظري ۽ استدلال جي بحثن جي حصي طور سمجهيو ويندو هو.{{sfn|Sarukkai|Chakraborty|2022|pp=117–118}} نيايه فلسفي ۾ استدلال کي علم حاصل ڪرڻ جو هڪ ذريعو (''[[پرمان]]'') سمجهيو ويو، جيڪو مشاهدي کان پوءِ شين جي سببن بابت نتيجا ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو.{{sfnm|1a1=Dasti|1loc=Lead section; 1b. Inference|2a1=Mills|2y=2018|2p=121}} ٻڌ ۽ جين منطق ۾ به استدلال کي ٻين ذريعن مان حاصل ٿيل علم کي وڌائڻ جو وسيلو سمجهيو ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Emmanuel|1y=2015|1pp=320–322|2a1=Vidyabhusana|2y=1988|2p=221}} نيايه جي پوئين دور جي [[نويا نيايه]] روايت جا ڪيئي خيال جديد منطق سان ملندڙ جلندڙ آهن، جهڙوڪ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جو ''معنيٰ ۽ مرجع'' (Sense and Reference) وارو فرق ۽ انگ جي تعريف.{{sfn|Chakrabarti|1976|pp=554–563}}

ارسطو جي قياسي منطق اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي وچ تائين غالب رهي، پر رياضيات جي بنيادن بابت وڌندڙ دلچسپي جديد علامتي منطق جي ترقي جو سبب بڻي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Haaparanta|2y=2009|2pp=3–5|2loc=1. Introduction}} گهڻا محقق [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جي ''{{lang|de|[[Begriffsschrift]]}}'' کي جديد منطق جي شروعات سمجهن ٿا. [[گوٽفريڊ وِلهم لائبنٽس]] جي [[عالمي رسمي ٻولي]] (Characteristica universalis) جو تصور ان جو اڳواٽ اشارو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. ٻين اهم اڳواڻن ۾ [[جارج بول]] شامل آهي، جنهن [[بولي الجبرا]] (Boolean algebra) کي منطقي رياضيائي نظام طور پيش ڪيو، ۽ [[چارلس سينڊرس پيرس]]، جنهن [[لاڳاپن جي منطق]] (Logic of relatives) کي ترقي ڏني. بعد ۾ [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] انهن خيالن کي پنهنجي مشهور ڪتاب ''{{lang|la|[[Principia Mathematica]]}}'' ۾ منظم ڪيو.

جديد منطق نوان تصور متعارف ڪرايا، جهڙوڪ [[تابع]] (Function)، مقدارساز (Quantifiers) ۽ لاڳاپائي محمول (Relational predicates). جديد علامتي منطق جي نمايان خاصيت رسمي ٻوليءَ جو استعمال آهي، جنهن ذريعي منطقي اصولن کي نهايت درست نموني بيان ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان لحاظ کان اهو اڳين منطق دانن کان مختلف آهي، جيڪي بنيادي طور قدرتي ٻوليءَ تي ڀاڙيندا هئا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900}} خاص طور تي [[اول-درجي منطق]] (First-order logic) جي ترقي جديد منطق ۾ بنيادي حيثيت اختيار ڪئي.{{sfn|Ewald|2019}} ان جي تجزياتي وسعت رياضيات کي رسمي صورت ڏيڻ، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] جي ترقي ۽ [[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي [[نموني جو نظريو]] (Model theory) جي قيام لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪيو، ۽ اهو جديد [[رياضياتي منطق]] جو مرڪزي نظام بڻجي ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Schreiner|2y=2021|2p=22}}

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (ڪوانٽيفڪيشن) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}

==تحقيق جا شعبا==

منطق جو مطالعو مختلف علمي شعبن ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪيترن ئي حالتن ۾ ان جي رسمي طريقن کي انهن موضوعن تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي پاڻ منطق جي دائري کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[اخلاقيات]] يا [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Logic and other disciplines|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10}}

ٻين حالتن ۾ خود منطق ئي ڪنهن ٻئي علمي شعبي ۾ تحقيق جو موضوع بڻجي ٿي. اهو مختلف طريقن سان ٿي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، منطق جي بنيادي تصورن سان لاڳاپيل فلسفياتي مفروضن جو جائزو وٺڻ، منطقي نظامن کي رياضيائي بناوتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جو تجزيو ڪرڻ، يا رسمي منطقي نظامن جي تجريدي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ۽ ڀيٽ ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Features and problems of logic|2a1=Gödel|2y=1984|2pp=447–469|2loc=Russell's mathematical logic|3a1=Monk|3y=1976|3pp=1–9|3loc=Introduction}}

===منطق جو فلسفو ۽ فلسفياتي منطق===
{{Main|منطق جو فلسفو|فلسفياتي منطق}}

'''منطق جو فلسفو''' (فلاسافي آف لاجڪ) فلسفي جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطق جي دائري، ماهيت ۽ بنيادي نوعيت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} ان ۾ انهن ڪيترن ئي مفروضن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيڪي منطق ۾ ضمني طور قبول ڪيا ويندا آهن، جيئن ان جي بنيادي تصورن جي تعريف يا انهن سان لاڳاپيل [[مابعدالطبيعات|مابعدالطبيعي]] مفروضا.{{sfn|Jacquette|2006|loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|pp=1–12}}

هي شعبي منطقي نظامن جي درجابندي ۽ انهن سان وابسته [[وجوديات|وجودياتي]] وابستگين (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪمٽمينٽ) جو پڻ مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=§Problems of ontology}}

'''فلسفياتي منطق''' (فلاسافيڪل لاجڪ) منطق جي فلسفي جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطقي طريقن کي فلسفي جي مسئلن تي لاڳو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Burgess|2y=2009|2loc=1. Classical logic}}
اهو استعمال گهڻو ڪري [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي]] يا [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظامن]] جي صورت ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Goble|1y=2001|1loc=Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32}}

===مابعد منطق===
{{Main|مابعد منطق}}

'''مابعد منطق''' (ميٽالاجڪ) اهو علمي شعبو آهي، جيڪو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.

مثال طور، جڏهن ڪو نئون رسمي منطقي نظام تيار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ته مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو معلوم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته ان نظام ۾ ڪهڙا فارمولا ثابت ڪري سگهجن ٿا. اهي اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته ڇا اهڙو [[الگورٿم]] تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو هر فارمولي لاءِ ثبوت ڳولي سگهي، ۽ ڇا ان نظام ۾ هر قابلِ ثبوت فارمولو لازمي طور [[منطقي صداقت]] (Tautology) آهي.

اهي مختلف منطقي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ تقابلي مطالعو پڻ ڪندا آهن ته جيئن انهن جون منفرد خاصيتون واضح ٿي سگهن.

مابعد منطق جو هڪ بنيادي موضوع [[نحو]] (سنٽيڪس) ۽ [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) جي وچ ۾ تعلق آهي. رسمي منطقي نظام جا نحوي ضابطا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدمات مان نتيجا ڪيئن اخذ ڪيا وڃن، يعني ثبوت ڪيئن ترتيب ڏنا وڃن. جڏهن⁠ته معنيات اهو طئي ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙا جملا سچا آهن ۽ ڪهڙا ڪوڙا. انهيءَ بنياد تي دليل جي صحت جو تعين ڪيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صحيح دليل ۾ اهو ناممڪن هوندو آهي ته مقدمات سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو هجي.

نحو ۽ معنيات جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي بابت اهم سوالن ۾ اهو شامل آهي ته ڇا هر صحيح دليل قابلِ ثبوت آهي، ۽ ڇا هر قابلِ ثبوت دليل لازمي طور صحيح به هوندو آهي.

مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته منطقي نظام [[مڪمليت]] (ڪمپليٽنيس)، [[صحت (منطق)|صحت]] (سائونڊنيس) ۽ [[هم آهنگي (منطق)|هم آهنگي]] (ڪنسسٽنسي) جون خاصيتون رکن ٿا يا نه. ان کان علاوه، اهي اهو به ڏسندا آهن ته اهي نظام [[فيصلي پذيري]] (ڊسائيڊبلٽي) رکن ٿا يا نه، ۽ انهن جي [[اظهاري قوت]] ڪيتري آهي.

انهن موضوعن جي تحقيق دوران مابعد منطق گهڻو ڪري تجريدي رياضيائي استدلال تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جنهن جو مقصد انهن مسئلن بابت صحيح، عام ۽ جامع نتيجا حاصل ڪرڻ هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1pp=xliii–xliv|2a1=Sider|2y=2010|2pp=4–6|3a1=Schagrin}}

===رياضيائي منطق===
{{Main|رياضيائي منطق}}

[[File:Russell1907-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=برٽرينڊ رسل جو تصوير|[[برٽرينڊ رسل]] رياضيائي منطق جي ترقي ۾ ڪيترائي اهم علمي حصا ورتا.{{sfn|Irvine|2022}}]]

اصطلاح '''رياضيائي منطق''' (ميٿميٽيڪل لاجڪ) ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[رسمي منطق]] جي مترادف طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر وڌيڪ محدود معنيٰ ۾ اهو رياضيات جي اندر منطق جي مطالعي ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. ان جون اهم شاخون [[ماڊل نظريو]]، [[ثبوت جو نظريو]]، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) ۽ [[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Li|1y=2010|1p=ix|2a1=Rautenberg|2y=2010|2p=15|3a1=Quine|3y=1981|3p=1|4a1=Stolyar|4y=1984|4p=2}}

رياضيائي منطق جي تحقيق جو وڏو حصو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي رياضيائي خاصيتن جي مطالعي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. ان سان گڏ اهو پڻ ڏٺو ويندو آهي ته منطق کي رياضيائي استدلال جي تجزيي يا [[رياضيات جا بنياد|رياضيات جي منطقي بنيادن]] جي قيام لاءِ ڪيئن استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfn|Stolyar|1984|pp=3–6}}

ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ رياضيائي منطق جو هڪ اهم مقصد [[منطق پرستي]] (لاجڪئزم) واري پروگرام کي اڳتي وڌائڻ هو، جنهن جي شروعات [[گاٽلوب فريگي]]، [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] جهڙن فلسفي-منطق دانن ڪئي هئي. هن پروگرام موجب سڀئي رياضيائي نظريا اصل ۾ منطقي [[منطقي صداقت|صداقتون]] (Tautologies) آهن، ۽ ان کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ رياضيات کي منطق تائين محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي. پر هن پروگرام کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جون گهڻيون ڪوششون ناڪام ويون. مثال طور، فريگي جو منصوبو سندس ڪتاب '' گرُنڊگيزيٽسي:Grundgesetze'' (بنيادي قانون) ۾ [[رسل جو تضاد|رسل جي تضاد]] سبب متاثر ٿيو، جڏهن⁠ته [[هلبرٽ جو پروگرام]] [[گوڊل جا نامڪمليت جا نظريا|گوڊل جي نامڪمليت جي نظرين]] سبب ناڪام ثابت ٿيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|1loc=Gödel's incompleteness theorems|2a1=Linsky|2y=2011|2p=4|3a1=Richardson|3y=1998|3p=15}}

[[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) جي شروعات [[جارج ڪينٽر]] لامحدوديت جي مطالعي دوران ڪئي. هي شعبي رياضيائي منطق جي ڪيترن ئي اهم ۽ پيچيده مسئلن جو سرچشمو بڻيو، جن ۾ [[ڪينٽر جو نظريو]]، [[اختيار جو اصول]] (اگزيوم آف چوائس)، [[مسلسل مفروضي]] (ڪنٽينيوئم ھيپوٿيسز) جي آزاديءَ جو سوال، ۽ [[وڏي ڪارڊينل]] (لارج ڪارڊينل) اصولن بابت جديد بحث شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Bagaria|1y=2021|2a1=Cunningham}}

[[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) رياضيائي منطق جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا حسابي مسئلن کي حل ڪرڻ لاءِ مؤثر طريقن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان جو هڪ بنيادي مقصد اهو معلوم ڪرڻ آهي ته ڪنهن خاص مسئلي کي [[الگورٿم]] ذريعي حل ڪرڻ ممڪن آهي يا نه. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صحيح عددن بابت ڪو خاص دعويٰ ڏني وڃي، ته هي شعبي اهو جاچيندو آهي ته ڇا اهڙو الگورٿم تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو اهو طئي ڪري سگهي ته اها دعويٰ صحيح آهي يا غلط. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ [[ٽيورنگ مشين]] (Turing machine) سميت مختلف نظرياتي ماڊلن ۽ اوزارن کي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006a|1loc=Computability Theory|2a1=Leary|2a2=Kristiansen|2y=2015|2p=195}}

===حسابياتي منطق===
{{Main|حسابياتي منطق|ڪمپيوٽر سائنس ۾ منطق}}

[[File:TransistorANDgate.png|thumb|ٽرانزسٽرن جي مدد سان تيار ڪيل هڪ AND گيٽ جو خاڪو. [[منطقي عطف]] (AND) [[بولين منطق]] جي بنيادي عملن مان هڪ آهي، جنهن کي برقي طور مختلف طريقن سان، مثال طور ٻن [[ٽرانزسٽر]]ن ذريعي، عمل ۾ آڻي سگهجي ٿو.]]

'''حسابياتي منطق''' (ڪمپيوٽيشنل لاجڪ) منطق ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ڪمپيوٽرن جي ذريعي رياضيائي استدلال ۽ رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عملي صورت ڏيڻ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان ۾، مثال طور، [[خودڪار نظريي ثابت ڪندڙ]] (آٽوميٽڪ ٿيورم پروور) شامل آهن، جيڪي [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] استعمال ڪندي، بغير انساني مداخلت جي، مقدمات مان گهربل نتيجي تائين مرحليوار ثبوت تيار ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Paulson|1y=2018|1pp=1–14|2a1=Castaño|2y=2018|2p=2|3a1=Wile|3a2=Goss|3a3=Roesner|3y=2005|3p=447}}

[[منطقي پروگرامنگ]] (لاجڪ پروگرامنگ) جون ٻوليون خاص طور اهڙي نموني تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن، جو حقيقتن کي منطقي فارمولن جي صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ۽ انهن مان استدلال ذريعي نوان نتيجا اخذ ڪري سگهجن. مثال طور، [[پرولاگ]] (Prolog) محمولي منطق تي ٻڌل هڪ منطقي پروگرامنگ ٻولي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Clocksin|1a2=Mellish|1y=2003|1pp=237–238, 252–255, 257|1loc=The Relation of Prolog to Logic|2a1=Daintith|2a2=Wright|2y=2008|2loc=Logic Programming Languages}}

ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽنگ سان لاڳاپيل مسئلن جي حل لاءِ پڻ منطقي تصورن کي استعمال ڪندا آهن. هن ميدان ۾ [[ڪلاڊ شينن]] جو ڪم انتهائي اثرائتو رهيو، جنهن ڏيکاريو ته [[بولين منطق]] کي ڪمپيوٽرن جي برقي سرڪٽن کي سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=O'Regan|1y=2016|1p=49|2a1=Calderbank|2a2=Sloane|2y=2001|2p=768}}

اهو ڪم [[منطقي دروازو|منطقي دروازن]] (لاجڪ گيٽ) ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي اهڙا برقي سرڪٽ هوندا آهن، جن ۾ هڪ يا وڌيڪ ان پُٽ ۽ عام طور هڪ آئوٽ پُٽ هوندو آهي. انهن ۾ منطقي قضين جي صداقت جا قدر برقي وولٽيج جي سطحن جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهڙيءَ طرح، سرڪٽ جي ان پُٽن تي مناسب وولٽيج لاڳو ڪري ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ جي وولٽيج کي ماپي، مختلف منطقي عملن جي نقل (سميوليشن) ڪئي ويندي آهي.{{sfn|Daintith|Wright|2008|loc=Logic Gate}}

===قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات===
{{Main|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات}}

'''قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) منطق، [[لسانيات]] ۽ [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]] جي گڏيل ذيلي شاخ آهي. [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) ٻوليءَ جي معنائن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته رسمي معنيات علامتي منطق ۽ رياضيات جا رسمي اوزار استعمال ڪندي [[قدرتي ٻولي]] جي اظهارَن جي معنائن بابت درست ۽ منظم نظريا پيش ڪري ٿي.

رسمي معنيات عام طور معنٰي کي [[صدق جون شرطون]] (ٽرٿ ڪنڊيشنر) سان وابسته ڪري سمجهي ٿي؛ يعني اها جاچ ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙين حالتن ۾ ڪو جملو سچو يا ڪوڙو ٿيندو. هن شعبي جي بنيادي اصولن مان هڪ [[ترڪيبي اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) آهي، جنهن موجب ڪنهن پيچيده اظهار جي معنٰي ان جي جزن جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي پاڻ ۾ ڳانڍاپي جي طريقي سان طئي ٿيندي آهي. مثال طور، فعل واري فقري &quot;هلڻ ۽ ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنٰي انفرادي اظهارَن &quot;هلڻ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.

رسمي معنيات جا ڪيترائي نظريا [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. ان جو مطلب آهي ته اهي [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) استعمال ڪري هڪ نمونو (ماڊل) تيار ڪندا آهن ۽ پوءِ ان نموني جي عنصرن جي حوالي سان ٻوليءَ جي اظهارَن جي معنائن جي تشريح ڪندا آهن. مثال طور، اصطلاح &quot;هلڻ&quot; کي نموني ۾ موجود انهن سڀني فردن جي مجموعي طور سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي هلڻ جي خاصيت رکن ٿا.

هن شعبي جا شروعاتي ۽ اثرائتا مفڪر [[رچرڊ مونٽيگ]] ۽ [[باربرا پارٽي]] هئا، جن پنهنجي تجزين جو بنيادي مرڪز انگريزي ٻوليءَ کي بڻايو.{{sfnm|1a1=Janssen|1a2=Zimmermann|1y=2021|1pp=3–4|2a1=Partee|2y=2016|3a1=King|3y=2009|3pp=557–558|4a1=Aloni|4a2=Dekker|4y=2016|4pp=22–23}}

===منطق جي علمُ المعرفت===
{{Main|منطق جي علمُ المعرفت}}

'''منطق جو علمُ المعرفت''' (ايپسٽيمولاجي آف لاجڪ) هن ڳالهه جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو ته انسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوي ٿي ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا ڪا تجويز منطقي طور سچي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Schechter}} هن ۾ اهڙا سوال شامل آهن، جيئن: {{lang|la|modus ponens}} استدلال جو صحيح قاعدو ڇو آهي؟ يا تضاد هميشه ڪوڙا ڇو سمجهيا وڃن ٿا؟{{sfn|Warren|2020|loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic}}

روايتي طور تي غالب نظريو اهو رهيو آهي ته اهڙي قسم جي منطقي ڄاڻ [[قبلي علم]] (''a priori'') سان واسطو رکي ٿي.{{sfn|Schechter}} هن نظرئي موجب، اڪثر اهو دليل ڏنو ويندو آهي ته [[ذهن]] وٽ هڪ خاص صلاحيت هوندي آهي، جيڪا خالص خيالن جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي پرکڻ جي قابل هوندي آهي، ۽ اها ئي صلاحيت منطقي سچائين کي سمجهڻ جو ذريعو پڻ آهي.{{sfn|Gómez-Torrente|2019}}

هڪ ٻيو ويجهو نظريو منطق جي قاعدن کي [[اصطلاحيت]] (ڪنوينشنلزم) يا لساني روايتن جي بنياد تي سمجهي ٿو. هن راءِ موجب، منطق جا قانون تعريف جي لحاظ کان سچا آهن، تنهنڪري اهي بنيادي طور غيرتڪراري آهن؛ اهي رڳو منطقي اصطلاحن جي معنائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Gómez-Torrente|2y=2019|3a1=Warren|3y=2020|3loc=1. What is Conventionalism}}

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[هلري پٽنم]] ۽ [[پينيلوپي ميڊي]]، هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪن ٿا ته منطق کي مڪمل طور قبلي علم ذريعي ڄاڻي سگهجي ٿو. انهن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي سچايون [[تجربي تي ٻڌل علم]] (امپريڪل نالج) سان به لاڳاپيل آهن. هن راءِ کي عام طور ان دعويٰ سان گڏ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي ته منطق جا قانون دنيا جي بناوت ۾ موجود عام ۽ آفاقي قاعدن جو اظهار ڪن ٿا. ان مطابق، انهن قاعدن کي [[بنيادي سائنسون|بنيادي سائنسن]] ۾ موجود عام نمونن ۽ اصولن جي مطالعي ذريعي به سمجهي سگهجي ٿو.

مثال طور، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم ميڪانيات]] جون ڪجهه دريافتون روايتي منطق جي [[ورڇ جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڊسٽريبيوٽوٽي) کي چئلينج ڪن ٿيون، جنهن موجب فارمولو &lt;math&gt;A \land (B \lor C)&lt;/math&gt; هم معنيٰ آهي &lt;math&gt;(A \land B) \lor (A \land C)&lt;/math&gt; سان. هن دعويٰ کي ان ڳالهه جي تجربي تي ٻڌل دليل طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم منطق]] روايتي منطق کان وڌيڪ مناسب منطقي نظام آهي، ۽ ان کي روايتي منطق جي جاءِ وٺڻ گهرجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Chua|1y=2017|1pp=631–636|2a1=Wilce|2y=2021|3a1=Putnam|3y=1969|3pp=216–241}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>dsx9xfnm2cuyw5mylxssfy9grmj0zca</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399235</id>
      <parentid>399234</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T15:20:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399235</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="114478" sha1="a30vrwisditfyouah654fa5t8mst5o5" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==تاريخ==
{{Main|منطق جي تاريخ}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=330
| image1= Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg
| alt1= ارسطو جو مجسمو
| image2= Avicenne - Avicenna - Ibn_Sina (980-1037) CIPB2067.jpg
| alt2= ابن سينا جو پورٽريٽ
| image3= Guillaume Occam.jpg
| alt3= وليم آف اوڪهم جو پورٽريٽ
| image4= Wismar Marienkirche Bronzebüste Gottlob Frege (01-1).JPG
| alt4= گوٽلوب فريگي جو مجسمو
| footer= مٿيون قطار: [[ارسطو]]، جنهن مغربي منطق جي بنيادي روايت قائم ڪئي؛{{sfn|Groarke}} ۽ [[ابن سينا]]، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ تي پنهنجو منطقي نظام متعارف ڪرايو.{{sfn|Lagerlund|2018}} هيٺيون قطار: [[وليم آف اوڪهم]]، وچئين دور جي علمي فڪر جي اهم شخصيت؛{{sfn|Spade|Panaccio|2019}} ۽ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]]، جديد علامتي منطق جي بانيَن مان هڪ.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900|3a=Klement|3y=1995a}}
}}

قديم دور ۾ منطق ڪيترين ئي تهذيبن ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان الڳ نموني ترقي ڪئي. شروعاتي اهم مفڪرن مان هڪ [[ارسطو]] هو، جنهن پنهنجي ڪتابن ''[[اورگينون]]'' ۽ ''[[پرائر اينالٽڪس]]'' ۾ '''اصطلاحي منطق''' (ٽرم لاجڪ) کي منظم صورت ڏني.{{sfnm|1a1=Kline|1y=1972|1loc=&quot;A major achievement of Aristotle was the founding of the science of logic&quot;, p. 53|2a1=Łukasiewicz|2y=1957|2p=7|3a1=Liu|3a2=Guo|3y=2023|3p=15}} هن [[شرطي قياس]] (Hypothetical syllogism){{sfn|Lear|1980|p=34}} ۽ [[زماني موڊل منطق]] (ٽيمپورل موڊل لاجڪ) جي به بنياد وڌي.{{sfnm|1a1=Knuuttila|1y=1980|1p=71|2a1=Fisher|2a2=Gabbay|2a3=Vila|2y=2005|2p=119}} ارسطو [[استقرائي منطق]] (انڊڪٽو لاجڪ){{sfn|Berman|2009|p=133}} ۽ نون منطقي تصورن، جهڙوڪ [[اصطلاح]]، [[محموليت]] (Predicables)، قياس ۽ تجويزن تي پڻ اهم بحث ڪيو. ارسطوي منطق کي قديم ۽ وچئين دور ۾، يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر ٻنهي ۾ وڏي اهميت حاصل رهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} ۽ اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي شروعات تائين اهو غالب منطقي نظام رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} اڄ جي دور ۾ جيتوڻيڪ ان جي جاءِ جديد منطق ورتي آهي، پر ان جا ڪيترائي بنيادي خيال اڃا به جديد منطقي نظامن ۾ موجود آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|loc=1. Introduction}}

[[ابن سينا]] (ايويسينا) ابن سيناوي منطق جو باني هو، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] جي ميدان ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ ورتي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hasse|1y=2008|2a1=Lagerlund|2y=2018}} سندس خيالن جو اثر [[البرٽس ميگنس]] ۽ [[وليم آف اوڪهم]] جهڙن يورپي مفڪرن تي به پيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Washell|1y=1973|1pp=445–450|2a1=Kneale|2a2=Kneale|2y=1962|2pp=229, 266}} ابن سينا شرطي قياس{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} ۽ [[تجويزي منطق]] (پروپوزيشنل ڪلڪيولس){{sfn|Goodman|1992|p=188}} تي اهم تحريرون لکيون. هن زماني ۽ امڪان کي گڏائيندڙ هڪ نئون قياسي نظريو تيار ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[زماني منطق]] ۽ [[موڊل منطق]] جا عنصر شامل هئا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Spade|loc=Arabic Logic}} هن استقرائي منطق جا به طريقا بيان ڪيا، جهڙوڪ موافقت، اختلاف ۽ گڏيل تبديلي جا طريقا، جيڪي [[سائنسي طريقو|سائنسي طريقي]] لاءِ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا.{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} [[فخر الدين رازي]] پڻ هڪ اثرائتو مسلمان منطق دان هو. هن ارسطوي قياس تي تنقيد ڪئي ۽ استقرائي منطق جو اهڙو ابتدائي نظام پيش ڪيو، جنهن بعد ۾ [[جان اسٽوارٽ مل]] جي استقرائي منطق جي اڳواٽ نشاندهي ڪئي.{{sfn|Iqbal|2013|pp=99–115|loc=The Spirit of Muslim Culture}}

وچئين دور ۾ ارسطو جي منطقي ڪتابن جا ڪيترائي ترجما ۽ تشريحون تيار ڪيون ويون. [[بوئٿيوس]] جا ڪم خاص طور تي گهڻو اثرائتا رهيا. هن نه رڳو ارسطو جي تصنيفن کي لاطيني ۾ ترجمو ڪيو، پر منطق بابت درسي ڪتاب پڻ لکيا.{{sfnm|1a1=Marenbon|1y=2021|1loc=Introduction; 3. The Logical Text-Books|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade}} بعد ۾ ابن سينا ۽ [[ابن رشد]] (ايوريس) جهڙن اسلامي فلسفين جي تحريرن مان پڻ فائدو ورتو ويو، جنهن سان وچئين دور جي عيسائي عالمن کي قديم يوناني فڪر تائين وڌيڪ رسائي ملي. سنه 1323ع ۾ وليم آف اوڪهم جو مشهور ڪتاب ''{{lang|la|[[Summa Logicae]]}}'' شايع ٿيو، جيڪو منطق جو جامع رسالو آهي ۽ جنهن ۾ منطقي تجويزن، انهن جي قسمن ۽ سندن صدق جي شرطن بابت منظم بحث ڪيو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|2a1=Hasse|2y=2008|3a1=Spade|3a2=Panaccio|3y=2019}}

چيني فلسفي ۾ [[نالن جو مذهب]] (اسڪول آف نيمز) ۽ [[موهزم]] (Mohism) خاص اهميت رکندا هئا. نالن جي مذهب ٻوليءَ جي استعمال ۽ منطقي تضادن تي ڌيان ڏنو. مثال طور [[گونگسن لانگ]] مشهور ''اڇي گهوڙي جو تضاد'' (وائيٽ ھارس پيراڊوڪس) پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ دليل ڏنو ويو ته &quot;اڇو گهوڙو، گهوڙو ناهي.&quot; موهزم پڻ منطق ۾ ٻوليءَ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪيو ۽ ان کي اخلاقيات سان ڳنڍڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Willman|1y=2022|2a1=Rošker|2y=2015|2pp=301–309}}

هندستان ۾ منطق جو مطالعو بنيادي طور [[نيايه]]، [[ٻڌ مت]] ۽ [[جين مت]] جي فڪري روايتن ۾ ٿيو. ان کي الڳ علمي شعبي طور نه، پر علمُ المعرفت، مناظري ۽ استدلال جي بحثن جي حصي طور سمجهيو ويندو هو.{{sfn|Sarukkai|Chakraborty|2022|pp=117–118}} نيايه فلسفي ۾ استدلال کي علم حاصل ڪرڻ جو هڪ ذريعو (''[[پرمان]]'') سمجهيو ويو، جيڪو مشاهدي کان پوءِ شين جي سببن بابت نتيجا ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو.{{sfnm|1a1=Dasti|1loc=Lead section; 1b. Inference|2a1=Mills|2y=2018|2p=121}} ٻڌ ۽ جين منطق ۾ به استدلال کي ٻين ذريعن مان حاصل ٿيل علم کي وڌائڻ جو وسيلو سمجهيو ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Emmanuel|1y=2015|1pp=320–322|2a1=Vidyabhusana|2y=1988|2p=221}} نيايه جي پوئين دور جي [[نويا نيايه]] روايت جا ڪيئي خيال جديد منطق سان ملندڙ جلندڙ آهن، جهڙوڪ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جو ''معنيٰ ۽ مرجع'' (سينس اينڊ ريفرنس) وارو فرق ۽ انگ جي تعريف.{{sfn|Chakrabarti|1976|pp=554–563}}

ارسطو جي قياسي منطق اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي وچ تائين غالب رهي، پر رياضيات جي بنيادن بابت وڌندڙ دلچسپي جديد علامتي منطق جي ترقي جو سبب بڻي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Haaparanta|2y=2009|2pp=3–5|2loc=1. Introduction}} گهڻا محقق [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جي ''[[بيگرفس شرفٽ]]'' (Begriffsschrift) کي جديد منطق جي شروعات سمجهن ٿا. [[گوٽفريڊ وِلهم لائبنٽس]] جي [[عالمي رسمي ٻولي]] (ڪئريڪٽرسٽڪا يونيورسلس) جو تصور ان جو اڳواٽ اشارو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. ٻين اهم اڳواڻن ۾ [[جارج بول]] شامل آهي، جنهن [[بولي الجبرا]] (بوليئن آلجبرا) کي منطقي رياضيائي نظام طور پيش ڪيو، ۽ [[چارلس سينڊرس پيرس]]، جنهن [[لاڳاپن جي منطق]] (لاجڪ آگ رليٽوز) کي ترقي ڏني. بعد ۾ [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] انهن خيالن کي پنهنجي مشهور ڪتاب '' پرنسپيا ميٿميٽيڪا'' ۾ منظم ڪيو.

جديد منطق نوان تصور متعارف ڪرايا، جهڙوڪ [[تابع]] (فنڪشن)، مقدارساز (ڪونٽيفائر) ۽ لاڳاپائي محمول (رليشنل پريڊيڪيٽس). جديد علامتي منطق جي نمايان خاصيت رسمي ٻوليءَ جو استعمال آهي، جنهن ذريعي منطقي اصولن کي نهايت درست نموني بيان ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان لحاظ کان اهو اڳين منطق دانن کان مختلف آهي، جيڪي بنيادي طور قدرتي ٻوليءَ تي ڀاڙيندا هئا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900}} خاص طور تي [[اول-درجي منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) جي ترقي جديد منطق ۾ بنيادي حيثيت اختيار ڪئي.{{sfn|Ewald|2019}} ان جي تجزياتي وسعت رياضيات کي رسمي صورت ڏيڻ، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] جي ترقي ۽ [[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) جي قيام لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪيو، ۽ اهو جديد [[رياضياتي منطق]] جو مرڪزي نظام بڻجي ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Schreiner|2y=2021|2p=22}}

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (ڪوانٽيفڪيشن) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}

==تحقيق جا شعبا==

منطق جو مطالعو مختلف علمي شعبن ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪيترن ئي حالتن ۾ ان جي رسمي طريقن کي انهن موضوعن تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي پاڻ منطق جي دائري کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[اخلاقيات]] يا [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Logic and other disciplines|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10}}

ٻين حالتن ۾ خود منطق ئي ڪنهن ٻئي علمي شعبي ۾ تحقيق جو موضوع بڻجي ٿي. اهو مختلف طريقن سان ٿي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، منطق جي بنيادي تصورن سان لاڳاپيل فلسفياتي مفروضن جو جائزو وٺڻ، منطقي نظامن کي رياضيائي بناوتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جو تجزيو ڪرڻ، يا رسمي منطقي نظامن جي تجريدي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ۽ ڀيٽ ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Features and problems of logic|2a1=Gödel|2y=1984|2pp=447–469|2loc=Russell's mathematical logic|3a1=Monk|3y=1976|3pp=1–9|3loc=Introduction}}

===منطق جو فلسفو ۽ فلسفياتي منطق===
{{Main|منطق جو فلسفو|فلسفياتي منطق}}

'''منطق جو فلسفو''' (فلاسافي آف لاجڪ) فلسفي جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطق جي دائري، ماهيت ۽ بنيادي نوعيت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} ان ۾ انهن ڪيترن ئي مفروضن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيڪي منطق ۾ ضمني طور قبول ڪيا ويندا آهن، جيئن ان جي بنيادي تصورن جي تعريف يا انهن سان لاڳاپيل [[مابعدالطبيعات|مابعدالطبيعي]] مفروضا.{{sfn|Jacquette|2006|loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|pp=1–12}}

هي شعبي منطقي نظامن جي درجابندي ۽ انهن سان وابسته [[وجوديات|وجودياتي]] وابستگين (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪمٽمينٽ) جو پڻ مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=§Problems of ontology}}

'''فلسفياتي منطق''' (فلاسافيڪل لاجڪ) منطق جي فلسفي جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطقي طريقن کي فلسفي جي مسئلن تي لاڳو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Burgess|2y=2009|2loc=1. Classical logic}}
اهو استعمال گهڻو ڪري [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي]] يا [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظامن]] جي صورت ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Goble|1y=2001|1loc=Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32}}

===مابعد منطق===
{{Main|مابعد منطق}}

'''مابعد منطق''' (ميٽالاجڪ) اهو علمي شعبو آهي، جيڪو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.

مثال طور، جڏهن ڪو نئون رسمي منطقي نظام تيار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ته مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو معلوم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته ان نظام ۾ ڪهڙا فارمولا ثابت ڪري سگهجن ٿا. اهي اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته ڇا اهڙو [[الگورٿم]] تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو هر فارمولي لاءِ ثبوت ڳولي سگهي، ۽ ڇا ان نظام ۾ هر قابلِ ثبوت فارمولو لازمي طور [[منطقي صداقت]] (Tautology) آهي.

اهي مختلف منطقي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ تقابلي مطالعو پڻ ڪندا آهن ته جيئن انهن جون منفرد خاصيتون واضح ٿي سگهن.

مابعد منطق جو هڪ بنيادي موضوع [[نحو]] (سنٽيڪس) ۽ [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) جي وچ ۾ تعلق آهي. رسمي منطقي نظام جا نحوي ضابطا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدمات مان نتيجا ڪيئن اخذ ڪيا وڃن، يعني ثبوت ڪيئن ترتيب ڏنا وڃن. جڏهن⁠ته معنيات اهو طئي ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙا جملا سچا آهن ۽ ڪهڙا ڪوڙا. انهيءَ بنياد تي دليل جي صحت جو تعين ڪيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صحيح دليل ۾ اهو ناممڪن هوندو آهي ته مقدمات سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو هجي.

نحو ۽ معنيات جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي بابت اهم سوالن ۾ اهو شامل آهي ته ڇا هر صحيح دليل قابلِ ثبوت آهي، ۽ ڇا هر قابلِ ثبوت دليل لازمي طور صحيح به هوندو آهي.

مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته منطقي نظام [[مڪمليت]] (ڪمپليٽنيس)، [[صحت (منطق)|صحت]] (سائونڊنيس) ۽ [[هم آهنگي (منطق)|هم آهنگي]] (ڪنسسٽنسي) جون خاصيتون رکن ٿا يا نه. ان کان علاوه، اهي اهو به ڏسندا آهن ته اهي نظام [[فيصلي پذيري]] (ڊسائيڊبلٽي) رکن ٿا يا نه، ۽ انهن جي [[اظهاري قوت]] ڪيتري آهي.

انهن موضوعن جي تحقيق دوران مابعد منطق گهڻو ڪري تجريدي رياضيائي استدلال تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جنهن جو مقصد انهن مسئلن بابت صحيح، عام ۽ جامع نتيجا حاصل ڪرڻ هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1pp=xliii–xliv|2a1=Sider|2y=2010|2pp=4–6|3a1=Schagrin}}

===رياضيائي منطق===
{{Main|رياضيائي منطق}}

[[File:Russell1907-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=برٽرينڊ رسل جو تصوير|[[برٽرينڊ رسل]] رياضيائي منطق جي ترقي ۾ ڪيترائي اهم علمي حصا ورتا.{{sfn|Irvine|2022}}]]

اصطلاح '''رياضيائي منطق''' (ميٿميٽيڪل لاجڪ) ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[رسمي منطق]] جي مترادف طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر وڌيڪ محدود معنيٰ ۾ اهو رياضيات جي اندر منطق جي مطالعي ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. ان جون اهم شاخون [[ماڊل نظريو]]، [[ثبوت جو نظريو]]، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) ۽ [[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Li|1y=2010|1p=ix|2a1=Rautenberg|2y=2010|2p=15|3a1=Quine|3y=1981|3p=1|4a1=Stolyar|4y=1984|4p=2}}

رياضيائي منطق جي تحقيق جو وڏو حصو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي رياضيائي خاصيتن جي مطالعي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. ان سان گڏ اهو پڻ ڏٺو ويندو آهي ته منطق کي رياضيائي استدلال جي تجزيي يا [[رياضيات جا بنياد|رياضيات جي منطقي بنيادن]] جي قيام لاءِ ڪيئن استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfn|Stolyar|1984|pp=3–6}}

ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ رياضيائي منطق جو هڪ اهم مقصد [[منطق پرستي]] (لاجڪئزم) واري پروگرام کي اڳتي وڌائڻ هو، جنهن جي شروعات [[گاٽلوب فريگي]]، [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] جهڙن فلسفي-منطق دانن ڪئي هئي. هن پروگرام موجب سڀئي رياضيائي نظريا اصل ۾ منطقي [[منطقي صداقت|صداقتون]] (Tautologies) آهن، ۽ ان کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ رياضيات کي منطق تائين محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي. پر هن پروگرام کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جون گهڻيون ڪوششون ناڪام ويون. مثال طور، فريگي جو منصوبو سندس ڪتاب '' گرُنڊگيزيٽسي:Grundgesetze'' (بنيادي قانون) ۾ [[رسل جو تضاد|رسل جي تضاد]] سبب متاثر ٿيو، جڏهن⁠ته [[هلبرٽ جو پروگرام]] [[گوڊل جا نامڪمليت جا نظريا|گوڊل جي نامڪمليت جي نظرين]] سبب ناڪام ثابت ٿيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|1loc=Gödel's incompleteness theorems|2a1=Linsky|2y=2011|2p=4|3a1=Richardson|3y=1998|3p=15}}

[[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) جي شروعات [[جارج ڪينٽر]] لامحدوديت جي مطالعي دوران ڪئي. هي شعبي رياضيائي منطق جي ڪيترن ئي اهم ۽ پيچيده مسئلن جو سرچشمو بڻيو، جن ۾ [[ڪينٽر جو نظريو]]، [[اختيار جو اصول]] (اگزيوم آف چوائس)، [[مسلسل مفروضي]] (ڪنٽينيوئم ھيپوٿيسز) جي آزاديءَ جو سوال، ۽ [[وڏي ڪارڊينل]] (لارج ڪارڊينل) اصولن بابت جديد بحث شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Bagaria|1y=2021|2a1=Cunningham}}

[[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) رياضيائي منطق جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا حسابي مسئلن کي حل ڪرڻ لاءِ مؤثر طريقن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان جو هڪ بنيادي مقصد اهو معلوم ڪرڻ آهي ته ڪنهن خاص مسئلي کي [[الگورٿم]] ذريعي حل ڪرڻ ممڪن آهي يا نه. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صحيح عددن بابت ڪو خاص دعويٰ ڏني وڃي، ته هي شعبي اهو جاچيندو آهي ته ڇا اهڙو الگورٿم تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو اهو طئي ڪري سگهي ته اها دعويٰ صحيح آهي يا غلط. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ [[ٽيورنگ مشين]] (Turing machine) سميت مختلف نظرياتي ماڊلن ۽ اوزارن کي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006a|1loc=Computability Theory|2a1=Leary|2a2=Kristiansen|2y=2015|2p=195}}

===حسابياتي منطق===
{{Main|حسابياتي منطق|ڪمپيوٽر سائنس ۾ منطق}}

[[File:TransistorANDgate.png|thumb|ٽرانزسٽرن جي مدد سان تيار ڪيل هڪ AND گيٽ جو خاڪو. [[منطقي عطف]] (AND) [[بولين منطق]] جي بنيادي عملن مان هڪ آهي، جنهن کي برقي طور مختلف طريقن سان، مثال طور ٻن [[ٽرانزسٽر]]ن ذريعي، عمل ۾ آڻي سگهجي ٿو.]]

'''حسابياتي منطق''' (ڪمپيوٽيشنل لاجڪ) منطق ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ڪمپيوٽرن جي ذريعي رياضيائي استدلال ۽ رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عملي صورت ڏيڻ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان ۾، مثال طور، [[خودڪار نظريي ثابت ڪندڙ]] (آٽوميٽڪ ٿيورم پروور) شامل آهن، جيڪي [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] استعمال ڪندي، بغير انساني مداخلت جي، مقدمات مان گهربل نتيجي تائين مرحليوار ثبوت تيار ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Paulson|1y=2018|1pp=1–14|2a1=Castaño|2y=2018|2p=2|3a1=Wile|3a2=Goss|3a3=Roesner|3y=2005|3p=447}}

[[منطقي پروگرامنگ]] (لاجڪ پروگرامنگ) جون ٻوليون خاص طور اهڙي نموني تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن، جو حقيقتن کي منطقي فارمولن جي صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ۽ انهن مان استدلال ذريعي نوان نتيجا اخذ ڪري سگهجن. مثال طور، [[پرولاگ]] (Prolog) محمولي منطق تي ٻڌل هڪ منطقي پروگرامنگ ٻولي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Clocksin|1a2=Mellish|1y=2003|1pp=237–238, 252–255, 257|1loc=The Relation of Prolog to Logic|2a1=Daintith|2a2=Wright|2y=2008|2loc=Logic Programming Languages}}

ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽنگ سان لاڳاپيل مسئلن جي حل لاءِ پڻ منطقي تصورن کي استعمال ڪندا آهن. هن ميدان ۾ [[ڪلاڊ شينن]] جو ڪم انتهائي اثرائتو رهيو، جنهن ڏيکاريو ته [[بولين منطق]] کي ڪمپيوٽرن جي برقي سرڪٽن کي سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=O'Regan|1y=2016|1p=49|2a1=Calderbank|2a2=Sloane|2y=2001|2p=768}}

اهو ڪم [[منطقي دروازو|منطقي دروازن]] (لاجڪ گيٽ) ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي اهڙا برقي سرڪٽ هوندا آهن، جن ۾ هڪ يا وڌيڪ ان پُٽ ۽ عام طور هڪ آئوٽ پُٽ هوندو آهي. انهن ۾ منطقي قضين جي صداقت جا قدر برقي وولٽيج جي سطحن جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهڙيءَ طرح، سرڪٽ جي ان پُٽن تي مناسب وولٽيج لاڳو ڪري ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ جي وولٽيج کي ماپي، مختلف منطقي عملن جي نقل (سميوليشن) ڪئي ويندي آهي.{{sfn|Daintith|Wright|2008|loc=Logic Gate}}

===قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات===
{{Main|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات}}

'''قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) منطق، [[لسانيات]] ۽ [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]] جي گڏيل ذيلي شاخ آهي. [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) ٻوليءَ جي معنائن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته رسمي معنيات علامتي منطق ۽ رياضيات جا رسمي اوزار استعمال ڪندي [[قدرتي ٻولي]] جي اظهارَن جي معنائن بابت درست ۽ منظم نظريا پيش ڪري ٿي.

رسمي معنيات عام طور معنٰي کي [[صدق جون شرطون]] (ٽرٿ ڪنڊيشنر) سان وابسته ڪري سمجهي ٿي؛ يعني اها جاچ ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙين حالتن ۾ ڪو جملو سچو يا ڪوڙو ٿيندو. هن شعبي جي بنيادي اصولن مان هڪ [[ترڪيبي اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) آهي، جنهن موجب ڪنهن پيچيده اظهار جي معنٰي ان جي جزن جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي پاڻ ۾ ڳانڍاپي جي طريقي سان طئي ٿيندي آهي. مثال طور، فعل واري فقري &quot;هلڻ ۽ ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنٰي انفرادي اظهارَن &quot;هلڻ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.

رسمي معنيات جا ڪيترائي نظريا [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. ان جو مطلب آهي ته اهي [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) استعمال ڪري هڪ نمونو (ماڊل) تيار ڪندا آهن ۽ پوءِ ان نموني جي عنصرن جي حوالي سان ٻوليءَ جي اظهارَن جي معنائن جي تشريح ڪندا آهن. مثال طور، اصطلاح &quot;هلڻ&quot; کي نموني ۾ موجود انهن سڀني فردن جي مجموعي طور سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي هلڻ جي خاصيت رکن ٿا.

هن شعبي جا شروعاتي ۽ اثرائتا مفڪر [[رچرڊ مونٽيگ]] ۽ [[باربرا پارٽي]] هئا، جن پنهنجي تجزين جو بنيادي مرڪز انگريزي ٻوليءَ کي بڻايو.{{sfnm|1a1=Janssen|1a2=Zimmermann|1y=2021|1pp=3–4|2a1=Partee|2y=2016|3a1=King|3y=2009|3pp=557–558|4a1=Aloni|4a2=Dekker|4y=2016|4pp=22–23}}

===منطق جي علمُ المعرفت===
{{Main|منطق جي علمُ المعرفت}}

'''منطق جو علمُ المعرفت''' (ايپسٽيمولاجي آف لاجڪ) هن ڳالهه جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو ته انسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوي ٿي ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا ڪا تجويز منطقي طور سچي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Schechter}} هن ۾ اهڙا سوال شامل آهن، جيئن: {{lang|la|modus ponens}} استدلال جو صحيح قاعدو ڇو آهي؟ يا تضاد هميشه ڪوڙا ڇو سمجهيا وڃن ٿا؟{{sfn|Warren|2020|loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic}}

روايتي طور تي غالب نظريو اهو رهيو آهي ته اهڙي قسم جي منطقي ڄاڻ [[قبلي علم]] (''a priori'') سان واسطو رکي ٿي.{{sfn|Schechter}} هن نظرئي موجب، اڪثر اهو دليل ڏنو ويندو آهي ته [[ذهن]] وٽ هڪ خاص صلاحيت هوندي آهي، جيڪا خالص خيالن جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي پرکڻ جي قابل هوندي آهي، ۽ اها ئي صلاحيت منطقي سچائين کي سمجهڻ جو ذريعو پڻ آهي.{{sfn|Gómez-Torrente|2019}}

هڪ ٻيو ويجهو نظريو منطق جي قاعدن کي [[اصطلاحيت]] (ڪنوينشنلزم) يا لساني روايتن جي بنياد تي سمجهي ٿو. هن راءِ موجب، منطق جا قانون تعريف جي لحاظ کان سچا آهن، تنهنڪري اهي بنيادي طور غيرتڪراري آهن؛ اهي رڳو منطقي اصطلاحن جي معنائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Gómez-Torrente|2y=2019|3a1=Warren|3y=2020|3loc=1. What is Conventionalism}}

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[هلري پٽنم]] ۽ [[پينيلوپي ميڊي]]، هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪن ٿا ته منطق کي مڪمل طور قبلي علم ذريعي ڄاڻي سگهجي ٿو. انهن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي سچايون [[تجربي تي ٻڌل علم]] (امپريڪل نالج) سان به لاڳاپيل آهن. هن راءِ کي عام طور ان دعويٰ سان گڏ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي ته منطق جا قانون دنيا جي بناوت ۾ موجود عام ۽ آفاقي قاعدن جو اظهار ڪن ٿا. ان مطابق، انهن قاعدن کي [[بنيادي سائنسون|بنيادي سائنسن]] ۾ موجود عام نمونن ۽ اصولن جي مطالعي ذريعي به سمجهي سگهجي ٿو.

مثال طور، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم ميڪانيات]] جون ڪجهه دريافتون روايتي منطق جي [[ورڇ جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڊسٽريبيوٽوٽي) کي چئلينج ڪن ٿيون، جنهن موجب فارمولو &lt;math&gt;A \land (B \lor C)&lt;/math&gt; هم معنيٰ آهي &lt;math&gt;(A \land B) \lor (A \land C)&lt;/math&gt; سان. هن دعويٰ کي ان ڳالهه جي تجربي تي ٻڌل دليل طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم منطق]] روايتي منطق کان وڌيڪ مناسب منطقي نظام آهي، ۽ ان کي روايتي منطق جي جاءِ وٺڻ گهرجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Chua|1y=2017|1pp=631–636|2a1=Wilce|2y=2021|3a1=Putnam|3y=1969|3pp=216–241}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>a30vrwisditfyouah654fa5t8mst5o5</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399236</id>
      <parentid>399235</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T15:21:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399236</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="114496" sha1="q6cymnpe0ggwwqwftw0qbhgzrgq2yct" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==تاريخ==
{{Main|منطق جي تاريخ}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=330
| image1= Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg
| alt1= ارسطو جو مجسمو
| image2= Avicenne - Avicenna - Ibn_Sina (980-1037) CIPB2067.jpg
| alt2= ابن سينا جو پورٽريٽ
| image3= Guillaume Occam.jpg
| alt3= وليم آف اوڪهم جو پورٽريٽ
| image4= Wismar Marienkirche Bronzebüste Gottlob Frege (01-1).JPG
| alt4= گوٽلوب فريگي جو مجسمو
| footer= مٿيون قطار: [[ارسطو]]، جنهن مغربي منطق جي بنيادي روايت قائم ڪئي؛{{sfn|Groarke}} ۽ [[ابن سينا]]، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ تي پنهنجو منطقي نظام متعارف ڪرايو.{{sfn|Lagerlund|2018}} هيٺيون قطار: [[وليم آف اوڪهم]]، وچئين دور جي علمي فڪر جي اهم شخصيت؛{{sfn|Spade|Panaccio|2019}} ۽ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]]، جديد علامتي منطق جي بانيَن مان هڪ.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900|3a=Klement|3y=1995a}}
}}

قديم دور ۾ منطق ڪيترين ئي تهذيبن ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان الڳ نموني ترقي ڪئي. شروعاتي اهم مفڪرن مان هڪ [[ارسطو]] هو، جنهن پنهنجي ڪتابن ''[[اورگينون]]'' ۽ ''[[پرائر اينالٽڪس]]'' ۾ '''اصطلاحي منطق''' (ٽرم لاجڪ) کي منظم صورت ڏني.{{sfnm|1a1=Kline|1y=1972|1loc=&quot;A major achievement of Aristotle was the founding of the science of logic&quot;, p. 53|2a1=Łukasiewicz|2y=1957|2p=7|3a1=Liu|3a2=Guo|3y=2023|3p=15}} هن [[شرطي قياس]] (ھيپوٿيٽيڪل سلاجزم){{sfn|Lear|1980|p=34}} ۽ [[زماني موڊل منطق]] (ٽيمپورل موڊل لاجڪ) جي به بنياد وڌي.{{sfnm|1a1=Knuuttila|1y=1980|1p=71|2a1=Fisher|2a2=Gabbay|2a3=Vila|2y=2005|2p=119}} ارسطو [[استقرائي منطق]] (انڊڪٽو لاجڪ){{sfn|Berman|2009|p=133}} ۽ نون منطقي تصورن، جهڙوڪ [[اصطلاح]]، [[محموليت]] (پريڊيڪبلز)، قياس ۽ تجويزن تي پڻ اهم بحث ڪيو. ارسطوي منطق کي قديم ۽ وچئين دور ۾، يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر ٻنهي ۾ وڏي اهميت حاصل رهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} ۽ اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي شروعات تائين اهو غالب منطقي نظام رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} اڄ جي دور ۾ جيتوڻيڪ ان جي جاءِ جديد منطق ورتي آهي، پر ان جا ڪيترائي بنيادي خيال اڃا به جديد منطقي نظامن ۾ موجود آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|loc=1. Introduction}}

[[ابن سينا]] (ايويسينا) ابن سيناوي منطق جو باني هو، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] جي ميدان ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ ورتي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hasse|1y=2008|2a1=Lagerlund|2y=2018}} سندس خيالن جو اثر [[البرٽس ميگنس]] ۽ [[وليم آف اوڪهم]] جهڙن يورپي مفڪرن تي به پيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Washell|1y=1973|1pp=445–450|2a1=Kneale|2a2=Kneale|2y=1962|2pp=229, 266}} ابن سينا شرطي قياس{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} ۽ [[تجويزي منطق]] (پروپوزيشنل ڪلڪيولس){{sfn|Goodman|1992|p=188}} تي اهم تحريرون لکيون. هن زماني ۽ امڪان کي گڏائيندڙ هڪ نئون قياسي نظريو تيار ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[زماني منطق]] ۽ [[موڊل منطق]] جا عنصر شامل هئا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Spade|loc=Arabic Logic}} هن استقرائي منطق جا به طريقا بيان ڪيا، جهڙوڪ موافقت، اختلاف ۽ گڏيل تبديلي جا طريقا، جيڪي [[سائنسي طريقو|سائنسي طريقي]] لاءِ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا.{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} [[فخر الدين رازي]] پڻ هڪ اثرائتو مسلمان منطق دان هو. هن ارسطوي قياس تي تنقيد ڪئي ۽ استقرائي منطق جو اهڙو ابتدائي نظام پيش ڪيو، جنهن بعد ۾ [[جان اسٽوارٽ مل]] جي استقرائي منطق جي اڳواٽ نشاندهي ڪئي.{{sfn|Iqbal|2013|pp=99–115|loc=The Spirit of Muslim Culture}}

وچئين دور ۾ ارسطو جي منطقي ڪتابن جا ڪيترائي ترجما ۽ تشريحون تيار ڪيون ويون. [[بوئٿيوس]] جا ڪم خاص طور تي گهڻو اثرائتا رهيا. هن نه رڳو ارسطو جي تصنيفن کي لاطيني ۾ ترجمو ڪيو، پر منطق بابت درسي ڪتاب پڻ لکيا.{{sfnm|1a1=Marenbon|1y=2021|1loc=Introduction; 3. The Logical Text-Books|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade}} بعد ۾ ابن سينا ۽ [[ابن رشد]] (ايوريس) جهڙن اسلامي فلسفين جي تحريرن مان پڻ فائدو ورتو ويو، جنهن سان وچئين دور جي عيسائي عالمن کي قديم يوناني فڪر تائين وڌيڪ رسائي ملي. سنه 1323ع ۾ وليم آف اوڪهم جو مشهور ڪتاب ''{{lang|la|[[Summa Logicae]]}}'' شايع ٿيو، جيڪو منطق جو جامع رسالو آهي ۽ جنهن ۾ منطقي تجويزن، انهن جي قسمن ۽ سندن صدق جي شرطن بابت منظم بحث ڪيو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|2a1=Hasse|2y=2008|3a1=Spade|3a2=Panaccio|3y=2019}}

چيني فلسفي ۾ [[نالن جو مذهب]] (اسڪول آف نيمز) ۽ [[موهزم]] (Mohism) خاص اهميت رکندا هئا. نالن جي مذهب ٻوليءَ جي استعمال ۽ منطقي تضادن تي ڌيان ڏنو. مثال طور [[گونگسن لانگ]] مشهور ''اڇي گهوڙي جو تضاد'' (وائيٽ ھارس پيراڊوڪس) پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ دليل ڏنو ويو ته &quot;اڇو گهوڙو، گهوڙو ناهي.&quot; موهزم پڻ منطق ۾ ٻوليءَ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪيو ۽ ان کي اخلاقيات سان ڳنڍڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Willman|1y=2022|2a1=Rošker|2y=2015|2pp=301–309}}

هندستان ۾ منطق جو مطالعو بنيادي طور [[نيايه]]، [[ٻڌ مت]] ۽ [[جين مت]] جي فڪري روايتن ۾ ٿيو. ان کي الڳ علمي شعبي طور نه، پر علمُ المعرفت، مناظري ۽ استدلال جي بحثن جي حصي طور سمجهيو ويندو هو.{{sfn|Sarukkai|Chakraborty|2022|pp=117–118}} نيايه فلسفي ۾ استدلال کي علم حاصل ڪرڻ جو هڪ ذريعو (''[[پرمان]]'') سمجهيو ويو، جيڪو مشاهدي کان پوءِ شين جي سببن بابت نتيجا ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو.{{sfnm|1a1=Dasti|1loc=Lead section; 1b. Inference|2a1=Mills|2y=2018|2p=121}} ٻڌ ۽ جين منطق ۾ به استدلال کي ٻين ذريعن مان حاصل ٿيل علم کي وڌائڻ جو وسيلو سمجهيو ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Emmanuel|1y=2015|1pp=320–322|2a1=Vidyabhusana|2y=1988|2p=221}} نيايه جي پوئين دور جي [[نويا نيايه]] روايت جا ڪيئي خيال جديد منطق سان ملندڙ جلندڙ آهن، جهڙوڪ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جو ''معنيٰ ۽ مرجع'' (سينس اينڊ ريفرنس) وارو فرق ۽ انگ جي تعريف.{{sfn|Chakrabarti|1976|pp=554–563}}

ارسطو جي قياسي منطق اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي وچ تائين غالب رهي، پر رياضيات جي بنيادن بابت وڌندڙ دلچسپي جديد علامتي منطق جي ترقي جو سبب بڻي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Haaparanta|2y=2009|2pp=3–5|2loc=1. Introduction}} گهڻا محقق [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جي ''[[بيگرفس شرفٽ]]'' (Begriffsschrift) کي جديد منطق جي شروعات سمجهن ٿا. [[گوٽفريڊ وِلهم لائبنٽس]] جي [[عالمي رسمي ٻولي]] (ڪئريڪٽرسٽڪا يونيورسلس) جو تصور ان جو اڳواٽ اشارو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. ٻين اهم اڳواڻن ۾ [[جارج بول]] شامل آهي، جنهن [[بولي الجبرا]] (بوليئن آلجبرا) کي منطقي رياضيائي نظام طور پيش ڪيو، ۽ [[چارلس سينڊرس پيرس]]، جنهن [[لاڳاپن جي منطق]] (لاجڪ آگ رليٽوز) کي ترقي ڏني. بعد ۾ [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] انهن خيالن کي پنهنجي مشهور ڪتاب '' پرنسپيا ميٿميٽيڪا'' ۾ منظم ڪيو.

جديد منطق نوان تصور متعارف ڪرايا، جهڙوڪ [[تابع]] (فنڪشن)، مقدارساز (ڪونٽيفائر) ۽ لاڳاپائي محمول (رليشنل پريڊيڪيٽس). جديد علامتي منطق جي نمايان خاصيت رسمي ٻوليءَ جو استعمال آهي، جنهن ذريعي منطقي اصولن کي نهايت درست نموني بيان ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان لحاظ کان اهو اڳين منطق دانن کان مختلف آهي، جيڪي بنيادي طور قدرتي ٻوليءَ تي ڀاڙيندا هئا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900}} خاص طور تي [[اول-درجي منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) جي ترقي جديد منطق ۾ بنيادي حيثيت اختيار ڪئي.{{sfn|Ewald|2019}} ان جي تجزياتي وسعت رياضيات کي رسمي صورت ڏيڻ، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] جي ترقي ۽ [[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) جي قيام لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪيو، ۽ اهو جديد [[رياضياتي منطق]] جو مرڪزي نظام بڻجي ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Schreiner|2y=2021|2p=22}}

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (ڪوانٽيفڪيشن) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}

==تحقيق جا شعبا==

منطق جو مطالعو مختلف علمي شعبن ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪيترن ئي حالتن ۾ ان جي رسمي طريقن کي انهن موضوعن تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي پاڻ منطق جي دائري کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[اخلاقيات]] يا [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Logic and other disciplines|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10}}

ٻين حالتن ۾ خود منطق ئي ڪنهن ٻئي علمي شعبي ۾ تحقيق جو موضوع بڻجي ٿي. اهو مختلف طريقن سان ٿي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، منطق جي بنيادي تصورن سان لاڳاپيل فلسفياتي مفروضن جو جائزو وٺڻ، منطقي نظامن کي رياضيائي بناوتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جو تجزيو ڪرڻ، يا رسمي منطقي نظامن جي تجريدي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ۽ ڀيٽ ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Features and problems of logic|2a1=Gödel|2y=1984|2pp=447–469|2loc=Russell's mathematical logic|3a1=Monk|3y=1976|3pp=1–9|3loc=Introduction}}

===منطق جو فلسفو ۽ فلسفياتي منطق===
{{Main|منطق جو فلسفو|فلسفياتي منطق}}

'''منطق جو فلسفو''' (فلاسافي آف لاجڪ) فلسفي جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطق جي دائري، ماهيت ۽ بنيادي نوعيت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} ان ۾ انهن ڪيترن ئي مفروضن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيڪي منطق ۾ ضمني طور قبول ڪيا ويندا آهن، جيئن ان جي بنيادي تصورن جي تعريف يا انهن سان لاڳاپيل [[مابعدالطبيعات|مابعدالطبيعي]] مفروضا.{{sfn|Jacquette|2006|loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|pp=1–12}}

هي شعبي منطقي نظامن جي درجابندي ۽ انهن سان وابسته [[وجوديات|وجودياتي]] وابستگين (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪمٽمينٽ) جو پڻ مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=§Problems of ontology}}

'''فلسفياتي منطق''' (فلاسافيڪل لاجڪ) منطق جي فلسفي جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطقي طريقن کي فلسفي جي مسئلن تي لاڳو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Burgess|2y=2009|2loc=1. Classical logic}}
اهو استعمال گهڻو ڪري [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي]] يا [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظامن]] جي صورت ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Goble|1y=2001|1loc=Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32}}

===مابعد منطق===
{{Main|مابعد منطق}}

'''مابعد منطق''' (ميٽالاجڪ) اهو علمي شعبو آهي، جيڪو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.

مثال طور، جڏهن ڪو نئون رسمي منطقي نظام تيار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ته مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو معلوم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته ان نظام ۾ ڪهڙا فارمولا ثابت ڪري سگهجن ٿا. اهي اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته ڇا اهڙو [[الگورٿم]] تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو هر فارمولي لاءِ ثبوت ڳولي سگهي، ۽ ڇا ان نظام ۾ هر قابلِ ثبوت فارمولو لازمي طور [[منطقي صداقت]] (Tautology) آهي.

اهي مختلف منطقي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ تقابلي مطالعو پڻ ڪندا آهن ته جيئن انهن جون منفرد خاصيتون واضح ٿي سگهن.

مابعد منطق جو هڪ بنيادي موضوع [[نحو]] (سنٽيڪس) ۽ [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) جي وچ ۾ تعلق آهي. رسمي منطقي نظام جا نحوي ضابطا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدمات مان نتيجا ڪيئن اخذ ڪيا وڃن، يعني ثبوت ڪيئن ترتيب ڏنا وڃن. جڏهن⁠ته معنيات اهو طئي ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙا جملا سچا آهن ۽ ڪهڙا ڪوڙا. انهيءَ بنياد تي دليل جي صحت جو تعين ڪيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صحيح دليل ۾ اهو ناممڪن هوندو آهي ته مقدمات سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو هجي.

نحو ۽ معنيات جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي بابت اهم سوالن ۾ اهو شامل آهي ته ڇا هر صحيح دليل قابلِ ثبوت آهي، ۽ ڇا هر قابلِ ثبوت دليل لازمي طور صحيح به هوندو آهي.

مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته منطقي نظام [[مڪمليت]] (ڪمپليٽنيس)، [[صحت (منطق)|صحت]] (سائونڊنيس) ۽ [[هم آهنگي (منطق)|هم آهنگي]] (ڪنسسٽنسي) جون خاصيتون رکن ٿا يا نه. ان کان علاوه، اهي اهو به ڏسندا آهن ته اهي نظام [[فيصلي پذيري]] (ڊسائيڊبلٽي) رکن ٿا يا نه، ۽ انهن جي [[اظهاري قوت]] ڪيتري آهي.

انهن موضوعن جي تحقيق دوران مابعد منطق گهڻو ڪري تجريدي رياضيائي استدلال تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جنهن جو مقصد انهن مسئلن بابت صحيح، عام ۽ جامع نتيجا حاصل ڪرڻ هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1pp=xliii–xliv|2a1=Sider|2y=2010|2pp=4–6|3a1=Schagrin}}

===رياضيائي منطق===
{{Main|رياضيائي منطق}}

[[File:Russell1907-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=برٽرينڊ رسل جو تصوير|[[برٽرينڊ رسل]] رياضيائي منطق جي ترقي ۾ ڪيترائي اهم علمي حصا ورتا.{{sfn|Irvine|2022}}]]

اصطلاح '''رياضيائي منطق''' (ميٿميٽيڪل لاجڪ) ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[رسمي منطق]] جي مترادف طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر وڌيڪ محدود معنيٰ ۾ اهو رياضيات جي اندر منطق جي مطالعي ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. ان جون اهم شاخون [[ماڊل نظريو]]، [[ثبوت جو نظريو]]، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) ۽ [[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Li|1y=2010|1p=ix|2a1=Rautenberg|2y=2010|2p=15|3a1=Quine|3y=1981|3p=1|4a1=Stolyar|4y=1984|4p=2}}

رياضيائي منطق جي تحقيق جو وڏو حصو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي رياضيائي خاصيتن جي مطالعي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. ان سان گڏ اهو پڻ ڏٺو ويندو آهي ته منطق کي رياضيائي استدلال جي تجزيي يا [[رياضيات جا بنياد|رياضيات جي منطقي بنيادن]] جي قيام لاءِ ڪيئن استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfn|Stolyar|1984|pp=3–6}}

ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ رياضيائي منطق جو هڪ اهم مقصد [[منطق پرستي]] (لاجڪئزم) واري پروگرام کي اڳتي وڌائڻ هو، جنهن جي شروعات [[گاٽلوب فريگي]]، [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] جهڙن فلسفي-منطق دانن ڪئي هئي. هن پروگرام موجب سڀئي رياضيائي نظريا اصل ۾ منطقي [[منطقي صداقت|صداقتون]] (Tautologies) آهن، ۽ ان کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ رياضيات کي منطق تائين محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي. پر هن پروگرام کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جون گهڻيون ڪوششون ناڪام ويون. مثال طور، فريگي جو منصوبو سندس ڪتاب '' گرُنڊگيزيٽسي:Grundgesetze'' (بنيادي قانون) ۾ [[رسل جو تضاد|رسل جي تضاد]] سبب متاثر ٿيو، جڏهن⁠ته [[هلبرٽ جو پروگرام]] [[گوڊل جا نامڪمليت جا نظريا|گوڊل جي نامڪمليت جي نظرين]] سبب ناڪام ثابت ٿيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|1loc=Gödel's incompleteness theorems|2a1=Linsky|2y=2011|2p=4|3a1=Richardson|3y=1998|3p=15}}

[[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) جي شروعات [[جارج ڪينٽر]] لامحدوديت جي مطالعي دوران ڪئي. هي شعبي رياضيائي منطق جي ڪيترن ئي اهم ۽ پيچيده مسئلن جو سرچشمو بڻيو، جن ۾ [[ڪينٽر جو نظريو]]، [[اختيار جو اصول]] (اگزيوم آف چوائس)، [[مسلسل مفروضي]] (ڪنٽينيوئم ھيپوٿيسز) جي آزاديءَ جو سوال، ۽ [[وڏي ڪارڊينل]] (لارج ڪارڊينل) اصولن بابت جديد بحث شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Bagaria|1y=2021|2a1=Cunningham}}

[[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) رياضيائي منطق جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا حسابي مسئلن کي حل ڪرڻ لاءِ مؤثر طريقن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان جو هڪ بنيادي مقصد اهو معلوم ڪرڻ آهي ته ڪنهن خاص مسئلي کي [[الگورٿم]] ذريعي حل ڪرڻ ممڪن آهي يا نه. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صحيح عددن بابت ڪو خاص دعويٰ ڏني وڃي، ته هي شعبي اهو جاچيندو آهي ته ڇا اهڙو الگورٿم تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو اهو طئي ڪري سگهي ته اها دعويٰ صحيح آهي يا غلط. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ [[ٽيورنگ مشين]] (Turing machine) سميت مختلف نظرياتي ماڊلن ۽ اوزارن کي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006a|1loc=Computability Theory|2a1=Leary|2a2=Kristiansen|2y=2015|2p=195}}

===حسابياتي منطق===
{{Main|حسابياتي منطق|ڪمپيوٽر سائنس ۾ منطق}}

[[File:TransistorANDgate.png|thumb|ٽرانزسٽرن جي مدد سان تيار ڪيل هڪ AND گيٽ جو خاڪو. [[منطقي عطف]] (AND) [[بولين منطق]] جي بنيادي عملن مان هڪ آهي، جنهن کي برقي طور مختلف طريقن سان، مثال طور ٻن [[ٽرانزسٽر]]ن ذريعي، عمل ۾ آڻي سگهجي ٿو.]]

'''حسابياتي منطق''' (ڪمپيوٽيشنل لاجڪ) منطق ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ڪمپيوٽرن جي ذريعي رياضيائي استدلال ۽ رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عملي صورت ڏيڻ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان ۾، مثال طور، [[خودڪار نظريي ثابت ڪندڙ]] (آٽوميٽڪ ٿيورم پروور) شامل آهن، جيڪي [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] استعمال ڪندي، بغير انساني مداخلت جي، مقدمات مان گهربل نتيجي تائين مرحليوار ثبوت تيار ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Paulson|1y=2018|1pp=1–14|2a1=Castaño|2y=2018|2p=2|3a1=Wile|3a2=Goss|3a3=Roesner|3y=2005|3p=447}}

[[منطقي پروگرامنگ]] (لاجڪ پروگرامنگ) جون ٻوليون خاص طور اهڙي نموني تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن، جو حقيقتن کي منطقي فارمولن جي صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ۽ انهن مان استدلال ذريعي نوان نتيجا اخذ ڪري سگهجن. مثال طور، [[پرولاگ]] (Prolog) محمولي منطق تي ٻڌل هڪ منطقي پروگرامنگ ٻولي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Clocksin|1a2=Mellish|1y=2003|1pp=237–238, 252–255, 257|1loc=The Relation of Prolog to Logic|2a1=Daintith|2a2=Wright|2y=2008|2loc=Logic Programming Languages}}

ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽنگ سان لاڳاپيل مسئلن جي حل لاءِ پڻ منطقي تصورن کي استعمال ڪندا آهن. هن ميدان ۾ [[ڪلاڊ شينن]] جو ڪم انتهائي اثرائتو رهيو، جنهن ڏيکاريو ته [[بولين منطق]] کي ڪمپيوٽرن جي برقي سرڪٽن کي سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=O'Regan|1y=2016|1p=49|2a1=Calderbank|2a2=Sloane|2y=2001|2p=768}}

اهو ڪم [[منطقي دروازو|منطقي دروازن]] (لاجڪ گيٽ) ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي اهڙا برقي سرڪٽ هوندا آهن، جن ۾ هڪ يا وڌيڪ ان پُٽ ۽ عام طور هڪ آئوٽ پُٽ هوندو آهي. انهن ۾ منطقي قضين جي صداقت جا قدر برقي وولٽيج جي سطحن جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهڙيءَ طرح، سرڪٽ جي ان پُٽن تي مناسب وولٽيج لاڳو ڪري ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ جي وولٽيج کي ماپي، مختلف منطقي عملن جي نقل (سميوليشن) ڪئي ويندي آهي.{{sfn|Daintith|Wright|2008|loc=Logic Gate}}

===قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات===
{{Main|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات}}

'''قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) منطق، [[لسانيات]] ۽ [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]] جي گڏيل ذيلي شاخ آهي. [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) ٻوليءَ جي معنائن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته رسمي معنيات علامتي منطق ۽ رياضيات جا رسمي اوزار استعمال ڪندي [[قدرتي ٻولي]] جي اظهارَن جي معنائن بابت درست ۽ منظم نظريا پيش ڪري ٿي.

رسمي معنيات عام طور معنٰي کي [[صدق جون شرطون]] (ٽرٿ ڪنڊيشنر) سان وابسته ڪري سمجهي ٿي؛ يعني اها جاچ ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙين حالتن ۾ ڪو جملو سچو يا ڪوڙو ٿيندو. هن شعبي جي بنيادي اصولن مان هڪ [[ترڪيبي اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) آهي، جنهن موجب ڪنهن پيچيده اظهار جي معنٰي ان جي جزن جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي پاڻ ۾ ڳانڍاپي جي طريقي سان طئي ٿيندي آهي. مثال طور، فعل واري فقري &quot;هلڻ ۽ ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنٰي انفرادي اظهارَن &quot;هلڻ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.

رسمي معنيات جا ڪيترائي نظريا [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. ان جو مطلب آهي ته اهي [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) استعمال ڪري هڪ نمونو (ماڊل) تيار ڪندا آهن ۽ پوءِ ان نموني جي عنصرن جي حوالي سان ٻوليءَ جي اظهارَن جي معنائن جي تشريح ڪندا آهن. مثال طور، اصطلاح &quot;هلڻ&quot; کي نموني ۾ موجود انهن سڀني فردن جي مجموعي طور سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي هلڻ جي خاصيت رکن ٿا.

هن شعبي جا شروعاتي ۽ اثرائتا مفڪر [[رچرڊ مونٽيگ]] ۽ [[باربرا پارٽي]] هئا، جن پنهنجي تجزين جو بنيادي مرڪز انگريزي ٻوليءَ کي بڻايو.{{sfnm|1a1=Janssen|1a2=Zimmermann|1y=2021|1pp=3–4|2a1=Partee|2y=2016|3a1=King|3y=2009|3pp=557–558|4a1=Aloni|4a2=Dekker|4y=2016|4pp=22–23}}

===منطق جي علمُ المعرفت===
{{Main|منطق جي علمُ المعرفت}}

'''منطق جو علمُ المعرفت''' (ايپسٽيمولاجي آف لاجڪ) هن ڳالهه جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو ته انسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوي ٿي ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا ڪا تجويز منطقي طور سچي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Schechter}} هن ۾ اهڙا سوال شامل آهن، جيئن: {{lang|la|modus ponens}} استدلال جو صحيح قاعدو ڇو آهي؟ يا تضاد هميشه ڪوڙا ڇو سمجهيا وڃن ٿا؟{{sfn|Warren|2020|loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic}}

روايتي طور تي غالب نظريو اهو رهيو آهي ته اهڙي قسم جي منطقي ڄاڻ [[قبلي علم]] (''a priori'') سان واسطو رکي ٿي.{{sfn|Schechter}} هن نظرئي موجب، اڪثر اهو دليل ڏنو ويندو آهي ته [[ذهن]] وٽ هڪ خاص صلاحيت هوندي آهي، جيڪا خالص خيالن جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي پرکڻ جي قابل هوندي آهي، ۽ اها ئي صلاحيت منطقي سچائين کي سمجهڻ جو ذريعو پڻ آهي.{{sfn|Gómez-Torrente|2019}}

هڪ ٻيو ويجهو نظريو منطق جي قاعدن کي [[اصطلاحيت]] (ڪنوينشنلزم) يا لساني روايتن جي بنياد تي سمجهي ٿو. هن راءِ موجب، منطق جا قانون تعريف جي لحاظ کان سچا آهن، تنهنڪري اهي بنيادي طور غيرتڪراري آهن؛ اهي رڳو منطقي اصطلاحن جي معنائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Gómez-Torrente|2y=2019|3a1=Warren|3y=2020|3loc=1. What is Conventionalism}}

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[هلري پٽنم]] ۽ [[پينيلوپي ميڊي]]، هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪن ٿا ته منطق کي مڪمل طور قبلي علم ذريعي ڄاڻي سگهجي ٿو. انهن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي سچايون [[تجربي تي ٻڌل علم]] (امپريڪل نالج) سان به لاڳاپيل آهن. هن راءِ کي عام طور ان دعويٰ سان گڏ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي ته منطق جا قانون دنيا جي بناوت ۾ موجود عام ۽ آفاقي قاعدن جو اظهار ڪن ٿا. ان مطابق، انهن قاعدن کي [[بنيادي سائنسون|بنيادي سائنسن]] ۾ موجود عام نمونن ۽ اصولن جي مطالعي ذريعي به سمجهي سگهجي ٿو.

مثال طور، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم ميڪانيات]] جون ڪجهه دريافتون روايتي منطق جي [[ورڇ جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڊسٽريبيوٽوٽي) کي چئلينج ڪن ٿيون، جنهن موجب فارمولو &lt;math&gt;A \land (B \lor C)&lt;/math&gt; هم معنيٰ آهي &lt;math&gt;(A \land B) \lor (A \land C)&lt;/math&gt; سان. هن دعويٰ کي ان ڳالهه جي تجربي تي ٻڌل دليل طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم منطق]] روايتي منطق کان وڌيڪ مناسب منطقي نظام آهي، ۽ ان کي روايتي منطق جي جاءِ وٺڻ گهرجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Chua|1y=2017|1pp=631–636|2a1=Wilce|2y=2021|3a1=Putnam|3y=1969|3pp=216–241}}


* جملاتي منطق

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>q6cymnpe0ggwwqwftw0qbhgzrgq2yct</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399239</id>
      <parentid>399236</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T15:32:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399239</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="131865" sha1="rey0brmh5ua1v7gy8imudakyz2lc0n0" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==تاريخ==
{{Main|منطق جي تاريخ}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=330
| image1= Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg
| alt1= ارسطو جو مجسمو
| image2= Avicenne - Avicenna - Ibn_Sina (980-1037) CIPB2067.jpg
| alt2= ابن سينا جو پورٽريٽ
| image3= Guillaume Occam.jpg
| alt3= وليم آف اوڪهم جو پورٽريٽ
| image4= Wismar Marienkirche Bronzebüste Gottlob Frege (01-1).JPG
| alt4= گوٽلوب فريگي جو مجسمو
| footer= مٿيون قطار: [[ارسطو]]، جنهن مغربي منطق جي بنيادي روايت قائم ڪئي؛{{sfn|Groarke}} ۽ [[ابن سينا]]، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ تي پنهنجو منطقي نظام متعارف ڪرايو.{{sfn|Lagerlund|2018}} هيٺيون قطار: [[وليم آف اوڪهم]]، وچئين دور جي علمي فڪر جي اهم شخصيت؛{{sfn|Spade|Panaccio|2019}} ۽ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]]، جديد علامتي منطق جي بانيَن مان هڪ.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900|3a=Klement|3y=1995a}}
}}

قديم دور ۾ منطق ڪيترين ئي تهذيبن ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان الڳ نموني ترقي ڪئي. شروعاتي اهم مفڪرن مان هڪ [[ارسطو]] هو، جنهن پنهنجي ڪتابن ''[[اورگينون]]'' ۽ ''[[پرائر اينالٽڪس]]'' ۾ '''اصطلاحي منطق''' (ٽرم لاجڪ) کي منظم صورت ڏني.{{sfnm|1a1=Kline|1y=1972|1loc=&quot;A major achievement of Aristotle was the founding of the science of logic&quot;, p. 53|2a1=Łukasiewicz|2y=1957|2p=7|3a1=Liu|3a2=Guo|3y=2023|3p=15}} هن [[شرطي قياس]] (ھيپوٿيٽيڪل سلاجزم){{sfn|Lear|1980|p=34}} ۽ [[زماني موڊل منطق]] (ٽيمپورل موڊل لاجڪ) جي به بنياد وڌي.{{sfnm|1a1=Knuuttila|1y=1980|1p=71|2a1=Fisher|2a2=Gabbay|2a3=Vila|2y=2005|2p=119}} ارسطو [[استقرائي منطق]] (انڊڪٽو لاجڪ){{sfn|Berman|2009|p=133}} ۽ نون منطقي تصورن، جهڙوڪ [[اصطلاح]]، [[محموليت]] (پريڊيڪبلز)، قياس ۽ تجويزن تي پڻ اهم بحث ڪيو. ارسطوي منطق کي قديم ۽ وچئين دور ۾، يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر ٻنهي ۾ وڏي اهميت حاصل رهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} ۽ اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي شروعات تائين اهو غالب منطقي نظام رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} اڄ جي دور ۾ جيتوڻيڪ ان جي جاءِ جديد منطق ورتي آهي، پر ان جا ڪيترائي بنيادي خيال اڃا به جديد منطقي نظامن ۾ موجود آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|loc=1. Introduction}}

[[ابن سينا]] (ايويسينا) ابن سيناوي منطق جو باني هو، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] جي ميدان ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ ورتي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hasse|1y=2008|2a1=Lagerlund|2y=2018}} سندس خيالن جو اثر [[البرٽس ميگنس]] ۽ [[وليم آف اوڪهم]] جهڙن يورپي مفڪرن تي به پيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Washell|1y=1973|1pp=445–450|2a1=Kneale|2a2=Kneale|2y=1962|2pp=229, 266}} ابن سينا شرطي قياس{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} ۽ [[تجويزي منطق]] (پروپوزيشنل ڪلڪيولس){{sfn|Goodman|1992|p=188}} تي اهم تحريرون لکيون. هن زماني ۽ امڪان کي گڏائيندڙ هڪ نئون قياسي نظريو تيار ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[زماني منطق]] ۽ [[موڊل منطق]] جا عنصر شامل هئا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Spade|loc=Arabic Logic}} هن استقرائي منطق جا به طريقا بيان ڪيا، جهڙوڪ موافقت، اختلاف ۽ گڏيل تبديلي جا طريقا، جيڪي [[سائنسي طريقو|سائنسي طريقي]] لاءِ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا.{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} [[فخر الدين رازي]] پڻ هڪ اثرائتو مسلمان منطق دان هو. هن ارسطوي قياس تي تنقيد ڪئي ۽ استقرائي منطق جو اهڙو ابتدائي نظام پيش ڪيو، جنهن بعد ۾ [[جان اسٽوارٽ مل]] جي استقرائي منطق جي اڳواٽ نشاندهي ڪئي.{{sfn|Iqbal|2013|pp=99–115|loc=The Spirit of Muslim Culture}}

وچئين دور ۾ ارسطو جي منطقي ڪتابن جا ڪيترائي ترجما ۽ تشريحون تيار ڪيون ويون. [[بوئٿيوس]] جا ڪم خاص طور تي گهڻو اثرائتا رهيا. هن نه رڳو ارسطو جي تصنيفن کي لاطيني ۾ ترجمو ڪيو، پر منطق بابت درسي ڪتاب پڻ لکيا.{{sfnm|1a1=Marenbon|1y=2021|1loc=Introduction; 3. The Logical Text-Books|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade}} بعد ۾ ابن سينا ۽ [[ابن رشد]] (ايوريس) جهڙن اسلامي فلسفين جي تحريرن مان پڻ فائدو ورتو ويو، جنهن سان وچئين دور جي عيسائي عالمن کي قديم يوناني فڪر تائين وڌيڪ رسائي ملي. سنه 1323ع ۾ وليم آف اوڪهم جو مشهور ڪتاب ''{{lang|la|[[Summa Logicae]]}}'' شايع ٿيو، جيڪو منطق جو جامع رسالو آهي ۽ جنهن ۾ منطقي تجويزن، انهن جي قسمن ۽ سندن صدق جي شرطن بابت منظم بحث ڪيو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|2a1=Hasse|2y=2008|3a1=Spade|3a2=Panaccio|3y=2019}}

چيني فلسفي ۾ [[نالن جو مذهب]] (اسڪول آف نيمز) ۽ [[موهزم]] (Mohism) خاص اهميت رکندا هئا. نالن جي مذهب ٻوليءَ جي استعمال ۽ منطقي تضادن تي ڌيان ڏنو. مثال طور [[گونگسن لانگ]] مشهور ''اڇي گهوڙي جو تضاد'' (وائيٽ ھارس پيراڊوڪس) پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ دليل ڏنو ويو ته &quot;اڇو گهوڙو، گهوڙو ناهي.&quot; موهزم پڻ منطق ۾ ٻوليءَ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪيو ۽ ان کي اخلاقيات سان ڳنڍڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Willman|1y=2022|2a1=Rošker|2y=2015|2pp=301–309}}

هندستان ۾ منطق جو مطالعو بنيادي طور [[نيايه]]، [[ٻڌ مت]] ۽ [[جين مت]] جي فڪري روايتن ۾ ٿيو. ان کي الڳ علمي شعبي طور نه، پر علمُ المعرفت، مناظري ۽ استدلال جي بحثن جي حصي طور سمجهيو ويندو هو.{{sfn|Sarukkai|Chakraborty|2022|pp=117–118}} نيايه فلسفي ۾ استدلال کي علم حاصل ڪرڻ جو هڪ ذريعو (''[[پرمان]]'') سمجهيو ويو، جيڪو مشاهدي کان پوءِ شين جي سببن بابت نتيجا ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو.{{sfnm|1a1=Dasti|1loc=Lead section; 1b. Inference|2a1=Mills|2y=2018|2p=121}} ٻڌ ۽ جين منطق ۾ به استدلال کي ٻين ذريعن مان حاصل ٿيل علم کي وڌائڻ جو وسيلو سمجهيو ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Emmanuel|1y=2015|1pp=320–322|2a1=Vidyabhusana|2y=1988|2p=221}} نيايه جي پوئين دور جي [[نويا نيايه]] روايت جا ڪيئي خيال جديد منطق سان ملندڙ جلندڙ آهن، جهڙوڪ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جو ''معنيٰ ۽ مرجع'' (سينس اينڊ ريفرنس) وارو فرق ۽ انگ جي تعريف.{{sfn|Chakrabarti|1976|pp=554–563}}

ارسطو جي قياسي منطق اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي وچ تائين غالب رهي، پر رياضيات جي بنيادن بابت وڌندڙ دلچسپي جديد علامتي منطق جي ترقي جو سبب بڻي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Haaparanta|2y=2009|2pp=3–5|2loc=1. Introduction}} گهڻا محقق [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جي ''[[بيگرفس شرفٽ]]'' (Begriffsschrift) کي جديد منطق جي شروعات سمجهن ٿا. [[گوٽفريڊ وِلهم لائبنٽس]] جي [[عالمي رسمي ٻولي]] (ڪئريڪٽرسٽڪا يونيورسلس) جو تصور ان جو اڳواٽ اشارو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. ٻين اهم اڳواڻن ۾ [[جارج بول]] شامل آهي، جنهن [[بولي الجبرا]] (بوليئن آلجبرا) کي منطقي رياضيائي نظام طور پيش ڪيو، ۽ [[چارلس سينڊرس پيرس]]، جنهن [[لاڳاپن جي منطق]] (لاجڪ آگ رليٽوز) کي ترقي ڏني. بعد ۾ [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] انهن خيالن کي پنهنجي مشهور ڪتاب '' پرنسپيا ميٿميٽيڪا'' ۾ منظم ڪيو.

جديد منطق نوان تصور متعارف ڪرايا، جهڙوڪ [[تابع]] (فنڪشن)، مقدارساز (ڪونٽيفائر) ۽ لاڳاپائي محمول (رليشنل پريڊيڪيٽس). جديد علامتي منطق جي نمايان خاصيت رسمي ٻوليءَ جو استعمال آهي، جنهن ذريعي منطقي اصولن کي نهايت درست نموني بيان ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان لحاظ کان اهو اڳين منطق دانن کان مختلف آهي، جيڪي بنيادي طور قدرتي ٻوليءَ تي ڀاڙيندا هئا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900}} خاص طور تي [[اول-درجي منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) جي ترقي جديد منطق ۾ بنيادي حيثيت اختيار ڪئي.{{sfn|Ewald|2019}} ان جي تجزياتي وسعت رياضيات کي رسمي صورت ڏيڻ، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] جي ترقي ۽ [[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) جي قيام لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪيو، ۽ اهو جديد [[رياضياتي منطق]] جو مرڪزي نظام بڻجي ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Schreiner|2y=2021|2p=22}}

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (ڪوانٽيفڪيشن) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}

==تحقيق جا شعبا==

منطق جو مطالعو مختلف علمي شعبن ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪيترن ئي حالتن ۾ ان جي رسمي طريقن کي انهن موضوعن تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي پاڻ منطق جي دائري کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[اخلاقيات]] يا [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Logic and other disciplines|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10}}

ٻين حالتن ۾ خود منطق ئي ڪنهن ٻئي علمي شعبي ۾ تحقيق جو موضوع بڻجي ٿي. اهو مختلف طريقن سان ٿي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، منطق جي بنيادي تصورن سان لاڳاپيل فلسفياتي مفروضن جو جائزو وٺڻ، منطقي نظامن کي رياضيائي بناوتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جو تجزيو ڪرڻ، يا رسمي منطقي نظامن جي تجريدي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ۽ ڀيٽ ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Features and problems of logic|2a1=Gödel|2y=1984|2pp=447–469|2loc=Russell's mathematical logic|3a1=Monk|3y=1976|3pp=1–9|3loc=Introduction}}

===منطق جو فلسفو ۽ فلسفياتي منطق===
{{Main|منطق جو فلسفو|فلسفياتي منطق}}

'''منطق جو فلسفو''' (فلاسافي آف لاجڪ) فلسفي جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطق جي دائري، ماهيت ۽ بنيادي نوعيت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} ان ۾ انهن ڪيترن ئي مفروضن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيڪي منطق ۾ ضمني طور قبول ڪيا ويندا آهن، جيئن ان جي بنيادي تصورن جي تعريف يا انهن سان لاڳاپيل [[مابعدالطبيعات|مابعدالطبيعي]] مفروضا.{{sfn|Jacquette|2006|loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|pp=1–12}}

هي شعبي منطقي نظامن جي درجابندي ۽ انهن سان وابسته [[وجوديات|وجودياتي]] وابستگين (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪمٽمينٽ) جو پڻ مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=§Problems of ontology}}

'''فلسفياتي منطق''' (فلاسافيڪل لاجڪ) منطق جي فلسفي جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطقي طريقن کي فلسفي جي مسئلن تي لاڳو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Burgess|2y=2009|2loc=1. Classical logic}}
اهو استعمال گهڻو ڪري [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي]] يا [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظامن]] جي صورت ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Goble|1y=2001|1loc=Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32}}

===مابعد منطق===
{{Main|مابعد منطق}}

'''مابعد منطق''' (ميٽالاجڪ) اهو علمي شعبو آهي، جيڪو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.

مثال طور، جڏهن ڪو نئون رسمي منطقي نظام تيار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ته مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو معلوم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته ان نظام ۾ ڪهڙا فارمولا ثابت ڪري سگهجن ٿا. اهي اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته ڇا اهڙو [[الگورٿم]] تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو هر فارمولي لاءِ ثبوت ڳولي سگهي، ۽ ڇا ان نظام ۾ هر قابلِ ثبوت فارمولو لازمي طور [[منطقي صداقت]] (Tautology) آهي.

اهي مختلف منطقي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ تقابلي مطالعو پڻ ڪندا آهن ته جيئن انهن جون منفرد خاصيتون واضح ٿي سگهن.

مابعد منطق جو هڪ بنيادي موضوع [[نحو]] (سنٽيڪس) ۽ [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) جي وچ ۾ تعلق آهي. رسمي منطقي نظام جا نحوي ضابطا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدمات مان نتيجا ڪيئن اخذ ڪيا وڃن، يعني ثبوت ڪيئن ترتيب ڏنا وڃن. جڏهن⁠ته معنيات اهو طئي ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙا جملا سچا آهن ۽ ڪهڙا ڪوڙا. انهيءَ بنياد تي دليل جي صحت جو تعين ڪيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صحيح دليل ۾ اهو ناممڪن هوندو آهي ته مقدمات سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو هجي.

نحو ۽ معنيات جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي بابت اهم سوالن ۾ اهو شامل آهي ته ڇا هر صحيح دليل قابلِ ثبوت آهي، ۽ ڇا هر قابلِ ثبوت دليل لازمي طور صحيح به هوندو آهي.

مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته منطقي نظام [[مڪمليت]] (ڪمپليٽنيس)، [[صحت (منطق)|صحت]] (سائونڊنيس) ۽ [[هم آهنگي (منطق)|هم آهنگي]] (ڪنسسٽنسي) جون خاصيتون رکن ٿا يا نه. ان کان علاوه، اهي اهو به ڏسندا آهن ته اهي نظام [[فيصلي پذيري]] (ڊسائيڊبلٽي) رکن ٿا يا نه، ۽ انهن جي [[اظهاري قوت]] ڪيتري آهي.

انهن موضوعن جي تحقيق دوران مابعد منطق گهڻو ڪري تجريدي رياضيائي استدلال تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جنهن جو مقصد انهن مسئلن بابت صحيح، عام ۽ جامع نتيجا حاصل ڪرڻ هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1pp=xliii–xliv|2a1=Sider|2y=2010|2pp=4–6|3a1=Schagrin}}

===رياضيائي منطق===
{{Main|رياضيائي منطق}}

[[File:Russell1907-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=برٽرينڊ رسل جو تصوير|[[برٽرينڊ رسل]] رياضيائي منطق جي ترقي ۾ ڪيترائي اهم علمي حصا ورتا.{{sfn|Irvine|2022}}]]

اصطلاح '''رياضيائي منطق''' (ميٿميٽيڪل لاجڪ) ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[رسمي منطق]] جي مترادف طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر وڌيڪ محدود معنيٰ ۾ اهو رياضيات جي اندر منطق جي مطالعي ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. ان جون اهم شاخون [[ماڊل نظريو]]، [[ثبوت جو نظريو]]، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) ۽ [[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Li|1y=2010|1p=ix|2a1=Rautenberg|2y=2010|2p=15|3a1=Quine|3y=1981|3p=1|4a1=Stolyar|4y=1984|4p=2}}

رياضيائي منطق جي تحقيق جو وڏو حصو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي رياضيائي خاصيتن جي مطالعي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. ان سان گڏ اهو پڻ ڏٺو ويندو آهي ته منطق کي رياضيائي استدلال جي تجزيي يا [[رياضيات جا بنياد|رياضيات جي منطقي بنيادن]] جي قيام لاءِ ڪيئن استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfn|Stolyar|1984|pp=3–6}}

ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ رياضيائي منطق جو هڪ اهم مقصد [[منطق پرستي]] (لاجڪئزم) واري پروگرام کي اڳتي وڌائڻ هو، جنهن جي شروعات [[گاٽلوب فريگي]]، [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] جهڙن فلسفي-منطق دانن ڪئي هئي. هن پروگرام موجب سڀئي رياضيائي نظريا اصل ۾ منطقي [[منطقي صداقت|صداقتون]] (Tautologies) آهن، ۽ ان کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ رياضيات کي منطق تائين محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي. پر هن پروگرام کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جون گهڻيون ڪوششون ناڪام ويون. مثال طور، فريگي جو منصوبو سندس ڪتاب '' گرُنڊگيزيٽسي:Grundgesetze'' (بنيادي قانون) ۾ [[رسل جو تضاد|رسل جي تضاد]] سبب متاثر ٿيو، جڏهن⁠ته [[هلبرٽ جو پروگرام]] [[گوڊل جا نامڪمليت جا نظريا|گوڊل جي نامڪمليت جي نظرين]] سبب ناڪام ثابت ٿيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|1loc=Gödel's incompleteness theorems|2a1=Linsky|2y=2011|2p=4|3a1=Richardson|3y=1998|3p=15}}

[[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) جي شروعات [[جارج ڪينٽر]] لامحدوديت جي مطالعي دوران ڪئي. هي شعبي رياضيائي منطق جي ڪيترن ئي اهم ۽ پيچيده مسئلن جو سرچشمو بڻيو، جن ۾ [[ڪينٽر جو نظريو]]، [[اختيار جو اصول]] (اگزيوم آف چوائس)، [[مسلسل مفروضي]] (ڪنٽينيوئم ھيپوٿيسز) جي آزاديءَ جو سوال، ۽ [[وڏي ڪارڊينل]] (لارج ڪارڊينل) اصولن بابت جديد بحث شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Bagaria|1y=2021|2a1=Cunningham}}

[[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) رياضيائي منطق جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا حسابي مسئلن کي حل ڪرڻ لاءِ مؤثر طريقن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان جو هڪ بنيادي مقصد اهو معلوم ڪرڻ آهي ته ڪنهن خاص مسئلي کي [[الگورٿم]] ذريعي حل ڪرڻ ممڪن آهي يا نه. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صحيح عددن بابت ڪو خاص دعويٰ ڏني وڃي، ته هي شعبي اهو جاچيندو آهي ته ڇا اهڙو الگورٿم تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو اهو طئي ڪري سگهي ته اها دعويٰ صحيح آهي يا غلط. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ [[ٽيورنگ مشين]] (Turing machine) سميت مختلف نظرياتي ماڊلن ۽ اوزارن کي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006a|1loc=Computability Theory|2a1=Leary|2a2=Kristiansen|2y=2015|2p=195}}

===حسابياتي منطق===
{{Main|حسابياتي منطق|ڪمپيوٽر سائنس ۾ منطق}}

[[File:TransistorANDgate.png|thumb|ٽرانزسٽرن جي مدد سان تيار ڪيل هڪ AND گيٽ جو خاڪو. [[منطقي عطف]] (AND) [[بولين منطق]] جي بنيادي عملن مان هڪ آهي، جنهن کي برقي طور مختلف طريقن سان، مثال طور ٻن [[ٽرانزسٽر]]ن ذريعي، عمل ۾ آڻي سگهجي ٿو.]]

'''حسابياتي منطق''' (ڪمپيوٽيشنل لاجڪ) منطق ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ڪمپيوٽرن جي ذريعي رياضيائي استدلال ۽ رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عملي صورت ڏيڻ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان ۾، مثال طور، [[خودڪار نظريي ثابت ڪندڙ]] (آٽوميٽڪ ٿيورم پروور) شامل آهن، جيڪي [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] استعمال ڪندي، بغير انساني مداخلت جي، مقدمات مان گهربل نتيجي تائين مرحليوار ثبوت تيار ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Paulson|1y=2018|1pp=1–14|2a1=Castaño|2y=2018|2p=2|3a1=Wile|3a2=Goss|3a3=Roesner|3y=2005|3p=447}}

[[منطقي پروگرامنگ]] (لاجڪ پروگرامنگ) جون ٻوليون خاص طور اهڙي نموني تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن، جو حقيقتن کي منطقي فارمولن جي صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ۽ انهن مان استدلال ذريعي نوان نتيجا اخذ ڪري سگهجن. مثال طور، [[پرولاگ]] (Prolog) محمولي منطق تي ٻڌل هڪ منطقي پروگرامنگ ٻولي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Clocksin|1a2=Mellish|1y=2003|1pp=237–238, 252–255, 257|1loc=The Relation of Prolog to Logic|2a1=Daintith|2a2=Wright|2y=2008|2loc=Logic Programming Languages}}

ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽنگ سان لاڳاپيل مسئلن جي حل لاءِ پڻ منطقي تصورن کي استعمال ڪندا آهن. هن ميدان ۾ [[ڪلاڊ شينن]] جو ڪم انتهائي اثرائتو رهيو، جنهن ڏيکاريو ته [[بولين منطق]] کي ڪمپيوٽرن جي برقي سرڪٽن کي سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=O'Regan|1y=2016|1p=49|2a1=Calderbank|2a2=Sloane|2y=2001|2p=768}}

اهو ڪم [[منطقي دروازو|منطقي دروازن]] (لاجڪ گيٽ) ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي اهڙا برقي سرڪٽ هوندا آهن، جن ۾ هڪ يا وڌيڪ ان پُٽ ۽ عام طور هڪ آئوٽ پُٽ هوندو آهي. انهن ۾ منطقي قضين جي صداقت جا قدر برقي وولٽيج جي سطحن جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهڙيءَ طرح، سرڪٽ جي ان پُٽن تي مناسب وولٽيج لاڳو ڪري ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ جي وولٽيج کي ماپي، مختلف منطقي عملن جي نقل (سميوليشن) ڪئي ويندي آهي.{{sfn|Daintith|Wright|2008|loc=Logic Gate}}

===قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات===
{{Main|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات}}

'''قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) منطق، [[لسانيات]] ۽ [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]] جي گڏيل ذيلي شاخ آهي. [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) ٻوليءَ جي معنائن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته رسمي معنيات علامتي منطق ۽ رياضيات جا رسمي اوزار استعمال ڪندي [[قدرتي ٻولي]] جي اظهارَن جي معنائن بابت درست ۽ منظم نظريا پيش ڪري ٿي.

رسمي معنيات عام طور معنٰي کي [[صدق جون شرطون]] (ٽرٿ ڪنڊيشنر) سان وابسته ڪري سمجهي ٿي؛ يعني اها جاچ ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙين حالتن ۾ ڪو جملو سچو يا ڪوڙو ٿيندو. هن شعبي جي بنيادي اصولن مان هڪ [[ترڪيبي اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) آهي، جنهن موجب ڪنهن پيچيده اظهار جي معنٰي ان جي جزن جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي پاڻ ۾ ڳانڍاپي جي طريقي سان طئي ٿيندي آهي. مثال طور، فعل واري فقري &quot;هلڻ ۽ ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنٰي انفرادي اظهارَن &quot;هلڻ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.

رسمي معنيات جا ڪيترائي نظريا [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. ان جو مطلب آهي ته اهي [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) استعمال ڪري هڪ نمونو (ماڊل) تيار ڪندا آهن ۽ پوءِ ان نموني جي عنصرن جي حوالي سان ٻوليءَ جي اظهارَن جي معنائن جي تشريح ڪندا آهن. مثال طور، اصطلاح &quot;هلڻ&quot; کي نموني ۾ موجود انهن سڀني فردن جي مجموعي طور سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي هلڻ جي خاصيت رکن ٿا.

هن شعبي جا شروعاتي ۽ اثرائتا مفڪر [[رچرڊ مونٽيگ]] ۽ [[باربرا پارٽي]] هئا، جن پنهنجي تجزين جو بنيادي مرڪز انگريزي ٻوليءَ کي بڻايو.{{sfnm|1a1=Janssen|1a2=Zimmermann|1y=2021|1pp=3–4|2a1=Partee|2y=2016|3a1=King|3y=2009|3pp=557–558|4a1=Aloni|4a2=Dekker|4y=2016|4pp=22–23}}

===منطق جي علمُ المعرفت===
{{Main|منطق جي علمُ المعرفت}}

'''منطق جو علمُ المعرفت''' (ايپسٽيمولاجي آف لاجڪ) هن ڳالهه جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو ته انسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوي ٿي ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا ڪا تجويز منطقي طور سچي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Schechter}} هن ۾ اهڙا سوال شامل آهن، جيئن: {{lang|la|modus ponens}} استدلال جو صحيح قاعدو ڇو آهي؟ يا تضاد هميشه ڪوڙا ڇو سمجهيا وڃن ٿا؟{{sfn|Warren|2020|loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic}}

روايتي طور تي غالب نظريو اهو رهيو آهي ته اهڙي قسم جي منطقي ڄاڻ [[قبلي علم]] (''a priori'') سان واسطو رکي ٿي.{{sfn|Schechter}} هن نظرئي موجب، اڪثر اهو دليل ڏنو ويندو آهي ته [[ذهن]] وٽ هڪ خاص صلاحيت هوندي آهي، جيڪا خالص خيالن جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي پرکڻ جي قابل هوندي آهي، ۽ اها ئي صلاحيت منطقي سچائين کي سمجهڻ جو ذريعو پڻ آهي.{{sfn|Gómez-Torrente|2019}}

هڪ ٻيو ويجهو نظريو منطق جي قاعدن کي [[اصطلاحيت]] (ڪنوينشنلزم) يا لساني روايتن جي بنياد تي سمجهي ٿو. هن راءِ موجب، منطق جا قانون تعريف جي لحاظ کان سچا آهن، تنهنڪري اهي بنيادي طور غيرتڪراري آهن؛ اهي رڳو منطقي اصطلاحن جي معنائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Gómez-Torrente|2y=2019|3a1=Warren|3y=2020|3loc=1. What is Conventionalism}}

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[هلري پٽنم]] ۽ [[پينيلوپي ميڊي]]، هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪن ٿا ته منطق کي مڪمل طور قبلي علم ذريعي ڄاڻي سگهجي ٿو. انهن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي سچايون [[تجربي تي ٻڌل علم]] (امپريڪل نالج) سان به لاڳاپيل آهن. هن راءِ کي عام طور ان دعويٰ سان گڏ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي ته منطق جا قانون دنيا جي بناوت ۾ موجود عام ۽ آفاقي قاعدن جو اظهار ڪن ٿا. ان مطابق، انهن قاعدن کي [[بنيادي سائنسون|بنيادي سائنسن]] ۾ موجود عام نمونن ۽ اصولن جي مطالعي ذريعي به سمجهي سگهجي ٿو.

مثال طور، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم ميڪانيات]] جون ڪجهه دريافتون روايتي منطق جي [[ورڇ جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڊسٽريبيوٽوٽي) کي چئلينج ڪن ٿيون، جنهن موجب فارمولو &lt;math&gt;A \land (B \lor C)&lt;/math&gt; هم معنيٰ آهي &lt;math&gt;(A \land B) \lor (A \land C)&lt;/math&gt; سان. هن دعويٰ کي ان ڳالهه جي تجربي تي ٻڌل دليل طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم منطق]] روايتي منطق کان وڌيڪ مناسب منطقي نظام آهي، ۽ ان کي روايتي منطق جي جاءِ وٺڻ گهرجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Chua|1y=2017|1pp=631–636|2a1=Wilce|2y=2021|3a1=Putnam|3y=1969|3pp=216–241}}


* جملاتي منطق


==پڻ ڏسو==
{{Portal|فلسفو}}
{{Columns list|
* {{annotated link|منطق جي اصطلاحن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جو خاڪو}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جي تحقيقي رسالن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي نشانين جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق دانن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي ڳجهارت}}
* {{annotated link|لوگوس}}
* {{annotated link|ویکٽر منطق}}
}}

==حوالا==

===وضاحتي نوٽ===
{{notelist}}

===حوالا===
{{reflist|1=30em}}

===ڪتابيات===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Aloni |first1=Maria |author1-link=ماريا الوني |last2=Dekker |first2=Paul |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics |date=7 July 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-55273-5 |pages=22–23 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Angell |first1=Richard B. |title=Reasoning and Logic |date=1964 |publisher=Ardent Media |page=164 |language=en |oclc=375322 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Informal logic |year=1999a |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |page=435 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Philosophy of logic |year=1999b |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |pages=679–681 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Backmann |first1=Marius |title=Varieties of Justification—How (Not) to Solve the Problem of Induction |journal=Acta Analytica |date=1 June 2019 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=235–255 |doi=10.1007/s12136-018-0371-6 |s2cid=125767384 |language=en |issn=1874-6349 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bagaria |first1=Joan |author-link=جوان باگاريا |title=Set Theory |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/set-theory/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=23 September 2022 |year=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Jonathan |title=Truth, etc.: Six Lectures on Ancient Logic |date=25 January 2007 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-151574-3 |page=274 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Benthem |first1=Johan van |title=Modal Logic: Contemporary View: 1. Modal Notions and Reasoning Patterns: a First Pass |url=https://iep.utm.edu/modal-lo/#H1 |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=11 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berlemann |first1=Lars |last2=Mangold |first2=Stefan |title=Cognitive Radio and Dynamic Spectrum Access |date=10 July 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-0-470-75443-6 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berman |first1=Harold J. |title=Law and Revolution, the Formation of the Western Legal Tradition |date=1 July 2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02085-6 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bimbó |first1=Katalin |author-link=ڪيٽلن بمبو |title=J. Michael Dunn on Information Based Logics |date=2 April 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-29300-4 |pages=8–9 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=1 January 2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |language=en |chapter=argument |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194756/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=24 March 2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |language=en |chapter=rule of inference |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194809/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=The Current State of Informal Logic |journal=Informal Logic |year=1987 |volume=9 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v9i2.2671 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230194638/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |url-status=live |pages=147–151 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=Informal Logic: An Overview |journal=Informal Logic |year=2000 |volume=20 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v20i2.2262 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209195317/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |url-status=live |pages=93–107 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |title=Groundwork in the Theory of Argumentation: Selected Papers of J. Anthony Blair |date=20 October 2011 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-007-2363-4 |page=47 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bobzien |first1=Susanne |author-link=سوزاني بوبزين |title=Ancient Logic: 2. Aristotle |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=3 January 2022 |year=2020 |archive-date=28 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828102117/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Borchert |editor1-first=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 2 |edition=2nd |date=2006a |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |isbn=978-0-02-865782-0 |chapter=Computability Theory |pages=372–390 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 4 |edition=2nd |date=2006b |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Induction |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865784-4 |pages=635–648 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 5 |edition=2nd |date=2006c |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Logic, Non-Classical |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865785-1 |pages=485–492 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bridges |first1=Douglas |last2=Ishihara |first2=Hajime |last3=Rathjen |first3=Michael |last4=Schwichtenberg |first4=Helmut |title=Handbook of Constructive Mathematics |date=30 April 2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-51086-5 |pages=73–74 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Brody |first=Boruch A. |title=Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=2006 |publisher=Thomson Gale/Macmillan Reference US |others=Donald M. Borchert |isbn=978-0-02-865780-6 |edition=2nd |volume=5 |pages=535–536 |oclc=61151356 |quote=The two most important types of logical calculi are propositional (or sentential) calculi and functional (or predicate) calculi. A propositional calculus is a system containing propositional variables and connectives (some also contain propositional constants) but not individual or functional variables or constants. In the extended propositional calculus, quantifiers whose operator variables are propositional variables are added. }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bunnin |first1=Nicholas |last2=Yu |first2=Jiyuan |title=The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy |date=27 January 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9112-8 |page=179 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Burgess |first1=John P. |author-link=جان پي. برجس |title=Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |chapter=1. Classical logic |pages=1–12 |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216143954/https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-691-15633-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bäck |first1=Allan T. |title=Aristotle's Theory of Predication |date=2016 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-32109-0 |page=317 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Calderbank |first1=Robert |last2=Sloane |first2=Neil J. A. |title=Claude Shannon (1916–2001) |journal=Nature |date=April 2001 |volume=410 |issue=6830 |page=768 |doi=10.1038/35071223 |pmid=11298432 |s2cid=4402158 |language=en |issn=1476-4687 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Carnielli |first1=Walter |last2=Pizzi |first2=Claudio |title=Modalities and Multimodalities |date=2008 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-8590-1 |page=3 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Castaño |first1=Arnaldo Pérez |title=Practical Artificial Intelligence: Machine Learning, Bots, and Agent Solutions Using C# |date=23 May 2018 |publisher=Apress |isbn=978-1-4842-3357-3 |page=2 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Chakrabarti |first1=Kisor Kumar |title=Some Comparisons Between Frege's Logic and Navya-Nyaya Logic |journal=Philosophy and Phenomenological Research |date=June 1976 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=554–563 |doi=10.2307/2106873 |jstor=2106873 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chatfield |first1=Tom |title=Critical Thinking: Your Guide to Effective Argument, Successful Analysis and Independent Study |date=2017 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-5264-1877-7 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chua |first1=Eugene |title=Logic, Rationality, and Interaction |chapter=An Empirical Route to Logical 'Conventionalism' |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |date=2017 |volume=10455 |pages=631–636 |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-55665-8_43 |isbn=978-3-662-55664-1 |chapter-url=https://philpapers.org/rec/CHUAER }}
* {{cite book |last1=Clocksin |first1=William F. |last2=Mellish |first2=Christopher S. |title=Programming in Prolog: Using the ISO Standard |date=2003 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-55481-0 |pages=237–257 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 |language=en |chapter=The Relation of Prolog to Logic |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cook |first1=Roy T. |title=Dictionary of Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-3197-1 |language=en |page=124 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Copi |first1=Irving M. |author1-link=ارونگ ڪوپي |last2=Cohen |first2=Carl |last3=Rodych |first3=Victor |title=Introduction to Logic |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-38697-5 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Corkum |first1=Philip |title=Generality and Logical Constancy |journal=Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia |year=2015 |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=753–767 |doi=10.17990/rpf/2015_71_4_0753 |jstor=43744657 |issn=0870-5283 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Craig |first1=Edward |author-link=ايڊورڊ ڪريگ (فلسفي) |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=1996 |publisher=Routledge |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116111145/https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-07310-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cummings |first1=Louise |title=The Routledge Pragmatics Encyclopedia |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-21457-9 |page=1 |language=en |chapter=Abduction }}
* {{cite web |last1=Cunningham |first1=Daniel |title=Set Theory |url=https://iep.utm.edu/set-theo/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=23 September 2022 }}

* {{cite journal |last1=D'Agostino |first1=Marcello |last2=Floridi |first2=Luciano |title=The Enduring Scandal of Deduction: Is Propositional Logic Really Uninformative? |journal=Synthese |year=2009 |volume=167 |issue=2 |pages=271–315 |doi=10.1007/s11229-008-9409-4 |jstor=40271192 |hdl=2299/2995 |hdl-access=free |s2cid=9602882 |language=en |issn=0039-7857 }}
* {{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Computing |isbn=978-0-19-923400-4 |last1=Daintith |first1=John |last2=Wright |first2=Edmund |date=2008 |publisher=OUP }}
* {{cite book |last=van Dalen |first=Dirk |author-link=ڊرڪ وان ڊالن |year=1994 |title=Logic and Structure |publisher=Springer |at=Chapter 1.5 |isbn=978-0-387-57839-2 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dasti |first1=Matthew R. |title=Nyaya |url=https://iep.utm.edu/nyaya/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=12 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Dick |first1=Anthony S. |last2=Müller |first2=Ulrich |title=Advancing Developmental Science: Philosophy, Theory, and Method |date=2017 |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-1-351-70456-4 |page=157 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Douven |first1=Igor |author-link=ايگور ڊاووين |title=Abduction |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |year=2021 |access-date=24 August 2021 |archive-date=7 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907202119/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dowden |first1=Bradley |author-link=بريڊلي ڊائوڊن |title=Fallacies |url=https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=19 March 2021 |archive-date=29 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100429214410/https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |title=Pondering on Problems of Argumentation: Twenty Essays on Theoretical Issues |date=2009 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-9165-0 |page=191 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |last3=Krabbe |first3=Erik C. W. |last4=Snoeck Henkemans |first4=A. Francisca |last5=Verheij |first5=Bart |last6=Wagemans |first6=Jean H. M. |title=Handbook of Argumentation Theory |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-94-007-6883-3 |pages=1–45 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |language=en |chapter=Informal Logic |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231172324/https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |url-status=live |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGarssenKrabbeSnoeck_Henkemans }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Grootendorst |first2=Rob |last3=Johnson |first3=Ralph H. |last4=Plantin |first4=Christian |last5=Willard |first5=Charles A. |title=Fundamentals of Argumentation Theory: A Handbook of Historical Backgrounds and Contemporary Developments |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-68804-1 |page=169 |language=en |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGrootendorstJohnsonPlantin }}
* {{cite book |last1=Emmanuel |first1=Steven M. |title=A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy |date=2015 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-119-14466-3 |pages=320–322 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Enderton |first=Herbert |author-link=هربرٽ اينڊرٽن |year=2001 |title=A Mathematical Introduction to Logic |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-238452-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Engel |first1=S. Morris |title=With Good Reason an Introduction to Informal Fallacies |date=1982 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=1 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301065815/https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-312-08479-0 |publisher=St. Martin's Press }}
* {{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Jonathan St. B. T. |editor1-last=Morrison |editor1-first=Robert |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82417-0 |page=169 |language=en |chapter=8. Deductive Reasoning }}
* {{cite web |last1=Ewald |first1=William |title=The Emergence of First-Order Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-firstorder-emergence/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=12 March 2023 |date=2019 }}


[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>rey0brmh5ua1v7gy8imudakyz2lc0n0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399240</id>
      <parentid>399239</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T15:34:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399240</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="131898" sha1="7fv3fuga95gpnf4pkpyfn8rnjyx7pzz" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==تاريخ==
{{Main|منطق جي تاريخ}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=330
| image1= Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg
| alt1= ارسطو جو مجسمو
| image2= Avicenne - Avicenna - Ibn_Sina (980-1037) CIPB2067.jpg
| alt2= ابن سينا جو پورٽريٽ
| image3= Guillaume Occam.jpg
| alt3= وليم آف اوڪهم جو پورٽريٽ
| image4= Wismar Marienkirche Bronzebüste Gottlob Frege (01-1).JPG
| alt4= گوٽلوب فريگي جو مجسمو
| footer= مٿيون قطار: [[ارسطو]]، جنهن مغربي منطق جي بنيادي روايت قائم ڪئي؛{{sfn|Groarke}} ۽ [[ابن سينا]]، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ تي پنهنجو منطقي نظام متعارف ڪرايو.{{sfn|Lagerlund|2018}} هيٺيون قطار: [[وليم آف اوڪهم]]، وچئين دور جي علمي فڪر جي اهم شخصيت؛{{sfn|Spade|Panaccio|2019}} ۽ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]]، جديد علامتي منطق جي بانيَن مان هڪ.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900|3a=Klement|3y=1995a}}
}}

قديم دور ۾ منطق ڪيترين ئي تهذيبن ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان الڳ نموني ترقي ڪئي. شروعاتي اهم مفڪرن مان هڪ [[ارسطو]] هو، جنهن پنهنجي ڪتابن ''[[اورگينون]]'' ۽ ''[[پرائر اينالٽڪس]]'' ۾ '''اصطلاحي منطق''' (ٽرم لاجڪ) کي منظم صورت ڏني.{{sfnm|1a1=Kline|1y=1972|1loc=&quot;A major achievement of Aristotle was the founding of the science of logic&quot;, p. 53|2a1=Łukasiewicz|2y=1957|2p=7|3a1=Liu|3a2=Guo|3y=2023|3p=15}} هن [[شرطي قياس]] (ھيپوٿيٽيڪل سلاجزم){{sfn|Lear|1980|p=34}} ۽ [[زماني موڊل منطق]] (ٽيمپورل موڊل لاجڪ) جي به بنياد وڌي.{{sfnm|1a1=Knuuttila|1y=1980|1p=71|2a1=Fisher|2a2=Gabbay|2a3=Vila|2y=2005|2p=119}} ارسطو [[استقرائي منطق]] (انڊڪٽو لاجڪ){{sfn|Berman|2009|p=133}} ۽ نون منطقي تصورن، جهڙوڪ [[اصطلاح]]، [[محموليت]] (پريڊيڪبلز)، قياس ۽ تجويزن تي پڻ اهم بحث ڪيو. ارسطوي منطق کي قديم ۽ وچئين دور ۾، يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر ٻنهي ۾ وڏي اهميت حاصل رهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} ۽ اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي شروعات تائين اهو غالب منطقي نظام رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} اڄ جي دور ۾ جيتوڻيڪ ان جي جاءِ جديد منطق ورتي آهي، پر ان جا ڪيترائي بنيادي خيال اڃا به جديد منطقي نظامن ۾ موجود آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|loc=1. Introduction}}

[[ابن سينا]] (ايويسينا) ابن سيناوي منطق جو باني هو، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] جي ميدان ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ ورتي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hasse|1y=2008|2a1=Lagerlund|2y=2018}} سندس خيالن جو اثر [[البرٽس ميگنس]] ۽ [[وليم آف اوڪهم]] جهڙن يورپي مفڪرن تي به پيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Washell|1y=1973|1pp=445–450|2a1=Kneale|2a2=Kneale|2y=1962|2pp=229, 266}} ابن سينا شرطي قياس{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} ۽ [[تجويزي منطق]] (پروپوزيشنل ڪلڪيولس){{sfn|Goodman|1992|p=188}} تي اهم تحريرون لکيون. هن زماني ۽ امڪان کي گڏائيندڙ هڪ نئون قياسي نظريو تيار ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[زماني منطق]] ۽ [[موڊل منطق]] جا عنصر شامل هئا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Spade|loc=Arabic Logic}} هن استقرائي منطق جا به طريقا بيان ڪيا، جهڙوڪ موافقت، اختلاف ۽ گڏيل تبديلي جا طريقا، جيڪي [[سائنسي طريقو|سائنسي طريقي]] لاءِ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا.{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} [[فخر الدين رازي]] پڻ هڪ اثرائتو مسلمان منطق دان هو. هن ارسطوي قياس تي تنقيد ڪئي ۽ استقرائي منطق جو اهڙو ابتدائي نظام پيش ڪيو، جنهن بعد ۾ [[جان اسٽوارٽ مل]] جي استقرائي منطق جي اڳواٽ نشاندهي ڪئي.{{sfn|Iqbal|2013|pp=99–115|loc=The Spirit of Muslim Culture}}

وچئين دور ۾ ارسطو جي منطقي ڪتابن جا ڪيترائي ترجما ۽ تشريحون تيار ڪيون ويون. [[بوئٿيوس]] جا ڪم خاص طور تي گهڻو اثرائتا رهيا. هن نه رڳو ارسطو جي تصنيفن کي لاطيني ۾ ترجمو ڪيو، پر منطق بابت درسي ڪتاب پڻ لکيا.{{sfnm|1a1=Marenbon|1y=2021|1loc=Introduction; 3. The Logical Text-Books|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade}} بعد ۾ ابن سينا ۽ [[ابن رشد]] (ايوريس) جهڙن اسلامي فلسفين جي تحريرن مان پڻ فائدو ورتو ويو، جنهن سان وچئين دور جي عيسائي عالمن کي قديم يوناني فڪر تائين وڌيڪ رسائي ملي. سنه 1323ع ۾ وليم آف اوڪهم جو مشهور ڪتاب ''{{lang|la|[[Summa Logicae]]}}'' شايع ٿيو، جيڪو منطق جو جامع رسالو آهي ۽ جنهن ۾ منطقي تجويزن، انهن جي قسمن ۽ سندن صدق جي شرطن بابت منظم بحث ڪيو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|2a1=Hasse|2y=2008|3a1=Spade|3a2=Panaccio|3y=2019}}

چيني فلسفي ۾ [[نالن جو مذهب]] (اسڪول آف نيمز) ۽ [[موهزم]] (Mohism) خاص اهميت رکندا هئا. نالن جي مذهب ٻوليءَ جي استعمال ۽ منطقي تضادن تي ڌيان ڏنو. مثال طور [[گونگسن لانگ]] مشهور ''اڇي گهوڙي جو تضاد'' (وائيٽ ھارس پيراڊوڪس) پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ دليل ڏنو ويو ته &quot;اڇو گهوڙو، گهوڙو ناهي.&quot; موهزم پڻ منطق ۾ ٻوليءَ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪيو ۽ ان کي اخلاقيات سان ڳنڍڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Willman|1y=2022|2a1=Rošker|2y=2015|2pp=301–309}}

هندستان ۾ منطق جو مطالعو بنيادي طور [[نيايه]]، [[ٻڌ مت]] ۽ [[جين مت]] جي فڪري روايتن ۾ ٿيو. ان کي الڳ علمي شعبي طور نه، پر علمُ المعرفت، مناظري ۽ استدلال جي بحثن جي حصي طور سمجهيو ويندو هو.{{sfn|Sarukkai|Chakraborty|2022|pp=117–118}} نيايه فلسفي ۾ استدلال کي علم حاصل ڪرڻ جو هڪ ذريعو (''[[پرمان]]'') سمجهيو ويو، جيڪو مشاهدي کان پوءِ شين جي سببن بابت نتيجا ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو.{{sfnm|1a1=Dasti|1loc=Lead section; 1b. Inference|2a1=Mills|2y=2018|2p=121}} ٻڌ ۽ جين منطق ۾ به استدلال کي ٻين ذريعن مان حاصل ٿيل علم کي وڌائڻ جو وسيلو سمجهيو ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Emmanuel|1y=2015|1pp=320–322|2a1=Vidyabhusana|2y=1988|2p=221}} نيايه جي پوئين دور جي [[نويا نيايه]] روايت جا ڪيئي خيال جديد منطق سان ملندڙ جلندڙ آهن، جهڙوڪ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جو ''معنيٰ ۽ مرجع'' (سينس اينڊ ريفرنس) وارو فرق ۽ انگ جي تعريف.{{sfn|Chakrabarti|1976|pp=554–563}}

ارسطو جي قياسي منطق اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي وچ تائين غالب رهي، پر رياضيات جي بنيادن بابت وڌندڙ دلچسپي جديد علامتي منطق جي ترقي جو سبب بڻي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Haaparanta|2y=2009|2pp=3–5|2loc=1. Introduction}} گهڻا محقق [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جي ''[[بيگرفس شرفٽ]]'' (Begriffsschrift) کي جديد منطق جي شروعات سمجهن ٿا. [[گوٽفريڊ وِلهم لائبنٽس]] جي [[عالمي رسمي ٻولي]] (ڪئريڪٽرسٽڪا يونيورسلس) جو تصور ان جو اڳواٽ اشارو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. ٻين اهم اڳواڻن ۾ [[جارج بول]] شامل آهي، جنهن [[بولي الجبرا]] (بوليئن آلجبرا) کي منطقي رياضيائي نظام طور پيش ڪيو، ۽ [[چارلس سينڊرس پيرس]]، جنهن [[لاڳاپن جي منطق]] (لاجڪ آگ رليٽوز) کي ترقي ڏني. بعد ۾ [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] انهن خيالن کي پنهنجي مشهور ڪتاب '' پرنسپيا ميٿميٽيڪا'' ۾ منظم ڪيو.

جديد منطق نوان تصور متعارف ڪرايا، جهڙوڪ [[تابع]] (فنڪشن)، مقدارساز (ڪونٽيفائر) ۽ لاڳاپائي محمول (رليشنل پريڊيڪيٽس). جديد علامتي منطق جي نمايان خاصيت رسمي ٻوليءَ جو استعمال آهي، جنهن ذريعي منطقي اصولن کي نهايت درست نموني بيان ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان لحاظ کان اهو اڳين منطق دانن کان مختلف آهي، جيڪي بنيادي طور قدرتي ٻوليءَ تي ڀاڙيندا هئا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900}} خاص طور تي [[اول-درجي منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) جي ترقي جديد منطق ۾ بنيادي حيثيت اختيار ڪئي.{{sfn|Ewald|2019}} ان جي تجزياتي وسعت رياضيات کي رسمي صورت ڏيڻ، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] جي ترقي ۽ [[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) جي قيام لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪيو، ۽ اهو جديد [[رياضياتي منطق]] جو مرڪزي نظام بڻجي ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Schreiner|2y=2021|2p=22}}

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (ڪوانٽيفڪيشن) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}

==تحقيق جا شعبا==

منطق جو مطالعو مختلف علمي شعبن ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪيترن ئي حالتن ۾ ان جي رسمي طريقن کي انهن موضوعن تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي پاڻ منطق جي دائري کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[اخلاقيات]] يا [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Logic and other disciplines|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10}}

ٻين حالتن ۾ خود منطق ئي ڪنهن ٻئي علمي شعبي ۾ تحقيق جو موضوع بڻجي ٿي. اهو مختلف طريقن سان ٿي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، منطق جي بنيادي تصورن سان لاڳاپيل فلسفياتي مفروضن جو جائزو وٺڻ، منطقي نظامن کي رياضيائي بناوتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جو تجزيو ڪرڻ، يا رسمي منطقي نظامن جي تجريدي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ۽ ڀيٽ ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Features and problems of logic|2a1=Gödel|2y=1984|2pp=447–469|2loc=Russell's mathematical logic|3a1=Monk|3y=1976|3pp=1–9|3loc=Introduction}}

===منطق جو فلسفو ۽ فلسفياتي منطق===
{{Main|منطق جو فلسفو|فلسفياتي منطق}}

'''منطق جو فلسفو''' (فلاسافي آف لاجڪ) فلسفي جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطق جي دائري، ماهيت ۽ بنيادي نوعيت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} ان ۾ انهن ڪيترن ئي مفروضن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيڪي منطق ۾ ضمني طور قبول ڪيا ويندا آهن، جيئن ان جي بنيادي تصورن جي تعريف يا انهن سان لاڳاپيل [[مابعدالطبيعات|مابعدالطبيعي]] مفروضا.{{sfn|Jacquette|2006|loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|pp=1–12}}

هي شعبي منطقي نظامن جي درجابندي ۽ انهن سان وابسته [[وجوديات|وجودياتي]] وابستگين (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪمٽمينٽ) جو پڻ مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=§Problems of ontology}}

'''فلسفياتي منطق''' (فلاسافيڪل لاجڪ) منطق جي فلسفي جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطقي طريقن کي فلسفي جي مسئلن تي لاڳو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Burgess|2y=2009|2loc=1. Classical logic}}
اهو استعمال گهڻو ڪري [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي]] يا [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظامن]] جي صورت ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Goble|1y=2001|1loc=Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32}}

===مابعد منطق===
{{Main|مابعد منطق}}

'''مابعد منطق''' (ميٽالاجڪ) اهو علمي شعبو آهي، جيڪو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.

مثال طور، جڏهن ڪو نئون رسمي منطقي نظام تيار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ته مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو معلوم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته ان نظام ۾ ڪهڙا فارمولا ثابت ڪري سگهجن ٿا. اهي اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته ڇا اهڙو [[الگورٿم]] تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو هر فارمولي لاءِ ثبوت ڳولي سگهي، ۽ ڇا ان نظام ۾ هر قابلِ ثبوت فارمولو لازمي طور [[منطقي صداقت]] (Tautology) آهي.

اهي مختلف منطقي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ تقابلي مطالعو پڻ ڪندا آهن ته جيئن انهن جون منفرد خاصيتون واضح ٿي سگهن.

مابعد منطق جو هڪ بنيادي موضوع [[نحو]] (سنٽيڪس) ۽ [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) جي وچ ۾ تعلق آهي. رسمي منطقي نظام جا نحوي ضابطا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدمات مان نتيجا ڪيئن اخذ ڪيا وڃن، يعني ثبوت ڪيئن ترتيب ڏنا وڃن. جڏهن⁠ته معنيات اهو طئي ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙا جملا سچا آهن ۽ ڪهڙا ڪوڙا. انهيءَ بنياد تي دليل جي صحت جو تعين ڪيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صحيح دليل ۾ اهو ناممڪن هوندو آهي ته مقدمات سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو هجي.

نحو ۽ معنيات جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي بابت اهم سوالن ۾ اهو شامل آهي ته ڇا هر صحيح دليل قابلِ ثبوت آهي، ۽ ڇا هر قابلِ ثبوت دليل لازمي طور صحيح به هوندو آهي.

مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته منطقي نظام [[مڪمليت]] (ڪمپليٽنيس)، [[صحت (منطق)|صحت]] (سائونڊنيس) ۽ [[هم آهنگي (منطق)|هم آهنگي]] (ڪنسسٽنسي) جون خاصيتون رکن ٿا يا نه. ان کان علاوه، اهي اهو به ڏسندا آهن ته اهي نظام [[فيصلي پذيري]] (ڊسائيڊبلٽي) رکن ٿا يا نه، ۽ انهن جي [[اظهاري قوت]] ڪيتري آهي.

انهن موضوعن جي تحقيق دوران مابعد منطق گهڻو ڪري تجريدي رياضيائي استدلال تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جنهن جو مقصد انهن مسئلن بابت صحيح، عام ۽ جامع نتيجا حاصل ڪرڻ هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1pp=xliii–xliv|2a1=Sider|2y=2010|2pp=4–6|3a1=Schagrin}}

===رياضيائي منطق===
{{Main|رياضيائي منطق}}

[[File:Russell1907-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=برٽرينڊ رسل جو تصوير|[[برٽرينڊ رسل]] رياضيائي منطق جي ترقي ۾ ڪيترائي اهم علمي حصا ورتا.{{sfn|Irvine|2022}}]]

اصطلاح '''رياضيائي منطق''' (ميٿميٽيڪل لاجڪ) ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[رسمي منطق]] جي مترادف طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر وڌيڪ محدود معنيٰ ۾ اهو رياضيات جي اندر منطق جي مطالعي ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. ان جون اهم شاخون [[ماڊل نظريو]]، [[ثبوت جو نظريو]]، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) ۽ [[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Li|1y=2010|1p=ix|2a1=Rautenberg|2y=2010|2p=15|3a1=Quine|3y=1981|3p=1|4a1=Stolyar|4y=1984|4p=2}}

رياضيائي منطق جي تحقيق جو وڏو حصو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي رياضيائي خاصيتن جي مطالعي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. ان سان گڏ اهو پڻ ڏٺو ويندو آهي ته منطق کي رياضيائي استدلال جي تجزيي يا [[رياضيات جا بنياد|رياضيات جي منطقي بنيادن]] جي قيام لاءِ ڪيئن استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfn|Stolyar|1984|pp=3–6}}

ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ رياضيائي منطق جو هڪ اهم مقصد [[منطق پرستي]] (لاجڪئزم) واري پروگرام کي اڳتي وڌائڻ هو، جنهن جي شروعات [[گاٽلوب فريگي]]، [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] جهڙن فلسفي-منطق دانن ڪئي هئي. هن پروگرام موجب سڀئي رياضيائي نظريا اصل ۾ منطقي [[منطقي صداقت|صداقتون]] (Tautologies) آهن، ۽ ان کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ رياضيات کي منطق تائين محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي. پر هن پروگرام کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جون گهڻيون ڪوششون ناڪام ويون. مثال طور، فريگي جو منصوبو سندس ڪتاب '' گرُنڊگيزيٽسي:Grundgesetze'' (بنيادي قانون) ۾ [[رسل جو تضاد|رسل جي تضاد]] سبب متاثر ٿيو، جڏهن⁠ته [[هلبرٽ جو پروگرام]] [[گوڊل جا نامڪمليت جا نظريا|گوڊل جي نامڪمليت جي نظرين]] سبب ناڪام ثابت ٿيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|1loc=Gödel's incompleteness theorems|2a1=Linsky|2y=2011|2p=4|3a1=Richardson|3y=1998|3p=15}}

[[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) جي شروعات [[جارج ڪينٽر]] لامحدوديت جي مطالعي دوران ڪئي. هي شعبي رياضيائي منطق جي ڪيترن ئي اهم ۽ پيچيده مسئلن جو سرچشمو بڻيو، جن ۾ [[ڪينٽر جو نظريو]]، [[اختيار جو اصول]] (اگزيوم آف چوائس)، [[مسلسل مفروضي]] (ڪنٽينيوئم ھيپوٿيسز) جي آزاديءَ جو سوال، ۽ [[وڏي ڪارڊينل]] (لارج ڪارڊينل) اصولن بابت جديد بحث شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Bagaria|1y=2021|2a1=Cunningham}}

[[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) رياضيائي منطق جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا حسابي مسئلن کي حل ڪرڻ لاءِ مؤثر طريقن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان جو هڪ بنيادي مقصد اهو معلوم ڪرڻ آهي ته ڪنهن خاص مسئلي کي [[الگورٿم]] ذريعي حل ڪرڻ ممڪن آهي يا نه. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صحيح عددن بابت ڪو خاص دعويٰ ڏني وڃي، ته هي شعبي اهو جاچيندو آهي ته ڇا اهڙو الگورٿم تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو اهو طئي ڪري سگهي ته اها دعويٰ صحيح آهي يا غلط. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ [[ٽيورنگ مشين]] (Turing machine) سميت مختلف نظرياتي ماڊلن ۽ اوزارن کي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006a|1loc=Computability Theory|2a1=Leary|2a2=Kristiansen|2y=2015|2p=195}}

===حسابياتي منطق===
{{Main|حسابياتي منطق|ڪمپيوٽر سائنس ۾ منطق}}

[[File:TransistorANDgate.png|thumb|ٽرانزسٽرن جي مدد سان تيار ڪيل هڪ AND گيٽ جو خاڪو. [[منطقي عطف]] (AND) [[بولين منطق]] جي بنيادي عملن مان هڪ آهي، جنهن کي برقي طور مختلف طريقن سان، مثال طور ٻن [[ٽرانزسٽر]]ن ذريعي، عمل ۾ آڻي سگهجي ٿو.]]

'''حسابياتي منطق''' (ڪمپيوٽيشنل لاجڪ) منطق ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ڪمپيوٽرن جي ذريعي رياضيائي استدلال ۽ رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عملي صورت ڏيڻ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان ۾، مثال طور، [[خودڪار نظريي ثابت ڪندڙ]] (آٽوميٽڪ ٿيورم پروور) شامل آهن، جيڪي [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] استعمال ڪندي، بغير انساني مداخلت جي، مقدمات مان گهربل نتيجي تائين مرحليوار ثبوت تيار ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Paulson|1y=2018|1pp=1–14|2a1=Castaño|2y=2018|2p=2|3a1=Wile|3a2=Goss|3a3=Roesner|3y=2005|3p=447}}

[[منطقي پروگرامنگ]] (لاجڪ پروگرامنگ) جون ٻوليون خاص طور اهڙي نموني تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن، جو حقيقتن کي منطقي فارمولن جي صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ۽ انهن مان استدلال ذريعي نوان نتيجا اخذ ڪري سگهجن. مثال طور، [[پرولاگ]] (Prolog) محمولي منطق تي ٻڌل هڪ منطقي پروگرامنگ ٻولي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Clocksin|1a2=Mellish|1y=2003|1pp=237–238, 252–255, 257|1loc=The Relation of Prolog to Logic|2a1=Daintith|2a2=Wright|2y=2008|2loc=Logic Programming Languages}}

ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽنگ سان لاڳاپيل مسئلن جي حل لاءِ پڻ منطقي تصورن کي استعمال ڪندا آهن. هن ميدان ۾ [[ڪلاڊ شينن]] جو ڪم انتهائي اثرائتو رهيو، جنهن ڏيکاريو ته [[بولين منطق]] کي ڪمپيوٽرن جي برقي سرڪٽن کي سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=O'Regan|1y=2016|1p=49|2a1=Calderbank|2a2=Sloane|2y=2001|2p=768}}

اهو ڪم [[منطقي دروازو|منطقي دروازن]] (لاجڪ گيٽ) ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي اهڙا برقي سرڪٽ هوندا آهن، جن ۾ هڪ يا وڌيڪ ان پُٽ ۽ عام طور هڪ آئوٽ پُٽ هوندو آهي. انهن ۾ منطقي قضين جي صداقت جا قدر برقي وولٽيج جي سطحن جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهڙيءَ طرح، سرڪٽ جي ان پُٽن تي مناسب وولٽيج لاڳو ڪري ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ جي وولٽيج کي ماپي، مختلف منطقي عملن جي نقل (سميوليشن) ڪئي ويندي آهي.{{sfn|Daintith|Wright|2008|loc=Logic Gate}}

===قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات===
{{Main|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات}}

'''قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) منطق، [[لسانيات]] ۽ [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]] جي گڏيل ذيلي شاخ آهي. [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) ٻوليءَ جي معنائن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته رسمي معنيات علامتي منطق ۽ رياضيات جا رسمي اوزار استعمال ڪندي [[قدرتي ٻولي]] جي اظهارَن جي معنائن بابت درست ۽ منظم نظريا پيش ڪري ٿي.

رسمي معنيات عام طور معنٰي کي [[صدق جون شرطون]] (ٽرٿ ڪنڊيشنر) سان وابسته ڪري سمجهي ٿي؛ يعني اها جاچ ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙين حالتن ۾ ڪو جملو سچو يا ڪوڙو ٿيندو. هن شعبي جي بنيادي اصولن مان هڪ [[ترڪيبي اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) آهي، جنهن موجب ڪنهن پيچيده اظهار جي معنٰي ان جي جزن جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي پاڻ ۾ ڳانڍاپي جي طريقي سان طئي ٿيندي آهي. مثال طور، فعل واري فقري &quot;هلڻ ۽ ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنٰي انفرادي اظهارَن &quot;هلڻ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.

رسمي معنيات جا ڪيترائي نظريا [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. ان جو مطلب آهي ته اهي [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) استعمال ڪري هڪ نمونو (ماڊل) تيار ڪندا آهن ۽ پوءِ ان نموني جي عنصرن جي حوالي سان ٻوليءَ جي اظهارَن جي معنائن جي تشريح ڪندا آهن. مثال طور، اصطلاح &quot;هلڻ&quot; کي نموني ۾ موجود انهن سڀني فردن جي مجموعي طور سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي هلڻ جي خاصيت رکن ٿا.

هن شعبي جا شروعاتي ۽ اثرائتا مفڪر [[رچرڊ مونٽيگ]] ۽ [[باربرا پارٽي]] هئا، جن پنهنجي تجزين جو بنيادي مرڪز انگريزي ٻوليءَ کي بڻايو.{{sfnm|1a1=Janssen|1a2=Zimmermann|1y=2021|1pp=3–4|2a1=Partee|2y=2016|3a1=King|3y=2009|3pp=557–558|4a1=Aloni|4a2=Dekker|4y=2016|4pp=22–23}}

===منطق جي علمُ المعرفت===
{{Main|منطق جي علمُ المعرفت}}

'''منطق جو علمُ المعرفت''' (ايپسٽيمولاجي آف لاجڪ) هن ڳالهه جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو ته انسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوي ٿي ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا ڪا تجويز منطقي طور سچي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Schechter}} هن ۾ اهڙا سوال شامل آهن، جيئن: {{lang|la|modus ponens}} استدلال جو صحيح قاعدو ڇو آهي؟ يا تضاد هميشه ڪوڙا ڇو سمجهيا وڃن ٿا؟{{sfn|Warren|2020|loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic}}

روايتي طور تي غالب نظريو اهو رهيو آهي ته اهڙي قسم جي منطقي ڄاڻ [[قبلي علم]] (''a priori'') سان واسطو رکي ٿي.{{sfn|Schechter}} هن نظرئي موجب، اڪثر اهو دليل ڏنو ويندو آهي ته [[ذهن]] وٽ هڪ خاص صلاحيت هوندي آهي، جيڪا خالص خيالن جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي پرکڻ جي قابل هوندي آهي، ۽ اها ئي صلاحيت منطقي سچائين کي سمجهڻ جو ذريعو پڻ آهي.{{sfn|Gómez-Torrente|2019}}

هڪ ٻيو ويجهو نظريو منطق جي قاعدن کي [[اصطلاحيت]] (ڪنوينشنلزم) يا لساني روايتن جي بنياد تي سمجهي ٿو. هن راءِ موجب، منطق جا قانون تعريف جي لحاظ کان سچا آهن، تنهنڪري اهي بنيادي طور غيرتڪراري آهن؛ اهي رڳو منطقي اصطلاحن جي معنائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Gómez-Torrente|2y=2019|3a1=Warren|3y=2020|3loc=1. What is Conventionalism}}

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[هلري پٽنم]] ۽ [[پينيلوپي ميڊي]]، هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪن ٿا ته منطق کي مڪمل طور قبلي علم ذريعي ڄاڻي سگهجي ٿو. انهن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي سچايون [[تجربي تي ٻڌل علم]] (امپريڪل نالج) سان به لاڳاپيل آهن. هن راءِ کي عام طور ان دعويٰ سان گڏ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي ته منطق جا قانون دنيا جي بناوت ۾ موجود عام ۽ آفاقي قاعدن جو اظهار ڪن ٿا. ان مطابق، انهن قاعدن کي [[بنيادي سائنسون|بنيادي سائنسن]] ۾ موجود عام نمونن ۽ اصولن جي مطالعي ذريعي به سمجهي سگهجي ٿو.

مثال طور، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم ميڪانيات]] جون ڪجهه دريافتون روايتي منطق جي [[ورڇ جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڊسٽريبيوٽوٽي) کي چئلينج ڪن ٿيون، جنهن موجب فارمولو &lt;math&gt;A \land (B \lor C)&lt;/math&gt; هم معنيٰ آهي &lt;math&gt;(A \land B) \lor (A \land C)&lt;/math&gt; سان. هن دعويٰ کي ان ڳالهه جي تجربي تي ٻڌل دليل طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم منطق]] روايتي منطق کان وڌيڪ مناسب منطقي نظام آهي، ۽ ان کي روايتي منطق جي جاءِ وٺڻ گهرجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Chua|1y=2017|1pp=631–636|2a1=Wilce|2y=2021|3a1=Putnam|3y=1969|3pp=216–241}}


* جملاتي منطق


==پڻ ڏسو==
{{Portal|فلسفو}}
{{Columns list|
* {{annotated link|منطق جي اصطلاحن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جو خاڪو}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جي تحقيقي رسالن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي نشانين جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق دانن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي ڳجهارت}}
* {{annotated link|لوگوس}}
* {{annotated link|ویکٽر منطق}}
}}

==حوالا==

===وضاحتي نوٽ===
{{notelist}}
&lt;references group=&quot;lower-alpha&quot;/&gt;
===حوالا===
{{reflist|1=30em}}

===ڪتابيات===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Aloni |first1=Maria |author1-link=ماريا الوني |last2=Dekker |first2=Paul |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics |date=7 July 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-55273-5 |pages=22–23 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Angell |first1=Richard B. |title=Reasoning and Logic |date=1964 |publisher=Ardent Media |page=164 |language=en |oclc=375322 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Informal logic |year=1999a |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |page=435 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Philosophy of logic |year=1999b |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |pages=679–681 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Backmann |first1=Marius |title=Varieties of Justification—How (Not) to Solve the Problem of Induction |journal=Acta Analytica |date=1 June 2019 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=235–255 |doi=10.1007/s12136-018-0371-6 |s2cid=125767384 |language=en |issn=1874-6349 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bagaria |first1=Joan |author-link=جوان باگاريا |title=Set Theory |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/set-theory/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=23 September 2022 |year=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Jonathan |title=Truth, etc.: Six Lectures on Ancient Logic |date=25 January 2007 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-151574-3 |page=274 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Benthem |first1=Johan van |title=Modal Logic: Contemporary View: 1. Modal Notions and Reasoning Patterns: a First Pass |url=https://iep.utm.edu/modal-lo/#H1 |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=11 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berlemann |first1=Lars |last2=Mangold |first2=Stefan |title=Cognitive Radio and Dynamic Spectrum Access |date=10 July 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-0-470-75443-6 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berman |first1=Harold J. |title=Law and Revolution, the Formation of the Western Legal Tradition |date=1 July 2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02085-6 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bimbó |first1=Katalin |author-link=ڪيٽلن بمبو |title=J. Michael Dunn on Information Based Logics |date=2 April 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-29300-4 |pages=8–9 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=1 January 2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |language=en |chapter=argument |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194756/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=24 March 2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |language=en |chapter=rule of inference |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194809/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=The Current State of Informal Logic |journal=Informal Logic |year=1987 |volume=9 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v9i2.2671 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230194638/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |url-status=live |pages=147–151 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=Informal Logic: An Overview |journal=Informal Logic |year=2000 |volume=20 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v20i2.2262 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209195317/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |url-status=live |pages=93–107 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |title=Groundwork in the Theory of Argumentation: Selected Papers of J. Anthony Blair |date=20 October 2011 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-007-2363-4 |page=47 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bobzien |first1=Susanne |author-link=سوزاني بوبزين |title=Ancient Logic: 2. Aristotle |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=3 January 2022 |year=2020 |archive-date=28 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828102117/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Borchert |editor1-first=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 2 |edition=2nd |date=2006a |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |isbn=978-0-02-865782-0 |chapter=Computability Theory |pages=372–390 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 4 |edition=2nd |date=2006b |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Induction |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865784-4 |pages=635–648 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 5 |edition=2nd |date=2006c |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Logic, Non-Classical |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865785-1 |pages=485–492 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bridges |first1=Douglas |last2=Ishihara |first2=Hajime |last3=Rathjen |first3=Michael |last4=Schwichtenberg |first4=Helmut |title=Handbook of Constructive Mathematics |date=30 April 2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-51086-5 |pages=73–74 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Brody |first=Boruch A. |title=Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=2006 |publisher=Thomson Gale/Macmillan Reference US |others=Donald M. Borchert |isbn=978-0-02-865780-6 |edition=2nd |volume=5 |pages=535–536 |oclc=61151356 |quote=The two most important types of logical calculi are propositional (or sentential) calculi and functional (or predicate) calculi. A propositional calculus is a system containing propositional variables and connectives (some also contain propositional constants) but not individual or functional variables or constants. In the extended propositional calculus, quantifiers whose operator variables are propositional variables are added. }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bunnin |first1=Nicholas |last2=Yu |first2=Jiyuan |title=The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy |date=27 January 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9112-8 |page=179 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Burgess |first1=John P. |author-link=جان پي. برجس |title=Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |chapter=1. Classical logic |pages=1–12 |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216143954/https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-691-15633-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bäck |first1=Allan T. |title=Aristotle's Theory of Predication |date=2016 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-32109-0 |page=317 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Calderbank |first1=Robert |last2=Sloane |first2=Neil J. A. |title=Claude Shannon (1916–2001) |journal=Nature |date=April 2001 |volume=410 |issue=6830 |page=768 |doi=10.1038/35071223 |pmid=11298432 |s2cid=4402158 |language=en |issn=1476-4687 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Carnielli |first1=Walter |last2=Pizzi |first2=Claudio |title=Modalities and Multimodalities |date=2008 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-8590-1 |page=3 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Castaño |first1=Arnaldo Pérez |title=Practical Artificial Intelligence: Machine Learning, Bots, and Agent Solutions Using C# |date=23 May 2018 |publisher=Apress |isbn=978-1-4842-3357-3 |page=2 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Chakrabarti |first1=Kisor Kumar |title=Some Comparisons Between Frege's Logic and Navya-Nyaya Logic |journal=Philosophy and Phenomenological Research |date=June 1976 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=554–563 |doi=10.2307/2106873 |jstor=2106873 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chatfield |first1=Tom |title=Critical Thinking: Your Guide to Effective Argument, Successful Analysis and Independent Study |date=2017 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-5264-1877-7 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chua |first1=Eugene |title=Logic, Rationality, and Interaction |chapter=An Empirical Route to Logical 'Conventionalism' |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |date=2017 |volume=10455 |pages=631–636 |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-55665-8_43 |isbn=978-3-662-55664-1 |chapter-url=https://philpapers.org/rec/CHUAER }}
* {{cite book |last1=Clocksin |first1=William F. |last2=Mellish |first2=Christopher S. |title=Programming in Prolog: Using the ISO Standard |date=2003 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-55481-0 |pages=237–257 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 |language=en |chapter=The Relation of Prolog to Logic |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cook |first1=Roy T. |title=Dictionary of Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-3197-1 |language=en |page=124 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Copi |first1=Irving M. |author1-link=ارونگ ڪوپي |last2=Cohen |first2=Carl |last3=Rodych |first3=Victor |title=Introduction to Logic |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-38697-5 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Corkum |first1=Philip |title=Generality and Logical Constancy |journal=Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia |year=2015 |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=753–767 |doi=10.17990/rpf/2015_71_4_0753 |jstor=43744657 |issn=0870-5283 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Craig |first1=Edward |author-link=ايڊورڊ ڪريگ (فلسفي) |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=1996 |publisher=Routledge |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116111145/https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-07310-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cummings |first1=Louise |title=The Routledge Pragmatics Encyclopedia |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-21457-9 |page=1 |language=en |chapter=Abduction }}
* {{cite web |last1=Cunningham |first1=Daniel |title=Set Theory |url=https://iep.utm.edu/set-theo/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=23 September 2022 }}

* {{cite journal |last1=D'Agostino |first1=Marcello |last2=Floridi |first2=Luciano |title=The Enduring Scandal of Deduction: Is Propositional Logic Really Uninformative? |journal=Synthese |year=2009 |volume=167 |issue=2 |pages=271–315 |doi=10.1007/s11229-008-9409-4 |jstor=40271192 |hdl=2299/2995 |hdl-access=free |s2cid=9602882 |language=en |issn=0039-7857 }}
* {{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Computing |isbn=978-0-19-923400-4 |last1=Daintith |first1=John |last2=Wright |first2=Edmund |date=2008 |publisher=OUP }}
* {{cite book |last=van Dalen |first=Dirk |author-link=ڊرڪ وان ڊالن |year=1994 |title=Logic and Structure |publisher=Springer |at=Chapter 1.5 |isbn=978-0-387-57839-2 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dasti |first1=Matthew R. |title=Nyaya |url=https://iep.utm.edu/nyaya/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=12 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Dick |first1=Anthony S. |last2=Müller |first2=Ulrich |title=Advancing Developmental Science: Philosophy, Theory, and Method |date=2017 |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-1-351-70456-4 |page=157 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Douven |first1=Igor |author-link=ايگور ڊاووين |title=Abduction |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |year=2021 |access-date=24 August 2021 |archive-date=7 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907202119/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dowden |first1=Bradley |author-link=بريڊلي ڊائوڊن |title=Fallacies |url=https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=19 March 2021 |archive-date=29 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100429214410/https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |title=Pondering on Problems of Argumentation: Twenty Essays on Theoretical Issues |date=2009 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-9165-0 |page=191 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |last3=Krabbe |first3=Erik C. W. |last4=Snoeck Henkemans |first4=A. Francisca |last5=Verheij |first5=Bart |last6=Wagemans |first6=Jean H. M. |title=Handbook of Argumentation Theory |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-94-007-6883-3 |pages=1–45 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |language=en |chapter=Informal Logic |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231172324/https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |url-status=live |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGarssenKrabbeSnoeck_Henkemans }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Grootendorst |first2=Rob |last3=Johnson |first3=Ralph H. |last4=Plantin |first4=Christian |last5=Willard |first5=Charles A. |title=Fundamentals of Argumentation Theory: A Handbook of Historical Backgrounds and Contemporary Developments |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-68804-1 |page=169 |language=en |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGrootendorstJohnsonPlantin }}
* {{cite book |last1=Emmanuel |first1=Steven M. |title=A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy |date=2015 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-119-14466-3 |pages=320–322 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Enderton |first=Herbert |author-link=هربرٽ اينڊرٽن |year=2001 |title=A Mathematical Introduction to Logic |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-238452-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Engel |first1=S. Morris |title=With Good Reason an Introduction to Informal Fallacies |date=1982 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=1 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301065815/https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-312-08479-0 |publisher=St. Martin's Press }}
* {{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Jonathan St. B. T. |editor1-last=Morrison |editor1-first=Robert |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82417-0 |page=169 |language=en |chapter=8. Deductive Reasoning }}
* {{cite web |last1=Ewald |first1=William |title=The Emergence of First-Order Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-firstorder-emergence/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=12 March 2023 |date=2019 }}


[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>7fv3fuga95gpnf4pkpyfn8rnjyx7pzz</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399241</id>
      <parentid>399240</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T15:35:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399241</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="134639" sha1="dh1msqnagayj55zwp8yed233pqwi3rb" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==تاريخ==
{{Main|منطق جي تاريخ}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=330
| image1= Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg
| alt1= ارسطو جو مجسمو
| image2= Avicenne - Avicenna - Ibn_Sina (980-1037) CIPB2067.jpg
| alt2= ابن سينا جو پورٽريٽ
| image3= Guillaume Occam.jpg
| alt3= وليم آف اوڪهم جو پورٽريٽ
| image4= Wismar Marienkirche Bronzebüste Gottlob Frege (01-1).JPG
| alt4= گوٽلوب فريگي جو مجسمو
| footer= مٿيون قطار: [[ارسطو]]، جنهن مغربي منطق جي بنيادي روايت قائم ڪئي؛{{sfn|Groarke}} ۽ [[ابن سينا]]، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ تي پنهنجو منطقي نظام متعارف ڪرايو.{{sfn|Lagerlund|2018}} هيٺيون قطار: [[وليم آف اوڪهم]]، وچئين دور جي علمي فڪر جي اهم شخصيت؛{{sfn|Spade|Panaccio|2019}} ۽ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]]، جديد علامتي منطق جي بانيَن مان هڪ.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900|3a=Klement|3y=1995a}}
}}

قديم دور ۾ منطق ڪيترين ئي تهذيبن ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان الڳ نموني ترقي ڪئي. شروعاتي اهم مفڪرن مان هڪ [[ارسطو]] هو، جنهن پنهنجي ڪتابن ''[[اورگينون]]'' ۽ ''[[پرائر اينالٽڪس]]'' ۾ '''اصطلاحي منطق''' (ٽرم لاجڪ) کي منظم صورت ڏني.{{sfnm|1a1=Kline|1y=1972|1loc=&quot;A major achievement of Aristotle was the founding of the science of logic&quot;, p. 53|2a1=Łukasiewicz|2y=1957|2p=7|3a1=Liu|3a2=Guo|3y=2023|3p=15}} هن [[شرطي قياس]] (ھيپوٿيٽيڪل سلاجزم){{sfn|Lear|1980|p=34}} ۽ [[زماني موڊل منطق]] (ٽيمپورل موڊل لاجڪ) جي به بنياد وڌي.{{sfnm|1a1=Knuuttila|1y=1980|1p=71|2a1=Fisher|2a2=Gabbay|2a3=Vila|2y=2005|2p=119}} ارسطو [[استقرائي منطق]] (انڊڪٽو لاجڪ){{sfn|Berman|2009|p=133}} ۽ نون منطقي تصورن، جهڙوڪ [[اصطلاح]]، [[محموليت]] (پريڊيڪبلز)، قياس ۽ تجويزن تي پڻ اهم بحث ڪيو. ارسطوي منطق کي قديم ۽ وچئين دور ۾، يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر ٻنهي ۾ وڏي اهميت حاصل رهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} ۽ اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي شروعات تائين اهو غالب منطقي نظام رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} اڄ جي دور ۾ جيتوڻيڪ ان جي جاءِ جديد منطق ورتي آهي، پر ان جا ڪيترائي بنيادي خيال اڃا به جديد منطقي نظامن ۾ موجود آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|loc=1. Introduction}}

[[ابن سينا]] (ايويسينا) ابن سيناوي منطق جو باني هو، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] جي ميدان ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ ورتي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hasse|1y=2008|2a1=Lagerlund|2y=2018}} سندس خيالن جو اثر [[البرٽس ميگنس]] ۽ [[وليم آف اوڪهم]] جهڙن يورپي مفڪرن تي به پيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Washell|1y=1973|1pp=445–450|2a1=Kneale|2a2=Kneale|2y=1962|2pp=229, 266}} ابن سينا شرطي قياس{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} ۽ [[تجويزي منطق]] (پروپوزيشنل ڪلڪيولس){{sfn|Goodman|1992|p=188}} تي اهم تحريرون لکيون. هن زماني ۽ امڪان کي گڏائيندڙ هڪ نئون قياسي نظريو تيار ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[زماني منطق]] ۽ [[موڊل منطق]] جا عنصر شامل هئا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Spade|loc=Arabic Logic}} هن استقرائي منطق جا به طريقا بيان ڪيا، جهڙوڪ موافقت، اختلاف ۽ گڏيل تبديلي جا طريقا، جيڪي [[سائنسي طريقو|سائنسي طريقي]] لاءِ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا.{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} [[فخر الدين رازي]] پڻ هڪ اثرائتو مسلمان منطق دان هو. هن ارسطوي قياس تي تنقيد ڪئي ۽ استقرائي منطق جو اهڙو ابتدائي نظام پيش ڪيو، جنهن بعد ۾ [[جان اسٽوارٽ مل]] جي استقرائي منطق جي اڳواٽ نشاندهي ڪئي.{{sfn|Iqbal|2013|pp=99–115|loc=The Spirit of Muslim Culture}}

وچئين دور ۾ ارسطو جي منطقي ڪتابن جا ڪيترائي ترجما ۽ تشريحون تيار ڪيون ويون. [[بوئٿيوس]] جا ڪم خاص طور تي گهڻو اثرائتا رهيا. هن نه رڳو ارسطو جي تصنيفن کي لاطيني ۾ ترجمو ڪيو، پر منطق بابت درسي ڪتاب پڻ لکيا.{{sfnm|1a1=Marenbon|1y=2021|1loc=Introduction; 3. The Logical Text-Books|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade}} بعد ۾ ابن سينا ۽ [[ابن رشد]] (ايوريس) جهڙن اسلامي فلسفين جي تحريرن مان پڻ فائدو ورتو ويو، جنهن سان وچئين دور جي عيسائي عالمن کي قديم يوناني فڪر تائين وڌيڪ رسائي ملي. سنه 1323ع ۾ وليم آف اوڪهم جو مشهور ڪتاب ''{{lang|la|[[Summa Logicae]]}}'' شايع ٿيو، جيڪو منطق جو جامع رسالو آهي ۽ جنهن ۾ منطقي تجويزن، انهن جي قسمن ۽ سندن صدق جي شرطن بابت منظم بحث ڪيو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|2a1=Hasse|2y=2008|3a1=Spade|3a2=Panaccio|3y=2019}}

چيني فلسفي ۾ [[نالن جو مذهب]] (اسڪول آف نيمز) ۽ [[موهزم]] (Mohism) خاص اهميت رکندا هئا. نالن جي مذهب ٻوليءَ جي استعمال ۽ منطقي تضادن تي ڌيان ڏنو. مثال طور [[گونگسن لانگ]] مشهور ''اڇي گهوڙي جو تضاد'' (وائيٽ ھارس پيراڊوڪس) پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ دليل ڏنو ويو ته &quot;اڇو گهوڙو، گهوڙو ناهي.&quot; موهزم پڻ منطق ۾ ٻوليءَ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪيو ۽ ان کي اخلاقيات سان ڳنڍڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Willman|1y=2022|2a1=Rošker|2y=2015|2pp=301–309}}

هندستان ۾ منطق جو مطالعو بنيادي طور [[نيايه]]، [[ٻڌ مت]] ۽ [[جين مت]] جي فڪري روايتن ۾ ٿيو. ان کي الڳ علمي شعبي طور نه، پر علمُ المعرفت، مناظري ۽ استدلال جي بحثن جي حصي طور سمجهيو ويندو هو.{{sfn|Sarukkai|Chakraborty|2022|pp=117–118}} نيايه فلسفي ۾ استدلال کي علم حاصل ڪرڻ جو هڪ ذريعو (''[[پرمان]]'') سمجهيو ويو، جيڪو مشاهدي کان پوءِ شين جي سببن بابت نتيجا ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو.{{sfnm|1a1=Dasti|1loc=Lead section; 1b. Inference|2a1=Mills|2y=2018|2p=121}} ٻڌ ۽ جين منطق ۾ به استدلال کي ٻين ذريعن مان حاصل ٿيل علم کي وڌائڻ جو وسيلو سمجهيو ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Emmanuel|1y=2015|1pp=320–322|2a1=Vidyabhusana|2y=1988|2p=221}} نيايه جي پوئين دور جي [[نويا نيايه]] روايت جا ڪيئي خيال جديد منطق سان ملندڙ جلندڙ آهن، جهڙوڪ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جو ''معنيٰ ۽ مرجع'' (سينس اينڊ ريفرنس) وارو فرق ۽ انگ جي تعريف.{{sfn|Chakrabarti|1976|pp=554–563}}

ارسطو جي قياسي منطق اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي وچ تائين غالب رهي، پر رياضيات جي بنيادن بابت وڌندڙ دلچسپي جديد علامتي منطق جي ترقي جو سبب بڻي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Haaparanta|2y=2009|2pp=3–5|2loc=1. Introduction}} گهڻا محقق [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جي ''[[بيگرفس شرفٽ]]'' (Begriffsschrift) کي جديد منطق جي شروعات سمجهن ٿا. [[گوٽفريڊ وِلهم لائبنٽس]] جي [[عالمي رسمي ٻولي]] (ڪئريڪٽرسٽڪا يونيورسلس) جو تصور ان جو اڳواٽ اشارو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. ٻين اهم اڳواڻن ۾ [[جارج بول]] شامل آهي، جنهن [[بولي الجبرا]] (بوليئن آلجبرا) کي منطقي رياضيائي نظام طور پيش ڪيو، ۽ [[چارلس سينڊرس پيرس]]، جنهن [[لاڳاپن جي منطق]] (لاجڪ آگ رليٽوز) کي ترقي ڏني. بعد ۾ [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] انهن خيالن کي پنهنجي مشهور ڪتاب '' پرنسپيا ميٿميٽيڪا'' ۾ منظم ڪيو.

جديد منطق نوان تصور متعارف ڪرايا، جهڙوڪ [[تابع]] (فنڪشن)، مقدارساز (ڪونٽيفائر) ۽ لاڳاپائي محمول (رليشنل پريڊيڪيٽس). جديد علامتي منطق جي نمايان خاصيت رسمي ٻوليءَ جو استعمال آهي، جنهن ذريعي منطقي اصولن کي نهايت درست نموني بيان ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان لحاظ کان اهو اڳين منطق دانن کان مختلف آهي، جيڪي بنيادي طور قدرتي ٻوليءَ تي ڀاڙيندا هئا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900}} خاص طور تي [[اول-درجي منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) جي ترقي جديد منطق ۾ بنيادي حيثيت اختيار ڪئي.{{sfn|Ewald|2019}} ان جي تجزياتي وسعت رياضيات کي رسمي صورت ڏيڻ، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] جي ترقي ۽ [[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) جي قيام لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪيو، ۽ اهو جديد [[رياضياتي منطق]] جو مرڪزي نظام بڻجي ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Schreiner|2y=2021|2p=22}}

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (ڪوانٽيفڪيشن) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}

==تحقيق جا شعبا==

منطق جو مطالعو مختلف علمي شعبن ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪيترن ئي حالتن ۾ ان جي رسمي طريقن کي انهن موضوعن تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي پاڻ منطق جي دائري کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[اخلاقيات]] يا [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Logic and other disciplines|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10}}

ٻين حالتن ۾ خود منطق ئي ڪنهن ٻئي علمي شعبي ۾ تحقيق جو موضوع بڻجي ٿي. اهو مختلف طريقن سان ٿي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، منطق جي بنيادي تصورن سان لاڳاپيل فلسفياتي مفروضن جو جائزو وٺڻ، منطقي نظامن کي رياضيائي بناوتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جو تجزيو ڪرڻ، يا رسمي منطقي نظامن جي تجريدي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ۽ ڀيٽ ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Features and problems of logic|2a1=Gödel|2y=1984|2pp=447–469|2loc=Russell's mathematical logic|3a1=Monk|3y=1976|3pp=1–9|3loc=Introduction}}

===منطق جو فلسفو ۽ فلسفياتي منطق===
{{Main|منطق جو فلسفو|فلسفياتي منطق}}

'''منطق جو فلسفو''' (فلاسافي آف لاجڪ) فلسفي جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطق جي دائري، ماهيت ۽ بنيادي نوعيت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} ان ۾ انهن ڪيترن ئي مفروضن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيڪي منطق ۾ ضمني طور قبول ڪيا ويندا آهن، جيئن ان جي بنيادي تصورن جي تعريف يا انهن سان لاڳاپيل [[مابعدالطبيعات|مابعدالطبيعي]] مفروضا.{{sfn|Jacquette|2006|loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|pp=1–12}}

هي شعبي منطقي نظامن جي درجابندي ۽ انهن سان وابسته [[وجوديات|وجودياتي]] وابستگين (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪمٽمينٽ) جو پڻ مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=§Problems of ontology}}

'''فلسفياتي منطق''' (فلاسافيڪل لاجڪ) منطق جي فلسفي جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطقي طريقن کي فلسفي جي مسئلن تي لاڳو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Burgess|2y=2009|2loc=1. Classical logic}}
اهو استعمال گهڻو ڪري [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي]] يا [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظامن]] جي صورت ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Goble|1y=2001|1loc=Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32}}

===مابعد منطق===
{{Main|مابعد منطق}}

'''مابعد منطق''' (ميٽالاجڪ) اهو علمي شعبو آهي، جيڪو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.

مثال طور، جڏهن ڪو نئون رسمي منطقي نظام تيار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ته مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو معلوم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته ان نظام ۾ ڪهڙا فارمولا ثابت ڪري سگهجن ٿا. اهي اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته ڇا اهڙو [[الگورٿم]] تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو هر فارمولي لاءِ ثبوت ڳولي سگهي، ۽ ڇا ان نظام ۾ هر قابلِ ثبوت فارمولو لازمي طور [[منطقي صداقت]] (Tautology) آهي.

اهي مختلف منطقي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ تقابلي مطالعو پڻ ڪندا آهن ته جيئن انهن جون منفرد خاصيتون واضح ٿي سگهن.

مابعد منطق جو هڪ بنيادي موضوع [[نحو]] (سنٽيڪس) ۽ [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) جي وچ ۾ تعلق آهي. رسمي منطقي نظام جا نحوي ضابطا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدمات مان نتيجا ڪيئن اخذ ڪيا وڃن، يعني ثبوت ڪيئن ترتيب ڏنا وڃن. جڏهن⁠ته معنيات اهو طئي ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙا جملا سچا آهن ۽ ڪهڙا ڪوڙا. انهيءَ بنياد تي دليل جي صحت جو تعين ڪيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صحيح دليل ۾ اهو ناممڪن هوندو آهي ته مقدمات سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو هجي.

نحو ۽ معنيات جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي بابت اهم سوالن ۾ اهو شامل آهي ته ڇا هر صحيح دليل قابلِ ثبوت آهي، ۽ ڇا هر قابلِ ثبوت دليل لازمي طور صحيح به هوندو آهي.

مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته منطقي نظام [[مڪمليت]] (ڪمپليٽنيس)، [[صحت (منطق)|صحت]] (سائونڊنيس) ۽ [[هم آهنگي (منطق)|هم آهنگي]] (ڪنسسٽنسي) جون خاصيتون رکن ٿا يا نه. ان کان علاوه، اهي اهو به ڏسندا آهن ته اهي نظام [[فيصلي پذيري]] (ڊسائيڊبلٽي) رکن ٿا يا نه، ۽ انهن جي [[اظهاري قوت]] ڪيتري آهي.

انهن موضوعن جي تحقيق دوران مابعد منطق گهڻو ڪري تجريدي رياضيائي استدلال تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جنهن جو مقصد انهن مسئلن بابت صحيح، عام ۽ جامع نتيجا حاصل ڪرڻ هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1pp=xliii–xliv|2a1=Sider|2y=2010|2pp=4–6|3a1=Schagrin}}

===رياضيائي منطق===
{{Main|رياضيائي منطق}}

[[File:Russell1907-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=برٽرينڊ رسل جو تصوير|[[برٽرينڊ رسل]] رياضيائي منطق جي ترقي ۾ ڪيترائي اهم علمي حصا ورتا.{{sfn|Irvine|2022}}]]

اصطلاح '''رياضيائي منطق''' (ميٿميٽيڪل لاجڪ) ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[رسمي منطق]] جي مترادف طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر وڌيڪ محدود معنيٰ ۾ اهو رياضيات جي اندر منطق جي مطالعي ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. ان جون اهم شاخون [[ماڊل نظريو]]، [[ثبوت جو نظريو]]، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) ۽ [[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Li|1y=2010|1p=ix|2a1=Rautenberg|2y=2010|2p=15|3a1=Quine|3y=1981|3p=1|4a1=Stolyar|4y=1984|4p=2}}

رياضيائي منطق جي تحقيق جو وڏو حصو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي رياضيائي خاصيتن جي مطالعي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. ان سان گڏ اهو پڻ ڏٺو ويندو آهي ته منطق کي رياضيائي استدلال جي تجزيي يا [[رياضيات جا بنياد|رياضيات جي منطقي بنيادن]] جي قيام لاءِ ڪيئن استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfn|Stolyar|1984|pp=3–6}}

ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ رياضيائي منطق جو هڪ اهم مقصد [[منطق پرستي]] (لاجڪئزم) واري پروگرام کي اڳتي وڌائڻ هو، جنهن جي شروعات [[گاٽلوب فريگي]]، [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] جهڙن فلسفي-منطق دانن ڪئي هئي. هن پروگرام موجب سڀئي رياضيائي نظريا اصل ۾ منطقي [[منطقي صداقت|صداقتون]] (Tautologies) آهن، ۽ ان کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ رياضيات کي منطق تائين محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي. پر هن پروگرام کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جون گهڻيون ڪوششون ناڪام ويون. مثال طور، فريگي جو منصوبو سندس ڪتاب '' گرُنڊگيزيٽسي:Grundgesetze'' (بنيادي قانون) ۾ [[رسل جو تضاد|رسل جي تضاد]] سبب متاثر ٿيو، جڏهن⁠ته [[هلبرٽ جو پروگرام]] [[گوڊل جا نامڪمليت جا نظريا|گوڊل جي نامڪمليت جي نظرين]] سبب ناڪام ثابت ٿيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|1loc=Gödel's incompleteness theorems|2a1=Linsky|2y=2011|2p=4|3a1=Richardson|3y=1998|3p=15}}

[[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) جي شروعات [[جارج ڪينٽر]] لامحدوديت جي مطالعي دوران ڪئي. هي شعبي رياضيائي منطق جي ڪيترن ئي اهم ۽ پيچيده مسئلن جو سرچشمو بڻيو، جن ۾ [[ڪينٽر جو نظريو]]، [[اختيار جو اصول]] (اگزيوم آف چوائس)، [[مسلسل مفروضي]] (ڪنٽينيوئم ھيپوٿيسز) جي آزاديءَ جو سوال، ۽ [[وڏي ڪارڊينل]] (لارج ڪارڊينل) اصولن بابت جديد بحث شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Bagaria|1y=2021|2a1=Cunningham}}

[[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) رياضيائي منطق جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا حسابي مسئلن کي حل ڪرڻ لاءِ مؤثر طريقن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان جو هڪ بنيادي مقصد اهو معلوم ڪرڻ آهي ته ڪنهن خاص مسئلي کي [[الگورٿم]] ذريعي حل ڪرڻ ممڪن آهي يا نه. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صحيح عددن بابت ڪو خاص دعويٰ ڏني وڃي، ته هي شعبي اهو جاچيندو آهي ته ڇا اهڙو الگورٿم تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو اهو طئي ڪري سگهي ته اها دعويٰ صحيح آهي يا غلط. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ [[ٽيورنگ مشين]] (Turing machine) سميت مختلف نظرياتي ماڊلن ۽ اوزارن کي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006a|1loc=Computability Theory|2a1=Leary|2a2=Kristiansen|2y=2015|2p=195}}

===حسابياتي منطق===
{{Main|حسابياتي منطق|ڪمپيوٽر سائنس ۾ منطق}}

[[File:TransistorANDgate.png|thumb|ٽرانزسٽرن جي مدد سان تيار ڪيل هڪ AND گيٽ جو خاڪو. [[منطقي عطف]] (AND) [[بولين منطق]] جي بنيادي عملن مان هڪ آهي، جنهن کي برقي طور مختلف طريقن سان، مثال طور ٻن [[ٽرانزسٽر]]ن ذريعي، عمل ۾ آڻي سگهجي ٿو.]]

'''حسابياتي منطق''' (ڪمپيوٽيشنل لاجڪ) منطق ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ڪمپيوٽرن جي ذريعي رياضيائي استدلال ۽ رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عملي صورت ڏيڻ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان ۾، مثال طور، [[خودڪار نظريي ثابت ڪندڙ]] (آٽوميٽڪ ٿيورم پروور) شامل آهن، جيڪي [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] استعمال ڪندي، بغير انساني مداخلت جي، مقدمات مان گهربل نتيجي تائين مرحليوار ثبوت تيار ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Paulson|1y=2018|1pp=1–14|2a1=Castaño|2y=2018|2p=2|3a1=Wile|3a2=Goss|3a3=Roesner|3y=2005|3p=447}}

[[منطقي پروگرامنگ]] (لاجڪ پروگرامنگ) جون ٻوليون خاص طور اهڙي نموني تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن، جو حقيقتن کي منطقي فارمولن جي صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ۽ انهن مان استدلال ذريعي نوان نتيجا اخذ ڪري سگهجن. مثال طور، [[پرولاگ]] (Prolog) محمولي منطق تي ٻڌل هڪ منطقي پروگرامنگ ٻولي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Clocksin|1a2=Mellish|1y=2003|1pp=237–238, 252–255, 257|1loc=The Relation of Prolog to Logic|2a1=Daintith|2a2=Wright|2y=2008|2loc=Logic Programming Languages}}

ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽنگ سان لاڳاپيل مسئلن جي حل لاءِ پڻ منطقي تصورن کي استعمال ڪندا آهن. هن ميدان ۾ [[ڪلاڊ شينن]] جو ڪم انتهائي اثرائتو رهيو، جنهن ڏيکاريو ته [[بولين منطق]] کي ڪمپيوٽرن جي برقي سرڪٽن کي سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=O'Regan|1y=2016|1p=49|2a1=Calderbank|2a2=Sloane|2y=2001|2p=768}}

اهو ڪم [[منطقي دروازو|منطقي دروازن]] (لاجڪ گيٽ) ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي اهڙا برقي سرڪٽ هوندا آهن، جن ۾ هڪ يا وڌيڪ ان پُٽ ۽ عام طور هڪ آئوٽ پُٽ هوندو آهي. انهن ۾ منطقي قضين جي صداقت جا قدر برقي وولٽيج جي سطحن جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهڙيءَ طرح، سرڪٽ جي ان پُٽن تي مناسب وولٽيج لاڳو ڪري ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ جي وولٽيج کي ماپي، مختلف منطقي عملن جي نقل (سميوليشن) ڪئي ويندي آهي.{{sfn|Daintith|Wright|2008|loc=Logic Gate}}

===قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات===
{{Main|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات}}

'''قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) منطق، [[لسانيات]] ۽ [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]] جي گڏيل ذيلي شاخ آهي. [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) ٻوليءَ جي معنائن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته رسمي معنيات علامتي منطق ۽ رياضيات جا رسمي اوزار استعمال ڪندي [[قدرتي ٻولي]] جي اظهارَن جي معنائن بابت درست ۽ منظم نظريا پيش ڪري ٿي.

رسمي معنيات عام طور معنٰي کي [[صدق جون شرطون]] (ٽرٿ ڪنڊيشنر) سان وابسته ڪري سمجهي ٿي؛ يعني اها جاچ ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙين حالتن ۾ ڪو جملو سچو يا ڪوڙو ٿيندو. هن شعبي جي بنيادي اصولن مان هڪ [[ترڪيبي اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) آهي، جنهن موجب ڪنهن پيچيده اظهار جي معنٰي ان جي جزن جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي پاڻ ۾ ڳانڍاپي جي طريقي سان طئي ٿيندي آهي. مثال طور، فعل واري فقري &quot;هلڻ ۽ ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنٰي انفرادي اظهارَن &quot;هلڻ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.

رسمي معنيات جا ڪيترائي نظريا [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. ان جو مطلب آهي ته اهي [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) استعمال ڪري هڪ نمونو (ماڊل) تيار ڪندا آهن ۽ پوءِ ان نموني جي عنصرن جي حوالي سان ٻوليءَ جي اظهارَن جي معنائن جي تشريح ڪندا آهن. مثال طور، اصطلاح &quot;هلڻ&quot; کي نموني ۾ موجود انهن سڀني فردن جي مجموعي طور سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي هلڻ جي خاصيت رکن ٿا.

هن شعبي جا شروعاتي ۽ اثرائتا مفڪر [[رچرڊ مونٽيگ]] ۽ [[باربرا پارٽي]] هئا، جن پنهنجي تجزين جو بنيادي مرڪز انگريزي ٻوليءَ کي بڻايو.{{sfnm|1a1=Janssen|1a2=Zimmermann|1y=2021|1pp=3–4|2a1=Partee|2y=2016|3a1=King|3y=2009|3pp=557–558|4a1=Aloni|4a2=Dekker|4y=2016|4pp=22–23}}

===منطق جي علمُ المعرفت===
{{Main|منطق جي علمُ المعرفت}}

'''منطق جو علمُ المعرفت''' (ايپسٽيمولاجي آف لاجڪ) هن ڳالهه جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو ته انسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوي ٿي ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا ڪا تجويز منطقي طور سچي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Schechter}} هن ۾ اهڙا سوال شامل آهن، جيئن: {{lang|la|modus ponens}} استدلال جو صحيح قاعدو ڇو آهي؟ يا تضاد هميشه ڪوڙا ڇو سمجهيا وڃن ٿا؟{{sfn|Warren|2020|loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic}}

روايتي طور تي غالب نظريو اهو رهيو آهي ته اهڙي قسم جي منطقي ڄاڻ [[قبلي علم]] (''a priori'') سان واسطو رکي ٿي.{{sfn|Schechter}} هن نظرئي موجب، اڪثر اهو دليل ڏنو ويندو آهي ته [[ذهن]] وٽ هڪ خاص صلاحيت هوندي آهي، جيڪا خالص خيالن جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي پرکڻ جي قابل هوندي آهي، ۽ اها ئي صلاحيت منطقي سچائين کي سمجهڻ جو ذريعو پڻ آهي.{{sfn|Gómez-Torrente|2019}}

هڪ ٻيو ويجهو نظريو منطق جي قاعدن کي [[اصطلاحيت]] (ڪنوينشنلزم) يا لساني روايتن جي بنياد تي سمجهي ٿو. هن راءِ موجب، منطق جا قانون تعريف جي لحاظ کان سچا آهن، تنهنڪري اهي بنيادي طور غيرتڪراري آهن؛ اهي رڳو منطقي اصطلاحن جي معنائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Gómez-Torrente|2y=2019|3a1=Warren|3y=2020|3loc=1. What is Conventionalism}}

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[هلري پٽنم]] ۽ [[پينيلوپي ميڊي]]، هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪن ٿا ته منطق کي مڪمل طور قبلي علم ذريعي ڄاڻي سگهجي ٿو. انهن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي سچايون [[تجربي تي ٻڌل علم]] (امپريڪل نالج) سان به لاڳاپيل آهن. هن راءِ کي عام طور ان دعويٰ سان گڏ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي ته منطق جا قانون دنيا جي بناوت ۾ موجود عام ۽ آفاقي قاعدن جو اظهار ڪن ٿا. ان مطابق، انهن قاعدن کي [[بنيادي سائنسون|بنيادي سائنسن]] ۾ موجود عام نمونن ۽ اصولن جي مطالعي ذريعي به سمجهي سگهجي ٿو.

مثال طور، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم ميڪانيات]] جون ڪجهه دريافتون روايتي منطق جي [[ورڇ جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڊسٽريبيوٽوٽي) کي چئلينج ڪن ٿيون، جنهن موجب فارمولو &lt;math&gt;A \land (B \lor C)&lt;/math&gt; هم معنيٰ آهي &lt;math&gt;(A \land B) \lor (A \land C)&lt;/math&gt; سان. هن دعويٰ کي ان ڳالهه جي تجربي تي ٻڌل دليل طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم منطق]] روايتي منطق کان وڌيڪ مناسب منطقي نظام آهي، ۽ ان کي روايتي منطق جي جاءِ وٺڻ گهرجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Chua|1y=2017|1pp=631–636|2a1=Wilce|2y=2021|3a1=Putnam|3y=1969|3pp=216–241}}


* جملاتي منطق


==پڻ ڏسو==
{{Portal|فلسفو}}
{{Columns list|
* {{annotated link|منطق جي اصطلاحن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جو خاڪو}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جي تحقيقي رسالن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي نشانين جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق دانن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي ڳجهارت}}
* {{annotated link|لوگوس}}
* {{annotated link|ویکٽر منطق}}
}}

==حوالا==

===وضاحتي نوٽ===
{{notelist}}
&lt;references group=&quot;lower-alpha&quot;/&gt;
===حوالا===
{{reflist|1=30em}}

===ڪتابيات===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Aloni |first1=Maria |author1-link=ماريا الوني |last2=Dekker |first2=Paul |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics |date=7 July 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-55273-5 |pages=22–23 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Angell |first1=Richard B. |title=Reasoning and Logic |date=1964 |publisher=Ardent Media |page=164 |language=en |oclc=375322 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Informal logic |year=1999a |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |page=435 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Philosophy of logic |year=1999b |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |pages=679–681 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Backmann |first1=Marius |title=Varieties of Justification—How (Not) to Solve the Problem of Induction |journal=Acta Analytica |date=1 June 2019 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=235–255 |doi=10.1007/s12136-018-0371-6 |s2cid=125767384 |language=en |issn=1874-6349 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bagaria |first1=Joan |author-link=جوان باگاريا |title=Set Theory |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/set-theory/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=23 September 2022 |year=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Jonathan |title=Truth, etc.: Six Lectures on Ancient Logic |date=25 January 2007 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-151574-3 |page=274 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Benthem |first1=Johan van |title=Modal Logic: Contemporary View: 1. Modal Notions and Reasoning Patterns: a First Pass |url=https://iep.utm.edu/modal-lo/#H1 |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=11 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berlemann |first1=Lars |last2=Mangold |first2=Stefan |title=Cognitive Radio and Dynamic Spectrum Access |date=10 July 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-0-470-75443-6 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berman |first1=Harold J. |title=Law and Revolution, the Formation of the Western Legal Tradition |date=1 July 2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02085-6 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bimbó |first1=Katalin |author-link=ڪيٽلن بمبو |title=J. Michael Dunn on Information Based Logics |date=2 April 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-29300-4 |pages=8–9 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=1 January 2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |language=en |chapter=argument |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194756/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=24 March 2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |language=en |chapter=rule of inference |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194809/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=The Current State of Informal Logic |journal=Informal Logic |year=1987 |volume=9 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v9i2.2671 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230194638/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |url-status=live |pages=147–151 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=Informal Logic: An Overview |journal=Informal Logic |year=2000 |volume=20 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v20i2.2262 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209195317/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |url-status=live |pages=93–107 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |title=Groundwork in the Theory of Argumentation: Selected Papers of J. Anthony Blair |date=20 October 2011 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-007-2363-4 |page=47 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bobzien |first1=Susanne |author-link=سوزاني بوبزين |title=Ancient Logic: 2. Aristotle |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=3 January 2022 |year=2020 |archive-date=28 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828102117/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Borchert |editor1-first=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 2 |edition=2nd |date=2006a |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |isbn=978-0-02-865782-0 |chapter=Computability Theory |pages=372–390 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 4 |edition=2nd |date=2006b |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Induction |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865784-4 |pages=635–648 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 5 |edition=2nd |date=2006c |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Logic, Non-Classical |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865785-1 |pages=485–492 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bridges |first1=Douglas |last2=Ishihara |first2=Hajime |last3=Rathjen |first3=Michael |last4=Schwichtenberg |first4=Helmut |title=Handbook of Constructive Mathematics |date=30 April 2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-51086-5 |pages=73–74 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Brody |first=Boruch A. |title=Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=2006 |publisher=Thomson Gale/Macmillan Reference US |others=Donald M. Borchert |isbn=978-0-02-865780-6 |edition=2nd |volume=5 |pages=535–536 |oclc=61151356 |quote=The two most important types of logical calculi are propositional (or sentential) calculi and functional (or predicate) calculi. A propositional calculus is a system containing propositional variables and connectives (some also contain propositional constants) but not individual or functional variables or constants. In the extended propositional calculus, quantifiers whose operator variables are propositional variables are added. }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bunnin |first1=Nicholas |last2=Yu |first2=Jiyuan |title=The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy |date=27 January 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9112-8 |page=179 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Burgess |first1=John P. |author-link=جان پي. برجس |title=Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |chapter=1. Classical logic |pages=1–12 |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216143954/https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-691-15633-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bäck |first1=Allan T. |title=Aristotle's Theory of Predication |date=2016 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-32109-0 |page=317 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Calderbank |first1=Robert |last2=Sloane |first2=Neil J. A. |title=Claude Shannon (1916–2001) |journal=Nature |date=April 2001 |volume=410 |issue=6830 |page=768 |doi=10.1038/35071223 |pmid=11298432 |s2cid=4402158 |language=en |issn=1476-4687 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Carnielli |first1=Walter |last2=Pizzi |first2=Claudio |title=Modalities and Multimodalities |date=2008 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-8590-1 |page=3 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Castaño |first1=Arnaldo Pérez |title=Practical Artificial Intelligence: Machine Learning, Bots, and Agent Solutions Using C# |date=23 May 2018 |publisher=Apress |isbn=978-1-4842-3357-3 |page=2 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Chakrabarti |first1=Kisor Kumar |title=Some Comparisons Between Frege's Logic and Navya-Nyaya Logic |journal=Philosophy and Phenomenological Research |date=June 1976 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=554–563 |doi=10.2307/2106873 |jstor=2106873 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chatfield |first1=Tom |title=Critical Thinking: Your Guide to Effective Argument, Successful Analysis and Independent Study |date=2017 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-5264-1877-7 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chua |first1=Eugene |title=Logic, Rationality, and Interaction |chapter=An Empirical Route to Logical 'Conventionalism' |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |date=2017 |volume=10455 |pages=631–636 |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-55665-8_43 |isbn=978-3-662-55664-1 |chapter-url=https://philpapers.org/rec/CHUAER }}
* {{cite book |last1=Clocksin |first1=William F. |last2=Mellish |first2=Christopher S. |title=Programming in Prolog: Using the ISO Standard |date=2003 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-55481-0 |pages=237–257 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 |language=en |chapter=The Relation of Prolog to Logic |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cook |first1=Roy T. |title=Dictionary of Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-3197-1 |language=en |page=124 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Copi |first1=Irving M. |author1-link=ارونگ ڪوپي |last2=Cohen |first2=Carl |last3=Rodych |first3=Victor |title=Introduction to Logic |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-38697-5 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Corkum |first1=Philip |title=Generality and Logical Constancy |journal=Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia |year=2015 |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=753–767 |doi=10.17990/rpf/2015_71_4_0753 |jstor=43744657 |issn=0870-5283 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Craig |first1=Edward |author-link=ايڊورڊ ڪريگ (فلسفي) |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=1996 |publisher=Routledge |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116111145/https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-07310-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cummings |first1=Louise |title=The Routledge Pragmatics Encyclopedia |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-21457-9 |page=1 |language=en |chapter=Abduction }}
* {{cite web |last1=Cunningham |first1=Daniel |title=Set Theory |url=https://iep.utm.edu/set-theo/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=23 September 2022 }}

* {{cite journal |last1=D'Agostino |first1=Marcello |last2=Floridi |first2=Luciano |title=The Enduring Scandal of Deduction: Is Propositional Logic Really Uninformative? |journal=Synthese |year=2009 |volume=167 |issue=2 |pages=271–315 |doi=10.1007/s11229-008-9409-4 |jstor=40271192 |hdl=2299/2995 |hdl-access=free |s2cid=9602882 |language=en |issn=0039-7857 }}
* {{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Computing |isbn=978-0-19-923400-4 |last1=Daintith |first1=John |last2=Wright |first2=Edmund |date=2008 |publisher=OUP }}
* {{cite book |last=van Dalen |first=Dirk |author-link=ڊرڪ وان ڊالن |year=1994 |title=Logic and Structure |publisher=Springer |at=Chapter 1.5 |isbn=978-0-387-57839-2 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dasti |first1=Matthew R. |title=Nyaya |url=https://iep.utm.edu/nyaya/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=12 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Dick |first1=Anthony S. |last2=Müller |first2=Ulrich |title=Advancing Developmental Science: Philosophy, Theory, and Method |date=2017 |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-1-351-70456-4 |page=157 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Douven |first1=Igor |author-link=ايگور ڊاووين |title=Abduction |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |year=2021 |access-date=24 August 2021 |archive-date=7 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907202119/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dowden |first1=Bradley |author-link=بريڊلي ڊائوڊن |title=Fallacies |url=https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=19 March 2021 |archive-date=29 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100429214410/https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |title=Pondering on Problems of Argumentation: Twenty Essays on Theoretical Issues |date=2009 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-9165-0 |page=191 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |last3=Krabbe |first3=Erik C. W. |last4=Snoeck Henkemans |first4=A. Francisca |last5=Verheij |first5=Bart |last6=Wagemans |first6=Jean H. M. |title=Handbook of Argumentation Theory |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-94-007-6883-3 |pages=1–45 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |language=en |chapter=Informal Logic |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231172324/https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |url-status=live |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGarssenKrabbeSnoeck_Henkemans }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Grootendorst |first2=Rob |last3=Johnson |first3=Ralph H. |last4=Plantin |first4=Christian |last5=Willard |first5=Charles A. |title=Fundamentals of Argumentation Theory: A Handbook of Historical Backgrounds and Contemporary Developments |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-68804-1 |page=169 |language=en |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGrootendorstJohnsonPlantin }}
* {{cite book |last1=Emmanuel |first1=Steven M. |title=A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy |date=2015 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-119-14466-3 |pages=320–322 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Enderton |first=Herbert |author-link=هربرٽ اينڊرٽن |year=2001 |title=A Mathematical Introduction to Logic |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-238452-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Engel |first1=S. Morris |title=With Good Reason an Introduction to Informal Fallacies |date=1982 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=1 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301065815/https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-312-08479-0 |publisher=St. Martin's Press }}
* {{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Jonathan St. B. T. |editor1-last=Morrison |editor1-first=Robert |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82417-0 |page=169 |language=en |chapter=8. Deductive Reasoning }}
* {{cite web |last1=Ewald |first1=William |title=The Emergence of First-Order Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-firstorder-emergence/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=12 March 2023 |date=2019 }}

* {{cite web |last1=Falguera |first1=José L. |last2=Martínez-Vidal |first2=Concha |last3=Rosen |first3=Gideon |title=Abstract Objects |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=7 January 2022 |year=2021 |archive-date=22 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122003334/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Falikowski |first1=Anthony |last2=Mills |first2=Susan |title=Experiencing Philosophy |edition=2nd |date=2022 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=978-1-77048-841-0 |page=98 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=Michael David |last2=Gabbay |first2=Dov M. |last3=Vila |first3=Lluis |title=Handbook of Temporal Reasoning in Artificial Intelligence |date=2005 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-053336-0 |page=119 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fitch |first1=G. W. |title=Saul Kripke |date=18 December 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-48917-7 |page=17 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Flotyński |first1=Jakub |title=Knowledge-Based Explorable Extended Reality Environments |date=7 December 2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-59965-2 |page=39 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Font |first1=Josep Maria |last2=Jansana |first2=Ramon |title=A General Algebraic Semantics for Sentential Logics |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-16797-1 |page=8 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Frede |first1=Michael |title=Aristotle |url=https://pages.mtu.edu/~pcharles/SCIHISTORY/aristotle.html |website=Michigan Technological University |access-date=1 November 2022 |archive-date=21 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921073920/https://pages.mtu.edu/~pcharles/SCIHISTORY/aristotle.html |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |last1=Friend |first1=Michele |title=Introducing Philosophy of Mathematics |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-49379-2 |page=101 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Gamut |first=L.T.F. |author-link=ايل. ٽي. ايف. گيمٽ |date=1991 |title=Logic, Language and Meaning Vol 1: Introduction to Logic |publisher=University of Chicago Press |at=5.5 |isbn=978-0-226-28085-1 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Garson |first1=James |title=Modal Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-modal/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2023 }}
* {{cite book |last=Gensler |first=Harry J. |date=2006 |title=The A to Z of Logic |pages=xliii–xliv |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-1-4617-3182-5 |language=en }}


[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>dh1msqnagayj55zwp8yed233pqwi3rb</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399242</id>
      <parentid>399241</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T15:38:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399242</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="142241" sha1="b9pgy0npqcsimvgqikvz9jm7p411tpw" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==تاريخ==
{{Main|منطق جي تاريخ}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=330
| image1= Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg
| alt1= ارسطو جو مجسمو
| image2= Avicenne - Avicenna - Ibn_Sina (980-1037) CIPB2067.jpg
| alt2= ابن سينا جو پورٽريٽ
| image3= Guillaume Occam.jpg
| alt3= وليم آف اوڪهم جو پورٽريٽ
| image4= Wismar Marienkirche Bronzebüste Gottlob Frege (01-1).JPG
| alt4= گوٽلوب فريگي جو مجسمو
| footer= مٿيون قطار: [[ارسطو]]، جنهن مغربي منطق جي بنيادي روايت قائم ڪئي؛{{sfn|Groarke}} ۽ [[ابن سينا]]، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ تي پنهنجو منطقي نظام متعارف ڪرايو.{{sfn|Lagerlund|2018}} هيٺيون قطار: [[وليم آف اوڪهم]]، وچئين دور جي علمي فڪر جي اهم شخصيت؛{{sfn|Spade|Panaccio|2019}} ۽ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]]، جديد علامتي منطق جي بانيَن مان هڪ.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900|3a=Klement|3y=1995a}}
}}

قديم دور ۾ منطق ڪيترين ئي تهذيبن ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان الڳ نموني ترقي ڪئي. شروعاتي اهم مفڪرن مان هڪ [[ارسطو]] هو، جنهن پنهنجي ڪتابن ''[[اورگينون]]'' ۽ ''[[پرائر اينالٽڪس]]'' ۾ '''اصطلاحي منطق''' (ٽرم لاجڪ) کي منظم صورت ڏني.{{sfnm|1a1=Kline|1y=1972|1loc=&quot;A major achievement of Aristotle was the founding of the science of logic&quot;, p. 53|2a1=Łukasiewicz|2y=1957|2p=7|3a1=Liu|3a2=Guo|3y=2023|3p=15}} هن [[شرطي قياس]] (ھيپوٿيٽيڪل سلاجزم){{sfn|Lear|1980|p=34}} ۽ [[زماني موڊل منطق]] (ٽيمپورل موڊل لاجڪ) جي به بنياد وڌي.{{sfnm|1a1=Knuuttila|1y=1980|1p=71|2a1=Fisher|2a2=Gabbay|2a3=Vila|2y=2005|2p=119}} ارسطو [[استقرائي منطق]] (انڊڪٽو لاجڪ){{sfn|Berman|2009|p=133}} ۽ نون منطقي تصورن، جهڙوڪ [[اصطلاح]]، [[محموليت]] (پريڊيڪبلز)، قياس ۽ تجويزن تي پڻ اهم بحث ڪيو. ارسطوي منطق کي قديم ۽ وچئين دور ۾، يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر ٻنهي ۾ وڏي اهميت حاصل رهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} ۽ اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي شروعات تائين اهو غالب منطقي نظام رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} اڄ جي دور ۾ جيتوڻيڪ ان جي جاءِ جديد منطق ورتي آهي، پر ان جا ڪيترائي بنيادي خيال اڃا به جديد منطقي نظامن ۾ موجود آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|loc=1. Introduction}}

[[ابن سينا]] (ايويسينا) ابن سيناوي منطق جو باني هو، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] جي ميدان ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ ورتي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hasse|1y=2008|2a1=Lagerlund|2y=2018}} سندس خيالن جو اثر [[البرٽس ميگنس]] ۽ [[وليم آف اوڪهم]] جهڙن يورپي مفڪرن تي به پيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Washell|1y=1973|1pp=445–450|2a1=Kneale|2a2=Kneale|2y=1962|2pp=229, 266}} ابن سينا شرطي قياس{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} ۽ [[تجويزي منطق]] (پروپوزيشنل ڪلڪيولس){{sfn|Goodman|1992|p=188}} تي اهم تحريرون لکيون. هن زماني ۽ امڪان کي گڏائيندڙ هڪ نئون قياسي نظريو تيار ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[زماني منطق]] ۽ [[موڊل منطق]] جا عنصر شامل هئا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Spade|loc=Arabic Logic}} هن استقرائي منطق جا به طريقا بيان ڪيا، جهڙوڪ موافقت، اختلاف ۽ گڏيل تبديلي جا طريقا، جيڪي [[سائنسي طريقو|سائنسي طريقي]] لاءِ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا.{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} [[فخر الدين رازي]] پڻ هڪ اثرائتو مسلمان منطق دان هو. هن ارسطوي قياس تي تنقيد ڪئي ۽ استقرائي منطق جو اهڙو ابتدائي نظام پيش ڪيو، جنهن بعد ۾ [[جان اسٽوارٽ مل]] جي استقرائي منطق جي اڳواٽ نشاندهي ڪئي.{{sfn|Iqbal|2013|pp=99–115|loc=The Spirit of Muslim Culture}}

وچئين دور ۾ ارسطو جي منطقي ڪتابن جا ڪيترائي ترجما ۽ تشريحون تيار ڪيون ويون. [[بوئٿيوس]] جا ڪم خاص طور تي گهڻو اثرائتا رهيا. هن نه رڳو ارسطو جي تصنيفن کي لاطيني ۾ ترجمو ڪيو، پر منطق بابت درسي ڪتاب پڻ لکيا.{{sfnm|1a1=Marenbon|1y=2021|1loc=Introduction; 3. The Logical Text-Books|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade}} بعد ۾ ابن سينا ۽ [[ابن رشد]] (ايوريس) جهڙن اسلامي فلسفين جي تحريرن مان پڻ فائدو ورتو ويو، جنهن سان وچئين دور جي عيسائي عالمن کي قديم يوناني فڪر تائين وڌيڪ رسائي ملي. سنه 1323ع ۾ وليم آف اوڪهم جو مشهور ڪتاب ''{{lang|la|[[Summa Logicae]]}}'' شايع ٿيو، جيڪو منطق جو جامع رسالو آهي ۽ جنهن ۾ منطقي تجويزن، انهن جي قسمن ۽ سندن صدق جي شرطن بابت منظم بحث ڪيو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|2a1=Hasse|2y=2008|3a1=Spade|3a2=Panaccio|3y=2019}}

چيني فلسفي ۾ [[نالن جو مذهب]] (اسڪول آف نيمز) ۽ [[موهزم]] (Mohism) خاص اهميت رکندا هئا. نالن جي مذهب ٻوليءَ جي استعمال ۽ منطقي تضادن تي ڌيان ڏنو. مثال طور [[گونگسن لانگ]] مشهور ''اڇي گهوڙي جو تضاد'' (وائيٽ ھارس پيراڊوڪس) پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ دليل ڏنو ويو ته &quot;اڇو گهوڙو، گهوڙو ناهي.&quot; موهزم پڻ منطق ۾ ٻوليءَ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪيو ۽ ان کي اخلاقيات سان ڳنڍڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Willman|1y=2022|2a1=Rošker|2y=2015|2pp=301–309}}

هندستان ۾ منطق جو مطالعو بنيادي طور [[نيايه]]، [[ٻڌ مت]] ۽ [[جين مت]] جي فڪري روايتن ۾ ٿيو. ان کي الڳ علمي شعبي طور نه، پر علمُ المعرفت، مناظري ۽ استدلال جي بحثن جي حصي طور سمجهيو ويندو هو.{{sfn|Sarukkai|Chakraborty|2022|pp=117–118}} نيايه فلسفي ۾ استدلال کي علم حاصل ڪرڻ جو هڪ ذريعو (''[[پرمان]]'') سمجهيو ويو، جيڪو مشاهدي کان پوءِ شين جي سببن بابت نتيجا ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو.{{sfnm|1a1=Dasti|1loc=Lead section; 1b. Inference|2a1=Mills|2y=2018|2p=121}} ٻڌ ۽ جين منطق ۾ به استدلال کي ٻين ذريعن مان حاصل ٿيل علم کي وڌائڻ جو وسيلو سمجهيو ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Emmanuel|1y=2015|1pp=320–322|2a1=Vidyabhusana|2y=1988|2p=221}} نيايه جي پوئين دور جي [[نويا نيايه]] روايت جا ڪيئي خيال جديد منطق سان ملندڙ جلندڙ آهن، جهڙوڪ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جو ''معنيٰ ۽ مرجع'' (سينس اينڊ ريفرنس) وارو فرق ۽ انگ جي تعريف.{{sfn|Chakrabarti|1976|pp=554–563}}

ارسطو جي قياسي منطق اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي وچ تائين غالب رهي، پر رياضيات جي بنيادن بابت وڌندڙ دلچسپي جديد علامتي منطق جي ترقي جو سبب بڻي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Haaparanta|2y=2009|2pp=3–5|2loc=1. Introduction}} گهڻا محقق [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جي ''[[بيگرفس شرفٽ]]'' (Begriffsschrift) کي جديد منطق جي شروعات سمجهن ٿا. [[گوٽفريڊ وِلهم لائبنٽس]] جي [[عالمي رسمي ٻولي]] (ڪئريڪٽرسٽڪا يونيورسلس) جو تصور ان جو اڳواٽ اشارو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. ٻين اهم اڳواڻن ۾ [[جارج بول]] شامل آهي، جنهن [[بولي الجبرا]] (بوليئن آلجبرا) کي منطقي رياضيائي نظام طور پيش ڪيو، ۽ [[چارلس سينڊرس پيرس]]، جنهن [[لاڳاپن جي منطق]] (لاجڪ آگ رليٽوز) کي ترقي ڏني. بعد ۾ [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] انهن خيالن کي پنهنجي مشهور ڪتاب '' پرنسپيا ميٿميٽيڪا'' ۾ منظم ڪيو.

جديد منطق نوان تصور متعارف ڪرايا، جهڙوڪ [[تابع]] (فنڪشن)، مقدارساز (ڪونٽيفائر) ۽ لاڳاپائي محمول (رليشنل پريڊيڪيٽس). جديد علامتي منطق جي نمايان خاصيت رسمي ٻوليءَ جو استعمال آهي، جنهن ذريعي منطقي اصولن کي نهايت درست نموني بيان ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان لحاظ کان اهو اڳين منطق دانن کان مختلف آهي، جيڪي بنيادي طور قدرتي ٻوليءَ تي ڀاڙيندا هئا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900}} خاص طور تي [[اول-درجي منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) جي ترقي جديد منطق ۾ بنيادي حيثيت اختيار ڪئي.{{sfn|Ewald|2019}} ان جي تجزياتي وسعت رياضيات کي رسمي صورت ڏيڻ، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] جي ترقي ۽ [[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) جي قيام لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪيو، ۽ اهو جديد [[رياضياتي منطق]] جو مرڪزي نظام بڻجي ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Schreiner|2y=2021|2p=22}}

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (ڪوانٽيفڪيشن) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}

==تحقيق جا شعبا==

منطق جو مطالعو مختلف علمي شعبن ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪيترن ئي حالتن ۾ ان جي رسمي طريقن کي انهن موضوعن تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي پاڻ منطق جي دائري کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[اخلاقيات]] يا [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Logic and other disciplines|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10}}

ٻين حالتن ۾ خود منطق ئي ڪنهن ٻئي علمي شعبي ۾ تحقيق جو موضوع بڻجي ٿي. اهو مختلف طريقن سان ٿي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، منطق جي بنيادي تصورن سان لاڳاپيل فلسفياتي مفروضن جو جائزو وٺڻ، منطقي نظامن کي رياضيائي بناوتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جو تجزيو ڪرڻ، يا رسمي منطقي نظامن جي تجريدي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ۽ ڀيٽ ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Features and problems of logic|2a1=Gödel|2y=1984|2pp=447–469|2loc=Russell's mathematical logic|3a1=Monk|3y=1976|3pp=1–9|3loc=Introduction}}

===منطق جو فلسفو ۽ فلسفياتي منطق===
{{Main|منطق جو فلسفو|فلسفياتي منطق}}

'''منطق جو فلسفو''' (فلاسافي آف لاجڪ) فلسفي جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطق جي دائري، ماهيت ۽ بنيادي نوعيت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} ان ۾ انهن ڪيترن ئي مفروضن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيڪي منطق ۾ ضمني طور قبول ڪيا ويندا آهن، جيئن ان جي بنيادي تصورن جي تعريف يا انهن سان لاڳاپيل [[مابعدالطبيعات|مابعدالطبيعي]] مفروضا.{{sfn|Jacquette|2006|loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|pp=1–12}}

هي شعبي منطقي نظامن جي درجابندي ۽ انهن سان وابسته [[وجوديات|وجودياتي]] وابستگين (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪمٽمينٽ) جو پڻ مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=§Problems of ontology}}

'''فلسفياتي منطق''' (فلاسافيڪل لاجڪ) منطق جي فلسفي جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطقي طريقن کي فلسفي جي مسئلن تي لاڳو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Burgess|2y=2009|2loc=1. Classical logic}}
اهو استعمال گهڻو ڪري [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي]] يا [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظامن]] جي صورت ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Goble|1y=2001|1loc=Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32}}

===مابعد منطق===
{{Main|مابعد منطق}}

'''مابعد منطق''' (ميٽالاجڪ) اهو علمي شعبو آهي، جيڪو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.

مثال طور، جڏهن ڪو نئون رسمي منطقي نظام تيار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ته مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو معلوم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته ان نظام ۾ ڪهڙا فارمولا ثابت ڪري سگهجن ٿا. اهي اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته ڇا اهڙو [[الگورٿم]] تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو هر فارمولي لاءِ ثبوت ڳولي سگهي، ۽ ڇا ان نظام ۾ هر قابلِ ثبوت فارمولو لازمي طور [[منطقي صداقت]] (Tautology) آهي.

اهي مختلف منطقي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ تقابلي مطالعو پڻ ڪندا آهن ته جيئن انهن جون منفرد خاصيتون واضح ٿي سگهن.

مابعد منطق جو هڪ بنيادي موضوع [[نحو]] (سنٽيڪس) ۽ [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) جي وچ ۾ تعلق آهي. رسمي منطقي نظام جا نحوي ضابطا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدمات مان نتيجا ڪيئن اخذ ڪيا وڃن، يعني ثبوت ڪيئن ترتيب ڏنا وڃن. جڏهن⁠ته معنيات اهو طئي ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙا جملا سچا آهن ۽ ڪهڙا ڪوڙا. انهيءَ بنياد تي دليل جي صحت جو تعين ڪيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صحيح دليل ۾ اهو ناممڪن هوندو آهي ته مقدمات سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو هجي.

نحو ۽ معنيات جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي بابت اهم سوالن ۾ اهو شامل آهي ته ڇا هر صحيح دليل قابلِ ثبوت آهي، ۽ ڇا هر قابلِ ثبوت دليل لازمي طور صحيح به هوندو آهي.

مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته منطقي نظام [[مڪمليت]] (ڪمپليٽنيس)، [[صحت (منطق)|صحت]] (سائونڊنيس) ۽ [[هم آهنگي (منطق)|هم آهنگي]] (ڪنسسٽنسي) جون خاصيتون رکن ٿا يا نه. ان کان علاوه، اهي اهو به ڏسندا آهن ته اهي نظام [[فيصلي پذيري]] (ڊسائيڊبلٽي) رکن ٿا يا نه، ۽ انهن جي [[اظهاري قوت]] ڪيتري آهي.

انهن موضوعن جي تحقيق دوران مابعد منطق گهڻو ڪري تجريدي رياضيائي استدلال تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جنهن جو مقصد انهن مسئلن بابت صحيح، عام ۽ جامع نتيجا حاصل ڪرڻ هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1pp=xliii–xliv|2a1=Sider|2y=2010|2pp=4–6|3a1=Schagrin}}

===رياضيائي منطق===
{{Main|رياضيائي منطق}}

[[File:Russell1907-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=برٽرينڊ رسل جو تصوير|[[برٽرينڊ رسل]] رياضيائي منطق جي ترقي ۾ ڪيترائي اهم علمي حصا ورتا.{{sfn|Irvine|2022}}]]

اصطلاح '''رياضيائي منطق''' (ميٿميٽيڪل لاجڪ) ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[رسمي منطق]] جي مترادف طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر وڌيڪ محدود معنيٰ ۾ اهو رياضيات جي اندر منطق جي مطالعي ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. ان جون اهم شاخون [[ماڊل نظريو]]، [[ثبوت جو نظريو]]، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) ۽ [[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Li|1y=2010|1p=ix|2a1=Rautenberg|2y=2010|2p=15|3a1=Quine|3y=1981|3p=1|4a1=Stolyar|4y=1984|4p=2}}

رياضيائي منطق جي تحقيق جو وڏو حصو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي رياضيائي خاصيتن جي مطالعي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. ان سان گڏ اهو پڻ ڏٺو ويندو آهي ته منطق کي رياضيائي استدلال جي تجزيي يا [[رياضيات جا بنياد|رياضيات جي منطقي بنيادن]] جي قيام لاءِ ڪيئن استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfn|Stolyar|1984|pp=3–6}}

ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ رياضيائي منطق جو هڪ اهم مقصد [[منطق پرستي]] (لاجڪئزم) واري پروگرام کي اڳتي وڌائڻ هو، جنهن جي شروعات [[گاٽلوب فريگي]]، [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] جهڙن فلسفي-منطق دانن ڪئي هئي. هن پروگرام موجب سڀئي رياضيائي نظريا اصل ۾ منطقي [[منطقي صداقت|صداقتون]] (Tautologies) آهن، ۽ ان کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ رياضيات کي منطق تائين محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي. پر هن پروگرام کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جون گهڻيون ڪوششون ناڪام ويون. مثال طور، فريگي جو منصوبو سندس ڪتاب '' گرُنڊگيزيٽسي:Grundgesetze'' (بنيادي قانون) ۾ [[رسل جو تضاد|رسل جي تضاد]] سبب متاثر ٿيو، جڏهن⁠ته [[هلبرٽ جو پروگرام]] [[گوڊل جا نامڪمليت جا نظريا|گوڊل جي نامڪمليت جي نظرين]] سبب ناڪام ثابت ٿيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|1loc=Gödel's incompleteness theorems|2a1=Linsky|2y=2011|2p=4|3a1=Richardson|3y=1998|3p=15}}

[[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) جي شروعات [[جارج ڪينٽر]] لامحدوديت جي مطالعي دوران ڪئي. هي شعبي رياضيائي منطق جي ڪيترن ئي اهم ۽ پيچيده مسئلن جو سرچشمو بڻيو، جن ۾ [[ڪينٽر جو نظريو]]، [[اختيار جو اصول]] (اگزيوم آف چوائس)، [[مسلسل مفروضي]] (ڪنٽينيوئم ھيپوٿيسز) جي آزاديءَ جو سوال، ۽ [[وڏي ڪارڊينل]] (لارج ڪارڊينل) اصولن بابت جديد بحث شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Bagaria|1y=2021|2a1=Cunningham}}

[[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) رياضيائي منطق جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا حسابي مسئلن کي حل ڪرڻ لاءِ مؤثر طريقن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان جو هڪ بنيادي مقصد اهو معلوم ڪرڻ آهي ته ڪنهن خاص مسئلي کي [[الگورٿم]] ذريعي حل ڪرڻ ممڪن آهي يا نه. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صحيح عددن بابت ڪو خاص دعويٰ ڏني وڃي، ته هي شعبي اهو جاچيندو آهي ته ڇا اهڙو الگورٿم تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو اهو طئي ڪري سگهي ته اها دعويٰ صحيح آهي يا غلط. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ [[ٽيورنگ مشين]] (Turing machine) سميت مختلف نظرياتي ماڊلن ۽ اوزارن کي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006a|1loc=Computability Theory|2a1=Leary|2a2=Kristiansen|2y=2015|2p=195}}

===حسابياتي منطق===
{{Main|حسابياتي منطق|ڪمپيوٽر سائنس ۾ منطق}}

[[File:TransistorANDgate.png|thumb|ٽرانزسٽرن جي مدد سان تيار ڪيل هڪ AND گيٽ جو خاڪو. [[منطقي عطف]] (AND) [[بولين منطق]] جي بنيادي عملن مان هڪ آهي، جنهن کي برقي طور مختلف طريقن سان، مثال طور ٻن [[ٽرانزسٽر]]ن ذريعي، عمل ۾ آڻي سگهجي ٿو.]]

'''حسابياتي منطق''' (ڪمپيوٽيشنل لاجڪ) منطق ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ڪمپيوٽرن جي ذريعي رياضيائي استدلال ۽ رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عملي صورت ڏيڻ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان ۾، مثال طور، [[خودڪار نظريي ثابت ڪندڙ]] (آٽوميٽڪ ٿيورم پروور) شامل آهن، جيڪي [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] استعمال ڪندي، بغير انساني مداخلت جي، مقدمات مان گهربل نتيجي تائين مرحليوار ثبوت تيار ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Paulson|1y=2018|1pp=1–14|2a1=Castaño|2y=2018|2p=2|3a1=Wile|3a2=Goss|3a3=Roesner|3y=2005|3p=447}}

[[منطقي پروگرامنگ]] (لاجڪ پروگرامنگ) جون ٻوليون خاص طور اهڙي نموني تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن، جو حقيقتن کي منطقي فارمولن جي صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ۽ انهن مان استدلال ذريعي نوان نتيجا اخذ ڪري سگهجن. مثال طور، [[پرولاگ]] (Prolog) محمولي منطق تي ٻڌل هڪ منطقي پروگرامنگ ٻولي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Clocksin|1a2=Mellish|1y=2003|1pp=237–238, 252–255, 257|1loc=The Relation of Prolog to Logic|2a1=Daintith|2a2=Wright|2y=2008|2loc=Logic Programming Languages}}

ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽنگ سان لاڳاپيل مسئلن جي حل لاءِ پڻ منطقي تصورن کي استعمال ڪندا آهن. هن ميدان ۾ [[ڪلاڊ شينن]] جو ڪم انتهائي اثرائتو رهيو، جنهن ڏيکاريو ته [[بولين منطق]] کي ڪمپيوٽرن جي برقي سرڪٽن کي سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=O'Regan|1y=2016|1p=49|2a1=Calderbank|2a2=Sloane|2y=2001|2p=768}}

اهو ڪم [[منطقي دروازو|منطقي دروازن]] (لاجڪ گيٽ) ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي اهڙا برقي سرڪٽ هوندا آهن، جن ۾ هڪ يا وڌيڪ ان پُٽ ۽ عام طور هڪ آئوٽ پُٽ هوندو آهي. انهن ۾ منطقي قضين جي صداقت جا قدر برقي وولٽيج جي سطحن جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهڙيءَ طرح، سرڪٽ جي ان پُٽن تي مناسب وولٽيج لاڳو ڪري ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ جي وولٽيج کي ماپي، مختلف منطقي عملن جي نقل (سميوليشن) ڪئي ويندي آهي.{{sfn|Daintith|Wright|2008|loc=Logic Gate}}

===قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات===
{{Main|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات}}

'''قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) منطق، [[لسانيات]] ۽ [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]] جي گڏيل ذيلي شاخ آهي. [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) ٻوليءَ جي معنائن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته رسمي معنيات علامتي منطق ۽ رياضيات جا رسمي اوزار استعمال ڪندي [[قدرتي ٻولي]] جي اظهارَن جي معنائن بابت درست ۽ منظم نظريا پيش ڪري ٿي.

رسمي معنيات عام طور معنٰي کي [[صدق جون شرطون]] (ٽرٿ ڪنڊيشنر) سان وابسته ڪري سمجهي ٿي؛ يعني اها جاچ ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙين حالتن ۾ ڪو جملو سچو يا ڪوڙو ٿيندو. هن شعبي جي بنيادي اصولن مان هڪ [[ترڪيبي اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) آهي، جنهن موجب ڪنهن پيچيده اظهار جي معنٰي ان جي جزن جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي پاڻ ۾ ڳانڍاپي جي طريقي سان طئي ٿيندي آهي. مثال طور، فعل واري فقري &quot;هلڻ ۽ ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنٰي انفرادي اظهارَن &quot;هلڻ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.

رسمي معنيات جا ڪيترائي نظريا [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. ان جو مطلب آهي ته اهي [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) استعمال ڪري هڪ نمونو (ماڊل) تيار ڪندا آهن ۽ پوءِ ان نموني جي عنصرن جي حوالي سان ٻوليءَ جي اظهارَن جي معنائن جي تشريح ڪندا آهن. مثال طور، اصطلاح &quot;هلڻ&quot; کي نموني ۾ موجود انهن سڀني فردن جي مجموعي طور سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي هلڻ جي خاصيت رکن ٿا.

هن شعبي جا شروعاتي ۽ اثرائتا مفڪر [[رچرڊ مونٽيگ]] ۽ [[باربرا پارٽي]] هئا، جن پنهنجي تجزين جو بنيادي مرڪز انگريزي ٻوليءَ کي بڻايو.{{sfnm|1a1=Janssen|1a2=Zimmermann|1y=2021|1pp=3–4|2a1=Partee|2y=2016|3a1=King|3y=2009|3pp=557–558|4a1=Aloni|4a2=Dekker|4y=2016|4pp=22–23}}

===منطق جي علمُ المعرفت===
{{Main|منطق جي علمُ المعرفت}}

'''منطق جو علمُ المعرفت''' (ايپسٽيمولاجي آف لاجڪ) هن ڳالهه جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو ته انسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوي ٿي ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا ڪا تجويز منطقي طور سچي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Schechter}} هن ۾ اهڙا سوال شامل آهن، جيئن: {{lang|la|modus ponens}} استدلال جو صحيح قاعدو ڇو آهي؟ يا تضاد هميشه ڪوڙا ڇو سمجهيا وڃن ٿا؟{{sfn|Warren|2020|loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic}}

روايتي طور تي غالب نظريو اهو رهيو آهي ته اهڙي قسم جي منطقي ڄاڻ [[قبلي علم]] (''a priori'') سان واسطو رکي ٿي.{{sfn|Schechter}} هن نظرئي موجب، اڪثر اهو دليل ڏنو ويندو آهي ته [[ذهن]] وٽ هڪ خاص صلاحيت هوندي آهي، جيڪا خالص خيالن جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي پرکڻ جي قابل هوندي آهي، ۽ اها ئي صلاحيت منطقي سچائين کي سمجهڻ جو ذريعو پڻ آهي.{{sfn|Gómez-Torrente|2019}}

هڪ ٻيو ويجهو نظريو منطق جي قاعدن کي [[اصطلاحيت]] (ڪنوينشنلزم) يا لساني روايتن جي بنياد تي سمجهي ٿو. هن راءِ موجب، منطق جا قانون تعريف جي لحاظ کان سچا آهن، تنهنڪري اهي بنيادي طور غيرتڪراري آهن؛ اهي رڳو منطقي اصطلاحن جي معنائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Gómez-Torrente|2y=2019|3a1=Warren|3y=2020|3loc=1. What is Conventionalism}}

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[هلري پٽنم]] ۽ [[پينيلوپي ميڊي]]، هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪن ٿا ته منطق کي مڪمل طور قبلي علم ذريعي ڄاڻي سگهجي ٿو. انهن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي سچايون [[تجربي تي ٻڌل علم]] (امپريڪل نالج) سان به لاڳاپيل آهن. هن راءِ کي عام طور ان دعويٰ سان گڏ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي ته منطق جا قانون دنيا جي بناوت ۾ موجود عام ۽ آفاقي قاعدن جو اظهار ڪن ٿا. ان مطابق، انهن قاعدن کي [[بنيادي سائنسون|بنيادي سائنسن]] ۾ موجود عام نمونن ۽ اصولن جي مطالعي ذريعي به سمجهي سگهجي ٿو.

مثال طور، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم ميڪانيات]] جون ڪجهه دريافتون روايتي منطق جي [[ورڇ جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڊسٽريبيوٽوٽي) کي چئلينج ڪن ٿيون، جنهن موجب فارمولو &lt;math&gt;A \land (B \lor C)&lt;/math&gt; هم معنيٰ آهي &lt;math&gt;(A \land B) \lor (A \land C)&lt;/math&gt; سان. هن دعويٰ کي ان ڳالهه جي تجربي تي ٻڌل دليل طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم منطق]] روايتي منطق کان وڌيڪ مناسب منطقي نظام آهي، ۽ ان کي روايتي منطق جي جاءِ وٺڻ گهرجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Chua|1y=2017|1pp=631–636|2a1=Wilce|2y=2021|3a1=Putnam|3y=1969|3pp=216–241}}


* جملاتي منطق


==پڻ ڏسو==
{{Portal|فلسفو}}
{{Columns list|
* {{annotated link|منطق جي اصطلاحن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جو خاڪو}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جي تحقيقي رسالن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي نشانين جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق دانن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي ڳجهارت}}
* {{annotated link|لوگوس}}
* {{annotated link|ویکٽر منطق}}
}}

==حوالا==

===وضاحتي نوٽ===
{{notelist}}
&lt;references group=&quot;lower-alpha&quot;/&gt;
===حوالا===
{{reflist|1=30em}}

===ڪتابيات===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Aloni |first1=Maria |author1-link=ماريا الوني |last2=Dekker |first2=Paul |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics |date=7 July 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-55273-5 |pages=22–23 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Angell |first1=Richard B. |title=Reasoning and Logic |date=1964 |publisher=Ardent Media |page=164 |language=en |oclc=375322 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Informal logic |year=1999a |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |page=435 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Philosophy of logic |year=1999b |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |pages=679–681 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Backmann |first1=Marius |title=Varieties of Justification—How (Not) to Solve the Problem of Induction |journal=Acta Analytica |date=1 June 2019 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=235–255 |doi=10.1007/s12136-018-0371-6 |s2cid=125767384 |language=en |issn=1874-6349 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bagaria |first1=Joan |author-link=جوان باگاريا |title=Set Theory |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/set-theory/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=23 September 2022 |year=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Jonathan |title=Truth, etc.: Six Lectures on Ancient Logic |date=25 January 2007 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-151574-3 |page=274 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Benthem |first1=Johan van |title=Modal Logic: Contemporary View: 1. Modal Notions and Reasoning Patterns: a First Pass |url=https://iep.utm.edu/modal-lo/#H1 |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=11 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berlemann |first1=Lars |last2=Mangold |first2=Stefan |title=Cognitive Radio and Dynamic Spectrum Access |date=10 July 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-0-470-75443-6 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berman |first1=Harold J. |title=Law and Revolution, the Formation of the Western Legal Tradition |date=1 July 2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02085-6 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bimbó |first1=Katalin |author-link=ڪيٽلن بمبو |title=J. Michael Dunn on Information Based Logics |date=2 April 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-29300-4 |pages=8–9 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=1 January 2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |language=en |chapter=argument |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194756/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=24 March 2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |language=en |chapter=rule of inference |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194809/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=The Current State of Informal Logic |journal=Informal Logic |year=1987 |volume=9 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v9i2.2671 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230194638/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |url-status=live |pages=147–151 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=Informal Logic: An Overview |journal=Informal Logic |year=2000 |volume=20 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v20i2.2262 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209195317/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |url-status=live |pages=93–107 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |title=Groundwork in the Theory of Argumentation: Selected Papers of J. Anthony Blair |date=20 October 2011 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-007-2363-4 |page=47 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bobzien |first1=Susanne |author-link=سوزاني بوبزين |title=Ancient Logic: 2. Aristotle |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=3 January 2022 |year=2020 |archive-date=28 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828102117/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Borchert |editor1-first=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 2 |edition=2nd |date=2006a |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |isbn=978-0-02-865782-0 |chapter=Computability Theory |pages=372–390 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 4 |edition=2nd |date=2006b |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Induction |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865784-4 |pages=635–648 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 5 |edition=2nd |date=2006c |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Logic, Non-Classical |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865785-1 |pages=485–492 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bridges |first1=Douglas |last2=Ishihara |first2=Hajime |last3=Rathjen |first3=Michael |last4=Schwichtenberg |first4=Helmut |title=Handbook of Constructive Mathematics |date=30 April 2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-51086-5 |pages=73–74 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Brody |first=Boruch A. |title=Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=2006 |publisher=Thomson Gale/Macmillan Reference US |others=Donald M. Borchert |isbn=978-0-02-865780-6 |edition=2nd |volume=5 |pages=535–536 |oclc=61151356 |quote=The two most important types of logical calculi are propositional (or sentential) calculi and functional (or predicate) calculi. A propositional calculus is a system containing propositional variables and connectives (some also contain propositional constants) but not individual or functional variables or constants. In the extended propositional calculus, quantifiers whose operator variables are propositional variables are added. }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bunnin |first1=Nicholas |last2=Yu |first2=Jiyuan |title=The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy |date=27 January 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9112-8 |page=179 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Burgess |first1=John P. |author-link=جان پي. برجس |title=Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |chapter=1. Classical logic |pages=1–12 |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216143954/https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-691-15633-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bäck |first1=Allan T. |title=Aristotle's Theory of Predication |date=2016 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-32109-0 |page=317 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Calderbank |first1=Robert |last2=Sloane |first2=Neil J. A. |title=Claude Shannon (1916–2001) |journal=Nature |date=April 2001 |volume=410 |issue=6830 |page=768 |doi=10.1038/35071223 |pmid=11298432 |s2cid=4402158 |language=en |issn=1476-4687 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Carnielli |first1=Walter |last2=Pizzi |first2=Claudio |title=Modalities and Multimodalities |date=2008 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-8590-1 |page=3 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Castaño |first1=Arnaldo Pérez |title=Practical Artificial Intelligence: Machine Learning, Bots, and Agent Solutions Using C# |date=23 May 2018 |publisher=Apress |isbn=978-1-4842-3357-3 |page=2 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Chakrabarti |first1=Kisor Kumar |title=Some Comparisons Between Frege's Logic and Navya-Nyaya Logic |journal=Philosophy and Phenomenological Research |date=June 1976 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=554–563 |doi=10.2307/2106873 |jstor=2106873 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chatfield |first1=Tom |title=Critical Thinking: Your Guide to Effective Argument, Successful Analysis and Independent Study |date=2017 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-5264-1877-7 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chua |first1=Eugene |title=Logic, Rationality, and Interaction |chapter=An Empirical Route to Logical 'Conventionalism' |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |date=2017 |volume=10455 |pages=631–636 |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-55665-8_43 |isbn=978-3-662-55664-1 |chapter-url=https://philpapers.org/rec/CHUAER }}
* {{cite book |last1=Clocksin |first1=William F. |last2=Mellish |first2=Christopher S. |title=Programming in Prolog: Using the ISO Standard |date=2003 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-55481-0 |pages=237–257 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 |language=en |chapter=The Relation of Prolog to Logic |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cook |first1=Roy T. |title=Dictionary of Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-3197-1 |language=en |page=124 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Copi |first1=Irving M. |author1-link=ارونگ ڪوپي |last2=Cohen |first2=Carl |last3=Rodych |first3=Victor |title=Introduction to Logic |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-38697-5 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Corkum |first1=Philip |title=Generality and Logical Constancy |journal=Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia |year=2015 |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=753–767 |doi=10.17990/rpf/2015_71_4_0753 |jstor=43744657 |issn=0870-5283 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Craig |first1=Edward |author-link=ايڊورڊ ڪريگ (فلسفي) |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=1996 |publisher=Routledge |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116111145/https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-07310-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cummings |first1=Louise |title=The Routledge Pragmatics Encyclopedia |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-21457-9 |page=1 |language=en |chapter=Abduction }}
* {{cite web |last1=Cunningham |first1=Daniel |title=Set Theory |url=https://iep.utm.edu/set-theo/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=23 September 2022 }}

* {{cite journal |last1=D'Agostino |first1=Marcello |last2=Floridi |first2=Luciano |title=The Enduring Scandal of Deduction: Is Propositional Logic Really Uninformative? |journal=Synthese |year=2009 |volume=167 |issue=2 |pages=271–315 |doi=10.1007/s11229-008-9409-4 |jstor=40271192 |hdl=2299/2995 |hdl-access=free |s2cid=9602882 |language=en |issn=0039-7857 }}
* {{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Computing |isbn=978-0-19-923400-4 |last1=Daintith |first1=John |last2=Wright |first2=Edmund |date=2008 |publisher=OUP }}
* {{cite book |last=van Dalen |first=Dirk |author-link=ڊرڪ وان ڊالن |year=1994 |title=Logic and Structure |publisher=Springer |at=Chapter 1.5 |isbn=978-0-387-57839-2 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dasti |first1=Matthew R. |title=Nyaya |url=https://iep.utm.edu/nyaya/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=12 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Dick |first1=Anthony S. |last2=Müller |first2=Ulrich |title=Advancing Developmental Science: Philosophy, Theory, and Method |date=2017 |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-1-351-70456-4 |page=157 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Douven |first1=Igor |author-link=ايگور ڊاووين |title=Abduction |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |year=2021 |access-date=24 August 2021 |archive-date=7 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907202119/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dowden |first1=Bradley |author-link=بريڊلي ڊائوڊن |title=Fallacies |url=https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=19 March 2021 |archive-date=29 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100429214410/https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |title=Pondering on Problems of Argumentation: Twenty Essays on Theoretical Issues |date=2009 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-9165-0 |page=191 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |last3=Krabbe |first3=Erik C. W. |last4=Snoeck Henkemans |first4=A. Francisca |last5=Verheij |first5=Bart |last6=Wagemans |first6=Jean H. M. |title=Handbook of Argumentation Theory |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-94-007-6883-3 |pages=1–45 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |language=en |chapter=Informal Logic |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231172324/https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |url-status=live |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGarssenKrabbeSnoeck_Henkemans }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Grootendorst |first2=Rob |last3=Johnson |first3=Ralph H. |last4=Plantin |first4=Christian |last5=Willard |first5=Charles A. |title=Fundamentals of Argumentation Theory: A Handbook of Historical Backgrounds and Contemporary Developments |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-68804-1 |page=169 |language=en |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGrootendorstJohnsonPlantin }}
* {{cite book |last1=Emmanuel |first1=Steven M. |title=A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy |date=2015 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-119-14466-3 |pages=320–322 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Enderton |first=Herbert |author-link=هربرٽ اينڊرٽن |year=2001 |title=A Mathematical Introduction to Logic |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-238452-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Engel |first1=S. Morris |title=With Good Reason an Introduction to Informal Fallacies |date=1982 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=1 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301065815/https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-312-08479-0 |publisher=St. Martin's Press }}
* {{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Jonathan St. B. T. |editor1-last=Morrison |editor1-first=Robert |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82417-0 |page=169 |language=en |chapter=8. Deductive Reasoning }}
* {{cite web |last1=Ewald |first1=William |title=The Emergence of First-Order Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-firstorder-emergence/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=12 March 2023 |date=2019 }}

* {{cite web |last1=Falguera |first1=José L. |last2=Martínez-Vidal |first2=Concha |last3=Rosen |first3=Gideon |title=Abstract Objects |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=7 January 2022 |year=2021 |archive-date=22 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122003334/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Falikowski |first1=Anthony |last2=Mills |first2=Susan |title=Experiencing Philosophy |edition=2nd |date=2022 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=978-1-77048-841-0 |page=98 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=Michael David |last2=Gabbay |first2=Dov M. |last3=Vila |first3=Lluis |title=Handbook of Temporal Reasoning in Artificial Intelligence |date=2005 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-053336-0 |page=119 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fitch |first1=G. W. |title=Saul Kripke |date=18 December 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-48917-7 |page=17 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Flotyński |first1=Jakub |title=Knowledge-Based Explorable Extended Reality Environments |date=7 December 2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-59965-2 |page=39 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Font |first1=Josep Maria |last2=Jansana |first2=Ramon |title=A General Algebraic Semantics for Sentential Logics |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-16797-1 |page=8 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Frede |first1=Michael |title=Aristotle |url=https://pages.mtu.edu/~pcharles/SCIHISTORY/aristotle.html |website=Michigan Technological University |access-date=1 November 2022 |archive-date=21 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921073920/https://pages.mtu.edu/~pcharles/SCIHISTORY/aristotle.html |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |last1=Friend |first1=Michele |title=Introducing Philosophy of Mathematics |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-49379-2 |page=101 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Gamut |first=L.T.F. |author-link=ايل. ٽي. ايف. گيمٽ |date=1991 |title=Logic, Language and Meaning Vol 1: Introduction to Logic |publisher=University of Chicago Press |at=5.5 |isbn=978-0-226-28085-1 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Garson |first1=James |title=Modal Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-modal/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2023 }}
* {{cite book |last=Gensler |first=Harry J. |date=2006 |title=The A to Z of Logic |pages=xliii–xliv |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-1-4617-3182-5 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goble |first1=Lou |title=The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic |date=2001 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/GOBTBG-2 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184959/https://philpapers.org/rec/GOBTBG-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-631-20692-7 |pages=1–8 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goodman |first1=Lenn Evan |title=Avicenna |date=1992 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-01929-3 |page=188 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goodman |first1=Lenn Evan |title=Islamic Humanism |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513580-0 |page=155 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Groarke |first1=Louis F. |title=Aristotle: Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=1 January 2022 |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229235433/https://iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Groarke |first1=Leo |title=Informal Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=31 December 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112030519/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Gómez-Torrente |first1=Mario |title=Logical Truth |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-truth/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=22 November 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=2 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002190110/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-truth/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gödel |first1=Kurt |author1-link=Kurt Gödel |editor1-last=Benacerraf |editor1-first=Paul |editor2-last=Putnam |editor2-first=Hilary |title=Philosophy of Mathematics: Selected Readings |date=1984 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29648-9 |pages=447–469 |edition=2nd |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/philosophy-of-mathematics/russells-mathematical-logic/4D82F215FABFE06149D03EF1EF5BE7E4 |chapter=Russell's mathematical logic |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111091740/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/philosophy-of-mathematics/russells-mathematical-logic/4D82F215FABFE06149D03EF1EF5BE7E4 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hájek |first1=Petr |title=Fuzzy Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/Archives/Win2012/entries/logic-fuzzy/ |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |language=en |date=3 September 2006 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hájek |first1=Alan |last2=Lin |first2=Hanti |title=A Tale of Two Epistemologies? |journal=Res Philosophica |year=2017 |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=207–232 |doi=10.11612/resphil.1540 |s2cid=160029122 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HJEATO |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104182746/https://philpapers.org/rec/HJEATO |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Cordelia |last2=O'Donnell |first2=John |title=Discrete Mathematics Using a Computer |date=2000 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-85233-089-7 |page=48 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Houde |first1=R. |last2=Camacho |first2=L. |title=New Catholic Encyclopedia |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/electrical-engineering/induction |chapter=Induction |year=2003 |publisher=Thomson/Gale |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171720/https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/electrical-engineering/induction |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-7876-4004-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Deviant Logic: Some Philosophical Issues |date=1974 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-20500-9 |page=51 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Philosophy of Logics |date=1978 |publisher=London and New York: Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HAAPOL-2 |chapter=1. 'Philosophy of logics' |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207200551/https://philpapers.org/rec/HAAPOL-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-521-29329-7 |pages=1–10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Deviant Logic, Fuzzy Logic: Beyond the Formalism |date=1996 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31133-3 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haaparanta |first1=Leila |author1-link=Leila Haaparanta |title=The Development of Modern Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513731-6 |pages=4–6 |chapter=1. Introduction }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hansen |first1=Hans |title=Fallacies |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fallacies/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=18 March 2021 |year=2020 |archive-date=29 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329182946/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fallacies/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hartmann |first1=Stephan |last2=Sprenger |first2=Jan |title=The Routledge Companion to Epistemology |date=2010 |publisher=London: Routledge |pages=609–620 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO |chapter=Bayesian Epistemology |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516095047/https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-96219-3 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hasse |first1=Dag Nikolaus |title=Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-influence/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |date=2008 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hawthorne |first1=James |title=Inductive Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-inductive/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=6 January 2022 |year=2021 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121081805/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-inductive/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Philosophy of logic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-logic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=21 November 2021 |language=en |archive-date=28 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428101732/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/346240/philosophy-of-logic |url-status=live |date=2019 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Logical systems |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic/Logical-systems |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=4 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184656/https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic/Logical-systems |url-status=live |date=2023 }}


[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>b9pgy0npqcsimvgqikvz9jm7p411tpw</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399243</id>
      <parentid>399242</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T15:39:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399243</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="154261" sha1="45f3hey2b06mlaxaegbl7janyi8mvfw" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==تاريخ==
{{Main|منطق جي تاريخ}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=330
| image1= Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg
| alt1= ارسطو جو مجسمو
| image2= Avicenne - Avicenna - Ibn_Sina (980-1037) CIPB2067.jpg
| alt2= ابن سينا جو پورٽريٽ
| image3= Guillaume Occam.jpg
| alt3= وليم آف اوڪهم جو پورٽريٽ
| image4= Wismar Marienkirche Bronzebüste Gottlob Frege (01-1).JPG
| alt4= گوٽلوب فريگي جو مجسمو
| footer= مٿيون قطار: [[ارسطو]]، جنهن مغربي منطق جي بنيادي روايت قائم ڪئي؛{{sfn|Groarke}} ۽ [[ابن سينا]]، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ تي پنهنجو منطقي نظام متعارف ڪرايو.{{sfn|Lagerlund|2018}} هيٺيون قطار: [[وليم آف اوڪهم]]، وچئين دور جي علمي فڪر جي اهم شخصيت؛{{sfn|Spade|Panaccio|2019}} ۽ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]]، جديد علامتي منطق جي بانيَن مان هڪ.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900|3a=Klement|3y=1995a}}
}}

قديم دور ۾ منطق ڪيترين ئي تهذيبن ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان الڳ نموني ترقي ڪئي. شروعاتي اهم مفڪرن مان هڪ [[ارسطو]] هو، جنهن پنهنجي ڪتابن ''[[اورگينون]]'' ۽ ''[[پرائر اينالٽڪس]]'' ۾ '''اصطلاحي منطق''' (ٽرم لاجڪ) کي منظم صورت ڏني.{{sfnm|1a1=Kline|1y=1972|1loc=&quot;A major achievement of Aristotle was the founding of the science of logic&quot;, p. 53|2a1=Łukasiewicz|2y=1957|2p=7|3a1=Liu|3a2=Guo|3y=2023|3p=15}} هن [[شرطي قياس]] (ھيپوٿيٽيڪل سلاجزم){{sfn|Lear|1980|p=34}} ۽ [[زماني موڊل منطق]] (ٽيمپورل موڊل لاجڪ) جي به بنياد وڌي.{{sfnm|1a1=Knuuttila|1y=1980|1p=71|2a1=Fisher|2a2=Gabbay|2a3=Vila|2y=2005|2p=119}} ارسطو [[استقرائي منطق]] (انڊڪٽو لاجڪ){{sfn|Berman|2009|p=133}} ۽ نون منطقي تصورن، جهڙوڪ [[اصطلاح]]، [[محموليت]] (پريڊيڪبلز)، قياس ۽ تجويزن تي پڻ اهم بحث ڪيو. ارسطوي منطق کي قديم ۽ وچئين دور ۾، يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر ٻنهي ۾ وڏي اهميت حاصل رهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} ۽ اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي شروعات تائين اهو غالب منطقي نظام رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} اڄ جي دور ۾ جيتوڻيڪ ان جي جاءِ جديد منطق ورتي آهي، پر ان جا ڪيترائي بنيادي خيال اڃا به جديد منطقي نظامن ۾ موجود آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|loc=1. Introduction}}

[[ابن سينا]] (ايويسينا) ابن سيناوي منطق جو باني هو، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] جي ميدان ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ ورتي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hasse|1y=2008|2a1=Lagerlund|2y=2018}} سندس خيالن جو اثر [[البرٽس ميگنس]] ۽ [[وليم آف اوڪهم]] جهڙن يورپي مفڪرن تي به پيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Washell|1y=1973|1pp=445–450|2a1=Kneale|2a2=Kneale|2y=1962|2pp=229, 266}} ابن سينا شرطي قياس{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} ۽ [[تجويزي منطق]] (پروپوزيشنل ڪلڪيولس){{sfn|Goodman|1992|p=188}} تي اهم تحريرون لکيون. هن زماني ۽ امڪان کي گڏائيندڙ هڪ نئون قياسي نظريو تيار ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[زماني منطق]] ۽ [[موڊل منطق]] جا عنصر شامل هئا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Spade|loc=Arabic Logic}} هن استقرائي منطق جا به طريقا بيان ڪيا، جهڙوڪ موافقت، اختلاف ۽ گڏيل تبديلي جا طريقا، جيڪي [[سائنسي طريقو|سائنسي طريقي]] لاءِ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا.{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} [[فخر الدين رازي]] پڻ هڪ اثرائتو مسلمان منطق دان هو. هن ارسطوي قياس تي تنقيد ڪئي ۽ استقرائي منطق جو اهڙو ابتدائي نظام پيش ڪيو، جنهن بعد ۾ [[جان اسٽوارٽ مل]] جي استقرائي منطق جي اڳواٽ نشاندهي ڪئي.{{sfn|Iqbal|2013|pp=99–115|loc=The Spirit of Muslim Culture}}

وچئين دور ۾ ارسطو جي منطقي ڪتابن جا ڪيترائي ترجما ۽ تشريحون تيار ڪيون ويون. [[بوئٿيوس]] جا ڪم خاص طور تي گهڻو اثرائتا رهيا. هن نه رڳو ارسطو جي تصنيفن کي لاطيني ۾ ترجمو ڪيو، پر منطق بابت درسي ڪتاب پڻ لکيا.{{sfnm|1a1=Marenbon|1y=2021|1loc=Introduction; 3. The Logical Text-Books|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade}} بعد ۾ ابن سينا ۽ [[ابن رشد]] (ايوريس) جهڙن اسلامي فلسفين جي تحريرن مان پڻ فائدو ورتو ويو، جنهن سان وچئين دور جي عيسائي عالمن کي قديم يوناني فڪر تائين وڌيڪ رسائي ملي. سنه 1323ع ۾ وليم آف اوڪهم جو مشهور ڪتاب ''{{lang|la|[[Summa Logicae]]}}'' شايع ٿيو، جيڪو منطق جو جامع رسالو آهي ۽ جنهن ۾ منطقي تجويزن، انهن جي قسمن ۽ سندن صدق جي شرطن بابت منظم بحث ڪيو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|2a1=Hasse|2y=2008|3a1=Spade|3a2=Panaccio|3y=2019}}

چيني فلسفي ۾ [[نالن جو مذهب]] (اسڪول آف نيمز) ۽ [[موهزم]] (Mohism) خاص اهميت رکندا هئا. نالن جي مذهب ٻوليءَ جي استعمال ۽ منطقي تضادن تي ڌيان ڏنو. مثال طور [[گونگسن لانگ]] مشهور ''اڇي گهوڙي جو تضاد'' (وائيٽ ھارس پيراڊوڪس) پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ دليل ڏنو ويو ته &quot;اڇو گهوڙو، گهوڙو ناهي.&quot; موهزم پڻ منطق ۾ ٻوليءَ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪيو ۽ ان کي اخلاقيات سان ڳنڍڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Willman|1y=2022|2a1=Rošker|2y=2015|2pp=301–309}}

هندستان ۾ منطق جو مطالعو بنيادي طور [[نيايه]]، [[ٻڌ مت]] ۽ [[جين مت]] جي فڪري روايتن ۾ ٿيو. ان کي الڳ علمي شعبي طور نه، پر علمُ المعرفت، مناظري ۽ استدلال جي بحثن جي حصي طور سمجهيو ويندو هو.{{sfn|Sarukkai|Chakraborty|2022|pp=117–118}} نيايه فلسفي ۾ استدلال کي علم حاصل ڪرڻ جو هڪ ذريعو (''[[پرمان]]'') سمجهيو ويو، جيڪو مشاهدي کان پوءِ شين جي سببن بابت نتيجا ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو.{{sfnm|1a1=Dasti|1loc=Lead section; 1b. Inference|2a1=Mills|2y=2018|2p=121}} ٻڌ ۽ جين منطق ۾ به استدلال کي ٻين ذريعن مان حاصل ٿيل علم کي وڌائڻ جو وسيلو سمجهيو ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Emmanuel|1y=2015|1pp=320–322|2a1=Vidyabhusana|2y=1988|2p=221}} نيايه جي پوئين دور جي [[نويا نيايه]] روايت جا ڪيئي خيال جديد منطق سان ملندڙ جلندڙ آهن، جهڙوڪ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جو ''معنيٰ ۽ مرجع'' (سينس اينڊ ريفرنس) وارو فرق ۽ انگ جي تعريف.{{sfn|Chakrabarti|1976|pp=554–563}}

ارسطو جي قياسي منطق اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي وچ تائين غالب رهي، پر رياضيات جي بنيادن بابت وڌندڙ دلچسپي جديد علامتي منطق جي ترقي جو سبب بڻي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Haaparanta|2y=2009|2pp=3–5|2loc=1. Introduction}} گهڻا محقق [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جي ''[[بيگرفس شرفٽ]]'' (Begriffsschrift) کي جديد منطق جي شروعات سمجهن ٿا. [[گوٽفريڊ وِلهم لائبنٽس]] جي [[عالمي رسمي ٻولي]] (ڪئريڪٽرسٽڪا يونيورسلس) جو تصور ان جو اڳواٽ اشارو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. ٻين اهم اڳواڻن ۾ [[جارج بول]] شامل آهي، جنهن [[بولي الجبرا]] (بوليئن آلجبرا) کي منطقي رياضيائي نظام طور پيش ڪيو، ۽ [[چارلس سينڊرس پيرس]]، جنهن [[لاڳاپن جي منطق]] (لاجڪ آگ رليٽوز) کي ترقي ڏني. بعد ۾ [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] انهن خيالن کي پنهنجي مشهور ڪتاب '' پرنسپيا ميٿميٽيڪا'' ۾ منظم ڪيو.

جديد منطق نوان تصور متعارف ڪرايا، جهڙوڪ [[تابع]] (فنڪشن)، مقدارساز (ڪونٽيفائر) ۽ لاڳاپائي محمول (رليشنل پريڊيڪيٽس). جديد علامتي منطق جي نمايان خاصيت رسمي ٻوليءَ جو استعمال آهي، جنهن ذريعي منطقي اصولن کي نهايت درست نموني بيان ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان لحاظ کان اهو اڳين منطق دانن کان مختلف آهي، جيڪي بنيادي طور قدرتي ٻوليءَ تي ڀاڙيندا هئا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900}} خاص طور تي [[اول-درجي منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) جي ترقي جديد منطق ۾ بنيادي حيثيت اختيار ڪئي.{{sfn|Ewald|2019}} ان جي تجزياتي وسعت رياضيات کي رسمي صورت ڏيڻ، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] جي ترقي ۽ [[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) جي قيام لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪيو، ۽ اهو جديد [[رياضياتي منطق]] جو مرڪزي نظام بڻجي ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Schreiner|2y=2021|2p=22}}

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (ڪوانٽيفڪيشن) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}

==تحقيق جا شعبا==

منطق جو مطالعو مختلف علمي شعبن ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪيترن ئي حالتن ۾ ان جي رسمي طريقن کي انهن موضوعن تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي پاڻ منطق جي دائري کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[اخلاقيات]] يا [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Logic and other disciplines|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10}}

ٻين حالتن ۾ خود منطق ئي ڪنهن ٻئي علمي شعبي ۾ تحقيق جو موضوع بڻجي ٿي. اهو مختلف طريقن سان ٿي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، منطق جي بنيادي تصورن سان لاڳاپيل فلسفياتي مفروضن جو جائزو وٺڻ، منطقي نظامن کي رياضيائي بناوتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جو تجزيو ڪرڻ، يا رسمي منطقي نظامن جي تجريدي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ۽ ڀيٽ ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Features and problems of logic|2a1=Gödel|2y=1984|2pp=447–469|2loc=Russell's mathematical logic|3a1=Monk|3y=1976|3pp=1–9|3loc=Introduction}}

===منطق جو فلسفو ۽ فلسفياتي منطق===
{{Main|منطق جو فلسفو|فلسفياتي منطق}}

'''منطق جو فلسفو''' (فلاسافي آف لاجڪ) فلسفي جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطق جي دائري، ماهيت ۽ بنيادي نوعيت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} ان ۾ انهن ڪيترن ئي مفروضن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيڪي منطق ۾ ضمني طور قبول ڪيا ويندا آهن، جيئن ان جي بنيادي تصورن جي تعريف يا انهن سان لاڳاپيل [[مابعدالطبيعات|مابعدالطبيعي]] مفروضا.{{sfn|Jacquette|2006|loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|pp=1–12}}

هي شعبي منطقي نظامن جي درجابندي ۽ انهن سان وابسته [[وجوديات|وجودياتي]] وابستگين (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪمٽمينٽ) جو پڻ مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=§Problems of ontology}}

'''فلسفياتي منطق''' (فلاسافيڪل لاجڪ) منطق جي فلسفي جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطقي طريقن کي فلسفي جي مسئلن تي لاڳو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Burgess|2y=2009|2loc=1. Classical logic}}
اهو استعمال گهڻو ڪري [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي]] يا [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظامن]] جي صورت ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Goble|1y=2001|1loc=Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32}}

===مابعد منطق===
{{Main|مابعد منطق}}

'''مابعد منطق''' (ميٽالاجڪ) اهو علمي شعبو آهي، جيڪو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.

مثال طور، جڏهن ڪو نئون رسمي منطقي نظام تيار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ته مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو معلوم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته ان نظام ۾ ڪهڙا فارمولا ثابت ڪري سگهجن ٿا. اهي اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته ڇا اهڙو [[الگورٿم]] تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو هر فارمولي لاءِ ثبوت ڳولي سگهي، ۽ ڇا ان نظام ۾ هر قابلِ ثبوت فارمولو لازمي طور [[منطقي صداقت]] (Tautology) آهي.

اهي مختلف منطقي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ تقابلي مطالعو پڻ ڪندا آهن ته جيئن انهن جون منفرد خاصيتون واضح ٿي سگهن.

مابعد منطق جو هڪ بنيادي موضوع [[نحو]] (سنٽيڪس) ۽ [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) جي وچ ۾ تعلق آهي. رسمي منطقي نظام جا نحوي ضابطا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدمات مان نتيجا ڪيئن اخذ ڪيا وڃن، يعني ثبوت ڪيئن ترتيب ڏنا وڃن. جڏهن⁠ته معنيات اهو طئي ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙا جملا سچا آهن ۽ ڪهڙا ڪوڙا. انهيءَ بنياد تي دليل جي صحت جو تعين ڪيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صحيح دليل ۾ اهو ناممڪن هوندو آهي ته مقدمات سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو هجي.

نحو ۽ معنيات جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي بابت اهم سوالن ۾ اهو شامل آهي ته ڇا هر صحيح دليل قابلِ ثبوت آهي، ۽ ڇا هر قابلِ ثبوت دليل لازمي طور صحيح به هوندو آهي.

مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته منطقي نظام [[مڪمليت]] (ڪمپليٽنيس)، [[صحت (منطق)|صحت]] (سائونڊنيس) ۽ [[هم آهنگي (منطق)|هم آهنگي]] (ڪنسسٽنسي) جون خاصيتون رکن ٿا يا نه. ان کان علاوه، اهي اهو به ڏسندا آهن ته اهي نظام [[فيصلي پذيري]] (ڊسائيڊبلٽي) رکن ٿا يا نه، ۽ انهن جي [[اظهاري قوت]] ڪيتري آهي.

انهن موضوعن جي تحقيق دوران مابعد منطق گهڻو ڪري تجريدي رياضيائي استدلال تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جنهن جو مقصد انهن مسئلن بابت صحيح، عام ۽ جامع نتيجا حاصل ڪرڻ هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1pp=xliii–xliv|2a1=Sider|2y=2010|2pp=4–6|3a1=Schagrin}}

===رياضيائي منطق===
{{Main|رياضيائي منطق}}

[[File:Russell1907-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=برٽرينڊ رسل جو تصوير|[[برٽرينڊ رسل]] رياضيائي منطق جي ترقي ۾ ڪيترائي اهم علمي حصا ورتا.{{sfn|Irvine|2022}}]]

اصطلاح '''رياضيائي منطق''' (ميٿميٽيڪل لاجڪ) ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[رسمي منطق]] جي مترادف طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر وڌيڪ محدود معنيٰ ۾ اهو رياضيات جي اندر منطق جي مطالعي ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. ان جون اهم شاخون [[ماڊل نظريو]]، [[ثبوت جو نظريو]]، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) ۽ [[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Li|1y=2010|1p=ix|2a1=Rautenberg|2y=2010|2p=15|3a1=Quine|3y=1981|3p=1|4a1=Stolyar|4y=1984|4p=2}}

رياضيائي منطق جي تحقيق جو وڏو حصو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي رياضيائي خاصيتن جي مطالعي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. ان سان گڏ اهو پڻ ڏٺو ويندو آهي ته منطق کي رياضيائي استدلال جي تجزيي يا [[رياضيات جا بنياد|رياضيات جي منطقي بنيادن]] جي قيام لاءِ ڪيئن استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfn|Stolyar|1984|pp=3–6}}

ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ رياضيائي منطق جو هڪ اهم مقصد [[منطق پرستي]] (لاجڪئزم) واري پروگرام کي اڳتي وڌائڻ هو، جنهن جي شروعات [[گاٽلوب فريگي]]، [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] جهڙن فلسفي-منطق دانن ڪئي هئي. هن پروگرام موجب سڀئي رياضيائي نظريا اصل ۾ منطقي [[منطقي صداقت|صداقتون]] (Tautologies) آهن، ۽ ان کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ رياضيات کي منطق تائين محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي. پر هن پروگرام کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جون گهڻيون ڪوششون ناڪام ويون. مثال طور، فريگي جو منصوبو سندس ڪتاب '' گرُنڊگيزيٽسي:Grundgesetze'' (بنيادي قانون) ۾ [[رسل جو تضاد|رسل جي تضاد]] سبب متاثر ٿيو، جڏهن⁠ته [[هلبرٽ جو پروگرام]] [[گوڊل جا نامڪمليت جا نظريا|گوڊل جي نامڪمليت جي نظرين]] سبب ناڪام ثابت ٿيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|1loc=Gödel's incompleteness theorems|2a1=Linsky|2y=2011|2p=4|3a1=Richardson|3y=1998|3p=15}}

[[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) جي شروعات [[جارج ڪينٽر]] لامحدوديت جي مطالعي دوران ڪئي. هي شعبي رياضيائي منطق جي ڪيترن ئي اهم ۽ پيچيده مسئلن جو سرچشمو بڻيو، جن ۾ [[ڪينٽر جو نظريو]]، [[اختيار جو اصول]] (اگزيوم آف چوائس)، [[مسلسل مفروضي]] (ڪنٽينيوئم ھيپوٿيسز) جي آزاديءَ جو سوال، ۽ [[وڏي ڪارڊينل]] (لارج ڪارڊينل) اصولن بابت جديد بحث شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Bagaria|1y=2021|2a1=Cunningham}}

[[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) رياضيائي منطق جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا حسابي مسئلن کي حل ڪرڻ لاءِ مؤثر طريقن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان جو هڪ بنيادي مقصد اهو معلوم ڪرڻ آهي ته ڪنهن خاص مسئلي کي [[الگورٿم]] ذريعي حل ڪرڻ ممڪن آهي يا نه. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صحيح عددن بابت ڪو خاص دعويٰ ڏني وڃي، ته هي شعبي اهو جاچيندو آهي ته ڇا اهڙو الگورٿم تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو اهو طئي ڪري سگهي ته اها دعويٰ صحيح آهي يا غلط. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ [[ٽيورنگ مشين]] (Turing machine) سميت مختلف نظرياتي ماڊلن ۽ اوزارن کي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006a|1loc=Computability Theory|2a1=Leary|2a2=Kristiansen|2y=2015|2p=195}}

===حسابياتي منطق===
{{Main|حسابياتي منطق|ڪمپيوٽر سائنس ۾ منطق}}

[[File:TransistorANDgate.png|thumb|ٽرانزسٽرن جي مدد سان تيار ڪيل هڪ AND گيٽ جو خاڪو. [[منطقي عطف]] (AND) [[بولين منطق]] جي بنيادي عملن مان هڪ آهي، جنهن کي برقي طور مختلف طريقن سان، مثال طور ٻن [[ٽرانزسٽر]]ن ذريعي، عمل ۾ آڻي سگهجي ٿو.]]

'''حسابياتي منطق''' (ڪمپيوٽيشنل لاجڪ) منطق ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ڪمپيوٽرن جي ذريعي رياضيائي استدلال ۽ رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عملي صورت ڏيڻ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان ۾، مثال طور، [[خودڪار نظريي ثابت ڪندڙ]] (آٽوميٽڪ ٿيورم پروور) شامل آهن، جيڪي [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] استعمال ڪندي، بغير انساني مداخلت جي، مقدمات مان گهربل نتيجي تائين مرحليوار ثبوت تيار ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Paulson|1y=2018|1pp=1–14|2a1=Castaño|2y=2018|2p=2|3a1=Wile|3a2=Goss|3a3=Roesner|3y=2005|3p=447}}

[[منطقي پروگرامنگ]] (لاجڪ پروگرامنگ) جون ٻوليون خاص طور اهڙي نموني تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن، جو حقيقتن کي منطقي فارمولن جي صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ۽ انهن مان استدلال ذريعي نوان نتيجا اخذ ڪري سگهجن. مثال طور، [[پرولاگ]] (Prolog) محمولي منطق تي ٻڌل هڪ منطقي پروگرامنگ ٻولي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Clocksin|1a2=Mellish|1y=2003|1pp=237–238, 252–255, 257|1loc=The Relation of Prolog to Logic|2a1=Daintith|2a2=Wright|2y=2008|2loc=Logic Programming Languages}}

ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽنگ سان لاڳاپيل مسئلن جي حل لاءِ پڻ منطقي تصورن کي استعمال ڪندا آهن. هن ميدان ۾ [[ڪلاڊ شينن]] جو ڪم انتهائي اثرائتو رهيو، جنهن ڏيکاريو ته [[بولين منطق]] کي ڪمپيوٽرن جي برقي سرڪٽن کي سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=O'Regan|1y=2016|1p=49|2a1=Calderbank|2a2=Sloane|2y=2001|2p=768}}

اهو ڪم [[منطقي دروازو|منطقي دروازن]] (لاجڪ گيٽ) ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي اهڙا برقي سرڪٽ هوندا آهن، جن ۾ هڪ يا وڌيڪ ان پُٽ ۽ عام طور هڪ آئوٽ پُٽ هوندو آهي. انهن ۾ منطقي قضين جي صداقت جا قدر برقي وولٽيج جي سطحن جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهڙيءَ طرح، سرڪٽ جي ان پُٽن تي مناسب وولٽيج لاڳو ڪري ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ جي وولٽيج کي ماپي، مختلف منطقي عملن جي نقل (سميوليشن) ڪئي ويندي آهي.{{sfn|Daintith|Wright|2008|loc=Logic Gate}}

===قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات===
{{Main|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات}}

'''قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) منطق، [[لسانيات]] ۽ [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]] جي گڏيل ذيلي شاخ آهي. [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) ٻوليءَ جي معنائن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته رسمي معنيات علامتي منطق ۽ رياضيات جا رسمي اوزار استعمال ڪندي [[قدرتي ٻولي]] جي اظهارَن جي معنائن بابت درست ۽ منظم نظريا پيش ڪري ٿي.

رسمي معنيات عام طور معنٰي کي [[صدق جون شرطون]] (ٽرٿ ڪنڊيشنر) سان وابسته ڪري سمجهي ٿي؛ يعني اها جاچ ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙين حالتن ۾ ڪو جملو سچو يا ڪوڙو ٿيندو. هن شعبي جي بنيادي اصولن مان هڪ [[ترڪيبي اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) آهي، جنهن موجب ڪنهن پيچيده اظهار جي معنٰي ان جي جزن جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي پاڻ ۾ ڳانڍاپي جي طريقي سان طئي ٿيندي آهي. مثال طور، فعل واري فقري &quot;هلڻ ۽ ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنٰي انفرادي اظهارَن &quot;هلڻ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.

رسمي معنيات جا ڪيترائي نظريا [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. ان جو مطلب آهي ته اهي [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) استعمال ڪري هڪ نمونو (ماڊل) تيار ڪندا آهن ۽ پوءِ ان نموني جي عنصرن جي حوالي سان ٻوليءَ جي اظهارَن جي معنائن جي تشريح ڪندا آهن. مثال طور، اصطلاح &quot;هلڻ&quot; کي نموني ۾ موجود انهن سڀني فردن جي مجموعي طور سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي هلڻ جي خاصيت رکن ٿا.

هن شعبي جا شروعاتي ۽ اثرائتا مفڪر [[رچرڊ مونٽيگ]] ۽ [[باربرا پارٽي]] هئا، جن پنهنجي تجزين جو بنيادي مرڪز انگريزي ٻوليءَ کي بڻايو.{{sfnm|1a1=Janssen|1a2=Zimmermann|1y=2021|1pp=3–4|2a1=Partee|2y=2016|3a1=King|3y=2009|3pp=557–558|4a1=Aloni|4a2=Dekker|4y=2016|4pp=22–23}}

===منطق جي علمُ المعرفت===
{{Main|منطق جي علمُ المعرفت}}

'''منطق جو علمُ المعرفت''' (ايپسٽيمولاجي آف لاجڪ) هن ڳالهه جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو ته انسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوي ٿي ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا ڪا تجويز منطقي طور سچي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Schechter}} هن ۾ اهڙا سوال شامل آهن، جيئن: {{lang|la|modus ponens}} استدلال جو صحيح قاعدو ڇو آهي؟ يا تضاد هميشه ڪوڙا ڇو سمجهيا وڃن ٿا؟{{sfn|Warren|2020|loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic}}

روايتي طور تي غالب نظريو اهو رهيو آهي ته اهڙي قسم جي منطقي ڄاڻ [[قبلي علم]] (''a priori'') سان واسطو رکي ٿي.{{sfn|Schechter}} هن نظرئي موجب، اڪثر اهو دليل ڏنو ويندو آهي ته [[ذهن]] وٽ هڪ خاص صلاحيت هوندي آهي، جيڪا خالص خيالن جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي پرکڻ جي قابل هوندي آهي، ۽ اها ئي صلاحيت منطقي سچائين کي سمجهڻ جو ذريعو پڻ آهي.{{sfn|Gómez-Torrente|2019}}

هڪ ٻيو ويجهو نظريو منطق جي قاعدن کي [[اصطلاحيت]] (ڪنوينشنلزم) يا لساني روايتن جي بنياد تي سمجهي ٿو. هن راءِ موجب، منطق جا قانون تعريف جي لحاظ کان سچا آهن، تنهنڪري اهي بنيادي طور غيرتڪراري آهن؛ اهي رڳو منطقي اصطلاحن جي معنائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Gómez-Torrente|2y=2019|3a1=Warren|3y=2020|3loc=1. What is Conventionalism}}

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[هلري پٽنم]] ۽ [[پينيلوپي ميڊي]]، هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪن ٿا ته منطق کي مڪمل طور قبلي علم ذريعي ڄاڻي سگهجي ٿو. انهن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي سچايون [[تجربي تي ٻڌل علم]] (امپريڪل نالج) سان به لاڳاپيل آهن. هن راءِ کي عام طور ان دعويٰ سان گڏ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي ته منطق جا قانون دنيا جي بناوت ۾ موجود عام ۽ آفاقي قاعدن جو اظهار ڪن ٿا. ان مطابق، انهن قاعدن کي [[بنيادي سائنسون|بنيادي سائنسن]] ۾ موجود عام نمونن ۽ اصولن جي مطالعي ذريعي به سمجهي سگهجي ٿو.

مثال طور، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم ميڪانيات]] جون ڪجهه دريافتون روايتي منطق جي [[ورڇ جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڊسٽريبيوٽوٽي) کي چئلينج ڪن ٿيون، جنهن موجب فارمولو &lt;math&gt;A \land (B \lor C)&lt;/math&gt; هم معنيٰ آهي &lt;math&gt;(A \land B) \lor (A \land C)&lt;/math&gt; سان. هن دعويٰ کي ان ڳالهه جي تجربي تي ٻڌل دليل طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم منطق]] روايتي منطق کان وڌيڪ مناسب منطقي نظام آهي، ۽ ان کي روايتي منطق جي جاءِ وٺڻ گهرجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Chua|1y=2017|1pp=631–636|2a1=Wilce|2y=2021|3a1=Putnam|3y=1969|3pp=216–241}}


* جملاتي منطق


==پڻ ڏسو==
{{Portal|فلسفو}}
{{Columns list|
* {{annotated link|منطق جي اصطلاحن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جو خاڪو}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جي تحقيقي رسالن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي نشانين جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق دانن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي ڳجهارت}}
* {{annotated link|لوگوس}}
* {{annotated link|ویکٽر منطق}}
}}

==حوالا==

===وضاحتي نوٽ===
{{notelist}}
&lt;references group=&quot;lower-alpha&quot;/&gt;
===حوالا===
{{reflist|1=30em}}

===ڪتابيات===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Aloni |first1=Maria |author1-link=ماريا الوني |last2=Dekker |first2=Paul |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics |date=7 July 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-55273-5 |pages=22–23 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Angell |first1=Richard B. |title=Reasoning and Logic |date=1964 |publisher=Ardent Media |page=164 |language=en |oclc=375322 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Informal logic |year=1999a |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |page=435 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Philosophy of logic |year=1999b |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |pages=679–681 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Backmann |first1=Marius |title=Varieties of Justification—How (Not) to Solve the Problem of Induction |journal=Acta Analytica |date=1 June 2019 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=235–255 |doi=10.1007/s12136-018-0371-6 |s2cid=125767384 |language=en |issn=1874-6349 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bagaria |first1=Joan |author-link=جوان باگاريا |title=Set Theory |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/set-theory/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=23 September 2022 |year=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Jonathan |title=Truth, etc.: Six Lectures on Ancient Logic |date=25 January 2007 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-151574-3 |page=274 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Benthem |first1=Johan van |title=Modal Logic: Contemporary View: 1. Modal Notions and Reasoning Patterns: a First Pass |url=https://iep.utm.edu/modal-lo/#H1 |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=11 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berlemann |first1=Lars |last2=Mangold |first2=Stefan |title=Cognitive Radio and Dynamic Spectrum Access |date=10 July 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-0-470-75443-6 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berman |first1=Harold J. |title=Law and Revolution, the Formation of the Western Legal Tradition |date=1 July 2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02085-6 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bimbó |first1=Katalin |author-link=ڪيٽلن بمبو |title=J. Michael Dunn on Information Based Logics |date=2 April 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-29300-4 |pages=8–9 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=1 January 2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |language=en |chapter=argument |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194756/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=24 March 2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |language=en |chapter=rule of inference |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194809/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=The Current State of Informal Logic |journal=Informal Logic |year=1987 |volume=9 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v9i2.2671 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230194638/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |url-status=live |pages=147–151 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=Informal Logic: An Overview |journal=Informal Logic |year=2000 |volume=20 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v20i2.2262 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209195317/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |url-status=live |pages=93–107 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |title=Groundwork in the Theory of Argumentation: Selected Papers of J. Anthony Blair |date=20 October 2011 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-007-2363-4 |page=47 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bobzien |first1=Susanne |author-link=سوزاني بوبزين |title=Ancient Logic: 2. Aristotle |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=3 January 2022 |year=2020 |archive-date=28 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828102117/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Borchert |editor1-first=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 2 |edition=2nd |date=2006a |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |isbn=978-0-02-865782-0 |chapter=Computability Theory |pages=372–390 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 4 |edition=2nd |date=2006b |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Induction |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865784-4 |pages=635–648 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 5 |edition=2nd |date=2006c |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Logic, Non-Classical |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865785-1 |pages=485–492 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bridges |first1=Douglas |last2=Ishihara |first2=Hajime |last3=Rathjen |first3=Michael |last4=Schwichtenberg |first4=Helmut |title=Handbook of Constructive Mathematics |date=30 April 2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-51086-5 |pages=73–74 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Brody |first=Boruch A. |title=Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=2006 |publisher=Thomson Gale/Macmillan Reference US |others=Donald M. Borchert |isbn=978-0-02-865780-6 |edition=2nd |volume=5 |pages=535–536 |oclc=61151356 |quote=The two most important types of logical calculi are propositional (or sentential) calculi and functional (or predicate) calculi. A propositional calculus is a system containing propositional variables and connectives (some also contain propositional constants) but not individual or functional variables or constants. In the extended propositional calculus, quantifiers whose operator variables are propositional variables are added. }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bunnin |first1=Nicholas |last2=Yu |first2=Jiyuan |title=The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy |date=27 January 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9112-8 |page=179 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Burgess |first1=John P. |author-link=جان پي. برجس |title=Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |chapter=1. Classical logic |pages=1–12 |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216143954/https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-691-15633-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bäck |first1=Allan T. |title=Aristotle's Theory of Predication |date=2016 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-32109-0 |page=317 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Calderbank |first1=Robert |last2=Sloane |first2=Neil J. A. |title=Claude Shannon (1916–2001) |journal=Nature |date=April 2001 |volume=410 |issue=6830 |page=768 |doi=10.1038/35071223 |pmid=11298432 |s2cid=4402158 |language=en |issn=1476-4687 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Carnielli |first1=Walter |last2=Pizzi |first2=Claudio |title=Modalities and Multimodalities |date=2008 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-8590-1 |page=3 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Castaño |first1=Arnaldo Pérez |title=Practical Artificial Intelligence: Machine Learning, Bots, and Agent Solutions Using C# |date=23 May 2018 |publisher=Apress |isbn=978-1-4842-3357-3 |page=2 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Chakrabarti |first1=Kisor Kumar |title=Some Comparisons Between Frege's Logic and Navya-Nyaya Logic |journal=Philosophy and Phenomenological Research |date=June 1976 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=554–563 |doi=10.2307/2106873 |jstor=2106873 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chatfield |first1=Tom |title=Critical Thinking: Your Guide to Effective Argument, Successful Analysis and Independent Study |date=2017 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-5264-1877-7 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chua |first1=Eugene |title=Logic, Rationality, and Interaction |chapter=An Empirical Route to Logical 'Conventionalism' |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |date=2017 |volume=10455 |pages=631–636 |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-55665-8_43 |isbn=978-3-662-55664-1 |chapter-url=https://philpapers.org/rec/CHUAER }}
* {{cite book |last1=Clocksin |first1=William F. |last2=Mellish |first2=Christopher S. |title=Programming in Prolog: Using the ISO Standard |date=2003 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-55481-0 |pages=237–257 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 |language=en |chapter=The Relation of Prolog to Logic |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cook |first1=Roy T. |title=Dictionary of Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-3197-1 |language=en |page=124 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Copi |first1=Irving M. |author1-link=ارونگ ڪوپي |last2=Cohen |first2=Carl |last3=Rodych |first3=Victor |title=Introduction to Logic |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-38697-5 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Corkum |first1=Philip |title=Generality and Logical Constancy |journal=Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia |year=2015 |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=753–767 |doi=10.17990/rpf/2015_71_4_0753 |jstor=43744657 |issn=0870-5283 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Craig |first1=Edward |author-link=ايڊورڊ ڪريگ (فلسفي) |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=1996 |publisher=Routledge |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116111145/https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-07310-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cummings |first1=Louise |title=The Routledge Pragmatics Encyclopedia |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-21457-9 |page=1 |language=en |chapter=Abduction }}
* {{cite web |last1=Cunningham |first1=Daniel |title=Set Theory |url=https://iep.utm.edu/set-theo/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=23 September 2022 }}

* {{cite journal |last1=D'Agostino |first1=Marcello |last2=Floridi |first2=Luciano |title=The Enduring Scandal of Deduction: Is Propositional Logic Really Uninformative? |journal=Synthese |year=2009 |volume=167 |issue=2 |pages=271–315 |doi=10.1007/s11229-008-9409-4 |jstor=40271192 |hdl=2299/2995 |hdl-access=free |s2cid=9602882 |language=en |issn=0039-7857 }}
* {{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Computing |isbn=978-0-19-923400-4 |last1=Daintith |first1=John |last2=Wright |first2=Edmund |date=2008 |publisher=OUP }}
* {{cite book |last=van Dalen |first=Dirk |author-link=ڊرڪ وان ڊالن |year=1994 |title=Logic and Structure |publisher=Springer |at=Chapter 1.5 |isbn=978-0-387-57839-2 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dasti |first1=Matthew R. |title=Nyaya |url=https://iep.utm.edu/nyaya/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=12 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Dick |first1=Anthony S. |last2=Müller |first2=Ulrich |title=Advancing Developmental Science: Philosophy, Theory, and Method |date=2017 |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-1-351-70456-4 |page=157 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Douven |first1=Igor |author-link=ايگور ڊاووين |title=Abduction |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |year=2021 |access-date=24 August 2021 |archive-date=7 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907202119/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dowden |first1=Bradley |author-link=بريڊلي ڊائوڊن |title=Fallacies |url=https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=19 March 2021 |archive-date=29 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100429214410/https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |title=Pondering on Problems of Argumentation: Twenty Essays on Theoretical Issues |date=2009 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-9165-0 |page=191 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |last3=Krabbe |first3=Erik C. W. |last4=Snoeck Henkemans |first4=A. Francisca |last5=Verheij |first5=Bart |last6=Wagemans |first6=Jean H. M. |title=Handbook of Argumentation Theory |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-94-007-6883-3 |pages=1–45 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |language=en |chapter=Informal Logic |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231172324/https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |url-status=live |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGarssenKrabbeSnoeck_Henkemans }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Grootendorst |first2=Rob |last3=Johnson |first3=Ralph H. |last4=Plantin |first4=Christian |last5=Willard |first5=Charles A. |title=Fundamentals of Argumentation Theory: A Handbook of Historical Backgrounds and Contemporary Developments |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-68804-1 |page=169 |language=en |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGrootendorstJohnsonPlantin }}
* {{cite book |last1=Emmanuel |first1=Steven M. |title=A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy |date=2015 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-119-14466-3 |pages=320–322 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Enderton |first=Herbert |author-link=هربرٽ اينڊرٽن |year=2001 |title=A Mathematical Introduction to Logic |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-238452-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Engel |first1=S. Morris |title=With Good Reason an Introduction to Informal Fallacies |date=1982 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=1 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301065815/https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-312-08479-0 |publisher=St. Martin's Press }}
* {{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Jonathan St. B. T. |editor1-last=Morrison |editor1-first=Robert |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82417-0 |page=169 |language=en |chapter=8. Deductive Reasoning }}
* {{cite web |last1=Ewald |first1=William |title=The Emergence of First-Order Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-firstorder-emergence/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=12 March 2023 |date=2019 }}

* {{cite web |last1=Falguera |first1=José L. |last2=Martínez-Vidal |first2=Concha |last3=Rosen |first3=Gideon |title=Abstract Objects |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=7 January 2022 |year=2021 |archive-date=22 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122003334/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Falikowski |first1=Anthony |last2=Mills |first2=Susan |title=Experiencing Philosophy |edition=2nd |date=2022 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=978-1-77048-841-0 |page=98 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=Michael David |last2=Gabbay |first2=Dov M. |last3=Vila |first3=Lluis |title=Handbook of Temporal Reasoning in Artificial Intelligence |date=2005 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-053336-0 |page=119 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fitch |first1=G. W. |title=Saul Kripke |date=18 December 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-48917-7 |page=17 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Flotyński |first1=Jakub |title=Knowledge-Based Explorable Extended Reality Environments |date=7 December 2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-59965-2 |page=39 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Font |first1=Josep Maria |last2=Jansana |first2=Ramon |title=A General Algebraic Semantics for Sentential Logics |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-16797-1 |page=8 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Frede |first1=Michael |title=Aristotle |url=https://pages.mtu.edu/~pcharles/SCIHISTORY/aristotle.html |website=Michigan Technological University |access-date=1 November 2022 |archive-date=21 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921073920/https://pages.mtu.edu/~pcharles/SCIHISTORY/aristotle.html |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |last1=Friend |first1=Michele |title=Introducing Philosophy of Mathematics |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-49379-2 |page=101 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Gamut |first=L.T.F. |author-link=ايل. ٽي. ايف. گيمٽ |date=1991 |title=Logic, Language and Meaning Vol 1: Introduction to Logic |publisher=University of Chicago Press |at=5.5 |isbn=978-0-226-28085-1 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Garson |first1=James |title=Modal Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-modal/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2023 }}
* {{cite book |last=Gensler |first=Harry J. |date=2006 |title=The A to Z of Logic |pages=xliii–xliv |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-1-4617-3182-5 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goble |first1=Lou |title=The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic |date=2001 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/GOBTBG-2 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184959/https://philpapers.org/rec/GOBTBG-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-631-20692-7 |pages=1–8 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goodman |first1=Lenn Evan |title=Avicenna |date=1992 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-01929-3 |page=188 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goodman |first1=Lenn Evan |title=Islamic Humanism |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513580-0 |page=155 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Groarke |first1=Louis F. |title=Aristotle: Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=1 January 2022 |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229235433/https://iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Groarke |first1=Leo |title=Informal Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=31 December 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112030519/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Gómez-Torrente |first1=Mario |title=Logical Truth |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-truth/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=22 November 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=2 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002190110/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-truth/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gödel |first1=Kurt |author1-link=Kurt Gödel |editor1-last=Benacerraf |editor1-first=Paul |editor2-last=Putnam |editor2-first=Hilary |title=Philosophy of Mathematics: Selected Readings |date=1984 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29648-9 |pages=447–469 |edition=2nd |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/philosophy-of-mathematics/russells-mathematical-logic/4D82F215FABFE06149D03EF1EF5BE7E4 |chapter=Russell's mathematical logic |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111091740/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/philosophy-of-mathematics/russells-mathematical-logic/4D82F215FABFE06149D03EF1EF5BE7E4 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hájek |first1=Petr |title=Fuzzy Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/Archives/Win2012/entries/logic-fuzzy/ |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |language=en |date=3 September 2006 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hájek |first1=Alan |last2=Lin |first2=Hanti |title=A Tale of Two Epistemologies? |journal=Res Philosophica |year=2017 |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=207–232 |doi=10.11612/resphil.1540 |s2cid=160029122 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HJEATO |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104182746/https://philpapers.org/rec/HJEATO |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Cordelia |last2=O'Donnell |first2=John |title=Discrete Mathematics Using a Computer |date=2000 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-85233-089-7 |page=48 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Houde |first1=R. |last2=Camacho |first2=L. |title=New Catholic Encyclopedia |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/electrical-engineering/induction |chapter=Induction |year=2003 |publisher=Thomson/Gale |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171720/https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/electrical-engineering/induction |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-7876-4004-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Deviant Logic: Some Philosophical Issues |date=1974 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-20500-9 |page=51 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Philosophy of Logics |date=1978 |publisher=London and New York: Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HAAPOL-2 |chapter=1. 'Philosophy of logics' |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207200551/https://philpapers.org/rec/HAAPOL-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-521-29329-7 |pages=1–10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Deviant Logic, Fuzzy Logic: Beyond the Formalism |date=1996 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31133-3 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haaparanta |first1=Leila |author1-link=Leila Haaparanta |title=The Development of Modern Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513731-6 |pages=4–6 |chapter=1. Introduction }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hansen |first1=Hans |title=Fallacies |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fallacies/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=18 March 2021 |year=2020 |archive-date=29 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329182946/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fallacies/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hartmann |first1=Stephan |last2=Sprenger |first2=Jan |title=The Routledge Companion to Epistemology |date=2010 |publisher=London: Routledge |pages=609–620 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO |chapter=Bayesian Epistemology |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516095047/https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-96219-3 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hasse |first1=Dag Nikolaus |title=Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-influence/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |date=2008 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hawthorne |first1=James |title=Inductive Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-inductive/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=6 January 2022 |year=2021 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121081805/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-inductive/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Philosophy of logic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-logic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=21 November 2021 |language=en |archive-date=28 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428101732/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/346240/philosophy-of-logic |url-status=live |date=2019 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Logical systems |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic/Logical-systems |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=4 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184656/https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic/Logical-systems |url-status=live |date=2023 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Information, Deduction, and the A Priori |journal=Noûs |year=1970 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=135–152 |doi=10.2307/2214318 |jstor=2214318 |issn=0029-4624 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |last2=Sandu |first2=Gabriel |editor-last=Jacquette |editor-first=D. |title=Philosophy of Logic |date=2006 |publisher=North Holland |pages=13–39 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JAAWIL |chapter=What is Logic? |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207235525/https://philpapers.org/rec/JAAWIL |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-444-51541-4 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |last2=Spade |first2=Paul Vincent |title=History of logic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-logic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Honderich |first1=Ted |author-link=Ted Honderich |title=The Oxford Companion to Philosophy |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=29 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129082636/https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-19-926479-7 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hurley |first1=Patrick J. |title=Logic: The Essentials |date=2015 |publisher=Wadsworth |isbn=978-1-305-59041-0 |language=en |chapter=4. Categorical Syllogisms |pages=189–237 }}
* {{cite web |last1=IEP Staff |title=Deductive and Inductive Arguments |url=https://iep.utm.edu/ded-ind/ |access-date=6 January 2022 |archive-date=28 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528032124/https://iep.utm.edu/ded-ind/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Iqbal |first1=Mohammad |title=The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam |date=2013 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-8686-7 |pages=99–115 |url=http://www.allamaiqbal.com/works/prose/english/reconstruction/ |language=en |chapter=The Spirit of Muslim Culture }}
* {{cite web |last1=Irvine |first1=Andrew David |title=Bertrand Russell |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/russell/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=29 September 2022 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jacquette |first1=Dale |title=Philosophy of Logic |date=2006 |publisher=North Holland |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JACPOL |chapter=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184932/https://philpapers.org/rec/JACPOL |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-444-51541-4 |pages=1–12 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jago |first1=Mark |title=The Impossible: An Essay on Hyperintensionality |date=2014 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-101915-9 |page=41 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Janssen |first1=Theo M. V. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Thomas Ede |title=Montague Semantics |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/montague-semantics/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=10 March 2023 |date=2021 |pages=3–4 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Ralph H. |title=The Relation Between Formal and Informal Logic |journal=Argumentation |year=1999 |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=265–274 |doi=10.1023/A:1007789101256 |s2cid=141283158 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JOHTRB-2 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184706/https://philpapers.org/rec/JOHTRB-2 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Ralph H. |title=The Rise of Informal Logic: Essays on Argumentation, Critical Thinking, Reasoning and Politics |date=15 July 2014 |publisher=University of Windsor |isbn=978-0-920233-71-9 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Ketland |first1=Jeffrey |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 8 |date=2005 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/second-order-logic |chapter=Second Order Logic |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184921/https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/second-order-logic |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865788-2 |pages=707–708 |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA }}
* {{cite book |last1=King |first1=Jeffrey C. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Language |chapter=Formal Semantics |date=2 September 2009 |pages=557–558 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199552238.003.0023 |isbn=978-0-19-955223-8 }}
* {{cite web |last1=King |first1=Jeffrey C. |title=Structured Propositions |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/propositions-structured/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=25 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025211706/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/propositions-structured/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Klement |first1=Kevin C. |title=Propositional Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/prop-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=23 September 2022 |year=1995b |issn=2161-0002 }}
* {{cite book |last=Kline |first=Morris |title=Mathematical Thought From Ancient to Modern Times |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-19-506135-2 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Kneale |first1=William |author-link=William Kneale |last2=Kneale |first2=Martha |author2-link=Martha Kneale |title=The Development of Logic |date=1962 |publisher=Clarendon Press |language=en |isbn=978-0-19-824773-9 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Knuuttila |first1=Simo |title=Reforging the Great Chain of Being: Studies of the History of Modal Theories |date=1980 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-90-277-1125-0 |page=71 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Korb |first1=Kevin |title=Bayesian Informal Logic and Fallacy |journal=Informal Logic |year=2004 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=41–70 |doi=10.22329/il.v24i1.2132 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/KORBIL |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=10 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211110075255/https://philpapers.org/rec/KORBIL |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Koslowski |first1=Barbara |title=International Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-72569-7 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski |chapter=Abductive Reasoning and Explanation |doi=10.4324/9781315725697 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108225144/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski |url-status=live |pages=366–382 }}
* {{cite book |first1=Boris |last1=Kulik |first2=Alexander |last2=Fridman |title=N-ary Relations for Logical Analysis of Data and Knowledge |date=30 November 2017 |publisher=IGI Global |isbn=978-1-5225-2783-1 |page=74 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Kusch |first1=Martin |title=Psychologism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/psychologism/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=30 November 2021 |year=2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229220156/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/psychologism/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Lagerlund |first1=Henrik |title=Review of The Aftermath of Syllogism: Aristotelian Logical Argument from Avicenna to Hegel |url=https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/the-aftermath-of-syllogism-aristotelian-logical-argument-from-avicenna-to-hegel/ |website=Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews |access-date=19 July 2023 |language=en |date=27 September 2018 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lear |first1=Jonathan |title=Aristotle and Logical Theory |date=1980 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-31178-6 |page=34 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Leary |first1=Christopher C. |last2=Kristiansen |first2=Lars |title=A Friendly Introduction to Mathematical Logic |date=2015 |publisher=Suny |isbn=978-1-942341-07-9 |page=195 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lepore |first1=Ernest |last2=Cumming |first2=Sam |title=Meaning and Argument: An Introduction to Logic Through Language |date=14 September 2012 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-118-45521-0 |page=5 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Li |first1=Wei |title=Mathematical Logic: Foundations for Information Science |date=26 February 2010 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-3-7643-9977-1 |page=ix |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Linsky |first1=Bernard |title=The Evolution of Principia Mathematica: Bertrand Russell's Manuscripts and Notes |edition=2nd |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49733-6 |page=4 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Liu |first1=Shiyong |last2=Guo |first2=Kaizhong |title=Error Logic: Paving Pathways for Intelligent Error Identification and Management |date=7 March 2023 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-031-00820-7 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Łukasiewicz |first=Jan |author-link=يان ووڪاشيوچ |title=Aristotle's Syllogistic from the Standpoint of Modern Formal Logic |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1957 |edition=2nd |page=7 |oclc=656161566 }}
* {{cite web |last1=MacFarlane |first1=John |title=Logical Constants |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-constants/#SynTer |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=21 November 2021 |year=2017 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317180221/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-constants/#SynTer |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Mackie |first1=J. L. |author-link=جي. ايل. ميڪي |title=Fallacies |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/fallacies |website=encyclopedia.com |access-date=19 March 2021 |year=1967 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415101134/https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/fallacies |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Magnus |first1=P. D. |title=Forall X: An Introduction to Formal Logic |date=2005 |publisher=Victoria, BC, Canada: State University of New York Oer Services |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/MAGFXI |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207200544/https://philpapers.org/rec/MAGFXI |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-64176-026-3 |pages=8–9 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Makridis |first1=Odysseus |title=Symbolic Logic |date=2022 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-67396-3 |pages=1–2 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Maltby |first1=John |last2=Day |first2=Liz |last3=Macaskill |first3=Ann |title=Personality, Individual Differences and Intelligence |date=2007 |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-13-129760-9 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Marenbon |first1=John |title=Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/boethius/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2021 }}
* {{cite web |last1=McKeon |first1=Matthew |title=Logical Consequence |url=https://iep.utm.edu/logcon/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=20 November 2021 |archive-date=12 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112071437/https://iep.utm.edu/logcon/ |url-status=live }}


[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>45f3hey2b06mlaxaegbl7janyi8mvfw</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399244</id>
      <parentid>399243</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T15:46:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399244</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="178363" sha1="ii64hgqx6mrkih4ky67flwc9swkj39x" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==تاريخ==
{{Main|منطق جي تاريخ}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=330
| image1= Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg
| alt1= ارسطو جو مجسمو
| image2= Avicenne - Avicenna - Ibn_Sina (980-1037) CIPB2067.jpg
| alt2= ابن سينا جو پورٽريٽ
| image3= Guillaume Occam.jpg
| alt3= وليم آف اوڪهم جو پورٽريٽ
| image4= Wismar Marienkirche Bronzebüste Gottlob Frege (01-1).JPG
| alt4= گوٽلوب فريگي جو مجسمو
| footer= مٿيون قطار: [[ارسطو]]، جنهن مغربي منطق جي بنيادي روايت قائم ڪئي؛{{sfn|Groarke}} ۽ [[ابن سينا]]، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ تي پنهنجو منطقي نظام متعارف ڪرايو.{{sfn|Lagerlund|2018}} هيٺيون قطار: [[وليم آف اوڪهم]]، وچئين دور جي علمي فڪر جي اهم شخصيت؛{{sfn|Spade|Panaccio|2019}} ۽ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]]، جديد علامتي منطق جي بانيَن مان هڪ.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900|3a=Klement|3y=1995a}}
}}

قديم دور ۾ منطق ڪيترين ئي تهذيبن ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان الڳ نموني ترقي ڪئي. شروعاتي اهم مفڪرن مان هڪ [[ارسطو]] هو، جنهن پنهنجي ڪتابن ''[[اورگينون]]'' ۽ ''[[پرائر اينالٽڪس]]'' ۾ '''اصطلاحي منطق''' (ٽرم لاجڪ) کي منظم صورت ڏني.{{sfnm|1a1=Kline|1y=1972|1loc=&quot;A major achievement of Aristotle was the founding of the science of logic&quot;, p. 53|2a1=Łukasiewicz|2y=1957|2p=7|3a1=Liu|3a2=Guo|3y=2023|3p=15}} هن [[شرطي قياس]] (ھيپوٿيٽيڪل سلاجزم){{sfn|Lear|1980|p=34}} ۽ [[زماني موڊل منطق]] (ٽيمپورل موڊل لاجڪ) جي به بنياد وڌي.{{sfnm|1a1=Knuuttila|1y=1980|1p=71|2a1=Fisher|2a2=Gabbay|2a3=Vila|2y=2005|2p=119}} ارسطو [[استقرائي منطق]] (انڊڪٽو لاجڪ){{sfn|Berman|2009|p=133}} ۽ نون منطقي تصورن، جهڙوڪ [[اصطلاح]]، [[محموليت]] (پريڊيڪبلز)، قياس ۽ تجويزن تي پڻ اهم بحث ڪيو. ارسطوي منطق کي قديم ۽ وچئين دور ۾، يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر ٻنهي ۾ وڏي اهميت حاصل رهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} ۽ اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي شروعات تائين اهو غالب منطقي نظام رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} اڄ جي دور ۾ جيتوڻيڪ ان جي جاءِ جديد منطق ورتي آهي، پر ان جا ڪيترائي بنيادي خيال اڃا به جديد منطقي نظامن ۾ موجود آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|loc=1. Introduction}}

[[ابن سينا]] (ايويسينا) ابن سيناوي منطق جو باني هو، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] جي ميدان ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ ورتي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hasse|1y=2008|2a1=Lagerlund|2y=2018}} سندس خيالن جو اثر [[البرٽس ميگنس]] ۽ [[وليم آف اوڪهم]] جهڙن يورپي مفڪرن تي به پيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Washell|1y=1973|1pp=445–450|2a1=Kneale|2a2=Kneale|2y=1962|2pp=229, 266}} ابن سينا شرطي قياس{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} ۽ [[تجويزي منطق]] (پروپوزيشنل ڪلڪيولس){{sfn|Goodman|1992|p=188}} تي اهم تحريرون لکيون. هن زماني ۽ امڪان کي گڏائيندڙ هڪ نئون قياسي نظريو تيار ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[زماني منطق]] ۽ [[موڊل منطق]] جا عنصر شامل هئا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Spade|loc=Arabic Logic}} هن استقرائي منطق جا به طريقا بيان ڪيا، جهڙوڪ موافقت، اختلاف ۽ گڏيل تبديلي جا طريقا، جيڪي [[سائنسي طريقو|سائنسي طريقي]] لاءِ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا.{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} [[فخر الدين رازي]] پڻ هڪ اثرائتو مسلمان منطق دان هو. هن ارسطوي قياس تي تنقيد ڪئي ۽ استقرائي منطق جو اهڙو ابتدائي نظام پيش ڪيو، جنهن بعد ۾ [[جان اسٽوارٽ مل]] جي استقرائي منطق جي اڳواٽ نشاندهي ڪئي.{{sfn|Iqbal|2013|pp=99–115|loc=The Spirit of Muslim Culture}}

وچئين دور ۾ ارسطو جي منطقي ڪتابن جا ڪيترائي ترجما ۽ تشريحون تيار ڪيون ويون. [[بوئٿيوس]] جا ڪم خاص طور تي گهڻو اثرائتا رهيا. هن نه رڳو ارسطو جي تصنيفن کي لاطيني ۾ ترجمو ڪيو، پر منطق بابت درسي ڪتاب پڻ لکيا.{{sfnm|1a1=Marenbon|1y=2021|1loc=Introduction; 3. The Logical Text-Books|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade}} بعد ۾ ابن سينا ۽ [[ابن رشد]] (ايوريس) جهڙن اسلامي فلسفين جي تحريرن مان پڻ فائدو ورتو ويو، جنهن سان وچئين دور جي عيسائي عالمن کي قديم يوناني فڪر تائين وڌيڪ رسائي ملي. سنه 1323ع ۾ وليم آف اوڪهم جو مشهور ڪتاب ''{{lang|la|[[Summa Logicae]]}}'' شايع ٿيو، جيڪو منطق جو جامع رسالو آهي ۽ جنهن ۾ منطقي تجويزن، انهن جي قسمن ۽ سندن صدق جي شرطن بابت منظم بحث ڪيو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|2a1=Hasse|2y=2008|3a1=Spade|3a2=Panaccio|3y=2019}}

چيني فلسفي ۾ [[نالن جو مذهب]] (اسڪول آف نيمز) ۽ [[موهزم]] (Mohism) خاص اهميت رکندا هئا. نالن جي مذهب ٻوليءَ جي استعمال ۽ منطقي تضادن تي ڌيان ڏنو. مثال طور [[گونگسن لانگ]] مشهور ''اڇي گهوڙي جو تضاد'' (وائيٽ ھارس پيراڊوڪس) پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ دليل ڏنو ويو ته &quot;اڇو گهوڙو، گهوڙو ناهي.&quot; موهزم پڻ منطق ۾ ٻوليءَ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪيو ۽ ان کي اخلاقيات سان ڳنڍڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Willman|1y=2022|2a1=Rošker|2y=2015|2pp=301–309}}

هندستان ۾ منطق جو مطالعو بنيادي طور [[نيايه]]، [[ٻڌ مت]] ۽ [[جين مت]] جي فڪري روايتن ۾ ٿيو. ان کي الڳ علمي شعبي طور نه، پر علمُ المعرفت، مناظري ۽ استدلال جي بحثن جي حصي طور سمجهيو ويندو هو.{{sfn|Sarukkai|Chakraborty|2022|pp=117–118}} نيايه فلسفي ۾ استدلال کي علم حاصل ڪرڻ جو هڪ ذريعو (''[[پرمان]]'') سمجهيو ويو، جيڪو مشاهدي کان پوءِ شين جي سببن بابت نتيجا ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو.{{sfnm|1a1=Dasti|1loc=Lead section; 1b. Inference|2a1=Mills|2y=2018|2p=121}} ٻڌ ۽ جين منطق ۾ به استدلال کي ٻين ذريعن مان حاصل ٿيل علم کي وڌائڻ جو وسيلو سمجهيو ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Emmanuel|1y=2015|1pp=320–322|2a1=Vidyabhusana|2y=1988|2p=221}} نيايه جي پوئين دور جي [[نويا نيايه]] روايت جا ڪيئي خيال جديد منطق سان ملندڙ جلندڙ آهن، جهڙوڪ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جو ''معنيٰ ۽ مرجع'' (سينس اينڊ ريفرنس) وارو فرق ۽ انگ جي تعريف.{{sfn|Chakrabarti|1976|pp=554–563}}

ارسطو جي قياسي منطق اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي وچ تائين غالب رهي، پر رياضيات جي بنيادن بابت وڌندڙ دلچسپي جديد علامتي منطق جي ترقي جو سبب بڻي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Haaparanta|2y=2009|2pp=3–5|2loc=1. Introduction}} گهڻا محقق [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جي ''[[بيگرفس شرفٽ]]'' (Begriffsschrift) کي جديد منطق جي شروعات سمجهن ٿا. [[گوٽفريڊ وِلهم لائبنٽس]] جي [[عالمي رسمي ٻولي]] (ڪئريڪٽرسٽڪا يونيورسلس) جو تصور ان جو اڳواٽ اشارو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. ٻين اهم اڳواڻن ۾ [[جارج بول]] شامل آهي، جنهن [[بولي الجبرا]] (بوليئن آلجبرا) کي منطقي رياضيائي نظام طور پيش ڪيو، ۽ [[چارلس سينڊرس پيرس]]، جنهن [[لاڳاپن جي منطق]] (لاجڪ آگ رليٽوز) کي ترقي ڏني. بعد ۾ [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] انهن خيالن کي پنهنجي مشهور ڪتاب '' پرنسپيا ميٿميٽيڪا'' ۾ منظم ڪيو.

جديد منطق نوان تصور متعارف ڪرايا، جهڙوڪ [[تابع]] (فنڪشن)، مقدارساز (ڪونٽيفائر) ۽ لاڳاپائي محمول (رليشنل پريڊيڪيٽس). جديد علامتي منطق جي نمايان خاصيت رسمي ٻوليءَ جو استعمال آهي، جنهن ذريعي منطقي اصولن کي نهايت درست نموني بيان ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان لحاظ کان اهو اڳين منطق دانن کان مختلف آهي، جيڪي بنيادي طور قدرتي ٻوليءَ تي ڀاڙيندا هئا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900}} خاص طور تي [[اول-درجي منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) جي ترقي جديد منطق ۾ بنيادي حيثيت اختيار ڪئي.{{sfn|Ewald|2019}} ان جي تجزياتي وسعت رياضيات کي رسمي صورت ڏيڻ، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] جي ترقي ۽ [[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) جي قيام لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪيو، ۽ اهو جديد [[رياضياتي منطق]] جو مرڪزي نظام بڻجي ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Schreiner|2y=2021|2p=22}}

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (ڪوانٽيفڪيشن) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}

==تحقيق جا شعبا==

منطق جو مطالعو مختلف علمي شعبن ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪيترن ئي حالتن ۾ ان جي رسمي طريقن کي انهن موضوعن تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي پاڻ منطق جي دائري کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[اخلاقيات]] يا [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Logic and other disciplines|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10}}

ٻين حالتن ۾ خود منطق ئي ڪنهن ٻئي علمي شعبي ۾ تحقيق جو موضوع بڻجي ٿي. اهو مختلف طريقن سان ٿي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، منطق جي بنيادي تصورن سان لاڳاپيل فلسفياتي مفروضن جو جائزو وٺڻ، منطقي نظامن کي رياضيائي بناوتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جو تجزيو ڪرڻ، يا رسمي منطقي نظامن جي تجريدي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ۽ ڀيٽ ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Features and problems of logic|2a1=Gödel|2y=1984|2pp=447–469|2loc=Russell's mathematical logic|3a1=Monk|3y=1976|3pp=1–9|3loc=Introduction}}

===منطق جو فلسفو ۽ فلسفياتي منطق===
{{Main|منطق جو فلسفو|فلسفياتي منطق}}

'''منطق جو فلسفو''' (فلاسافي آف لاجڪ) فلسفي جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطق جي دائري، ماهيت ۽ بنيادي نوعيت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} ان ۾ انهن ڪيترن ئي مفروضن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيڪي منطق ۾ ضمني طور قبول ڪيا ويندا آهن، جيئن ان جي بنيادي تصورن جي تعريف يا انهن سان لاڳاپيل [[مابعدالطبيعات|مابعدالطبيعي]] مفروضا.{{sfn|Jacquette|2006|loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|pp=1–12}}

هي شعبي منطقي نظامن جي درجابندي ۽ انهن سان وابسته [[وجوديات|وجودياتي]] وابستگين (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪمٽمينٽ) جو پڻ مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=§Problems of ontology}}

'''فلسفياتي منطق''' (فلاسافيڪل لاجڪ) منطق جي فلسفي جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطقي طريقن کي فلسفي جي مسئلن تي لاڳو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Burgess|2y=2009|2loc=1. Classical logic}}
اهو استعمال گهڻو ڪري [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي]] يا [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظامن]] جي صورت ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Goble|1y=2001|1loc=Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32}}

===مابعد منطق===
{{Main|مابعد منطق}}

'''مابعد منطق''' (ميٽالاجڪ) اهو علمي شعبو آهي، جيڪو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.

مثال طور، جڏهن ڪو نئون رسمي منطقي نظام تيار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ته مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو معلوم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته ان نظام ۾ ڪهڙا فارمولا ثابت ڪري سگهجن ٿا. اهي اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته ڇا اهڙو [[الگورٿم]] تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو هر فارمولي لاءِ ثبوت ڳولي سگهي، ۽ ڇا ان نظام ۾ هر قابلِ ثبوت فارمولو لازمي طور [[منطقي صداقت]] (Tautology) آهي.

اهي مختلف منطقي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ تقابلي مطالعو پڻ ڪندا آهن ته جيئن انهن جون منفرد خاصيتون واضح ٿي سگهن.

مابعد منطق جو هڪ بنيادي موضوع [[نحو]] (سنٽيڪس) ۽ [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) جي وچ ۾ تعلق آهي. رسمي منطقي نظام جا نحوي ضابطا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدمات مان نتيجا ڪيئن اخذ ڪيا وڃن، يعني ثبوت ڪيئن ترتيب ڏنا وڃن. جڏهن⁠ته معنيات اهو طئي ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙا جملا سچا آهن ۽ ڪهڙا ڪوڙا. انهيءَ بنياد تي دليل جي صحت جو تعين ڪيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صحيح دليل ۾ اهو ناممڪن هوندو آهي ته مقدمات سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو هجي.

نحو ۽ معنيات جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي بابت اهم سوالن ۾ اهو شامل آهي ته ڇا هر صحيح دليل قابلِ ثبوت آهي، ۽ ڇا هر قابلِ ثبوت دليل لازمي طور صحيح به هوندو آهي.

مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته منطقي نظام [[مڪمليت]] (ڪمپليٽنيس)، [[صحت (منطق)|صحت]] (سائونڊنيس) ۽ [[هم آهنگي (منطق)|هم آهنگي]] (ڪنسسٽنسي) جون خاصيتون رکن ٿا يا نه. ان کان علاوه، اهي اهو به ڏسندا آهن ته اهي نظام [[فيصلي پذيري]] (ڊسائيڊبلٽي) رکن ٿا يا نه، ۽ انهن جي [[اظهاري قوت]] ڪيتري آهي.

انهن موضوعن جي تحقيق دوران مابعد منطق گهڻو ڪري تجريدي رياضيائي استدلال تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جنهن جو مقصد انهن مسئلن بابت صحيح، عام ۽ جامع نتيجا حاصل ڪرڻ هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1pp=xliii–xliv|2a1=Sider|2y=2010|2pp=4–6|3a1=Schagrin}}

===رياضيائي منطق===
{{Main|رياضيائي منطق}}

[[File:Russell1907-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=برٽرينڊ رسل جو تصوير|[[برٽرينڊ رسل]] رياضيائي منطق جي ترقي ۾ ڪيترائي اهم علمي حصا ورتا.{{sfn|Irvine|2022}}]]

اصطلاح '''رياضيائي منطق''' (ميٿميٽيڪل لاجڪ) ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[رسمي منطق]] جي مترادف طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر وڌيڪ محدود معنيٰ ۾ اهو رياضيات جي اندر منطق جي مطالعي ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. ان جون اهم شاخون [[ماڊل نظريو]]، [[ثبوت جو نظريو]]، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) ۽ [[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Li|1y=2010|1p=ix|2a1=Rautenberg|2y=2010|2p=15|3a1=Quine|3y=1981|3p=1|4a1=Stolyar|4y=1984|4p=2}}

رياضيائي منطق جي تحقيق جو وڏو حصو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي رياضيائي خاصيتن جي مطالعي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. ان سان گڏ اهو پڻ ڏٺو ويندو آهي ته منطق کي رياضيائي استدلال جي تجزيي يا [[رياضيات جا بنياد|رياضيات جي منطقي بنيادن]] جي قيام لاءِ ڪيئن استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfn|Stolyar|1984|pp=3–6}}

ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ رياضيائي منطق جو هڪ اهم مقصد [[منطق پرستي]] (لاجڪئزم) واري پروگرام کي اڳتي وڌائڻ هو، جنهن جي شروعات [[گاٽلوب فريگي]]، [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] جهڙن فلسفي-منطق دانن ڪئي هئي. هن پروگرام موجب سڀئي رياضيائي نظريا اصل ۾ منطقي [[منطقي صداقت|صداقتون]] (Tautologies) آهن، ۽ ان کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ رياضيات کي منطق تائين محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي. پر هن پروگرام کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جون گهڻيون ڪوششون ناڪام ويون. مثال طور، فريگي جو منصوبو سندس ڪتاب '' گرُنڊگيزيٽسي:Grundgesetze'' (بنيادي قانون) ۾ [[رسل جو تضاد|رسل جي تضاد]] سبب متاثر ٿيو، جڏهن⁠ته [[هلبرٽ جو پروگرام]] [[گوڊل جا نامڪمليت جا نظريا|گوڊل جي نامڪمليت جي نظرين]] سبب ناڪام ثابت ٿيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|1loc=Gödel's incompleteness theorems|2a1=Linsky|2y=2011|2p=4|3a1=Richardson|3y=1998|3p=15}}

[[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) جي شروعات [[جارج ڪينٽر]] لامحدوديت جي مطالعي دوران ڪئي. هي شعبي رياضيائي منطق جي ڪيترن ئي اهم ۽ پيچيده مسئلن جو سرچشمو بڻيو، جن ۾ [[ڪينٽر جو نظريو]]، [[اختيار جو اصول]] (اگزيوم آف چوائس)، [[مسلسل مفروضي]] (ڪنٽينيوئم ھيپوٿيسز) جي آزاديءَ جو سوال، ۽ [[وڏي ڪارڊينل]] (لارج ڪارڊينل) اصولن بابت جديد بحث شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Bagaria|1y=2021|2a1=Cunningham}}

[[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) رياضيائي منطق جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا حسابي مسئلن کي حل ڪرڻ لاءِ مؤثر طريقن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان جو هڪ بنيادي مقصد اهو معلوم ڪرڻ آهي ته ڪنهن خاص مسئلي کي [[الگورٿم]] ذريعي حل ڪرڻ ممڪن آهي يا نه. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صحيح عددن بابت ڪو خاص دعويٰ ڏني وڃي، ته هي شعبي اهو جاچيندو آهي ته ڇا اهڙو الگورٿم تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو اهو طئي ڪري سگهي ته اها دعويٰ صحيح آهي يا غلط. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ [[ٽيورنگ مشين]] (Turing machine) سميت مختلف نظرياتي ماڊلن ۽ اوزارن کي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006a|1loc=Computability Theory|2a1=Leary|2a2=Kristiansen|2y=2015|2p=195}}

===حسابياتي منطق===
{{Main|حسابياتي منطق|ڪمپيوٽر سائنس ۾ منطق}}

[[File:TransistorANDgate.png|thumb|ٽرانزسٽرن جي مدد سان تيار ڪيل هڪ AND گيٽ جو خاڪو. [[منطقي عطف]] (AND) [[بولين منطق]] جي بنيادي عملن مان هڪ آهي، جنهن کي برقي طور مختلف طريقن سان، مثال طور ٻن [[ٽرانزسٽر]]ن ذريعي، عمل ۾ آڻي سگهجي ٿو.]]

'''حسابياتي منطق''' (ڪمپيوٽيشنل لاجڪ) منطق ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ڪمپيوٽرن جي ذريعي رياضيائي استدلال ۽ رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عملي صورت ڏيڻ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان ۾، مثال طور، [[خودڪار نظريي ثابت ڪندڙ]] (آٽوميٽڪ ٿيورم پروور) شامل آهن، جيڪي [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] استعمال ڪندي، بغير انساني مداخلت جي، مقدمات مان گهربل نتيجي تائين مرحليوار ثبوت تيار ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Paulson|1y=2018|1pp=1–14|2a1=Castaño|2y=2018|2p=2|3a1=Wile|3a2=Goss|3a3=Roesner|3y=2005|3p=447}}

[[منطقي پروگرامنگ]] (لاجڪ پروگرامنگ) جون ٻوليون خاص طور اهڙي نموني تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن، جو حقيقتن کي منطقي فارمولن جي صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ۽ انهن مان استدلال ذريعي نوان نتيجا اخذ ڪري سگهجن. مثال طور، [[پرولاگ]] (Prolog) محمولي منطق تي ٻڌل هڪ منطقي پروگرامنگ ٻولي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Clocksin|1a2=Mellish|1y=2003|1pp=237–238, 252–255, 257|1loc=The Relation of Prolog to Logic|2a1=Daintith|2a2=Wright|2y=2008|2loc=Logic Programming Languages}}

ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽنگ سان لاڳاپيل مسئلن جي حل لاءِ پڻ منطقي تصورن کي استعمال ڪندا آهن. هن ميدان ۾ [[ڪلاڊ شينن]] جو ڪم انتهائي اثرائتو رهيو، جنهن ڏيکاريو ته [[بولين منطق]] کي ڪمپيوٽرن جي برقي سرڪٽن کي سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=O'Regan|1y=2016|1p=49|2a1=Calderbank|2a2=Sloane|2y=2001|2p=768}}

اهو ڪم [[منطقي دروازو|منطقي دروازن]] (لاجڪ گيٽ) ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي اهڙا برقي سرڪٽ هوندا آهن، جن ۾ هڪ يا وڌيڪ ان پُٽ ۽ عام طور هڪ آئوٽ پُٽ هوندو آهي. انهن ۾ منطقي قضين جي صداقت جا قدر برقي وولٽيج جي سطحن جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهڙيءَ طرح، سرڪٽ جي ان پُٽن تي مناسب وولٽيج لاڳو ڪري ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ جي وولٽيج کي ماپي، مختلف منطقي عملن جي نقل (سميوليشن) ڪئي ويندي آهي.{{sfn|Daintith|Wright|2008|loc=Logic Gate}}

===قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات===
{{Main|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات}}

'''قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) منطق، [[لسانيات]] ۽ [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]] جي گڏيل ذيلي شاخ آهي. [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) ٻوليءَ جي معنائن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته رسمي معنيات علامتي منطق ۽ رياضيات جا رسمي اوزار استعمال ڪندي [[قدرتي ٻولي]] جي اظهارَن جي معنائن بابت درست ۽ منظم نظريا پيش ڪري ٿي.

رسمي معنيات عام طور معنٰي کي [[صدق جون شرطون]] (ٽرٿ ڪنڊيشنر) سان وابسته ڪري سمجهي ٿي؛ يعني اها جاچ ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙين حالتن ۾ ڪو جملو سچو يا ڪوڙو ٿيندو. هن شعبي جي بنيادي اصولن مان هڪ [[ترڪيبي اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) آهي، جنهن موجب ڪنهن پيچيده اظهار جي معنٰي ان جي جزن جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي پاڻ ۾ ڳانڍاپي جي طريقي سان طئي ٿيندي آهي. مثال طور، فعل واري فقري &quot;هلڻ ۽ ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنٰي انفرادي اظهارَن &quot;هلڻ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.

رسمي معنيات جا ڪيترائي نظريا [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. ان جو مطلب آهي ته اهي [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) استعمال ڪري هڪ نمونو (ماڊل) تيار ڪندا آهن ۽ پوءِ ان نموني جي عنصرن جي حوالي سان ٻوليءَ جي اظهارَن جي معنائن جي تشريح ڪندا آهن. مثال طور، اصطلاح &quot;هلڻ&quot; کي نموني ۾ موجود انهن سڀني فردن جي مجموعي طور سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي هلڻ جي خاصيت رکن ٿا.

هن شعبي جا شروعاتي ۽ اثرائتا مفڪر [[رچرڊ مونٽيگ]] ۽ [[باربرا پارٽي]] هئا، جن پنهنجي تجزين جو بنيادي مرڪز انگريزي ٻوليءَ کي بڻايو.{{sfnm|1a1=Janssen|1a2=Zimmermann|1y=2021|1pp=3–4|2a1=Partee|2y=2016|3a1=King|3y=2009|3pp=557–558|4a1=Aloni|4a2=Dekker|4y=2016|4pp=22–23}}

===منطق جي علمُ المعرفت===
{{Main|منطق جي علمُ المعرفت}}

'''منطق جو علمُ المعرفت''' (ايپسٽيمولاجي آف لاجڪ) هن ڳالهه جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو ته انسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوي ٿي ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا ڪا تجويز منطقي طور سچي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Schechter}} هن ۾ اهڙا سوال شامل آهن، جيئن: {{lang|la|modus ponens}} استدلال جو صحيح قاعدو ڇو آهي؟ يا تضاد هميشه ڪوڙا ڇو سمجهيا وڃن ٿا؟{{sfn|Warren|2020|loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic}}

روايتي طور تي غالب نظريو اهو رهيو آهي ته اهڙي قسم جي منطقي ڄاڻ [[قبلي علم]] (''a priori'') سان واسطو رکي ٿي.{{sfn|Schechter}} هن نظرئي موجب، اڪثر اهو دليل ڏنو ويندو آهي ته [[ذهن]] وٽ هڪ خاص صلاحيت هوندي آهي، جيڪا خالص خيالن جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي پرکڻ جي قابل هوندي آهي، ۽ اها ئي صلاحيت منطقي سچائين کي سمجهڻ جو ذريعو پڻ آهي.{{sfn|Gómez-Torrente|2019}}

هڪ ٻيو ويجهو نظريو منطق جي قاعدن کي [[اصطلاحيت]] (ڪنوينشنلزم) يا لساني روايتن جي بنياد تي سمجهي ٿو. هن راءِ موجب، منطق جا قانون تعريف جي لحاظ کان سچا آهن، تنهنڪري اهي بنيادي طور غيرتڪراري آهن؛ اهي رڳو منطقي اصطلاحن جي معنائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Gómez-Torrente|2y=2019|3a1=Warren|3y=2020|3loc=1. What is Conventionalism}}

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[هلري پٽنم]] ۽ [[پينيلوپي ميڊي]]، هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪن ٿا ته منطق کي مڪمل طور قبلي علم ذريعي ڄاڻي سگهجي ٿو. انهن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي سچايون [[تجربي تي ٻڌل علم]] (امپريڪل نالج) سان به لاڳاپيل آهن. هن راءِ کي عام طور ان دعويٰ سان گڏ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي ته منطق جا قانون دنيا جي بناوت ۾ موجود عام ۽ آفاقي قاعدن جو اظهار ڪن ٿا. ان مطابق، انهن قاعدن کي [[بنيادي سائنسون|بنيادي سائنسن]] ۾ موجود عام نمونن ۽ اصولن جي مطالعي ذريعي به سمجهي سگهجي ٿو.

مثال طور، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم ميڪانيات]] جون ڪجهه دريافتون روايتي منطق جي [[ورڇ جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڊسٽريبيوٽوٽي) کي چئلينج ڪن ٿيون، جنهن موجب فارمولو &lt;math&gt;A \land (B \lor C)&lt;/math&gt; هم معنيٰ آهي &lt;math&gt;(A \land B) \lor (A \land C)&lt;/math&gt; سان. هن دعويٰ کي ان ڳالهه جي تجربي تي ٻڌل دليل طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم منطق]] روايتي منطق کان وڌيڪ مناسب منطقي نظام آهي، ۽ ان کي روايتي منطق جي جاءِ وٺڻ گهرجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Chua|1y=2017|1pp=631–636|2a1=Wilce|2y=2021|3a1=Putnam|3y=1969|3pp=216–241}}


* جملاتي منطق


==پڻ ڏسو==
{{Portal|فلسفو}}
{{Columns list|
* {{annotated link|منطق جي اصطلاحن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جو خاڪو}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جي تحقيقي رسالن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي نشانين جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق دانن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي ڳجهارت}}
* {{annotated link|لوگوس}}
* {{annotated link|ویکٽر منطق}}
}}

==حوالا==

===وضاحتي نوٽ===
{{notelist}}
&lt;references group=&quot;lower-alpha&quot;/&gt;
===حوالا===
{{reflist|1=30em}}

===ڪتابيات===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Aloni |first1=Maria |author1-link=ماريا الوني |last2=Dekker |first2=Paul |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics |date=7 July 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-55273-5 |pages=22–23 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Angell |first1=Richard B. |title=Reasoning and Logic |date=1964 |publisher=Ardent Media |page=164 |language=en |oclc=375322 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Informal logic |year=1999a |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |page=435 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Philosophy of logic |year=1999b |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |pages=679–681 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Backmann |first1=Marius |title=Varieties of Justification—How (Not) to Solve the Problem of Induction |journal=Acta Analytica |date=1 June 2019 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=235–255 |doi=10.1007/s12136-018-0371-6 |s2cid=125767384 |language=en |issn=1874-6349 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bagaria |first1=Joan |author-link=جوان باگاريا |title=Set Theory |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/set-theory/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=23 September 2022 |year=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Jonathan |title=Truth, etc.: Six Lectures on Ancient Logic |date=25 January 2007 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-151574-3 |page=274 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Benthem |first1=Johan van |title=Modal Logic: Contemporary View: 1. Modal Notions and Reasoning Patterns: a First Pass |url=https://iep.utm.edu/modal-lo/#H1 |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=11 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berlemann |first1=Lars |last2=Mangold |first2=Stefan |title=Cognitive Radio and Dynamic Spectrum Access |date=10 July 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-0-470-75443-6 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berman |first1=Harold J. |title=Law and Revolution, the Formation of the Western Legal Tradition |date=1 July 2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02085-6 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bimbó |first1=Katalin |author-link=ڪيٽلن بمبو |title=J. Michael Dunn on Information Based Logics |date=2 April 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-29300-4 |pages=8–9 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=1 January 2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |language=en |chapter=argument |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194756/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=24 March 2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |language=en |chapter=rule of inference |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194809/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=The Current State of Informal Logic |journal=Informal Logic |year=1987 |volume=9 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v9i2.2671 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230194638/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |url-status=live |pages=147–151 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=Informal Logic: An Overview |journal=Informal Logic |year=2000 |volume=20 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v20i2.2262 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209195317/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |url-status=live |pages=93–107 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |title=Groundwork in the Theory of Argumentation: Selected Papers of J. Anthony Blair |date=20 October 2011 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-007-2363-4 |page=47 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bobzien |first1=Susanne |author-link=سوزاني بوبزين |title=Ancient Logic: 2. Aristotle |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=3 January 2022 |year=2020 |archive-date=28 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828102117/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Borchert |editor1-first=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 2 |edition=2nd |date=2006a |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |isbn=978-0-02-865782-0 |chapter=Computability Theory |pages=372–390 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 4 |edition=2nd |date=2006b |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Induction |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865784-4 |pages=635–648 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 5 |edition=2nd |date=2006c |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Logic, Non-Classical |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865785-1 |pages=485–492 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bridges |first1=Douglas |last2=Ishihara |first2=Hajime |last3=Rathjen |first3=Michael |last4=Schwichtenberg |first4=Helmut |title=Handbook of Constructive Mathematics |date=30 April 2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-51086-5 |pages=73–74 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Brody |first=Boruch A. |title=Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=2006 |publisher=Thomson Gale/Macmillan Reference US |others=Donald M. Borchert |isbn=978-0-02-865780-6 |edition=2nd |volume=5 |pages=535–536 |oclc=61151356 |quote=The two most important types of logical calculi are propositional (or sentential) calculi and functional (or predicate) calculi. A propositional calculus is a system containing propositional variables and connectives (some also contain propositional constants) but not individual or functional variables or constants. In the extended propositional calculus, quantifiers whose operator variables are propositional variables are added. }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bunnin |first1=Nicholas |last2=Yu |first2=Jiyuan |title=The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy |date=27 January 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9112-8 |page=179 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Burgess |first1=John P. |author-link=جان پي. برجس |title=Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |chapter=1. Classical logic |pages=1–12 |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216143954/https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-691-15633-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bäck |first1=Allan T. |title=Aristotle's Theory of Predication |date=2016 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-32109-0 |page=317 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Calderbank |first1=Robert |last2=Sloane |first2=Neil J. A. |title=Claude Shannon (1916–2001) |journal=Nature |date=April 2001 |volume=410 |issue=6830 |page=768 |doi=10.1038/35071223 |pmid=11298432 |s2cid=4402158 |language=en |issn=1476-4687 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Carnielli |first1=Walter |last2=Pizzi |first2=Claudio |title=Modalities and Multimodalities |date=2008 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-8590-1 |page=3 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Castaño |first1=Arnaldo Pérez |title=Practical Artificial Intelligence: Machine Learning, Bots, and Agent Solutions Using C# |date=23 May 2018 |publisher=Apress |isbn=978-1-4842-3357-3 |page=2 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Chakrabarti |first1=Kisor Kumar |title=Some Comparisons Between Frege's Logic and Navya-Nyaya Logic |journal=Philosophy and Phenomenological Research |date=June 1976 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=554–563 |doi=10.2307/2106873 |jstor=2106873 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chatfield |first1=Tom |title=Critical Thinking: Your Guide to Effective Argument, Successful Analysis and Independent Study |date=2017 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-5264-1877-7 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chua |first1=Eugene |title=Logic, Rationality, and Interaction |chapter=An Empirical Route to Logical 'Conventionalism' |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |date=2017 |volume=10455 |pages=631–636 |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-55665-8_43 |isbn=978-3-662-55664-1 |chapter-url=https://philpapers.org/rec/CHUAER }}
* {{cite book |last1=Clocksin |first1=William F. |last2=Mellish |first2=Christopher S. |title=Programming in Prolog: Using the ISO Standard |date=2003 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-55481-0 |pages=237–257 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 |language=en |chapter=The Relation of Prolog to Logic |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cook |first1=Roy T. |title=Dictionary of Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-3197-1 |language=en |page=124 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Copi |first1=Irving M. |author1-link=ارونگ ڪوپي |last2=Cohen |first2=Carl |last3=Rodych |first3=Victor |title=Introduction to Logic |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-38697-5 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Corkum |first1=Philip |title=Generality and Logical Constancy |journal=Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia |year=2015 |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=753–767 |doi=10.17990/rpf/2015_71_4_0753 |jstor=43744657 |issn=0870-5283 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Craig |first1=Edward |author-link=ايڊورڊ ڪريگ (فلسفي) |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=1996 |publisher=Routledge |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116111145/https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-07310-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cummings |first1=Louise |title=The Routledge Pragmatics Encyclopedia |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-21457-9 |page=1 |language=en |chapter=Abduction }}
* {{cite web |last1=Cunningham |first1=Daniel |title=Set Theory |url=https://iep.utm.edu/set-theo/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=23 September 2022 }}

* {{cite journal |last1=D'Agostino |first1=Marcello |last2=Floridi |first2=Luciano |title=The Enduring Scandal of Deduction: Is Propositional Logic Really Uninformative? |journal=Synthese |year=2009 |volume=167 |issue=2 |pages=271–315 |doi=10.1007/s11229-008-9409-4 |jstor=40271192 |hdl=2299/2995 |hdl-access=free |s2cid=9602882 |language=en |issn=0039-7857 }}
* {{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Computing |isbn=978-0-19-923400-4 |last1=Daintith |first1=John |last2=Wright |first2=Edmund |date=2008 |publisher=OUP }}
* {{cite book |last=van Dalen |first=Dirk |author-link=ڊرڪ وان ڊالن |year=1994 |title=Logic and Structure |publisher=Springer |at=Chapter 1.5 |isbn=978-0-387-57839-2 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dasti |first1=Matthew R. |title=Nyaya |url=https://iep.utm.edu/nyaya/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=12 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Dick |first1=Anthony S. |last2=Müller |first2=Ulrich |title=Advancing Developmental Science: Philosophy, Theory, and Method |date=2017 |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-1-351-70456-4 |page=157 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Douven |first1=Igor |author-link=ايگور ڊاووين |title=Abduction |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |year=2021 |access-date=24 August 2021 |archive-date=7 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907202119/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dowden |first1=Bradley |author-link=بريڊلي ڊائوڊن |title=Fallacies |url=https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=19 March 2021 |archive-date=29 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100429214410/https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |title=Pondering on Problems of Argumentation: Twenty Essays on Theoretical Issues |date=2009 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-9165-0 |page=191 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |last3=Krabbe |first3=Erik C. W. |last4=Snoeck Henkemans |first4=A. Francisca |last5=Verheij |first5=Bart |last6=Wagemans |first6=Jean H. M. |title=Handbook of Argumentation Theory |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-94-007-6883-3 |pages=1–45 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |language=en |chapter=Informal Logic |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231172324/https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |url-status=live |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGarssenKrabbeSnoeck_Henkemans }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Grootendorst |first2=Rob |last3=Johnson |first3=Ralph H. |last4=Plantin |first4=Christian |last5=Willard |first5=Charles A. |title=Fundamentals of Argumentation Theory: A Handbook of Historical Backgrounds and Contemporary Developments |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-68804-1 |page=169 |language=en |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGrootendorstJohnsonPlantin }}
* {{cite book |last1=Emmanuel |first1=Steven M. |title=A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy |date=2015 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-119-14466-3 |pages=320–322 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Enderton |first=Herbert |author-link=هربرٽ اينڊرٽن |year=2001 |title=A Mathematical Introduction to Logic |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-238452-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Engel |first1=S. Morris |title=With Good Reason an Introduction to Informal Fallacies |date=1982 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=1 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301065815/https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-312-08479-0 |publisher=St. Martin's Press }}
* {{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Jonathan St. B. T. |editor1-last=Morrison |editor1-first=Robert |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82417-0 |page=169 |language=en |chapter=8. Deductive Reasoning }}
* {{cite web |last1=Ewald |first1=William |title=The Emergence of First-Order Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-firstorder-emergence/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=12 March 2023 |date=2019 }}

* {{cite web |last1=Falguera |first1=José L. |last2=Martínez-Vidal |first2=Concha |last3=Rosen |first3=Gideon |title=Abstract Objects |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=7 January 2022 |year=2021 |archive-date=22 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122003334/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Falikowski |first1=Anthony |last2=Mills |first2=Susan |title=Experiencing Philosophy |edition=2nd |date=2022 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=978-1-77048-841-0 |page=98 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=Michael David |last2=Gabbay |first2=Dov M. |last3=Vila |first3=Lluis |title=Handbook of Temporal Reasoning in Artificial Intelligence |date=2005 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-053336-0 |page=119 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fitch |first1=G. W. |title=Saul Kripke |date=18 December 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-48917-7 |page=17 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Flotyński |first1=Jakub |title=Knowledge-Based Explorable Extended Reality Environments |date=7 December 2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-59965-2 |page=39 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Font |first1=Josep Maria |last2=Jansana |first2=Ramon |title=A General Algebraic Semantics for Sentential Logics |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-16797-1 |page=8 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Frede |first1=Michael |title=Aristotle |url=https://pages.mtu.edu/~pcharles/SCIHISTORY/aristotle.html |website=Michigan Technological University |access-date=1 November 2022 |archive-date=21 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921073920/https://pages.mtu.edu/~pcharles/SCIHISTORY/aristotle.html |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |last1=Friend |first1=Michele |title=Introducing Philosophy of Mathematics |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-49379-2 |page=101 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Gamut |first=L.T.F. |author-link=ايل. ٽي. ايف. گيمٽ |date=1991 |title=Logic, Language and Meaning Vol 1: Introduction to Logic |publisher=University of Chicago Press |at=5.5 |isbn=978-0-226-28085-1 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Garson |first1=James |title=Modal Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-modal/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2023 }}
* {{cite book |last=Gensler |first=Harry J. |date=2006 |title=The A to Z of Logic |pages=xliii–xliv |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-1-4617-3182-5 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goble |first1=Lou |title=The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic |date=2001 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/GOBTBG-2 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184959/https://philpapers.org/rec/GOBTBG-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-631-20692-7 |pages=1–8 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goodman |first1=Lenn Evan |title=Avicenna |date=1992 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-01929-3 |page=188 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goodman |first1=Lenn Evan |title=Islamic Humanism |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513580-0 |page=155 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Groarke |first1=Louis F. |title=Aristotle: Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=1 January 2022 |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229235433/https://iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Groarke |first1=Leo |title=Informal Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=31 December 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112030519/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Gómez-Torrente |first1=Mario |title=Logical Truth |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-truth/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=22 November 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=2 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002190110/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-truth/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gödel |first1=Kurt |author1-link=Kurt Gödel |editor1-last=Benacerraf |editor1-first=Paul |editor2-last=Putnam |editor2-first=Hilary |title=Philosophy of Mathematics: Selected Readings |date=1984 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29648-9 |pages=447–469 |edition=2nd |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/philosophy-of-mathematics/russells-mathematical-logic/4D82F215FABFE06149D03EF1EF5BE7E4 |chapter=Russell's mathematical logic |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111091740/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/philosophy-of-mathematics/russells-mathematical-logic/4D82F215FABFE06149D03EF1EF5BE7E4 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hájek |first1=Petr |title=Fuzzy Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/Archives/Win2012/entries/logic-fuzzy/ |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |language=en |date=3 September 2006 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hájek |first1=Alan |last2=Lin |first2=Hanti |title=A Tale of Two Epistemologies? |journal=Res Philosophica |year=2017 |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=207–232 |doi=10.11612/resphil.1540 |s2cid=160029122 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HJEATO |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104182746/https://philpapers.org/rec/HJEATO |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Cordelia |last2=O'Donnell |first2=John |title=Discrete Mathematics Using a Computer |date=2000 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-85233-089-7 |page=48 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Houde |first1=R. |last2=Camacho |first2=L. |title=New Catholic Encyclopedia |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/electrical-engineering/induction |chapter=Induction |year=2003 |publisher=Thomson/Gale |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171720/https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/electrical-engineering/induction |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-7876-4004-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Deviant Logic: Some Philosophical Issues |date=1974 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-20500-9 |page=51 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Philosophy of Logics |date=1978 |publisher=London and New York: Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HAAPOL-2 |chapter=1. 'Philosophy of logics' |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207200551/https://philpapers.org/rec/HAAPOL-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-521-29329-7 |pages=1–10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Deviant Logic, Fuzzy Logic: Beyond the Formalism |date=1996 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31133-3 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haaparanta |first1=Leila |author1-link=Leila Haaparanta |title=The Development of Modern Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513731-6 |pages=4–6 |chapter=1. Introduction }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hansen |first1=Hans |title=Fallacies |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fallacies/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=18 March 2021 |year=2020 |archive-date=29 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329182946/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fallacies/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hartmann |first1=Stephan |last2=Sprenger |first2=Jan |title=The Routledge Companion to Epistemology |date=2010 |publisher=London: Routledge |pages=609–620 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO |chapter=Bayesian Epistemology |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516095047/https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-96219-3 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hasse |first1=Dag Nikolaus |title=Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-influence/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |date=2008 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hawthorne |first1=James |title=Inductive Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-inductive/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=6 January 2022 |year=2021 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121081805/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-inductive/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Philosophy of logic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-logic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=21 November 2021 |language=en |archive-date=28 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428101732/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/346240/philosophy-of-logic |url-status=live |date=2019 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Logical systems |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic/Logical-systems |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=4 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184656/https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic/Logical-systems |url-status=live |date=2023 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Information, Deduction, and the A Priori |journal=Noûs |year=1970 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=135–152 |doi=10.2307/2214318 |jstor=2214318 |issn=0029-4624 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |last2=Sandu |first2=Gabriel |editor-last=Jacquette |editor-first=D. |title=Philosophy of Logic |date=2006 |publisher=North Holland |pages=13–39 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JAAWIL |chapter=What is Logic? |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207235525/https://philpapers.org/rec/JAAWIL |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-444-51541-4 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |last2=Spade |first2=Paul Vincent |title=History of logic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-logic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Honderich |first1=Ted |author-link=Ted Honderich |title=The Oxford Companion to Philosophy |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=29 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129082636/https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-19-926479-7 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hurley |first1=Patrick J. |title=Logic: The Essentials |date=2015 |publisher=Wadsworth |isbn=978-1-305-59041-0 |language=en |chapter=4. Categorical Syllogisms |pages=189–237 }}
* {{cite web |last1=IEP Staff |title=Deductive and Inductive Arguments |url=https://iep.utm.edu/ded-ind/ |access-date=6 January 2022 |archive-date=28 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528032124/https://iep.utm.edu/ded-ind/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Iqbal |first1=Mohammad |title=The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam |date=2013 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-8686-7 |pages=99–115 |url=http://www.allamaiqbal.com/works/prose/english/reconstruction/ |language=en |chapter=The Spirit of Muslim Culture }}
* {{cite web |last1=Irvine |first1=Andrew David |title=Bertrand Russell |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/russell/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=29 September 2022 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jacquette |first1=Dale |title=Philosophy of Logic |date=2006 |publisher=North Holland |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JACPOL |chapter=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184932/https://philpapers.org/rec/JACPOL |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-444-51541-4 |pages=1–12 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jago |first1=Mark |title=The Impossible: An Essay on Hyperintensionality |date=2014 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-101915-9 |page=41 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Janssen |first1=Theo M. V. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Thomas Ede |title=Montague Semantics |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/montague-semantics/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=10 March 2023 |date=2021 |pages=3–4 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Ralph H. |title=The Relation Between Formal and Informal Logic |journal=Argumentation |year=1999 |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=265–274 |doi=10.1023/A:1007789101256 |s2cid=141283158 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JOHTRB-2 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184706/https://philpapers.org/rec/JOHTRB-2 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Ralph H. |title=The Rise of Informal Logic: Essays on Argumentation, Critical Thinking, Reasoning and Politics |date=15 July 2014 |publisher=University of Windsor |isbn=978-0-920233-71-9 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Ketland |first1=Jeffrey |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 8 |date=2005 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/second-order-logic |chapter=Second Order Logic |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184921/https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/second-order-logic |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865788-2 |pages=707–708 |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA }}
* {{cite book |last1=King |first1=Jeffrey C. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Language |chapter=Formal Semantics |date=2 September 2009 |pages=557–558 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199552238.003.0023 |isbn=978-0-19-955223-8 }}
* {{cite web |last1=King |first1=Jeffrey C. |title=Structured Propositions |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/propositions-structured/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=25 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025211706/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/propositions-structured/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Klement |first1=Kevin C. |title=Propositional Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/prop-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=23 September 2022 |year=1995b |issn=2161-0002 }}
* {{cite book |last=Kline |first=Morris |title=Mathematical Thought From Ancient to Modern Times |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-19-506135-2 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Kneale |first1=William |author-link=William Kneale |last2=Kneale |first2=Martha |author2-link=Martha Kneale |title=The Development of Logic |date=1962 |publisher=Clarendon Press |language=en |isbn=978-0-19-824773-9 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Knuuttila |first1=Simo |title=Reforging the Great Chain of Being: Studies of the History of Modal Theories |date=1980 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-90-277-1125-0 |page=71 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Korb |first1=Kevin |title=Bayesian Informal Logic and Fallacy |journal=Informal Logic |year=2004 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=41–70 |doi=10.22329/il.v24i1.2132 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/KORBIL |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=10 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211110075255/https://philpapers.org/rec/KORBIL |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Koslowski |first1=Barbara |title=International Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-72569-7 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski |chapter=Abductive Reasoning and Explanation |doi=10.4324/9781315725697 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108225144/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski |url-status=live |pages=366–382 }}
* {{cite book |first1=Boris |last1=Kulik |first2=Alexander |last2=Fridman |title=N-ary Relations for Logical Analysis of Data and Knowledge |date=30 November 2017 |publisher=IGI Global |isbn=978-1-5225-2783-1 |page=74 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Kusch |first1=Martin |title=Psychologism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/psychologism/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=30 November 2021 |year=2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229220156/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/psychologism/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Lagerlund |first1=Henrik |title=Review of The Aftermath of Syllogism: Aristotelian Logical Argument from Avicenna to Hegel |url=https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/the-aftermath-of-syllogism-aristotelian-logical-argument-from-avicenna-to-hegel/ |website=Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews |access-date=19 July 2023 |language=en |date=27 September 2018 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lear |first1=Jonathan |title=Aristotle and Logical Theory |date=1980 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-31178-6 |page=34 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Leary |first1=Christopher C. |last2=Kristiansen |first2=Lars |title=A Friendly Introduction to Mathematical Logic |date=2015 |publisher=Suny |isbn=978-1-942341-07-9 |page=195 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lepore |first1=Ernest |last2=Cumming |first2=Sam |title=Meaning and Argument: An Introduction to Logic Through Language |date=14 September 2012 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-118-45521-0 |page=5 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Li |first1=Wei |title=Mathematical Logic: Foundations for Information Science |date=26 February 2010 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-3-7643-9977-1 |page=ix |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Linsky |first1=Bernard |title=The Evolution of Principia Mathematica: Bertrand Russell's Manuscripts and Notes |edition=2nd |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49733-6 |page=4 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Liu |first1=Shiyong |last2=Guo |first2=Kaizhong |title=Error Logic: Paving Pathways for Intelligent Error Identification and Management |date=7 March 2023 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-031-00820-7 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Łukasiewicz |first=Jan |author-link=يان ووڪاشيوچ |title=Aristotle's Syllogistic from the Standpoint of Modern Formal Logic |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1957 |edition=2nd |page=7 |oclc=656161566 }}
* {{cite web |last1=MacFarlane |first1=John |title=Logical Constants |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-constants/#SynTer |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=21 November 2021 |year=2017 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317180221/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-constants/#SynTer |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Mackie |first1=J. L. |author-link=جي. ايل. ميڪي |title=Fallacies |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/fallacies |website=encyclopedia.com |access-date=19 March 2021 |year=1967 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415101134/https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/fallacies |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Magnus |first1=P. D. |title=Forall X: An Introduction to Formal Logic |date=2005 |publisher=Victoria, BC, Canada: State University of New York Oer Services |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/MAGFXI |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207200544/https://philpapers.org/rec/MAGFXI |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-64176-026-3 |pages=8–9 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Makridis |first1=Odysseus |title=Symbolic Logic |date=2022 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-67396-3 |pages=1–2 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Maltby |first1=John |last2=Day |first2=Liz |last3=Macaskill |first3=Ann |title=Personality, Individual Differences and Intelligence |date=2007 |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-13-129760-9 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Marenbon |first1=John |title=Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/boethius/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2021 }}
* {{cite web |last1=McKeon |first1=Matthew |title=Logical Consequence |url=https://iep.utm.edu/logcon/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=20 November 2021 |archive-date=12 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112071437/https://iep.utm.edu/logcon/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Michaelson |first1=Eliot |last2=Reimer |first2=Marga |title=Reference |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reference/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184705/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reference/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Mills |first1=Ethan |title=Three Pillars of Skepticism in Classical India: Nagarjuna, Jayarasi, and Sri Harsa |date=2018 |publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4985-5570-8 |page=121 |language=en |quote=... for Nyāya all inference is ultimately rooted in perception ... Naiyāyikas typically accept four means of knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. }}
* {{cite book |last1=Monk |first1=J. Donald |title=Mathematical Logic |date=1976 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4684-9452-5 |pages=1–9 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |language=en |chapter=Introduction |doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=9 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109131251/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Kevin |last2=Cromby |first2=John |title=How Best to 'Go On'? Prospects for a 'Modern Synthesis' in the Sciences of Mind |date=8 August 2016 |publisher=Frontiers Media SA |isbn=978-2-88919-906-8 |page=60 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Terence |last2=Carling |first2=Christine |title=Understanding Language: Towards a Post-Chomskyan Linguistics |date=1982 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-16895-8 |page=53 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Moschovakis |first1=Joan |author1-link=جوان موشووڪيس |title=Intuitionistic Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-intuitionistic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Introduction |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Nolt |first1=John |title=Free Logic: 1. The Basics |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-free/#1 |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=10 September 2022 |year=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Nunes |first1=Terezinha |author1-link=تريزينا نونيس |editor1-last=Seel |editor1-first=Norbert M. |title=Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning |date=2011 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4419-1427-9 |language=en |pages=2066–2069 |chapter=Logical Reasoning and Learning }}
* {{cite book |last1=O'Regan |first1=Gerard |title=Introduction to the History of Computing: A Computing History Primer |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-33138-6 |page=49 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Oaksford |first1=Mike |last2=Chater |first2=Nick |title=Bayesian Rationality: The Probabilistic Approach to Human Reasoning |date=2007 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-852449-6 |page=47 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Olkowski |first1=Dorothea |last2=Pirovolakis |first2=Eftichis |title=Deleuze and Guattari's Philosophy of Freedom: Freedom's Refrains |date=31 January 2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-66352-9 |pages=65–66 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Olsson |first1=Erik J. |title=Introduction to Formal Philosophy |date=2018 |publisher=Springer |pages=431–442 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/OLSBE |chapter=Bayesian Epistemology |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516095057/https://philpapers.org/rec/OLSBE |url-status=live |isbn=978-3-030-08454-7 }}
* {{cite web |author=Online Etymology Staff |title=Logic |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/logic?ref=etymonline_crossreference |website=etymonline.com |access-date=29 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229134626/https://www.etymonline.com/word/logic?ref=etymonline_crossreference |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Partee |first1=Barbara H. |author1-link=باربرا ايڇ پارٽي |editor1-last=Aloni |editor1-first=Maria |editor1-link=ماريا الوني |editor2-last=Dekker |editor2-first=Paul |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-02839-5 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Paulson |first1=Lawrence C. |title=Computational Logic: Its Origins and Applications |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |date=February 2018 |volume=474 |issue=2210 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1098/rspa.2017.0872 |pmid=29507522 |pmc=5832843 |arxiv=1712.04375 |bibcode=2018RSPSA.47470872P |s2cid=3805901 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pedemonte |first1=Bettina |title=Strategic vs Definitory Rules: Their Role in Abductive Argumentation and their Relationship with Deductive Proof |journal=Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education |date=25 June 2018 |volume=14 |issue=9 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.29333/ejmste/92562 |s2cid=126245285 |url=https://www.ejmste.com/article/strategic-vs-definitory-rules-their-role-in-abductive-argumentation-and-their-relationship-with-5539 |language=english |issn=1305-8215 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207195246/https://www.ejmste.com/article/strategic-vs-definitory-rules-their-role-in-abductive-argumentation-and-their-relationship-with-5539 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pickel |first1=Bryan |title=Structured Propositions and Trivial Composition |journal=Synthese |date=1 July 2020 |volume=197 |issue=7 |pages=2991–3006 |doi=10.1007/s11229-018-1853-1 |s2cid=49729020 |language=en |issn=1573-0964 |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.11820/3427c028-f2cb-4216-a199-9679a49ce71c |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Pietroski |first1=Paul |title=Logical Form: 1. Patterns of Reason |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-form/#pat |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=2 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002190116/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-form/#pat |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Planty-Bonjour |first1=Guy |title=The Categories of Dialectical Materialism: Contemporary Soviet Ontology |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-010-3517-0 |page=62 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Possin |first1=Kevin |title=Conductive Arguments: Why is This Still a Thing? |journal=Informal Logic |year=2016 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=563–593 |doi=10.22329/il.v36i4.4527 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/POSCAW-4 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171723/https://philpapers.org/rec/POSCAW-4 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Priest |first1=Graham |last2=Tanaka |first2=Koji |last3=Weber |first3=Zach |title=Paraconsistent Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-paraconsistent/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=14 December 2021 |year=2018 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Pépin |first1=Jean |title=Encyclopedia of Religion |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/logos |chapter=Logos |year=2004 |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229134626/https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/logos |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865733-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Putnam |first=H. |author-link=هلري پٽنم |title=Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science |chapter=Is Logic Empirical? |year=1969 |volume=5 |pages=216–241 |doi=10.1007/978-94-010-3381-7_5 |isbn=978-94-010-3383-1 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Quine |first1=Willard Van Orman |author-link=ولارڊ وان اورمن ڪوائن |title=Mathematical Logic |date=1981 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-55451-1 |page=1 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Rathjen |first1=Michael |last2=Sieg |first2=Wilfried |title=Proof Theory |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/proof-theory/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rautenberg |first1=Wolfgang |title=A Concise Introduction to Mathematical Logic |date=1 July 2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4419-1221-3 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Rendsvig |first1=Rasmus |last2=Symons |first2=John |title=Epistemic Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-epistemic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Restall |first1=Greg |last2=Standefer |first2=Shawn |title=Logical Methods |date=2023 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-54484-9 |page=91 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Richardson |first1=Alan W. |title=Carnap's Construction of the World: The Aufbau and the Emergence of Logical Empiricism |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-43008-1 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rini |first1=Adriane |author1-link=ايڊريان ريني |title=Aristotle's Modal Proofs: Prior Analytics A8-22 in Predicate Logic |date=13 December 2010 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-007-0050-5 |page=26 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ritola |first1=Juho |title=Walton's Informal Logic: A Pragmatic Approach |journal=Informal Logic |date=1 December 2008 |volume=28 |issue=4 |page=335 |doi=10.22329/il.v28i4.2856 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rocci |first1=Andrea |title=Modality in Argumentation: A Semantic Investigation of the Role of Modalities in the Structure of Arguments with an Application to Italian Modal Expressions |date=8 March 2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-024-1063-1 |page=26 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rošker |first1=Jana S. |author1-link=يانا ايس روشڪر |title=Classical Chinese Logic: Philosophy Compass |journal=Philosophy Compass |date=May 2015 |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=301–309 |doi=10.1111/phc3.12226 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Runco |first1=Mark A. |last2=Pritzker |first2=Steven R. |title=Encyclopedia of Creativity |date=1999 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-227075-8 |page=155 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rush |first1=Penelope |title=The Metaphysics of Logic |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/RUSTMO-4 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184954/https://philpapers.org/rec/RUSTMO-4 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-03964-3 |pages=1–10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Sadegh-Zadeh |first1=Kazem |title=Handbook of Analytic Philosophy of Medicine |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-017-9579-1 |page=983 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sagüillo |first1=José M. |title=Hintikka on Information and Deduction |journal=Teorema: Revista Internacional de Filosofía |year=2014 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=75–88 |jstor=43047609 |issn=0210-1602 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Sarukkai |first1=Sundar |last2=Chakraborty |first2=Mihir Kumar |title=Handbook of Logical Thought in India |date=2022 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-81-322-2577-5 |pages=117–118 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Schagrin |first1=Morton L. |title=Metalogic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/metalogic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Schechter |first1=Joshua |title=Epistemology of Logic – Bibliography |url=https://philpapers.org/browse/epistemology-of-logic |website=PhilPapers |access-date=11 September 2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Schlesinger |first1=I. M. |last2=Keren-Portnoy |first2=Tamar |last3=Parush |first3=Tamar |title=The Structure of Arguments |date=1 January 2001 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-90-272-2359-3 |page=220 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Schreiner |first1=Wolfgang |title=Thinking Programs: Logical Modeling and Reasoning About Languages, Data, Computations, and Executions |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-80507-4 |page=22 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Scott |first1=John |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon |title=A Dictionary of Sociology |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095410661 |language=en |chapter=analytic induction |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108173225/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095410661 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Shapiro |first1=Stewart |last2=Kouri Kissel |first2=Teresa |title=Classical Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-classical/#Sema |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Shermer |first1=Michael |title=Conspiracy: Why the Rational Believe the Irrational |date=25 October 2022 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-1-4214-4445-1 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Sider |first=Theodore |author-link=ٿيوڊور سائيڊر |year=2010 |title=Logic for Philosophy |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-957558-9 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Siegel |first1=Harvey |last2=Biro |first2=John |title=Epistemic Normativity, Argumentation, and Fallacies |journal=Argumentation |year=1997 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=277–292 |doi=10.1023/A:1007799325361 |s2cid=126269789 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/SIEENA |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228035651/https://philpapers.org/rec/SIEENA |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Simpson |first1=R. L. |title=Essentials of Symbolic Logic |edition=3rd |date=2008 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=978-1-77048-495-5 |page=14 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Smith |first1=Robin |title=Aristotle's Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Spade |first1=Paul Vincent |last2=Panaccio |first2=Claude |title=William of Ockham |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ockham/#SummLogi |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2019 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Spriggs |first1=John |title=GSN – The Goal Structuring Notation: A Structured Approach to Presenting Arguments |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4471-2312-5 |pages=20–22 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Stairs |first1=Allen |title=A Thinker's Guide to the Philosophy of Religion |year=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-21981-5 |page=343 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Sternberg |first1=Robert J. |title=Thought |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/thought |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=14 October 2021 |language=en |archive-date=13 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211013145532/https://www.britannica.com/topic/thought |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Stolyar |first1=Abram Aronovich |title=Introduction to Elementary Mathematical Logic |date=1 January 1984 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=978-0-486-64561-2 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Stone |first1=Mark A. |title=Denying the Antecedent: Its Effective Use in Argumentation |journal=Informal Logic |year=2012 |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=327–356 |doi=10.22329/il.v32i3.3681 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/STODTA |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228123240/https://philpapers.org/rec/STODTA |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Stump |first1=David J. |title=Fallacy, Logical |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/fallacy-logical |website=encyclopedia.com |access-date=20 March 2021 |archive-date=15 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215112403/https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/fallacy-logical |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Talbott |first1=William |title=Bayesian Epistemology |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-bayesian/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=6 March 2021 |year=2016 |archive-date=1 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401034856/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-bayesian/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Tarski |first1=Alfred |author-link=الفريڊ تارسڪي |title=Introduction to Logic and to the Methodology of the Deductive Sciences |date=1994 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-802139-1 |page=40 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Tondl |first1=L. |title=Problems of Semantics: A Contribution to the Analysis of the Language Science |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-009-8364-9 |page=111 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Velleman |first1=Daniel J. |title=How to Prove It: A Structured Approach |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-67599-4 |pages=8, 103 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Vickers |first1=John M. |title=Inductive Reasoning |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0171.xml |website=Oxford Bibliographies |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=18 January 2023 |language=en |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Vidyabhusana |first1=Satis Chandra |title=A History of Indian Logic: Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern Schools |date=1988 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publisher |isbn=978-81-208-0565-1 |page=221 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Vleet |first1=Van Jacob E. |title=Informal Logical Fallacies: A Brief Guide |date=2010 |publisher=Upa |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/VLEILF |chapter=Introduction |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228035654/https://philpapers.org/rec/VLEILF |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-7618-5432-6 |pages=ix–x }}
* {{cite web |last1=Väänänen |first1=Jouko |title=Second-order and Higher-order Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-higher-order/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=23 November 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030222316/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-higher-order/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Walton |first1=Douglas N. |author-link=ڊگلس اين والٽن |title=Informal Fallacies: Towards a Theory of Argument Criticisms |date=1987 |publisher=John Benjamins |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WALIFT |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302001111/https://philpapers.org/rec/WALIFT |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-55619-010-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Warren |first1=Jared |title=Shadows of Syntax: Revitalizing Logical and Mathematical Conventionalism |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-008615-2 |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/shadows-of-syntax-9780190086152 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Washell |first1=Richard F. |title=Logic, Language, and Albert the Great |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |date=1973 |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=445–450 |doi=10.2307/2708963 |jstor=2708963 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WASLLA-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wasilewska |first1=Anita |title=Logics for Computer Science: Classical and Non-Classical |date=2018 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-92591-2 |pages=145–146 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Weber |first1=Zach |title=Paraconsistent Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/para-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=12 December 2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Weddle |first1=Perry |title=Across the Lines of Disciplines |chapter=Chapter 36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction |date=2011 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |isbn=978-3-11-086771-8 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110867718.383/html |language=en |doi=10.1515/9783110867718.383 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231172343/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110867718.383/html |url-status=live |pages=383–388 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Westerståhl |first1=Dag |title=Aristotelian Syllogisms and Generalized Quantifiers |journal=Studia Logica |year=1989 |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=577–585 |doi=10.1007/BF00370209 |s2cid=32089424 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WESASA |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104182746/https://philpapers.org/rec/WESASA |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wilbanks |first1=Jan J. |title=Defining Deduction, Induction, and Validity |journal=Argumentation |date=1 March 2010 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=107–124 |doi=10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |s2cid=144481717 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |language=en |issn=1572-8374 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171721/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite web |last1=Wilce |first1=Alexander |title=Quantum Logic and Probability Theory: 2.1 Realist Quantum Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qt-quantlog/#RealQuanLogi |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wile |first1=Bruce |last2=Goss |first2=John |last3=Roesner |first3=Wolfgang |title=Comprehensive Functional Verification: The Complete Industry Cycle |date=2005 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-047664-3 |page=447 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Willman |first1=Marshall D. |title=Logic and Language in Early Chinese Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-logic-language/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |at=Introduction |date=2022 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wolf |first1=Robert G. |title=Are Relevant Logics Deviant? |journal=Philosophia |year=1978 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=327–340 |doi=10.1007/BF02378819 |s2cid=143697796 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WOLARL |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216143955/https://philpapers.org/rec/WOLARL |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Zegarelli |first=Mark |title=Logic For Dummies |page=30 |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-118-05307-2 }}
{{refend}}

==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|date=5 November 2023|En-Logic-article.ogg}}
{{Sister project links|منطق}}
{{Library resources box}}

{{منطق}}
{{فلسفي جا موضوع}}
{{Authority control}}

[[زمرو:رسمي سائنسون]]
[[زمرو:منطق| ]]
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>ii64hgqx6mrkih4ky67flwc9swkj39x</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399245</id>
      <parentid>399244</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T15:47:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399245</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="178327" sha1="k24jl3bjf5d6dtc7suwhlbql6notced" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==تاريخ==
{{Main|منطق جي تاريخ}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=330
| image1= Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg
| alt1= ارسطو جو مجسمو
| image2= Avicenne - Avicenna - Ibn_Sina (980-1037) CIPB2067.jpg
| alt2= ابن سينا جو پورٽريٽ
| image3= Guillaume Occam.jpg
| alt3= وليم آف اوڪهم جو پورٽريٽ
| image4= Wismar Marienkirche Bronzebüste Gottlob Frege (01-1).JPG
| alt4= گوٽلوب فريگي جو مجسمو
| footer= مٿيون قطار: [[ارسطو]]، جنهن مغربي منطق جي بنيادي روايت قائم ڪئي؛{{sfn|Groarke}} ۽ [[ابن سينا]]، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ تي پنهنجو منطقي نظام متعارف ڪرايو.{{sfn|Lagerlund|2018}} هيٺيون قطار: [[وليم آف اوڪهم]]، وچئين دور جي علمي فڪر جي اهم شخصيت؛{{sfn|Spade|Panaccio|2019}} ۽ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]]، جديد علامتي منطق جي بانيَن مان هڪ.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900|3a=Klement|3y=1995a}}
}}

قديم دور ۾ منطق ڪيترين ئي تهذيبن ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان الڳ نموني ترقي ڪئي. شروعاتي اهم مفڪرن مان هڪ [[ارسطو]] هو، جنهن پنهنجي ڪتابن ''[[اورگينون]]'' ۽ ''[[پرائر اينالٽڪس]]'' ۾ '''اصطلاحي منطق''' (ٽرم لاجڪ) کي منظم صورت ڏني.{{sfnm|1a1=Kline|1y=1972|1loc=&quot;A major achievement of Aristotle was the founding of the science of logic&quot;, p. 53|2a1=Łukasiewicz|2y=1957|2p=7|3a1=Liu|3a2=Guo|3y=2023|3p=15}} هن [[شرطي قياس]] (ھيپوٿيٽيڪل سلاجزم){{sfn|Lear|1980|p=34}} ۽ [[زماني موڊل منطق]] (ٽيمپورل موڊل لاجڪ) جي به بنياد وڌي.{{sfnm|1a1=Knuuttila|1y=1980|1p=71|2a1=Fisher|2a2=Gabbay|2a3=Vila|2y=2005|2p=119}} ارسطو [[استقرائي منطق]] (انڊڪٽو لاجڪ){{sfn|Berman|2009|p=133}} ۽ نون منطقي تصورن، جهڙوڪ [[اصطلاح]]، [[محموليت]] (پريڊيڪبلز)، قياس ۽ تجويزن تي پڻ اهم بحث ڪيو. ارسطوي منطق کي قديم ۽ وچئين دور ۾، يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر ٻنهي ۾ وڏي اهميت حاصل رهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} ۽ اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي شروعات تائين اهو غالب منطقي نظام رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} اڄ جي دور ۾ جيتوڻيڪ ان جي جاءِ جديد منطق ورتي آهي، پر ان جا ڪيترائي بنيادي خيال اڃا به جديد منطقي نظامن ۾ موجود آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|loc=1. Introduction}}

[[ابن سينا]] (ايويسينا) ابن سيناوي منطق جو باني هو، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] جي ميدان ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ ورتي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hasse|1y=2008|2a1=Lagerlund|2y=2018}} سندس خيالن جو اثر [[البرٽس ميگنس]] ۽ [[وليم آف اوڪهم]] جهڙن يورپي مفڪرن تي به پيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Washell|1y=1973|1pp=445–450|2a1=Kneale|2a2=Kneale|2y=1962|2pp=229, 266}} ابن سينا شرطي قياس{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} ۽ [[تجويزي منطق]] (پروپوزيشنل ڪلڪيولس){{sfn|Goodman|1992|p=188}} تي اهم تحريرون لکيون. هن زماني ۽ امڪان کي گڏائيندڙ هڪ نئون قياسي نظريو تيار ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[زماني منطق]] ۽ [[موڊل منطق]] جا عنصر شامل هئا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Spade|loc=Arabic Logic}} هن استقرائي منطق جا به طريقا بيان ڪيا، جهڙوڪ موافقت، اختلاف ۽ گڏيل تبديلي جا طريقا، جيڪي [[سائنسي طريقو|سائنسي طريقي]] لاءِ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا.{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} [[فخر الدين رازي]] پڻ هڪ اثرائتو مسلمان منطق دان هو. هن ارسطوي قياس تي تنقيد ڪئي ۽ استقرائي منطق جو اهڙو ابتدائي نظام پيش ڪيو، جنهن بعد ۾ [[جان اسٽوارٽ مل]] جي استقرائي منطق جي اڳواٽ نشاندهي ڪئي.{{sfn|Iqbal|2013|pp=99–115|loc=The Spirit of Muslim Culture}}

وچئين دور ۾ ارسطو جي منطقي ڪتابن جا ڪيترائي ترجما ۽ تشريحون تيار ڪيون ويون. [[بوئٿيوس]] جا ڪم خاص طور تي گهڻو اثرائتا رهيا. هن نه رڳو ارسطو جي تصنيفن کي لاطيني ۾ ترجمو ڪيو، پر منطق بابت درسي ڪتاب پڻ لکيا.{{sfnm|1a1=Marenbon|1y=2021|1loc=Introduction; 3. The Logical Text-Books|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade}} بعد ۾ ابن سينا ۽ [[ابن رشد]] (ايوريس) جهڙن اسلامي فلسفين جي تحريرن مان پڻ فائدو ورتو ويو، جنهن سان وچئين دور جي عيسائي عالمن کي قديم يوناني فڪر تائين وڌيڪ رسائي ملي. سنه 1323ع ۾ وليم آف اوڪهم جو مشهور ڪتاب ''{{lang|la|[[Summa Logicae]]}}'' شايع ٿيو، جيڪو منطق جو جامع رسالو آهي ۽ جنهن ۾ منطقي تجويزن، انهن جي قسمن ۽ سندن صدق جي شرطن بابت منظم بحث ڪيو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|2a1=Hasse|2y=2008|3a1=Spade|3a2=Panaccio|3y=2019}}

چيني فلسفي ۾ [[نالن جو مذهب]] (اسڪول آف نيمز) ۽ [[موهزم]] (Mohism) خاص اهميت رکندا هئا. نالن جي مذهب ٻوليءَ جي استعمال ۽ منطقي تضادن تي ڌيان ڏنو. مثال طور [[گونگسن لانگ]] مشهور ''اڇي گهوڙي جو تضاد'' (وائيٽ ھارس پيراڊوڪس) پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ دليل ڏنو ويو ته &quot;اڇو گهوڙو، گهوڙو ناهي.&quot; موهزم پڻ منطق ۾ ٻوليءَ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪيو ۽ ان کي اخلاقيات سان ڳنڍڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Willman|1y=2022|2a1=Rošker|2y=2015|2pp=301–309}}

هندستان ۾ منطق جو مطالعو بنيادي طور [[نيايه]]، [[ٻڌ مت]] ۽ [[جين مت]] جي فڪري روايتن ۾ ٿيو. ان کي الڳ علمي شعبي طور نه، پر علمُ المعرفت، مناظري ۽ استدلال جي بحثن جي حصي طور سمجهيو ويندو هو.{{sfn|Sarukkai|Chakraborty|2022|pp=117–118}} نيايه فلسفي ۾ استدلال کي علم حاصل ڪرڻ جو هڪ ذريعو (''[[پرمان]]'') سمجهيو ويو، جيڪو مشاهدي کان پوءِ شين جي سببن بابت نتيجا ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو.{{sfnm|1a1=Dasti|1loc=Lead section; 1b. Inference|2a1=Mills|2y=2018|2p=121}} ٻڌ ۽ جين منطق ۾ به استدلال کي ٻين ذريعن مان حاصل ٿيل علم کي وڌائڻ جو وسيلو سمجهيو ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Emmanuel|1y=2015|1pp=320–322|2a1=Vidyabhusana|2y=1988|2p=221}} نيايه جي پوئين دور جي [[نويا نيايه]] روايت جا ڪيئي خيال جديد منطق سان ملندڙ جلندڙ آهن، جهڙوڪ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جو ''معنيٰ ۽ مرجع'' (سينس اينڊ ريفرنس) وارو فرق ۽ انگ جي تعريف.{{sfn|Chakrabarti|1976|pp=554–563}}

ارسطو جي قياسي منطق اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي وچ تائين غالب رهي، پر رياضيات جي بنيادن بابت وڌندڙ دلچسپي جديد علامتي منطق جي ترقي جو سبب بڻي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Haaparanta|2y=2009|2pp=3–5|2loc=1. Introduction}} گهڻا محقق [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جي ''[[بيگرفس شرفٽ]]'' (Begriffsschrift) کي جديد منطق جي شروعات سمجهن ٿا. [[گوٽفريڊ وِلهم لائبنٽس]] جي [[عالمي رسمي ٻولي]] (ڪئريڪٽرسٽڪا يونيورسلس) جو تصور ان جو اڳواٽ اشارو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. ٻين اهم اڳواڻن ۾ [[جارج بول]] شامل آهي، جنهن [[بولي الجبرا]] (بوليئن آلجبرا) کي منطقي رياضيائي نظام طور پيش ڪيو، ۽ [[چارلس سينڊرس پيرس]]، جنهن [[لاڳاپن جي منطق]] (لاجڪ آگ رليٽوز) کي ترقي ڏني. بعد ۾ [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] انهن خيالن کي پنهنجي مشهور ڪتاب '' پرنسپيا ميٿميٽيڪا'' ۾ منظم ڪيو.

جديد منطق نوان تصور متعارف ڪرايا، جهڙوڪ [[تابع]] (فنڪشن)، مقدارساز (ڪونٽيفائر) ۽ لاڳاپائي محمول (رليشنل پريڊيڪيٽس). جديد علامتي منطق جي نمايان خاصيت رسمي ٻوليءَ جو استعمال آهي، جنهن ذريعي منطقي اصولن کي نهايت درست نموني بيان ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان لحاظ کان اهو اڳين منطق دانن کان مختلف آهي، جيڪي بنيادي طور قدرتي ٻوليءَ تي ڀاڙيندا هئا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900}} خاص طور تي [[اول-درجي منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) جي ترقي جديد منطق ۾ بنيادي حيثيت اختيار ڪئي.{{sfn|Ewald|2019}} ان جي تجزياتي وسعت رياضيات کي رسمي صورت ڏيڻ، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] جي ترقي ۽ [[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) جي قيام لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪيو، ۽ اهو جديد [[رياضياتي منطق]] جو مرڪزي نظام بڻجي ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Schreiner|2y=2021|2p=22}}

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (ڪوانٽيفڪيشن) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}

==تحقيق جا شعبا==

منطق جو مطالعو مختلف علمي شعبن ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪيترن ئي حالتن ۾ ان جي رسمي طريقن کي انهن موضوعن تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي پاڻ منطق جي دائري کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[اخلاقيات]] يا [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Logic and other disciplines|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10}}

ٻين حالتن ۾ خود منطق ئي ڪنهن ٻئي علمي شعبي ۾ تحقيق جو موضوع بڻجي ٿي. اهو مختلف طريقن سان ٿي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، منطق جي بنيادي تصورن سان لاڳاپيل فلسفياتي مفروضن جو جائزو وٺڻ، منطقي نظامن کي رياضيائي بناوتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جو تجزيو ڪرڻ، يا رسمي منطقي نظامن جي تجريدي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ۽ ڀيٽ ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Features and problems of logic|2a1=Gödel|2y=1984|2pp=447–469|2loc=Russell's mathematical logic|3a1=Monk|3y=1976|3pp=1–9|3loc=Introduction}}

===منطق جو فلسفو ۽ فلسفياتي منطق===
{{Main|منطق جو فلسفو|فلسفياتي منطق}}

'''منطق جو فلسفو''' (فلاسافي آف لاجڪ) فلسفي جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطق جي دائري، ماهيت ۽ بنيادي نوعيت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} ان ۾ انهن ڪيترن ئي مفروضن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيڪي منطق ۾ ضمني طور قبول ڪيا ويندا آهن، جيئن ان جي بنيادي تصورن جي تعريف يا انهن سان لاڳاپيل [[مابعدالطبيعات|مابعدالطبيعي]] مفروضا.{{sfn|Jacquette|2006|loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|pp=1–12}}

هي شعبي منطقي نظامن جي درجابندي ۽ انهن سان وابسته [[وجوديات|وجودياتي]] وابستگين (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪمٽمينٽ) جو پڻ مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=§Problems of ontology}}

'''فلسفياتي منطق''' (فلاسافيڪل لاجڪ) منطق جي فلسفي جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطقي طريقن کي فلسفي جي مسئلن تي لاڳو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Burgess|2y=2009|2loc=1. Classical logic}}
اهو استعمال گهڻو ڪري [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي]] يا [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظامن]] جي صورت ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Goble|1y=2001|1loc=Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32}}

===مابعد منطق===
{{Main|مابعد منطق}}

'''مابعد منطق''' (ميٽالاجڪ) اهو علمي شعبو آهي، جيڪو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.

مثال طور، جڏهن ڪو نئون رسمي منطقي نظام تيار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ته مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو معلوم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته ان نظام ۾ ڪهڙا فارمولا ثابت ڪري سگهجن ٿا. اهي اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته ڇا اهڙو [[الگورٿم]] تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو هر فارمولي لاءِ ثبوت ڳولي سگهي، ۽ ڇا ان نظام ۾ هر قابلِ ثبوت فارمولو لازمي طور [[منطقي صداقت]] (Tautology) آهي.

اهي مختلف منطقي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ تقابلي مطالعو پڻ ڪندا آهن ته جيئن انهن جون منفرد خاصيتون واضح ٿي سگهن.

مابعد منطق جو هڪ بنيادي موضوع [[نحو]] (سنٽيڪس) ۽ [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) جي وچ ۾ تعلق آهي. رسمي منطقي نظام جا نحوي ضابطا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدمات مان نتيجا ڪيئن اخذ ڪيا وڃن، يعني ثبوت ڪيئن ترتيب ڏنا وڃن. جڏهن⁠ته معنيات اهو طئي ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙا جملا سچا آهن ۽ ڪهڙا ڪوڙا. انهيءَ بنياد تي دليل جي صحت جو تعين ڪيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صحيح دليل ۾ اهو ناممڪن هوندو آهي ته مقدمات سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو هجي.

نحو ۽ معنيات جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي بابت اهم سوالن ۾ اهو شامل آهي ته ڇا هر صحيح دليل قابلِ ثبوت آهي، ۽ ڇا هر قابلِ ثبوت دليل لازمي طور صحيح به هوندو آهي.

مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته منطقي نظام [[مڪمليت]] (ڪمپليٽنيس)، [[صحت (منطق)|صحت]] (سائونڊنيس) ۽ [[هم آهنگي (منطق)|هم آهنگي]] (ڪنسسٽنسي) جون خاصيتون رکن ٿا يا نه. ان کان علاوه، اهي اهو به ڏسندا آهن ته اهي نظام [[فيصلي پذيري]] (ڊسائيڊبلٽي) رکن ٿا يا نه، ۽ انهن جي [[اظهاري قوت]] ڪيتري آهي.

انهن موضوعن جي تحقيق دوران مابعد منطق گهڻو ڪري تجريدي رياضيائي استدلال تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جنهن جو مقصد انهن مسئلن بابت صحيح، عام ۽ جامع نتيجا حاصل ڪرڻ هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1pp=xliii–xliv|2a1=Sider|2y=2010|2pp=4–6|3a1=Schagrin}}

===رياضيائي منطق===
{{Main|رياضيائي منطق}}

[[File:Russell1907-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=برٽرينڊ رسل جو تصوير|[[برٽرينڊ رسل]] رياضيائي منطق جي ترقي ۾ ڪيترائي اهم علمي حصا ورتا.{{sfn|Irvine|2022}}]]

اصطلاح '''رياضيائي منطق''' (ميٿميٽيڪل لاجڪ) ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[رسمي منطق]] جي مترادف طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر وڌيڪ محدود معنيٰ ۾ اهو رياضيات جي اندر منطق جي مطالعي ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. ان جون اهم شاخون [[ماڊل نظريو]]، [[ثبوت جو نظريو]]، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) ۽ [[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Li|1y=2010|1p=ix|2a1=Rautenberg|2y=2010|2p=15|3a1=Quine|3y=1981|3p=1|4a1=Stolyar|4y=1984|4p=2}}

رياضيائي منطق جي تحقيق جو وڏو حصو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي رياضيائي خاصيتن جي مطالعي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. ان سان گڏ اهو پڻ ڏٺو ويندو آهي ته منطق کي رياضيائي استدلال جي تجزيي يا [[رياضيات جا بنياد|رياضيات جي منطقي بنيادن]] جي قيام لاءِ ڪيئن استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfn|Stolyar|1984|pp=3–6}}

ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ رياضيائي منطق جو هڪ اهم مقصد [[منطق پرستي]] (لاجڪئزم) واري پروگرام کي اڳتي وڌائڻ هو، جنهن جي شروعات [[گاٽلوب فريگي]]، [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] جهڙن فلسفي-منطق دانن ڪئي هئي. هن پروگرام موجب سڀئي رياضيائي نظريا اصل ۾ منطقي [[منطقي صداقت|صداقتون]] (Tautologies) آهن، ۽ ان کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ رياضيات کي منطق تائين محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي. پر هن پروگرام کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جون گهڻيون ڪوششون ناڪام ويون. مثال طور، فريگي جو منصوبو سندس ڪتاب '' گرُنڊگيزيٽسي:Grundgesetze'' (بنيادي قانون) ۾ [[رسل جو تضاد|رسل جي تضاد]] سبب متاثر ٿيو، جڏهن⁠ته [[هلبرٽ جو پروگرام]] [[گوڊل جا نامڪمليت جا نظريا|گوڊل جي نامڪمليت جي نظرين]] سبب ناڪام ثابت ٿيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|1loc=Gödel's incompleteness theorems|2a1=Linsky|2y=2011|2p=4|3a1=Richardson|3y=1998|3p=15}}

[[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) جي شروعات [[جارج ڪينٽر]] لامحدوديت جي مطالعي دوران ڪئي. هي شعبي رياضيائي منطق جي ڪيترن ئي اهم ۽ پيچيده مسئلن جو سرچشمو بڻيو، جن ۾ [[ڪينٽر جو نظريو]]، [[اختيار جو اصول]] (اگزيوم آف چوائس)، [[مسلسل مفروضي]] (ڪنٽينيوئم ھيپوٿيسز) جي آزاديءَ جو سوال، ۽ [[وڏي ڪارڊينل]] (لارج ڪارڊينل) اصولن بابت جديد بحث شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Bagaria|1y=2021|2a1=Cunningham}}

[[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) رياضيائي منطق جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا حسابي مسئلن کي حل ڪرڻ لاءِ مؤثر طريقن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان جو هڪ بنيادي مقصد اهو معلوم ڪرڻ آهي ته ڪنهن خاص مسئلي کي [[الگورٿم]] ذريعي حل ڪرڻ ممڪن آهي يا نه. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صحيح عددن بابت ڪو خاص دعويٰ ڏني وڃي، ته هي شعبي اهو جاچيندو آهي ته ڇا اهڙو الگورٿم تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو اهو طئي ڪري سگهي ته اها دعويٰ صحيح آهي يا غلط. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ [[ٽيورنگ مشين]] (Turing machine) سميت مختلف نظرياتي ماڊلن ۽ اوزارن کي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006a|1loc=Computability Theory|2a1=Leary|2a2=Kristiansen|2y=2015|2p=195}}

===حسابياتي منطق===
{{Main|حسابياتي منطق|ڪمپيوٽر سائنس ۾ منطق}}

[[File:TransistorANDgate.png|thumb|ٽرانزسٽرن جي مدد سان تيار ڪيل هڪ AND گيٽ جو خاڪو. [[منطقي عطف]] (AND) [[بولين منطق]] جي بنيادي عملن مان هڪ آهي، جنهن کي برقي طور مختلف طريقن سان، مثال طور ٻن [[ٽرانزسٽر]]ن ذريعي، عمل ۾ آڻي سگهجي ٿو.]]

'''حسابياتي منطق''' (ڪمپيوٽيشنل لاجڪ) منطق ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ڪمپيوٽرن جي ذريعي رياضيائي استدلال ۽ رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عملي صورت ڏيڻ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان ۾، مثال طور، [[خودڪار نظريي ثابت ڪندڙ]] (آٽوميٽڪ ٿيورم پروور) شامل آهن، جيڪي [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] استعمال ڪندي، بغير انساني مداخلت جي، مقدمات مان گهربل نتيجي تائين مرحليوار ثبوت تيار ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Paulson|1y=2018|1pp=1–14|2a1=Castaño|2y=2018|2p=2|3a1=Wile|3a2=Goss|3a3=Roesner|3y=2005|3p=447}}

[[منطقي پروگرامنگ]] (لاجڪ پروگرامنگ) جون ٻوليون خاص طور اهڙي نموني تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن، جو حقيقتن کي منطقي فارمولن جي صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ۽ انهن مان استدلال ذريعي نوان نتيجا اخذ ڪري سگهجن. مثال طور، [[پرولاگ]] (Prolog) محمولي منطق تي ٻڌل هڪ منطقي پروگرامنگ ٻولي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Clocksin|1a2=Mellish|1y=2003|1pp=237–238, 252–255, 257|1loc=The Relation of Prolog to Logic|2a1=Daintith|2a2=Wright|2y=2008|2loc=Logic Programming Languages}}

ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽنگ سان لاڳاپيل مسئلن جي حل لاءِ پڻ منطقي تصورن کي استعمال ڪندا آهن. هن ميدان ۾ [[ڪلاڊ شينن]] جو ڪم انتهائي اثرائتو رهيو، جنهن ڏيکاريو ته [[بولين منطق]] کي ڪمپيوٽرن جي برقي سرڪٽن کي سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=O'Regan|1y=2016|1p=49|2a1=Calderbank|2a2=Sloane|2y=2001|2p=768}}

اهو ڪم [[منطقي دروازو|منطقي دروازن]] (لاجڪ گيٽ) ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي اهڙا برقي سرڪٽ هوندا آهن، جن ۾ هڪ يا وڌيڪ ان پُٽ ۽ عام طور هڪ آئوٽ پُٽ هوندو آهي. انهن ۾ منطقي قضين جي صداقت جا قدر برقي وولٽيج جي سطحن جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهڙيءَ طرح، سرڪٽ جي ان پُٽن تي مناسب وولٽيج لاڳو ڪري ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ جي وولٽيج کي ماپي، مختلف منطقي عملن جي نقل (سميوليشن) ڪئي ويندي آهي.{{sfn|Daintith|Wright|2008|loc=Logic Gate}}

===قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات===
{{Main|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات}}

'''قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) منطق، [[لسانيات]] ۽ [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]] جي گڏيل ذيلي شاخ آهي. [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) ٻوليءَ جي معنائن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته رسمي معنيات علامتي منطق ۽ رياضيات جا رسمي اوزار استعمال ڪندي [[قدرتي ٻولي]] جي اظهارَن جي معنائن بابت درست ۽ منظم نظريا پيش ڪري ٿي.

رسمي معنيات عام طور معنٰي کي [[صدق جون شرطون]] (ٽرٿ ڪنڊيشنر) سان وابسته ڪري سمجهي ٿي؛ يعني اها جاچ ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙين حالتن ۾ ڪو جملو سچو يا ڪوڙو ٿيندو. هن شعبي جي بنيادي اصولن مان هڪ [[ترڪيبي اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) آهي، جنهن موجب ڪنهن پيچيده اظهار جي معنٰي ان جي جزن جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي پاڻ ۾ ڳانڍاپي جي طريقي سان طئي ٿيندي آهي. مثال طور، فعل واري فقري &quot;هلڻ ۽ ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنٰي انفرادي اظهارَن &quot;هلڻ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.

رسمي معنيات جا ڪيترائي نظريا [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. ان جو مطلب آهي ته اهي [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) استعمال ڪري هڪ نمونو (ماڊل) تيار ڪندا آهن ۽ پوءِ ان نموني جي عنصرن جي حوالي سان ٻوليءَ جي اظهارَن جي معنائن جي تشريح ڪندا آهن. مثال طور، اصطلاح &quot;هلڻ&quot; کي نموني ۾ موجود انهن سڀني فردن جي مجموعي طور سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي هلڻ جي خاصيت رکن ٿا.

هن شعبي جا شروعاتي ۽ اثرائتا مفڪر [[رچرڊ مونٽيگ]] ۽ [[باربرا پارٽي]] هئا، جن پنهنجي تجزين جو بنيادي مرڪز انگريزي ٻوليءَ کي بڻايو.{{sfnm|1a1=Janssen|1a2=Zimmermann|1y=2021|1pp=3–4|2a1=Partee|2y=2016|3a1=King|3y=2009|3pp=557–558|4a1=Aloni|4a2=Dekker|4y=2016|4pp=22–23}}

===منطق جي علمُ المعرفت===
{{Main|منطق جي علمُ المعرفت}}

'''منطق جو علمُ المعرفت''' (ايپسٽيمولاجي آف لاجڪ) هن ڳالهه جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو ته انسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوي ٿي ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا ڪا تجويز منطقي طور سچي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Schechter}} هن ۾ اهڙا سوال شامل آهن، جيئن: {{lang|la|modus ponens}} استدلال جو صحيح قاعدو ڇو آهي؟ يا تضاد هميشه ڪوڙا ڇو سمجهيا وڃن ٿا؟{{sfn|Warren|2020|loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic}}

روايتي طور تي غالب نظريو اهو رهيو آهي ته اهڙي قسم جي منطقي ڄاڻ [[قبلي علم]] (''a priori'') سان واسطو رکي ٿي.{{sfn|Schechter}} هن نظرئي موجب، اڪثر اهو دليل ڏنو ويندو آهي ته [[ذهن]] وٽ هڪ خاص صلاحيت هوندي آهي، جيڪا خالص خيالن جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي پرکڻ جي قابل هوندي آهي، ۽ اها ئي صلاحيت منطقي سچائين کي سمجهڻ جو ذريعو پڻ آهي.{{sfn|Gómez-Torrente|2019}}

هڪ ٻيو ويجهو نظريو منطق جي قاعدن کي [[اصطلاحيت]] (ڪنوينشنلزم) يا لساني روايتن جي بنياد تي سمجهي ٿو. هن راءِ موجب، منطق جا قانون تعريف جي لحاظ کان سچا آهن، تنهنڪري اهي بنيادي طور غيرتڪراري آهن؛ اهي رڳو منطقي اصطلاحن جي معنائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Gómez-Torrente|2y=2019|3a1=Warren|3y=2020|3loc=1. What is Conventionalism}}

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[هلري پٽنم]] ۽ [[پينيلوپي ميڊي]]، هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪن ٿا ته منطق کي مڪمل طور قبلي علم ذريعي ڄاڻي سگهجي ٿو. انهن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي سچايون [[تجربي تي ٻڌل علم]] (امپريڪل نالج) سان به لاڳاپيل آهن. هن راءِ کي عام طور ان دعويٰ سان گڏ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي ته منطق جا قانون دنيا جي بناوت ۾ موجود عام ۽ آفاقي قاعدن جو اظهار ڪن ٿا. ان مطابق، انهن قاعدن کي [[بنيادي سائنسون|بنيادي سائنسن]] ۾ موجود عام نمونن ۽ اصولن جي مطالعي ذريعي به سمجهي سگهجي ٿو.

مثال طور، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم ميڪانيات]] جون ڪجهه دريافتون روايتي منطق جي [[ورڇ جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڊسٽريبيوٽوٽي) کي چئلينج ڪن ٿيون، جنهن موجب فارمولو &lt;math&gt;A \land (B \lor C)&lt;/math&gt; هم معنيٰ آهي &lt;math&gt;(A \land B) \lor (A \land C)&lt;/math&gt; سان. هن دعويٰ کي ان ڳالهه جي تجربي تي ٻڌل دليل طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم منطق]] روايتي منطق کان وڌيڪ مناسب منطقي نظام آهي، ۽ ان کي روايتي منطق جي جاءِ وٺڻ گهرجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Chua|1y=2017|1pp=631–636|2a1=Wilce|2y=2021|3a1=Putnam|3y=1969|3pp=216–241}}

==پڻ ڏسو==
{{Portal|فلسفو}}
{{Columns list|
* {{annotated link|منطق جي اصطلاحن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جو خاڪو}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جي تحقيقي رسالن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي نشانين جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق دانن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي ڳجهارت}}
* {{annotated link|لوگوس}}
* {{annotated link|ویکٽر منطق}}
}}

==حوالا==

===وضاحتي نوٽ===
{{notelist}}
&lt;references group=&quot;lower-alpha&quot;/&gt;
===حوالا===
{{reflist|1=30em}}

===ڪتابيات===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Aloni |first1=Maria |author1-link=ماريا الوني |last2=Dekker |first2=Paul |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics |date=7 July 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-55273-5 |pages=22–23 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Angell |first1=Richard B. |title=Reasoning and Logic |date=1964 |publisher=Ardent Media |page=164 |language=en |oclc=375322 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Informal logic |year=1999a |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |page=435 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Philosophy of logic |year=1999b |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |pages=679–681 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Backmann |first1=Marius |title=Varieties of Justification—How (Not) to Solve the Problem of Induction |journal=Acta Analytica |date=1 June 2019 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=235–255 |doi=10.1007/s12136-018-0371-6 |s2cid=125767384 |language=en |issn=1874-6349 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bagaria |first1=Joan |author-link=جوان باگاريا |title=Set Theory |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/set-theory/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=23 September 2022 |year=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Jonathan |title=Truth, etc.: Six Lectures on Ancient Logic |date=25 January 2007 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-151574-3 |page=274 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Benthem |first1=Johan van |title=Modal Logic: Contemporary View: 1. Modal Notions and Reasoning Patterns: a First Pass |url=https://iep.utm.edu/modal-lo/#H1 |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=11 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berlemann |first1=Lars |last2=Mangold |first2=Stefan |title=Cognitive Radio and Dynamic Spectrum Access |date=10 July 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-0-470-75443-6 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berman |first1=Harold J. |title=Law and Revolution, the Formation of the Western Legal Tradition |date=1 July 2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02085-6 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bimbó |first1=Katalin |author-link=ڪيٽلن بمبو |title=J. Michael Dunn on Information Based Logics |date=2 April 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-29300-4 |pages=8–9 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=1 January 2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |language=en |chapter=argument |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194756/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=24 March 2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |language=en |chapter=rule of inference |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194809/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=The Current State of Informal Logic |journal=Informal Logic |year=1987 |volume=9 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v9i2.2671 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230194638/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |url-status=live |pages=147–151 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=Informal Logic: An Overview |journal=Informal Logic |year=2000 |volume=20 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v20i2.2262 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209195317/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |url-status=live |pages=93–107 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |title=Groundwork in the Theory of Argumentation: Selected Papers of J. Anthony Blair |date=20 October 2011 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-007-2363-4 |page=47 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bobzien |first1=Susanne |author-link=سوزاني بوبزين |title=Ancient Logic: 2. Aristotle |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=3 January 2022 |year=2020 |archive-date=28 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828102117/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Borchert |editor1-first=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 2 |edition=2nd |date=2006a |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |isbn=978-0-02-865782-0 |chapter=Computability Theory |pages=372–390 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 4 |edition=2nd |date=2006b |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Induction |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865784-4 |pages=635–648 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 5 |edition=2nd |date=2006c |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Logic, Non-Classical |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865785-1 |pages=485–492 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bridges |first1=Douglas |last2=Ishihara |first2=Hajime |last3=Rathjen |first3=Michael |last4=Schwichtenberg |first4=Helmut |title=Handbook of Constructive Mathematics |date=30 April 2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-51086-5 |pages=73–74 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Brody |first=Boruch A. |title=Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=2006 |publisher=Thomson Gale/Macmillan Reference US |others=Donald M. Borchert |isbn=978-0-02-865780-6 |edition=2nd |volume=5 |pages=535–536 |oclc=61151356 |quote=The two most important types of logical calculi are propositional (or sentential) calculi and functional (or predicate) calculi. A propositional calculus is a system containing propositional variables and connectives (some also contain propositional constants) but not individual or functional variables or constants. In the extended propositional calculus, quantifiers whose operator variables are propositional variables are added. }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bunnin |first1=Nicholas |last2=Yu |first2=Jiyuan |title=The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy |date=27 January 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9112-8 |page=179 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Burgess |first1=John P. |author-link=جان پي. برجس |title=Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |chapter=1. Classical logic |pages=1–12 |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216143954/https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-691-15633-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bäck |first1=Allan T. |title=Aristotle's Theory of Predication |date=2016 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-32109-0 |page=317 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Calderbank |first1=Robert |last2=Sloane |first2=Neil J. A. |title=Claude Shannon (1916–2001) |journal=Nature |date=April 2001 |volume=410 |issue=6830 |page=768 |doi=10.1038/35071223 |pmid=11298432 |s2cid=4402158 |language=en |issn=1476-4687 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Carnielli |first1=Walter |last2=Pizzi |first2=Claudio |title=Modalities and Multimodalities |date=2008 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-8590-1 |page=3 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Castaño |first1=Arnaldo Pérez |title=Practical Artificial Intelligence: Machine Learning, Bots, and Agent Solutions Using C# |date=23 May 2018 |publisher=Apress |isbn=978-1-4842-3357-3 |page=2 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Chakrabarti |first1=Kisor Kumar |title=Some Comparisons Between Frege's Logic and Navya-Nyaya Logic |journal=Philosophy and Phenomenological Research |date=June 1976 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=554–563 |doi=10.2307/2106873 |jstor=2106873 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chatfield |first1=Tom |title=Critical Thinking: Your Guide to Effective Argument, Successful Analysis and Independent Study |date=2017 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-5264-1877-7 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chua |first1=Eugene |title=Logic, Rationality, and Interaction |chapter=An Empirical Route to Logical 'Conventionalism' |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |date=2017 |volume=10455 |pages=631–636 |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-55665-8_43 |isbn=978-3-662-55664-1 |chapter-url=https://philpapers.org/rec/CHUAER }}
* {{cite book |last1=Clocksin |first1=William F. |last2=Mellish |first2=Christopher S. |title=Programming in Prolog: Using the ISO Standard |date=2003 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-55481-0 |pages=237–257 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 |language=en |chapter=The Relation of Prolog to Logic |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cook |first1=Roy T. |title=Dictionary of Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-3197-1 |language=en |page=124 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Copi |first1=Irving M. |author1-link=ارونگ ڪوپي |last2=Cohen |first2=Carl |last3=Rodych |first3=Victor |title=Introduction to Logic |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-38697-5 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Corkum |first1=Philip |title=Generality and Logical Constancy |journal=Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia |year=2015 |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=753–767 |doi=10.17990/rpf/2015_71_4_0753 |jstor=43744657 |issn=0870-5283 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Craig |first1=Edward |author-link=ايڊورڊ ڪريگ (فلسفي) |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=1996 |publisher=Routledge |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116111145/https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-07310-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cummings |first1=Louise |title=The Routledge Pragmatics Encyclopedia |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-21457-9 |page=1 |language=en |chapter=Abduction }}
* {{cite web |last1=Cunningham |first1=Daniel |title=Set Theory |url=https://iep.utm.edu/set-theo/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=23 September 2022 }}

* {{cite journal |last1=D'Agostino |first1=Marcello |last2=Floridi |first2=Luciano |title=The Enduring Scandal of Deduction: Is Propositional Logic Really Uninformative? |journal=Synthese |year=2009 |volume=167 |issue=2 |pages=271–315 |doi=10.1007/s11229-008-9409-4 |jstor=40271192 |hdl=2299/2995 |hdl-access=free |s2cid=9602882 |language=en |issn=0039-7857 }}
* {{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Computing |isbn=978-0-19-923400-4 |last1=Daintith |first1=John |last2=Wright |first2=Edmund |date=2008 |publisher=OUP }}
* {{cite book |last=van Dalen |first=Dirk |author-link=ڊرڪ وان ڊالن |year=1994 |title=Logic and Structure |publisher=Springer |at=Chapter 1.5 |isbn=978-0-387-57839-2 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dasti |first1=Matthew R. |title=Nyaya |url=https://iep.utm.edu/nyaya/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=12 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Dick |first1=Anthony S. |last2=Müller |first2=Ulrich |title=Advancing Developmental Science: Philosophy, Theory, and Method |date=2017 |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-1-351-70456-4 |page=157 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Douven |first1=Igor |author-link=ايگور ڊاووين |title=Abduction |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |year=2021 |access-date=24 August 2021 |archive-date=7 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907202119/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dowden |first1=Bradley |author-link=بريڊلي ڊائوڊن |title=Fallacies |url=https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=19 March 2021 |archive-date=29 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100429214410/https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |title=Pondering on Problems of Argumentation: Twenty Essays on Theoretical Issues |date=2009 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-9165-0 |page=191 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |last3=Krabbe |first3=Erik C. W. |last4=Snoeck Henkemans |first4=A. Francisca |last5=Verheij |first5=Bart |last6=Wagemans |first6=Jean H. M. |title=Handbook of Argumentation Theory |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-94-007-6883-3 |pages=1–45 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |language=en |chapter=Informal Logic |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231172324/https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |url-status=live |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGarssenKrabbeSnoeck_Henkemans }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Grootendorst |first2=Rob |last3=Johnson |first3=Ralph H. |last4=Plantin |first4=Christian |last5=Willard |first5=Charles A. |title=Fundamentals of Argumentation Theory: A Handbook of Historical Backgrounds and Contemporary Developments |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-68804-1 |page=169 |language=en |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGrootendorstJohnsonPlantin }}
* {{cite book |last1=Emmanuel |first1=Steven M. |title=A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy |date=2015 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-119-14466-3 |pages=320–322 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Enderton |first=Herbert |author-link=هربرٽ اينڊرٽن |year=2001 |title=A Mathematical Introduction to Logic |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-238452-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Engel |first1=S. Morris |title=With Good Reason an Introduction to Informal Fallacies |date=1982 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=1 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301065815/https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-312-08479-0 |publisher=St. Martin's Press }}
* {{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Jonathan St. B. T. |editor1-last=Morrison |editor1-first=Robert |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82417-0 |page=169 |language=en |chapter=8. Deductive Reasoning }}
* {{cite web |last1=Ewald |first1=William |title=The Emergence of First-Order Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-firstorder-emergence/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=12 March 2023 |date=2019 }}

* {{cite web |last1=Falguera |first1=José L. |last2=Martínez-Vidal |first2=Concha |last3=Rosen |first3=Gideon |title=Abstract Objects |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=7 January 2022 |year=2021 |archive-date=22 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122003334/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Falikowski |first1=Anthony |last2=Mills |first2=Susan |title=Experiencing Philosophy |edition=2nd |date=2022 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=978-1-77048-841-0 |page=98 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=Michael David |last2=Gabbay |first2=Dov M. |last3=Vila |first3=Lluis |title=Handbook of Temporal Reasoning in Artificial Intelligence |date=2005 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-053336-0 |page=119 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fitch |first1=G. W. |title=Saul Kripke |date=18 December 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-48917-7 |page=17 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Flotyński |first1=Jakub |title=Knowledge-Based Explorable Extended Reality Environments |date=7 December 2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-59965-2 |page=39 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Font |first1=Josep Maria |last2=Jansana |first2=Ramon |title=A General Algebraic Semantics for Sentential Logics |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-16797-1 |page=8 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Frede |first1=Michael |title=Aristotle |url=https://pages.mtu.edu/~pcharles/SCIHISTORY/aristotle.html |website=Michigan Technological University |access-date=1 November 2022 |archive-date=21 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921073920/https://pages.mtu.edu/~pcharles/SCIHISTORY/aristotle.html |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |last1=Friend |first1=Michele |title=Introducing Philosophy of Mathematics |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-49379-2 |page=101 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Gamut |first=L.T.F. |author-link=ايل. ٽي. ايف. گيمٽ |date=1991 |title=Logic, Language and Meaning Vol 1: Introduction to Logic |publisher=University of Chicago Press |at=5.5 |isbn=978-0-226-28085-1 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Garson |first1=James |title=Modal Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-modal/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2023 }}
* {{cite book |last=Gensler |first=Harry J. |date=2006 |title=The A to Z of Logic |pages=xliii–xliv |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-1-4617-3182-5 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goble |first1=Lou |title=The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic |date=2001 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/GOBTBG-2 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184959/https://philpapers.org/rec/GOBTBG-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-631-20692-7 |pages=1–8 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goodman |first1=Lenn Evan |title=Avicenna |date=1992 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-01929-3 |page=188 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goodman |first1=Lenn Evan |title=Islamic Humanism |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513580-0 |page=155 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Groarke |first1=Louis F. |title=Aristotle: Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=1 January 2022 |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229235433/https://iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Groarke |first1=Leo |title=Informal Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=31 December 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112030519/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Gómez-Torrente |first1=Mario |title=Logical Truth |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-truth/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=22 November 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=2 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002190110/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-truth/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gödel |first1=Kurt |author1-link=Kurt Gödel |editor1-last=Benacerraf |editor1-first=Paul |editor2-last=Putnam |editor2-first=Hilary |title=Philosophy of Mathematics: Selected Readings |date=1984 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29648-9 |pages=447–469 |edition=2nd |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/philosophy-of-mathematics/russells-mathematical-logic/4D82F215FABFE06149D03EF1EF5BE7E4 |chapter=Russell's mathematical logic |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111091740/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/philosophy-of-mathematics/russells-mathematical-logic/4D82F215FABFE06149D03EF1EF5BE7E4 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hájek |first1=Petr |title=Fuzzy Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/Archives/Win2012/entries/logic-fuzzy/ |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |language=en |date=3 September 2006 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hájek |first1=Alan |last2=Lin |first2=Hanti |title=A Tale of Two Epistemologies? |journal=Res Philosophica |year=2017 |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=207–232 |doi=10.11612/resphil.1540 |s2cid=160029122 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HJEATO |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104182746/https://philpapers.org/rec/HJEATO |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Cordelia |last2=O'Donnell |first2=John |title=Discrete Mathematics Using a Computer |date=2000 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-85233-089-7 |page=48 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Houde |first1=R. |last2=Camacho |first2=L. |title=New Catholic Encyclopedia |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/electrical-engineering/induction |chapter=Induction |year=2003 |publisher=Thomson/Gale |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171720/https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/electrical-engineering/induction |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-7876-4004-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Deviant Logic: Some Philosophical Issues |date=1974 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-20500-9 |page=51 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Philosophy of Logics |date=1978 |publisher=London and New York: Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HAAPOL-2 |chapter=1. 'Philosophy of logics' |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207200551/https://philpapers.org/rec/HAAPOL-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-521-29329-7 |pages=1–10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Deviant Logic, Fuzzy Logic: Beyond the Formalism |date=1996 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31133-3 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haaparanta |first1=Leila |author1-link=Leila Haaparanta |title=The Development of Modern Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513731-6 |pages=4–6 |chapter=1. Introduction }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hansen |first1=Hans |title=Fallacies |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fallacies/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=18 March 2021 |year=2020 |archive-date=29 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329182946/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fallacies/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hartmann |first1=Stephan |last2=Sprenger |first2=Jan |title=The Routledge Companion to Epistemology |date=2010 |publisher=London: Routledge |pages=609–620 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO |chapter=Bayesian Epistemology |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516095047/https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-96219-3 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hasse |first1=Dag Nikolaus |title=Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-influence/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |date=2008 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hawthorne |first1=James |title=Inductive Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-inductive/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=6 January 2022 |year=2021 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121081805/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-inductive/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Philosophy of logic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-logic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=21 November 2021 |language=en |archive-date=28 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428101732/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/346240/philosophy-of-logic |url-status=live |date=2019 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Logical systems |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic/Logical-systems |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=4 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184656/https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic/Logical-systems |url-status=live |date=2023 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Information, Deduction, and the A Priori |journal=Noûs |year=1970 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=135–152 |doi=10.2307/2214318 |jstor=2214318 |issn=0029-4624 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |last2=Sandu |first2=Gabriel |editor-last=Jacquette |editor-first=D. |title=Philosophy of Logic |date=2006 |publisher=North Holland |pages=13–39 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JAAWIL |chapter=What is Logic? |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207235525/https://philpapers.org/rec/JAAWIL |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-444-51541-4 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |last2=Spade |first2=Paul Vincent |title=History of logic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-logic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Honderich |first1=Ted |author-link=Ted Honderich |title=The Oxford Companion to Philosophy |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=29 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129082636/https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-19-926479-7 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hurley |first1=Patrick J. |title=Logic: The Essentials |date=2015 |publisher=Wadsworth |isbn=978-1-305-59041-0 |language=en |chapter=4. Categorical Syllogisms |pages=189–237 }}
* {{cite web |last1=IEP Staff |title=Deductive and Inductive Arguments |url=https://iep.utm.edu/ded-ind/ |access-date=6 January 2022 |archive-date=28 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528032124/https://iep.utm.edu/ded-ind/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Iqbal |first1=Mohammad |title=The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam |date=2013 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-8686-7 |pages=99–115 |url=http://www.allamaiqbal.com/works/prose/english/reconstruction/ |language=en |chapter=The Spirit of Muslim Culture }}
* {{cite web |last1=Irvine |first1=Andrew David |title=Bertrand Russell |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/russell/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=29 September 2022 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jacquette |first1=Dale |title=Philosophy of Logic |date=2006 |publisher=North Holland |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JACPOL |chapter=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184932/https://philpapers.org/rec/JACPOL |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-444-51541-4 |pages=1–12 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jago |first1=Mark |title=The Impossible: An Essay on Hyperintensionality |date=2014 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-101915-9 |page=41 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Janssen |first1=Theo M. V. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Thomas Ede |title=Montague Semantics |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/montague-semantics/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=10 March 2023 |date=2021 |pages=3–4 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Ralph H. |title=The Relation Between Formal and Informal Logic |journal=Argumentation |year=1999 |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=265–274 |doi=10.1023/A:1007789101256 |s2cid=141283158 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JOHTRB-2 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184706/https://philpapers.org/rec/JOHTRB-2 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Ralph H. |title=The Rise of Informal Logic: Essays on Argumentation, Critical Thinking, Reasoning and Politics |date=15 July 2014 |publisher=University of Windsor |isbn=978-0-920233-71-9 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Ketland |first1=Jeffrey |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 8 |date=2005 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/second-order-logic |chapter=Second Order Logic |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184921/https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/second-order-logic |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865788-2 |pages=707–708 |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA }}
* {{cite book |last1=King |first1=Jeffrey C. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Language |chapter=Formal Semantics |date=2 September 2009 |pages=557–558 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199552238.003.0023 |isbn=978-0-19-955223-8 }}
* {{cite web |last1=King |first1=Jeffrey C. |title=Structured Propositions |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/propositions-structured/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=25 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025211706/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/propositions-structured/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Klement |first1=Kevin C. |title=Propositional Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/prop-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=23 September 2022 |year=1995b |issn=2161-0002 }}
* {{cite book |last=Kline |first=Morris |title=Mathematical Thought From Ancient to Modern Times |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-19-506135-2 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Kneale |first1=William |author-link=William Kneale |last2=Kneale |first2=Martha |author2-link=Martha Kneale |title=The Development of Logic |date=1962 |publisher=Clarendon Press |language=en |isbn=978-0-19-824773-9 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Knuuttila |first1=Simo |title=Reforging the Great Chain of Being: Studies of the History of Modal Theories |date=1980 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-90-277-1125-0 |page=71 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Korb |first1=Kevin |title=Bayesian Informal Logic and Fallacy |journal=Informal Logic |year=2004 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=41–70 |doi=10.22329/il.v24i1.2132 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/KORBIL |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=10 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211110075255/https://philpapers.org/rec/KORBIL |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Koslowski |first1=Barbara |title=International Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-72569-7 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski |chapter=Abductive Reasoning and Explanation |doi=10.4324/9781315725697 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108225144/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski |url-status=live |pages=366–382 }}
* {{cite book |first1=Boris |last1=Kulik |first2=Alexander |last2=Fridman |title=N-ary Relations for Logical Analysis of Data and Knowledge |date=30 November 2017 |publisher=IGI Global |isbn=978-1-5225-2783-1 |page=74 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Kusch |first1=Martin |title=Psychologism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/psychologism/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=30 November 2021 |year=2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229220156/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/psychologism/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Lagerlund |first1=Henrik |title=Review of The Aftermath of Syllogism: Aristotelian Logical Argument from Avicenna to Hegel |url=https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/the-aftermath-of-syllogism-aristotelian-logical-argument-from-avicenna-to-hegel/ |website=Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews |access-date=19 July 2023 |language=en |date=27 September 2018 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lear |first1=Jonathan |title=Aristotle and Logical Theory |date=1980 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-31178-6 |page=34 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Leary |first1=Christopher C. |last2=Kristiansen |first2=Lars |title=A Friendly Introduction to Mathematical Logic |date=2015 |publisher=Suny |isbn=978-1-942341-07-9 |page=195 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lepore |first1=Ernest |last2=Cumming |first2=Sam |title=Meaning and Argument: An Introduction to Logic Through Language |date=14 September 2012 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-118-45521-0 |page=5 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Li |first1=Wei |title=Mathematical Logic: Foundations for Information Science |date=26 February 2010 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-3-7643-9977-1 |page=ix |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Linsky |first1=Bernard |title=The Evolution of Principia Mathematica: Bertrand Russell's Manuscripts and Notes |edition=2nd |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49733-6 |page=4 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Liu |first1=Shiyong |last2=Guo |first2=Kaizhong |title=Error Logic: Paving Pathways for Intelligent Error Identification and Management |date=7 March 2023 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-031-00820-7 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Łukasiewicz |first=Jan |author-link=يان ووڪاشيوچ |title=Aristotle's Syllogistic from the Standpoint of Modern Formal Logic |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1957 |edition=2nd |page=7 |oclc=656161566 }}
* {{cite web |last1=MacFarlane |first1=John |title=Logical Constants |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-constants/#SynTer |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=21 November 2021 |year=2017 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317180221/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-constants/#SynTer |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Mackie |first1=J. L. |author-link=جي. ايل. ميڪي |title=Fallacies |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/fallacies |website=encyclopedia.com |access-date=19 March 2021 |year=1967 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415101134/https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/fallacies |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Magnus |first1=P. D. |title=Forall X: An Introduction to Formal Logic |date=2005 |publisher=Victoria, BC, Canada: State University of New York Oer Services |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/MAGFXI |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207200544/https://philpapers.org/rec/MAGFXI |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-64176-026-3 |pages=8–9 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Makridis |first1=Odysseus |title=Symbolic Logic |date=2022 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-67396-3 |pages=1–2 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Maltby |first1=John |last2=Day |first2=Liz |last3=Macaskill |first3=Ann |title=Personality, Individual Differences and Intelligence |date=2007 |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-13-129760-9 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Marenbon |first1=John |title=Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/boethius/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2021 }}
* {{cite web |last1=McKeon |first1=Matthew |title=Logical Consequence |url=https://iep.utm.edu/logcon/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=20 November 2021 |archive-date=12 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112071437/https://iep.utm.edu/logcon/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Michaelson |first1=Eliot |last2=Reimer |first2=Marga |title=Reference |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reference/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184705/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reference/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Mills |first1=Ethan |title=Three Pillars of Skepticism in Classical India: Nagarjuna, Jayarasi, and Sri Harsa |date=2018 |publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4985-5570-8 |page=121 |language=en |quote=... for Nyāya all inference is ultimately rooted in perception ... Naiyāyikas typically accept four means of knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. }}
* {{cite book |last1=Monk |first1=J. Donald |title=Mathematical Logic |date=1976 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4684-9452-5 |pages=1–9 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |language=en |chapter=Introduction |doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=9 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109131251/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Kevin |last2=Cromby |first2=John |title=How Best to 'Go On'? Prospects for a 'Modern Synthesis' in the Sciences of Mind |date=8 August 2016 |publisher=Frontiers Media SA |isbn=978-2-88919-906-8 |page=60 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Terence |last2=Carling |first2=Christine |title=Understanding Language: Towards a Post-Chomskyan Linguistics |date=1982 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-16895-8 |page=53 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Moschovakis |first1=Joan |author1-link=جوان موشووڪيس |title=Intuitionistic Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-intuitionistic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Introduction |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Nolt |first1=John |title=Free Logic: 1. The Basics |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-free/#1 |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=10 September 2022 |year=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Nunes |first1=Terezinha |author1-link=تريزينا نونيس |editor1-last=Seel |editor1-first=Norbert M. |title=Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning |date=2011 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4419-1427-9 |language=en |pages=2066–2069 |chapter=Logical Reasoning and Learning }}
* {{cite book |last1=O'Regan |first1=Gerard |title=Introduction to the History of Computing: A Computing History Primer |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-33138-6 |page=49 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Oaksford |first1=Mike |last2=Chater |first2=Nick |title=Bayesian Rationality: The Probabilistic Approach to Human Reasoning |date=2007 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-852449-6 |page=47 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Olkowski |first1=Dorothea |last2=Pirovolakis |first2=Eftichis |title=Deleuze and Guattari's Philosophy of Freedom: Freedom's Refrains |date=31 January 2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-66352-9 |pages=65–66 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Olsson |first1=Erik J. |title=Introduction to Formal Philosophy |date=2018 |publisher=Springer |pages=431–442 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/OLSBE |chapter=Bayesian Epistemology |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516095057/https://philpapers.org/rec/OLSBE |url-status=live |isbn=978-3-030-08454-7 }}
* {{cite web |author=Online Etymology Staff |title=Logic |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/logic?ref=etymonline_crossreference |website=etymonline.com |access-date=29 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229134626/https://www.etymonline.com/word/logic?ref=etymonline_crossreference |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Partee |first1=Barbara H. |author1-link=باربرا ايڇ پارٽي |editor1-last=Aloni |editor1-first=Maria |editor1-link=ماريا الوني |editor2-last=Dekker |editor2-first=Paul |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-02839-5 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Paulson |first1=Lawrence C. |title=Computational Logic: Its Origins and Applications |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |date=February 2018 |volume=474 |issue=2210 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1098/rspa.2017.0872 |pmid=29507522 |pmc=5832843 |arxiv=1712.04375 |bibcode=2018RSPSA.47470872P |s2cid=3805901 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pedemonte |first1=Bettina |title=Strategic vs Definitory Rules: Their Role in Abductive Argumentation and their Relationship with Deductive Proof |journal=Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education |date=25 June 2018 |volume=14 |issue=9 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.29333/ejmste/92562 |s2cid=126245285 |url=https://www.ejmste.com/article/strategic-vs-definitory-rules-their-role-in-abductive-argumentation-and-their-relationship-with-5539 |language=english |issn=1305-8215 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207195246/https://www.ejmste.com/article/strategic-vs-definitory-rules-their-role-in-abductive-argumentation-and-their-relationship-with-5539 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pickel |first1=Bryan |title=Structured Propositions and Trivial Composition |journal=Synthese |date=1 July 2020 |volume=197 |issue=7 |pages=2991–3006 |doi=10.1007/s11229-018-1853-1 |s2cid=49729020 |language=en |issn=1573-0964 |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.11820/3427c028-f2cb-4216-a199-9679a49ce71c |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Pietroski |first1=Paul |title=Logical Form: 1. Patterns of Reason |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-form/#pat |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=2 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002190116/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-form/#pat |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Planty-Bonjour |first1=Guy |title=The Categories of Dialectical Materialism: Contemporary Soviet Ontology |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-010-3517-0 |page=62 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Possin |first1=Kevin |title=Conductive Arguments: Why is This Still a Thing? |journal=Informal Logic |year=2016 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=563–593 |doi=10.22329/il.v36i4.4527 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/POSCAW-4 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171723/https://philpapers.org/rec/POSCAW-4 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Priest |first1=Graham |last2=Tanaka |first2=Koji |last3=Weber |first3=Zach |title=Paraconsistent Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-paraconsistent/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=14 December 2021 |year=2018 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Pépin |first1=Jean |title=Encyclopedia of Religion |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/logos |chapter=Logos |year=2004 |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229134626/https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/logos |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865733-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Putnam |first=H. |author-link=هلري پٽنم |title=Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science |chapter=Is Logic Empirical? |year=1969 |volume=5 |pages=216–241 |doi=10.1007/978-94-010-3381-7_5 |isbn=978-94-010-3383-1 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Quine |first1=Willard Van Orman |author-link=ولارڊ وان اورمن ڪوائن |title=Mathematical Logic |date=1981 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-55451-1 |page=1 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Rathjen |first1=Michael |last2=Sieg |first2=Wilfried |title=Proof Theory |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/proof-theory/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rautenberg |first1=Wolfgang |title=A Concise Introduction to Mathematical Logic |date=1 July 2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4419-1221-3 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Rendsvig |first1=Rasmus |last2=Symons |first2=John |title=Epistemic Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-epistemic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Restall |first1=Greg |last2=Standefer |first2=Shawn |title=Logical Methods |date=2023 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-54484-9 |page=91 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Richardson |first1=Alan W. |title=Carnap's Construction of the World: The Aufbau and the Emergence of Logical Empiricism |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-43008-1 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rini |first1=Adriane |author1-link=ايڊريان ريني |title=Aristotle's Modal Proofs: Prior Analytics A8-22 in Predicate Logic |date=13 December 2010 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-007-0050-5 |page=26 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ritola |first1=Juho |title=Walton's Informal Logic: A Pragmatic Approach |journal=Informal Logic |date=1 December 2008 |volume=28 |issue=4 |page=335 |doi=10.22329/il.v28i4.2856 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rocci |first1=Andrea |title=Modality in Argumentation: A Semantic Investigation of the Role of Modalities in the Structure of Arguments with an Application to Italian Modal Expressions |date=8 March 2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-024-1063-1 |page=26 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rošker |first1=Jana S. |author1-link=يانا ايس روشڪر |title=Classical Chinese Logic: Philosophy Compass |journal=Philosophy Compass |date=May 2015 |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=301–309 |doi=10.1111/phc3.12226 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Runco |first1=Mark A. |last2=Pritzker |first2=Steven R. |title=Encyclopedia of Creativity |date=1999 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-227075-8 |page=155 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rush |first1=Penelope |title=The Metaphysics of Logic |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/RUSTMO-4 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184954/https://philpapers.org/rec/RUSTMO-4 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-03964-3 |pages=1–10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Sadegh-Zadeh |first1=Kazem |title=Handbook of Analytic Philosophy of Medicine |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-017-9579-1 |page=983 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sagüillo |first1=José M. |title=Hintikka on Information and Deduction |journal=Teorema: Revista Internacional de Filosofía |year=2014 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=75–88 |jstor=43047609 |issn=0210-1602 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Sarukkai |first1=Sundar |last2=Chakraborty |first2=Mihir Kumar |title=Handbook of Logical Thought in India |date=2022 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-81-322-2577-5 |pages=117–118 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Schagrin |first1=Morton L. |title=Metalogic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/metalogic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Schechter |first1=Joshua |title=Epistemology of Logic – Bibliography |url=https://philpapers.org/browse/epistemology-of-logic |website=PhilPapers |access-date=11 September 2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Schlesinger |first1=I. M. |last2=Keren-Portnoy |first2=Tamar |last3=Parush |first3=Tamar |title=The Structure of Arguments |date=1 January 2001 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-90-272-2359-3 |page=220 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Schreiner |first1=Wolfgang |title=Thinking Programs: Logical Modeling and Reasoning About Languages, Data, Computations, and Executions |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-80507-4 |page=22 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Scott |first1=John |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon |title=A Dictionary of Sociology |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095410661 |language=en |chapter=analytic induction |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108173225/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095410661 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Shapiro |first1=Stewart |last2=Kouri Kissel |first2=Teresa |title=Classical Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-classical/#Sema |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Shermer |first1=Michael |title=Conspiracy: Why the Rational Believe the Irrational |date=25 October 2022 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-1-4214-4445-1 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Sider |first=Theodore |author-link=ٿيوڊور سائيڊر |year=2010 |title=Logic for Philosophy |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-957558-9 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Siegel |first1=Harvey |last2=Biro |first2=John |title=Epistemic Normativity, Argumentation, and Fallacies |journal=Argumentation |year=1997 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=277–292 |doi=10.1023/A:1007799325361 |s2cid=126269789 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/SIEENA |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228035651/https://philpapers.org/rec/SIEENA |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Simpson |first1=R. L. |title=Essentials of Symbolic Logic |edition=3rd |date=2008 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=978-1-77048-495-5 |page=14 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Smith |first1=Robin |title=Aristotle's Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Spade |first1=Paul Vincent |last2=Panaccio |first2=Claude |title=William of Ockham |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ockham/#SummLogi |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2019 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Spriggs |first1=John |title=GSN – The Goal Structuring Notation: A Structured Approach to Presenting Arguments |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4471-2312-5 |pages=20–22 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Stairs |first1=Allen |title=A Thinker's Guide to the Philosophy of Religion |year=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-21981-5 |page=343 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Sternberg |first1=Robert J. |title=Thought |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/thought |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=14 October 2021 |language=en |archive-date=13 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211013145532/https://www.britannica.com/topic/thought |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Stolyar |first1=Abram Aronovich |title=Introduction to Elementary Mathematical Logic |date=1 January 1984 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=978-0-486-64561-2 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Stone |first1=Mark A. |title=Denying the Antecedent: Its Effective Use in Argumentation |journal=Informal Logic |year=2012 |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=327–356 |doi=10.22329/il.v32i3.3681 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/STODTA |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228123240/https://philpapers.org/rec/STODTA |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Stump |first1=David J. |title=Fallacy, Logical |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/fallacy-logical |website=encyclopedia.com |access-date=20 March 2021 |archive-date=15 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215112403/https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/fallacy-logical |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Talbott |first1=William |title=Bayesian Epistemology |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-bayesian/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=6 March 2021 |year=2016 |archive-date=1 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401034856/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-bayesian/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Tarski |first1=Alfred |author-link=الفريڊ تارسڪي |title=Introduction to Logic and to the Methodology of the Deductive Sciences |date=1994 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-802139-1 |page=40 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Tondl |first1=L. |title=Problems of Semantics: A Contribution to the Analysis of the Language Science |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-009-8364-9 |page=111 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Velleman |first1=Daniel J. |title=How to Prove It: A Structured Approach |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-67599-4 |pages=8, 103 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Vickers |first1=John M. |title=Inductive Reasoning |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0171.xml |website=Oxford Bibliographies |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=18 January 2023 |language=en |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Vidyabhusana |first1=Satis Chandra |title=A History of Indian Logic: Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern Schools |date=1988 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publisher |isbn=978-81-208-0565-1 |page=221 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Vleet |first1=Van Jacob E. |title=Informal Logical Fallacies: A Brief Guide |date=2010 |publisher=Upa |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/VLEILF |chapter=Introduction |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228035654/https://philpapers.org/rec/VLEILF |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-7618-5432-6 |pages=ix–x }}
* {{cite web |last1=Väänänen |first1=Jouko |title=Second-order and Higher-order Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-higher-order/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=23 November 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030222316/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-higher-order/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Walton |first1=Douglas N. |author-link=ڊگلس اين والٽن |title=Informal Fallacies: Towards a Theory of Argument Criticisms |date=1987 |publisher=John Benjamins |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WALIFT |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302001111/https://philpapers.org/rec/WALIFT |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-55619-010-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Warren |first1=Jared |title=Shadows of Syntax: Revitalizing Logical and Mathematical Conventionalism |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-008615-2 |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/shadows-of-syntax-9780190086152 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Washell |first1=Richard F. |title=Logic, Language, and Albert the Great |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |date=1973 |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=445–450 |doi=10.2307/2708963 |jstor=2708963 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WASLLA-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wasilewska |first1=Anita |title=Logics for Computer Science: Classical and Non-Classical |date=2018 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-92591-2 |pages=145–146 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Weber |first1=Zach |title=Paraconsistent Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/para-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=12 December 2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Weddle |first1=Perry |title=Across the Lines of Disciplines |chapter=Chapter 36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction |date=2011 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |isbn=978-3-11-086771-8 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110867718.383/html |language=en |doi=10.1515/9783110867718.383 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231172343/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110867718.383/html |url-status=live |pages=383–388 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Westerståhl |first1=Dag |title=Aristotelian Syllogisms and Generalized Quantifiers |journal=Studia Logica |year=1989 |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=577–585 |doi=10.1007/BF00370209 |s2cid=32089424 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WESASA |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104182746/https://philpapers.org/rec/WESASA |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wilbanks |first1=Jan J. |title=Defining Deduction, Induction, and Validity |journal=Argumentation |date=1 March 2010 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=107–124 |doi=10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |s2cid=144481717 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |language=en |issn=1572-8374 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171721/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite web |last1=Wilce |first1=Alexander |title=Quantum Logic and Probability Theory: 2.1 Realist Quantum Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qt-quantlog/#RealQuanLogi |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wile |first1=Bruce |last2=Goss |first2=John |last3=Roesner |first3=Wolfgang |title=Comprehensive Functional Verification: The Complete Industry Cycle |date=2005 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-047664-3 |page=447 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Willman |first1=Marshall D. |title=Logic and Language in Early Chinese Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-logic-language/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |at=Introduction |date=2022 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wolf |first1=Robert G. |title=Are Relevant Logics Deviant? |journal=Philosophia |year=1978 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=327–340 |doi=10.1007/BF02378819 |s2cid=143697796 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WOLARL |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216143955/https://philpapers.org/rec/WOLARL |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Zegarelli |first=Mark |title=Logic For Dummies |page=30 |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-118-05307-2 }}
{{refend}}

==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|date=5 November 2023|En-Logic-article.ogg}}
{{Sister project links|منطق}}
{{Library resources box}}

{{منطق}}
{{فلسفي جا موضوع}}
{{Authority control}}

[[زمرو:رسمي سائنسون]]
[[زمرو:منطق| ]]
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>k24jl3bjf5d6dtc7suwhlbql6notced</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399246</id>
      <parentid>399245</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T15:47:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* منطق جو علمُ المعرفت */</comment>
      <origin>399246</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="178327" sha1="4oftk8shpyp49a7flz5xivc5bkp718f" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==تاريخ==
{{Main|منطق جي تاريخ}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=330
| image1= Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg
| alt1= ارسطو جو مجسمو
| image2= Avicenne - Avicenna - Ibn_Sina (980-1037) CIPB2067.jpg
| alt2= ابن سينا جو پورٽريٽ
| image3= Guillaume Occam.jpg
| alt3= وليم آف اوڪهم جو پورٽريٽ
| image4= Wismar Marienkirche Bronzebüste Gottlob Frege (01-1).JPG
| alt4= گوٽلوب فريگي جو مجسمو
| footer= مٿيون قطار: [[ارسطو]]، جنهن مغربي منطق جي بنيادي روايت قائم ڪئي؛{{sfn|Groarke}} ۽ [[ابن سينا]]، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ تي پنهنجو منطقي نظام متعارف ڪرايو.{{sfn|Lagerlund|2018}} هيٺيون قطار: [[وليم آف اوڪهم]]، وچئين دور جي علمي فڪر جي اهم شخصيت؛{{sfn|Spade|Panaccio|2019}} ۽ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]]، جديد علامتي منطق جي بانيَن مان هڪ.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900|3a=Klement|3y=1995a}}
}}

قديم دور ۾ منطق ڪيترين ئي تهذيبن ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان الڳ نموني ترقي ڪئي. شروعاتي اهم مفڪرن مان هڪ [[ارسطو]] هو، جنهن پنهنجي ڪتابن ''[[اورگينون]]'' ۽ ''[[پرائر اينالٽڪس]]'' ۾ '''اصطلاحي منطق''' (ٽرم لاجڪ) کي منظم صورت ڏني.{{sfnm|1a1=Kline|1y=1972|1loc=&quot;A major achievement of Aristotle was the founding of the science of logic&quot;, p. 53|2a1=Łukasiewicz|2y=1957|2p=7|3a1=Liu|3a2=Guo|3y=2023|3p=15}} هن [[شرطي قياس]] (ھيپوٿيٽيڪل سلاجزم){{sfn|Lear|1980|p=34}} ۽ [[زماني موڊل منطق]] (ٽيمپورل موڊل لاجڪ) جي به بنياد وڌي.{{sfnm|1a1=Knuuttila|1y=1980|1p=71|2a1=Fisher|2a2=Gabbay|2a3=Vila|2y=2005|2p=119}} ارسطو [[استقرائي منطق]] (انڊڪٽو لاجڪ){{sfn|Berman|2009|p=133}} ۽ نون منطقي تصورن، جهڙوڪ [[اصطلاح]]، [[محموليت]] (پريڊيڪبلز)، قياس ۽ تجويزن تي پڻ اهم بحث ڪيو. ارسطوي منطق کي قديم ۽ وچئين دور ۾، يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر ٻنهي ۾ وڏي اهميت حاصل رهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} ۽ اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي شروعات تائين اهو غالب منطقي نظام رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} اڄ جي دور ۾ جيتوڻيڪ ان جي جاءِ جديد منطق ورتي آهي، پر ان جا ڪيترائي بنيادي خيال اڃا به جديد منطقي نظامن ۾ موجود آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|loc=1. Introduction}}

[[ابن سينا]] (ايويسينا) ابن سيناوي منطق جو باني هو، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] جي ميدان ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ ورتي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hasse|1y=2008|2a1=Lagerlund|2y=2018}} سندس خيالن جو اثر [[البرٽس ميگنس]] ۽ [[وليم آف اوڪهم]] جهڙن يورپي مفڪرن تي به پيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Washell|1y=1973|1pp=445–450|2a1=Kneale|2a2=Kneale|2y=1962|2pp=229, 266}} ابن سينا شرطي قياس{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} ۽ [[تجويزي منطق]] (پروپوزيشنل ڪلڪيولس){{sfn|Goodman|1992|p=188}} تي اهم تحريرون لکيون. هن زماني ۽ امڪان کي گڏائيندڙ هڪ نئون قياسي نظريو تيار ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[زماني منطق]] ۽ [[موڊل منطق]] جا عنصر شامل هئا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Spade|loc=Arabic Logic}} هن استقرائي منطق جا به طريقا بيان ڪيا، جهڙوڪ موافقت، اختلاف ۽ گڏيل تبديلي جا طريقا، جيڪي [[سائنسي طريقو|سائنسي طريقي]] لاءِ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا.{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} [[فخر الدين رازي]] پڻ هڪ اثرائتو مسلمان منطق دان هو. هن ارسطوي قياس تي تنقيد ڪئي ۽ استقرائي منطق جو اهڙو ابتدائي نظام پيش ڪيو، جنهن بعد ۾ [[جان اسٽوارٽ مل]] جي استقرائي منطق جي اڳواٽ نشاندهي ڪئي.{{sfn|Iqbal|2013|pp=99–115|loc=The Spirit of Muslim Culture}}

وچئين دور ۾ ارسطو جي منطقي ڪتابن جا ڪيترائي ترجما ۽ تشريحون تيار ڪيون ويون. [[بوئٿيوس]] جا ڪم خاص طور تي گهڻو اثرائتا رهيا. هن نه رڳو ارسطو جي تصنيفن کي لاطيني ۾ ترجمو ڪيو، پر منطق بابت درسي ڪتاب پڻ لکيا.{{sfnm|1a1=Marenbon|1y=2021|1loc=Introduction; 3. The Logical Text-Books|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade}} بعد ۾ ابن سينا ۽ [[ابن رشد]] (ايوريس) جهڙن اسلامي فلسفين جي تحريرن مان پڻ فائدو ورتو ويو، جنهن سان وچئين دور جي عيسائي عالمن کي قديم يوناني فڪر تائين وڌيڪ رسائي ملي. سنه 1323ع ۾ وليم آف اوڪهم جو مشهور ڪتاب ''{{lang|la|[[Summa Logicae]]}}'' شايع ٿيو، جيڪو منطق جو جامع رسالو آهي ۽ جنهن ۾ منطقي تجويزن، انهن جي قسمن ۽ سندن صدق جي شرطن بابت منظم بحث ڪيو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|2a1=Hasse|2y=2008|3a1=Spade|3a2=Panaccio|3y=2019}}

چيني فلسفي ۾ [[نالن جو مذهب]] (اسڪول آف نيمز) ۽ [[موهزم]] (Mohism) خاص اهميت رکندا هئا. نالن جي مذهب ٻوليءَ جي استعمال ۽ منطقي تضادن تي ڌيان ڏنو. مثال طور [[گونگسن لانگ]] مشهور ''اڇي گهوڙي جو تضاد'' (وائيٽ ھارس پيراڊوڪس) پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ دليل ڏنو ويو ته &quot;اڇو گهوڙو، گهوڙو ناهي.&quot; موهزم پڻ منطق ۾ ٻوليءَ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪيو ۽ ان کي اخلاقيات سان ڳنڍڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Willman|1y=2022|2a1=Rošker|2y=2015|2pp=301–309}}

هندستان ۾ منطق جو مطالعو بنيادي طور [[نيايه]]، [[ٻڌ مت]] ۽ [[جين مت]] جي فڪري روايتن ۾ ٿيو. ان کي الڳ علمي شعبي طور نه، پر علمُ المعرفت، مناظري ۽ استدلال جي بحثن جي حصي طور سمجهيو ويندو هو.{{sfn|Sarukkai|Chakraborty|2022|pp=117–118}} نيايه فلسفي ۾ استدلال کي علم حاصل ڪرڻ جو هڪ ذريعو (''[[پرمان]]'') سمجهيو ويو، جيڪو مشاهدي کان پوءِ شين جي سببن بابت نتيجا ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو.{{sfnm|1a1=Dasti|1loc=Lead section; 1b. Inference|2a1=Mills|2y=2018|2p=121}} ٻڌ ۽ جين منطق ۾ به استدلال کي ٻين ذريعن مان حاصل ٿيل علم کي وڌائڻ جو وسيلو سمجهيو ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Emmanuel|1y=2015|1pp=320–322|2a1=Vidyabhusana|2y=1988|2p=221}} نيايه جي پوئين دور جي [[نويا نيايه]] روايت جا ڪيئي خيال جديد منطق سان ملندڙ جلندڙ آهن، جهڙوڪ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جو ''معنيٰ ۽ مرجع'' (سينس اينڊ ريفرنس) وارو فرق ۽ انگ جي تعريف.{{sfn|Chakrabarti|1976|pp=554–563}}

ارسطو جي قياسي منطق اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي وچ تائين غالب رهي، پر رياضيات جي بنيادن بابت وڌندڙ دلچسپي جديد علامتي منطق جي ترقي جو سبب بڻي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Haaparanta|2y=2009|2pp=3–5|2loc=1. Introduction}} گهڻا محقق [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جي ''[[بيگرفس شرفٽ]]'' (Begriffsschrift) کي جديد منطق جي شروعات سمجهن ٿا. [[گوٽفريڊ وِلهم لائبنٽس]] جي [[عالمي رسمي ٻولي]] (ڪئريڪٽرسٽڪا يونيورسلس) جو تصور ان جو اڳواٽ اشارو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. ٻين اهم اڳواڻن ۾ [[جارج بول]] شامل آهي، جنهن [[بولي الجبرا]] (بوليئن آلجبرا) کي منطقي رياضيائي نظام طور پيش ڪيو، ۽ [[چارلس سينڊرس پيرس]]، جنهن [[لاڳاپن جي منطق]] (لاجڪ آگ رليٽوز) کي ترقي ڏني. بعد ۾ [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] انهن خيالن کي پنهنجي مشهور ڪتاب '' پرنسپيا ميٿميٽيڪا'' ۾ منظم ڪيو.

جديد منطق نوان تصور متعارف ڪرايا، جهڙوڪ [[تابع]] (فنڪشن)، مقدارساز (ڪونٽيفائر) ۽ لاڳاپائي محمول (رليشنل پريڊيڪيٽس). جديد علامتي منطق جي نمايان خاصيت رسمي ٻوليءَ جو استعمال آهي، جنهن ذريعي منطقي اصولن کي نهايت درست نموني بيان ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان لحاظ کان اهو اڳين منطق دانن کان مختلف آهي، جيڪي بنيادي طور قدرتي ٻوليءَ تي ڀاڙيندا هئا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900}} خاص طور تي [[اول-درجي منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) جي ترقي جديد منطق ۾ بنيادي حيثيت اختيار ڪئي.{{sfn|Ewald|2019}} ان جي تجزياتي وسعت رياضيات کي رسمي صورت ڏيڻ، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] جي ترقي ۽ [[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) جي قيام لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪيو، ۽ اهو جديد [[رياضياتي منطق]] جو مرڪزي نظام بڻجي ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Schreiner|2y=2021|2p=22}}

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (ڪوانٽيفڪيشن) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}

==تحقيق جا شعبا==

منطق جو مطالعو مختلف علمي شعبن ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪيترن ئي حالتن ۾ ان جي رسمي طريقن کي انهن موضوعن تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي پاڻ منطق جي دائري کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[اخلاقيات]] يا [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Logic and other disciplines|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10}}

ٻين حالتن ۾ خود منطق ئي ڪنهن ٻئي علمي شعبي ۾ تحقيق جو موضوع بڻجي ٿي. اهو مختلف طريقن سان ٿي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، منطق جي بنيادي تصورن سان لاڳاپيل فلسفياتي مفروضن جو جائزو وٺڻ، منطقي نظامن کي رياضيائي بناوتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جو تجزيو ڪرڻ، يا رسمي منطقي نظامن جي تجريدي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ۽ ڀيٽ ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Features and problems of logic|2a1=Gödel|2y=1984|2pp=447–469|2loc=Russell's mathematical logic|3a1=Monk|3y=1976|3pp=1–9|3loc=Introduction}}

===منطق جو فلسفو ۽ فلسفياتي منطق===
{{Main|منطق جو فلسفو|فلسفياتي منطق}}

'''منطق جو فلسفو''' (فلاسافي آف لاجڪ) فلسفي جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطق جي دائري، ماهيت ۽ بنيادي نوعيت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} ان ۾ انهن ڪيترن ئي مفروضن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيڪي منطق ۾ ضمني طور قبول ڪيا ويندا آهن، جيئن ان جي بنيادي تصورن جي تعريف يا انهن سان لاڳاپيل [[مابعدالطبيعات|مابعدالطبيعي]] مفروضا.{{sfn|Jacquette|2006|loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|pp=1–12}}

هي شعبي منطقي نظامن جي درجابندي ۽ انهن سان وابسته [[وجوديات|وجودياتي]] وابستگين (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪمٽمينٽ) جو پڻ مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=§Problems of ontology}}

'''فلسفياتي منطق''' (فلاسافيڪل لاجڪ) منطق جي فلسفي جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطقي طريقن کي فلسفي جي مسئلن تي لاڳو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Burgess|2y=2009|2loc=1. Classical logic}}
اهو استعمال گهڻو ڪري [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي]] يا [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظامن]] جي صورت ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Goble|1y=2001|1loc=Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32}}

===مابعد منطق===
{{Main|مابعد منطق}}

'''مابعد منطق''' (ميٽالاجڪ) اهو علمي شعبو آهي، جيڪو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.

مثال طور، جڏهن ڪو نئون رسمي منطقي نظام تيار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ته مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو معلوم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته ان نظام ۾ ڪهڙا فارمولا ثابت ڪري سگهجن ٿا. اهي اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته ڇا اهڙو [[الگورٿم]] تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو هر فارمولي لاءِ ثبوت ڳولي سگهي، ۽ ڇا ان نظام ۾ هر قابلِ ثبوت فارمولو لازمي طور [[منطقي صداقت]] (Tautology) آهي.

اهي مختلف منطقي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ تقابلي مطالعو پڻ ڪندا آهن ته جيئن انهن جون منفرد خاصيتون واضح ٿي سگهن.

مابعد منطق جو هڪ بنيادي موضوع [[نحو]] (سنٽيڪس) ۽ [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) جي وچ ۾ تعلق آهي. رسمي منطقي نظام جا نحوي ضابطا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدمات مان نتيجا ڪيئن اخذ ڪيا وڃن، يعني ثبوت ڪيئن ترتيب ڏنا وڃن. جڏهن⁠ته معنيات اهو طئي ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙا جملا سچا آهن ۽ ڪهڙا ڪوڙا. انهيءَ بنياد تي دليل جي صحت جو تعين ڪيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صحيح دليل ۾ اهو ناممڪن هوندو آهي ته مقدمات سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو هجي.

نحو ۽ معنيات جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي بابت اهم سوالن ۾ اهو شامل آهي ته ڇا هر صحيح دليل قابلِ ثبوت آهي، ۽ ڇا هر قابلِ ثبوت دليل لازمي طور صحيح به هوندو آهي.

مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته منطقي نظام [[مڪمليت]] (ڪمپليٽنيس)، [[صحت (منطق)|صحت]] (سائونڊنيس) ۽ [[هم آهنگي (منطق)|هم آهنگي]] (ڪنسسٽنسي) جون خاصيتون رکن ٿا يا نه. ان کان علاوه، اهي اهو به ڏسندا آهن ته اهي نظام [[فيصلي پذيري]] (ڊسائيڊبلٽي) رکن ٿا يا نه، ۽ انهن جي [[اظهاري قوت]] ڪيتري آهي.

انهن موضوعن جي تحقيق دوران مابعد منطق گهڻو ڪري تجريدي رياضيائي استدلال تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جنهن جو مقصد انهن مسئلن بابت صحيح، عام ۽ جامع نتيجا حاصل ڪرڻ هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1pp=xliii–xliv|2a1=Sider|2y=2010|2pp=4–6|3a1=Schagrin}}

===رياضيائي منطق===
{{Main|رياضيائي منطق}}

[[File:Russell1907-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=برٽرينڊ رسل جو تصوير|[[برٽرينڊ رسل]] رياضيائي منطق جي ترقي ۾ ڪيترائي اهم علمي حصا ورتا.{{sfn|Irvine|2022}}]]

اصطلاح '''رياضيائي منطق''' (ميٿميٽيڪل لاجڪ) ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[رسمي منطق]] جي مترادف طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر وڌيڪ محدود معنيٰ ۾ اهو رياضيات جي اندر منطق جي مطالعي ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. ان جون اهم شاخون [[ماڊل نظريو]]، [[ثبوت جو نظريو]]، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) ۽ [[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Li|1y=2010|1p=ix|2a1=Rautenberg|2y=2010|2p=15|3a1=Quine|3y=1981|3p=1|4a1=Stolyar|4y=1984|4p=2}}

رياضيائي منطق جي تحقيق جو وڏو حصو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي رياضيائي خاصيتن جي مطالعي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. ان سان گڏ اهو پڻ ڏٺو ويندو آهي ته منطق کي رياضيائي استدلال جي تجزيي يا [[رياضيات جا بنياد|رياضيات جي منطقي بنيادن]] جي قيام لاءِ ڪيئن استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfn|Stolyar|1984|pp=3–6}}

ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ رياضيائي منطق جو هڪ اهم مقصد [[منطق پرستي]] (لاجڪئزم) واري پروگرام کي اڳتي وڌائڻ هو، جنهن جي شروعات [[گاٽلوب فريگي]]، [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] جهڙن فلسفي-منطق دانن ڪئي هئي. هن پروگرام موجب سڀئي رياضيائي نظريا اصل ۾ منطقي [[منطقي صداقت|صداقتون]] (Tautologies) آهن، ۽ ان کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ رياضيات کي منطق تائين محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي. پر هن پروگرام کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جون گهڻيون ڪوششون ناڪام ويون. مثال طور، فريگي جو منصوبو سندس ڪتاب '' گرُنڊگيزيٽسي:Grundgesetze'' (بنيادي قانون) ۾ [[رسل جو تضاد|رسل جي تضاد]] سبب متاثر ٿيو، جڏهن⁠ته [[هلبرٽ جو پروگرام]] [[گوڊل جا نامڪمليت جا نظريا|گوڊل جي نامڪمليت جي نظرين]] سبب ناڪام ثابت ٿيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|1loc=Gödel's incompleteness theorems|2a1=Linsky|2y=2011|2p=4|3a1=Richardson|3y=1998|3p=15}}

[[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) جي شروعات [[جارج ڪينٽر]] لامحدوديت جي مطالعي دوران ڪئي. هي شعبي رياضيائي منطق جي ڪيترن ئي اهم ۽ پيچيده مسئلن جو سرچشمو بڻيو، جن ۾ [[ڪينٽر جو نظريو]]، [[اختيار جو اصول]] (اگزيوم آف چوائس)، [[مسلسل مفروضي]] (ڪنٽينيوئم ھيپوٿيسز) جي آزاديءَ جو سوال، ۽ [[وڏي ڪارڊينل]] (لارج ڪارڊينل) اصولن بابت جديد بحث شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Bagaria|1y=2021|2a1=Cunningham}}

[[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) رياضيائي منطق جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا حسابي مسئلن کي حل ڪرڻ لاءِ مؤثر طريقن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان جو هڪ بنيادي مقصد اهو معلوم ڪرڻ آهي ته ڪنهن خاص مسئلي کي [[الگورٿم]] ذريعي حل ڪرڻ ممڪن آهي يا نه. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صحيح عددن بابت ڪو خاص دعويٰ ڏني وڃي، ته هي شعبي اهو جاچيندو آهي ته ڇا اهڙو الگورٿم تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو اهو طئي ڪري سگهي ته اها دعويٰ صحيح آهي يا غلط. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ [[ٽيورنگ مشين]] (Turing machine) سميت مختلف نظرياتي ماڊلن ۽ اوزارن کي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006a|1loc=Computability Theory|2a1=Leary|2a2=Kristiansen|2y=2015|2p=195}}

===حسابياتي منطق===
{{Main|حسابياتي منطق|ڪمپيوٽر سائنس ۾ منطق}}

[[File:TransistorANDgate.png|thumb|ٽرانزسٽرن جي مدد سان تيار ڪيل هڪ AND گيٽ جو خاڪو. [[منطقي عطف]] (AND) [[بولين منطق]] جي بنيادي عملن مان هڪ آهي، جنهن کي برقي طور مختلف طريقن سان، مثال طور ٻن [[ٽرانزسٽر]]ن ذريعي، عمل ۾ آڻي سگهجي ٿو.]]

'''حسابياتي منطق''' (ڪمپيوٽيشنل لاجڪ) منطق ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ڪمپيوٽرن جي ذريعي رياضيائي استدلال ۽ رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عملي صورت ڏيڻ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان ۾، مثال طور، [[خودڪار نظريي ثابت ڪندڙ]] (آٽوميٽڪ ٿيورم پروور) شامل آهن، جيڪي [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] استعمال ڪندي، بغير انساني مداخلت جي، مقدمات مان گهربل نتيجي تائين مرحليوار ثبوت تيار ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Paulson|1y=2018|1pp=1–14|2a1=Castaño|2y=2018|2p=2|3a1=Wile|3a2=Goss|3a3=Roesner|3y=2005|3p=447}}

[[منطقي پروگرامنگ]] (لاجڪ پروگرامنگ) جون ٻوليون خاص طور اهڙي نموني تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن، جو حقيقتن کي منطقي فارمولن جي صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ۽ انهن مان استدلال ذريعي نوان نتيجا اخذ ڪري سگهجن. مثال طور، [[پرولاگ]] (Prolog) محمولي منطق تي ٻڌل هڪ منطقي پروگرامنگ ٻولي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Clocksin|1a2=Mellish|1y=2003|1pp=237–238, 252–255, 257|1loc=The Relation of Prolog to Logic|2a1=Daintith|2a2=Wright|2y=2008|2loc=Logic Programming Languages}}

ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽنگ سان لاڳاپيل مسئلن جي حل لاءِ پڻ منطقي تصورن کي استعمال ڪندا آهن. هن ميدان ۾ [[ڪلاڊ شينن]] جو ڪم انتهائي اثرائتو رهيو، جنهن ڏيکاريو ته [[بولين منطق]] کي ڪمپيوٽرن جي برقي سرڪٽن کي سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=O'Regan|1y=2016|1p=49|2a1=Calderbank|2a2=Sloane|2y=2001|2p=768}}

اهو ڪم [[منطقي دروازو|منطقي دروازن]] (لاجڪ گيٽ) ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي اهڙا برقي سرڪٽ هوندا آهن، جن ۾ هڪ يا وڌيڪ ان پُٽ ۽ عام طور هڪ آئوٽ پُٽ هوندو آهي. انهن ۾ منطقي قضين جي صداقت جا قدر برقي وولٽيج جي سطحن جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهڙيءَ طرح، سرڪٽ جي ان پُٽن تي مناسب وولٽيج لاڳو ڪري ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ جي وولٽيج کي ماپي، مختلف منطقي عملن جي نقل (سميوليشن) ڪئي ويندي آهي.{{sfn|Daintith|Wright|2008|loc=Logic Gate}}

===قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات===
{{Main|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات}}

'''قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) منطق، [[لسانيات]] ۽ [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]] جي گڏيل ذيلي شاخ آهي. [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) ٻوليءَ جي معنائن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته رسمي معنيات علامتي منطق ۽ رياضيات جا رسمي اوزار استعمال ڪندي [[قدرتي ٻولي]] جي اظهارَن جي معنائن بابت درست ۽ منظم نظريا پيش ڪري ٿي.

رسمي معنيات عام طور معنٰي کي [[صدق جون شرطون]] (ٽرٿ ڪنڊيشنر) سان وابسته ڪري سمجهي ٿي؛ يعني اها جاچ ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙين حالتن ۾ ڪو جملو سچو يا ڪوڙو ٿيندو. هن شعبي جي بنيادي اصولن مان هڪ [[ترڪيبي اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) آهي، جنهن موجب ڪنهن پيچيده اظهار جي معنٰي ان جي جزن جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي پاڻ ۾ ڳانڍاپي جي طريقي سان طئي ٿيندي آهي. مثال طور، فعل واري فقري &quot;هلڻ ۽ ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنٰي انفرادي اظهارَن &quot;هلڻ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.

رسمي معنيات جا ڪيترائي نظريا [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. ان جو مطلب آهي ته اهي [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) استعمال ڪري هڪ نمونو (ماڊل) تيار ڪندا آهن ۽ پوءِ ان نموني جي عنصرن جي حوالي سان ٻوليءَ جي اظهارَن جي معنائن جي تشريح ڪندا آهن. مثال طور، اصطلاح &quot;هلڻ&quot; کي نموني ۾ موجود انهن سڀني فردن جي مجموعي طور سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي هلڻ جي خاصيت رکن ٿا.

هن شعبي جا شروعاتي ۽ اثرائتا مفڪر [[رچرڊ مونٽيگ]] ۽ [[باربرا پارٽي]] هئا، جن پنهنجي تجزين جو بنيادي مرڪز انگريزي ٻوليءَ کي بڻايو.{{sfnm|1a1=Janssen|1a2=Zimmermann|1y=2021|1pp=3–4|2a1=Partee|2y=2016|3a1=King|3y=2009|3pp=557–558|4a1=Aloni|4a2=Dekker|4y=2016|4pp=22–23}}

===منطق جو علمُ المعرفت===
{{Main|منطق جو علمُ المعرفت}}

'''منطق جو علمُ المعرفت''' (ايپسٽيمولاجي آف لاجڪ) هن ڳالهه جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو ته انسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوي ٿي ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا ڪا تجويز منطقي طور سچي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Schechter}} هن ۾ اهڙا سوال شامل آهن، جيئن: {{lang|la|modus ponens}} استدلال جو صحيح قاعدو ڇو آهي؟ يا تضاد هميشه ڪوڙا ڇو سمجهيا وڃن ٿا؟{{sfn|Warren|2020|loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic}}

روايتي طور تي غالب نظريو اهو رهيو آهي ته اهڙي قسم جي منطقي ڄاڻ [[قبلي علم]] (''a priori'') سان واسطو رکي ٿي.{{sfn|Schechter}} هن نظرئي موجب، اڪثر اهو دليل ڏنو ويندو آهي ته [[ذهن]] وٽ هڪ خاص صلاحيت هوندي آهي، جيڪا خالص خيالن جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي پرکڻ جي قابل هوندي آهي، ۽ اها ئي صلاحيت منطقي سچائين کي سمجهڻ جو ذريعو پڻ آهي.{{sfn|Gómez-Torrente|2019}}

هڪ ٻيو ويجهو نظريو منطق جي قاعدن کي [[اصطلاحيت]] (ڪنوينشنلزم) يا لساني روايتن جي بنياد تي سمجهي ٿو. هن راءِ موجب، منطق جا قانون تعريف جي لحاظ کان سچا آهن، تنهنڪري اهي بنيادي طور غيرتڪراري آهن؛ اهي رڳو منطقي اصطلاحن جي معنائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Gómez-Torrente|2y=2019|3a1=Warren|3y=2020|3loc=1. What is Conventionalism}}

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[هلري پٽنم]] ۽ [[پينيلوپي ميڊي]]، هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪن ٿا ته منطق کي مڪمل طور قبلي علم ذريعي ڄاڻي سگهجي ٿو. انهن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي سچايون [[تجربي تي ٻڌل علم]] (امپريڪل نالج) سان به لاڳاپيل آهن. هن راءِ کي عام طور ان دعويٰ سان گڏ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي ته منطق جا قانون دنيا جي بناوت ۾ موجود عام ۽ آفاقي قاعدن جو اظهار ڪن ٿا. ان مطابق، انهن قاعدن کي [[بنيادي سائنسون|بنيادي سائنسن]] ۾ موجود عام نمونن ۽ اصولن جي مطالعي ذريعي به سمجهي سگهجي ٿو.

مثال طور، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم ميڪانيات]] جون ڪجهه دريافتون روايتي منطق جي [[ورڇ جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڊسٽريبيوٽوٽي) کي چئلينج ڪن ٿيون، جنهن موجب فارمولو &lt;math&gt;A \land (B \lor C)&lt;/math&gt; هم معنيٰ آهي &lt;math&gt;(A \land B) \lor (A \land C)&lt;/math&gt; سان. هن دعويٰ کي ان ڳالهه جي تجربي تي ٻڌل دليل طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم منطق]] روايتي منطق کان وڌيڪ مناسب منطقي نظام آهي، ۽ ان کي روايتي منطق جي جاءِ وٺڻ گهرجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Chua|1y=2017|1pp=631–636|2a1=Wilce|2y=2021|3a1=Putnam|3y=1969|3pp=216–241}}

==پڻ ڏسو==
{{Portal|فلسفو}}
{{Columns list|
* {{annotated link|منطق جي اصطلاحن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جو خاڪو}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جي تحقيقي رسالن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي نشانين جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق دانن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي ڳجهارت}}
* {{annotated link|لوگوس}}
* {{annotated link|ویکٽر منطق}}
}}

==حوالا==

===وضاحتي نوٽ===
{{notelist}}
&lt;references group=&quot;lower-alpha&quot;/&gt;
===حوالا===
{{reflist|1=30em}}

===ڪتابيات===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Aloni |first1=Maria |author1-link=ماريا الوني |last2=Dekker |first2=Paul |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics |date=7 July 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-55273-5 |pages=22–23 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Angell |first1=Richard B. |title=Reasoning and Logic |date=1964 |publisher=Ardent Media |page=164 |language=en |oclc=375322 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Informal logic |year=1999a |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |page=435 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Philosophy of logic |year=1999b |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |pages=679–681 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Backmann |first1=Marius |title=Varieties of Justification—How (Not) to Solve the Problem of Induction |journal=Acta Analytica |date=1 June 2019 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=235–255 |doi=10.1007/s12136-018-0371-6 |s2cid=125767384 |language=en |issn=1874-6349 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bagaria |first1=Joan |author-link=جوان باگاريا |title=Set Theory |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/set-theory/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=23 September 2022 |year=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Jonathan |title=Truth, etc.: Six Lectures on Ancient Logic |date=25 January 2007 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-151574-3 |page=274 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Benthem |first1=Johan van |title=Modal Logic: Contemporary View: 1. Modal Notions and Reasoning Patterns: a First Pass |url=https://iep.utm.edu/modal-lo/#H1 |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=11 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berlemann |first1=Lars |last2=Mangold |first2=Stefan |title=Cognitive Radio and Dynamic Spectrum Access |date=10 July 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-0-470-75443-6 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berman |first1=Harold J. |title=Law and Revolution, the Formation of the Western Legal Tradition |date=1 July 2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02085-6 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bimbó |first1=Katalin |author-link=ڪيٽلن بمبو |title=J. Michael Dunn on Information Based Logics |date=2 April 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-29300-4 |pages=8–9 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=1 January 2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |language=en |chapter=argument |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194756/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=24 March 2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |language=en |chapter=rule of inference |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194809/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=The Current State of Informal Logic |journal=Informal Logic |year=1987 |volume=9 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v9i2.2671 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230194638/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |url-status=live |pages=147–151 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=Informal Logic: An Overview |journal=Informal Logic |year=2000 |volume=20 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v20i2.2262 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209195317/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |url-status=live |pages=93–107 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |title=Groundwork in the Theory of Argumentation: Selected Papers of J. Anthony Blair |date=20 October 2011 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-007-2363-4 |page=47 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bobzien |first1=Susanne |author-link=سوزاني بوبزين |title=Ancient Logic: 2. Aristotle |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=3 January 2022 |year=2020 |archive-date=28 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828102117/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Borchert |editor1-first=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 2 |edition=2nd |date=2006a |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |isbn=978-0-02-865782-0 |chapter=Computability Theory |pages=372–390 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 4 |edition=2nd |date=2006b |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Induction |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865784-4 |pages=635–648 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 5 |edition=2nd |date=2006c |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Logic, Non-Classical |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865785-1 |pages=485–492 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bridges |first1=Douglas |last2=Ishihara |first2=Hajime |last3=Rathjen |first3=Michael |last4=Schwichtenberg |first4=Helmut |title=Handbook of Constructive Mathematics |date=30 April 2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-51086-5 |pages=73–74 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Brody |first=Boruch A. |title=Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=2006 |publisher=Thomson Gale/Macmillan Reference US |others=Donald M. Borchert |isbn=978-0-02-865780-6 |edition=2nd |volume=5 |pages=535–536 |oclc=61151356 |quote=The two most important types of logical calculi are propositional (or sentential) calculi and functional (or predicate) calculi. A propositional calculus is a system containing propositional variables and connectives (some also contain propositional constants) but not individual or functional variables or constants. In the extended propositional calculus, quantifiers whose operator variables are propositional variables are added. }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bunnin |first1=Nicholas |last2=Yu |first2=Jiyuan |title=The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy |date=27 January 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9112-8 |page=179 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Burgess |first1=John P. |author-link=جان پي. برجس |title=Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |chapter=1. Classical logic |pages=1–12 |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216143954/https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-691-15633-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bäck |first1=Allan T. |title=Aristotle's Theory of Predication |date=2016 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-32109-0 |page=317 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Calderbank |first1=Robert |last2=Sloane |first2=Neil J. A. |title=Claude Shannon (1916–2001) |journal=Nature |date=April 2001 |volume=410 |issue=6830 |page=768 |doi=10.1038/35071223 |pmid=11298432 |s2cid=4402158 |language=en |issn=1476-4687 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Carnielli |first1=Walter |last2=Pizzi |first2=Claudio |title=Modalities and Multimodalities |date=2008 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-8590-1 |page=3 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Castaño |first1=Arnaldo Pérez |title=Practical Artificial Intelligence: Machine Learning, Bots, and Agent Solutions Using C# |date=23 May 2018 |publisher=Apress |isbn=978-1-4842-3357-3 |page=2 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Chakrabarti |first1=Kisor Kumar |title=Some Comparisons Between Frege's Logic and Navya-Nyaya Logic |journal=Philosophy and Phenomenological Research |date=June 1976 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=554–563 |doi=10.2307/2106873 |jstor=2106873 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chatfield |first1=Tom |title=Critical Thinking: Your Guide to Effective Argument, Successful Analysis and Independent Study |date=2017 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-5264-1877-7 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chua |first1=Eugene |title=Logic, Rationality, and Interaction |chapter=An Empirical Route to Logical 'Conventionalism' |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |date=2017 |volume=10455 |pages=631–636 |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-55665-8_43 |isbn=978-3-662-55664-1 |chapter-url=https://philpapers.org/rec/CHUAER }}
* {{cite book |last1=Clocksin |first1=William F. |last2=Mellish |first2=Christopher S. |title=Programming in Prolog: Using the ISO Standard |date=2003 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-55481-0 |pages=237–257 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 |language=en |chapter=The Relation of Prolog to Logic |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cook |first1=Roy T. |title=Dictionary of Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-3197-1 |language=en |page=124 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Copi |first1=Irving M. |author1-link=ارونگ ڪوپي |last2=Cohen |first2=Carl |last3=Rodych |first3=Victor |title=Introduction to Logic |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-38697-5 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Corkum |first1=Philip |title=Generality and Logical Constancy |journal=Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia |year=2015 |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=753–767 |doi=10.17990/rpf/2015_71_4_0753 |jstor=43744657 |issn=0870-5283 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Craig |first1=Edward |author-link=ايڊورڊ ڪريگ (فلسفي) |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=1996 |publisher=Routledge |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116111145/https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-07310-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cummings |first1=Louise |title=The Routledge Pragmatics Encyclopedia |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-21457-9 |page=1 |language=en |chapter=Abduction }}
* {{cite web |last1=Cunningham |first1=Daniel |title=Set Theory |url=https://iep.utm.edu/set-theo/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=23 September 2022 }}

* {{cite journal |last1=D'Agostino |first1=Marcello |last2=Floridi |first2=Luciano |title=The Enduring Scandal of Deduction: Is Propositional Logic Really Uninformative? |journal=Synthese |year=2009 |volume=167 |issue=2 |pages=271–315 |doi=10.1007/s11229-008-9409-4 |jstor=40271192 |hdl=2299/2995 |hdl-access=free |s2cid=9602882 |language=en |issn=0039-7857 }}
* {{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Computing |isbn=978-0-19-923400-4 |last1=Daintith |first1=John |last2=Wright |first2=Edmund |date=2008 |publisher=OUP }}
* {{cite book |last=van Dalen |first=Dirk |author-link=ڊرڪ وان ڊالن |year=1994 |title=Logic and Structure |publisher=Springer |at=Chapter 1.5 |isbn=978-0-387-57839-2 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dasti |first1=Matthew R. |title=Nyaya |url=https://iep.utm.edu/nyaya/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=12 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Dick |first1=Anthony S. |last2=Müller |first2=Ulrich |title=Advancing Developmental Science: Philosophy, Theory, and Method |date=2017 |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-1-351-70456-4 |page=157 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Douven |first1=Igor |author-link=ايگور ڊاووين |title=Abduction |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |year=2021 |access-date=24 August 2021 |archive-date=7 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907202119/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dowden |first1=Bradley |author-link=بريڊلي ڊائوڊن |title=Fallacies |url=https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=19 March 2021 |archive-date=29 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100429214410/https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |title=Pondering on Problems of Argumentation: Twenty Essays on Theoretical Issues |date=2009 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-9165-0 |page=191 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |last3=Krabbe |first3=Erik C. W. |last4=Snoeck Henkemans |first4=A. Francisca |last5=Verheij |first5=Bart |last6=Wagemans |first6=Jean H. M. |title=Handbook of Argumentation Theory |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-94-007-6883-3 |pages=1–45 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |language=en |chapter=Informal Logic |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231172324/https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |url-status=live |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGarssenKrabbeSnoeck_Henkemans }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Grootendorst |first2=Rob |last3=Johnson |first3=Ralph H. |last4=Plantin |first4=Christian |last5=Willard |first5=Charles A. |title=Fundamentals of Argumentation Theory: A Handbook of Historical Backgrounds and Contemporary Developments |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-68804-1 |page=169 |language=en |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGrootendorstJohnsonPlantin }}
* {{cite book |last1=Emmanuel |first1=Steven M. |title=A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy |date=2015 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-119-14466-3 |pages=320–322 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Enderton |first=Herbert |author-link=هربرٽ اينڊرٽن |year=2001 |title=A Mathematical Introduction to Logic |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-238452-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Engel |first1=S. Morris |title=With Good Reason an Introduction to Informal Fallacies |date=1982 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=1 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301065815/https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-312-08479-0 |publisher=St. Martin's Press }}
* {{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Jonathan St. B. T. |editor1-last=Morrison |editor1-first=Robert |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82417-0 |page=169 |language=en |chapter=8. Deductive Reasoning }}
* {{cite web |last1=Ewald |first1=William |title=The Emergence of First-Order Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-firstorder-emergence/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=12 March 2023 |date=2019 }}

* {{cite web |last1=Falguera |first1=José L. |last2=Martínez-Vidal |first2=Concha |last3=Rosen |first3=Gideon |title=Abstract Objects |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=7 January 2022 |year=2021 |archive-date=22 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122003334/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Falikowski |first1=Anthony |last2=Mills |first2=Susan |title=Experiencing Philosophy |edition=2nd |date=2022 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=978-1-77048-841-0 |page=98 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=Michael David |last2=Gabbay |first2=Dov M. |last3=Vila |first3=Lluis |title=Handbook of Temporal Reasoning in Artificial Intelligence |date=2005 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-053336-0 |page=119 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fitch |first1=G. W. |title=Saul Kripke |date=18 December 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-48917-7 |page=17 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Flotyński |first1=Jakub |title=Knowledge-Based Explorable Extended Reality Environments |date=7 December 2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-59965-2 |page=39 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Font |first1=Josep Maria |last2=Jansana |first2=Ramon |title=A General Algebraic Semantics for Sentential Logics |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-16797-1 |page=8 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Frede |first1=Michael |title=Aristotle |url=https://pages.mtu.edu/~pcharles/SCIHISTORY/aristotle.html |website=Michigan Technological University |access-date=1 November 2022 |archive-date=21 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921073920/https://pages.mtu.edu/~pcharles/SCIHISTORY/aristotle.html |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |last1=Friend |first1=Michele |title=Introducing Philosophy of Mathematics |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-49379-2 |page=101 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Gamut |first=L.T.F. |author-link=ايل. ٽي. ايف. گيمٽ |date=1991 |title=Logic, Language and Meaning Vol 1: Introduction to Logic |publisher=University of Chicago Press |at=5.5 |isbn=978-0-226-28085-1 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Garson |first1=James |title=Modal Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-modal/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2023 }}
* {{cite book |last=Gensler |first=Harry J. |date=2006 |title=The A to Z of Logic |pages=xliii–xliv |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-1-4617-3182-5 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goble |first1=Lou |title=The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic |date=2001 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/GOBTBG-2 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184959/https://philpapers.org/rec/GOBTBG-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-631-20692-7 |pages=1–8 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goodman |first1=Lenn Evan |title=Avicenna |date=1992 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-01929-3 |page=188 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goodman |first1=Lenn Evan |title=Islamic Humanism |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513580-0 |page=155 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Groarke |first1=Louis F. |title=Aristotle: Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=1 January 2022 |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229235433/https://iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Groarke |first1=Leo |title=Informal Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=31 December 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112030519/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Gómez-Torrente |first1=Mario |title=Logical Truth |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-truth/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=22 November 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=2 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002190110/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-truth/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gödel |first1=Kurt |author1-link=Kurt Gödel |editor1-last=Benacerraf |editor1-first=Paul |editor2-last=Putnam |editor2-first=Hilary |title=Philosophy of Mathematics: Selected Readings |date=1984 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29648-9 |pages=447–469 |edition=2nd |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/philosophy-of-mathematics/russells-mathematical-logic/4D82F215FABFE06149D03EF1EF5BE7E4 |chapter=Russell's mathematical logic |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111091740/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/philosophy-of-mathematics/russells-mathematical-logic/4D82F215FABFE06149D03EF1EF5BE7E4 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hájek |first1=Petr |title=Fuzzy Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/Archives/Win2012/entries/logic-fuzzy/ |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |language=en |date=3 September 2006 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hájek |first1=Alan |last2=Lin |first2=Hanti |title=A Tale of Two Epistemologies? |journal=Res Philosophica |year=2017 |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=207–232 |doi=10.11612/resphil.1540 |s2cid=160029122 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HJEATO |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104182746/https://philpapers.org/rec/HJEATO |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Cordelia |last2=O'Donnell |first2=John |title=Discrete Mathematics Using a Computer |date=2000 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-85233-089-7 |page=48 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Houde |first1=R. |last2=Camacho |first2=L. |title=New Catholic Encyclopedia |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/electrical-engineering/induction |chapter=Induction |year=2003 |publisher=Thomson/Gale |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171720/https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/electrical-engineering/induction |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-7876-4004-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Deviant Logic: Some Philosophical Issues |date=1974 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-20500-9 |page=51 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Philosophy of Logics |date=1978 |publisher=London and New York: Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HAAPOL-2 |chapter=1. 'Philosophy of logics' |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207200551/https://philpapers.org/rec/HAAPOL-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-521-29329-7 |pages=1–10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Deviant Logic, Fuzzy Logic: Beyond the Formalism |date=1996 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31133-3 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haaparanta |first1=Leila |author1-link=Leila Haaparanta |title=The Development of Modern Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513731-6 |pages=4–6 |chapter=1. Introduction }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hansen |first1=Hans |title=Fallacies |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fallacies/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=18 March 2021 |year=2020 |archive-date=29 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329182946/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fallacies/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hartmann |first1=Stephan |last2=Sprenger |first2=Jan |title=The Routledge Companion to Epistemology |date=2010 |publisher=London: Routledge |pages=609–620 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO |chapter=Bayesian Epistemology |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516095047/https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-96219-3 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hasse |first1=Dag Nikolaus |title=Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-influence/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |date=2008 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hawthorne |first1=James |title=Inductive Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-inductive/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=6 January 2022 |year=2021 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121081805/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-inductive/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Philosophy of logic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-logic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=21 November 2021 |language=en |archive-date=28 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428101732/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/346240/philosophy-of-logic |url-status=live |date=2019 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Logical systems |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic/Logical-systems |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=4 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184656/https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic/Logical-systems |url-status=live |date=2023 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Information, Deduction, and the A Priori |journal=Noûs |year=1970 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=135–152 |doi=10.2307/2214318 |jstor=2214318 |issn=0029-4624 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |last2=Sandu |first2=Gabriel |editor-last=Jacquette |editor-first=D. |title=Philosophy of Logic |date=2006 |publisher=North Holland |pages=13–39 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JAAWIL |chapter=What is Logic? |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207235525/https://philpapers.org/rec/JAAWIL |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-444-51541-4 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |last2=Spade |first2=Paul Vincent |title=History of logic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-logic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Honderich |first1=Ted |author-link=Ted Honderich |title=The Oxford Companion to Philosophy |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=29 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129082636/https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-19-926479-7 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hurley |first1=Patrick J. |title=Logic: The Essentials |date=2015 |publisher=Wadsworth |isbn=978-1-305-59041-0 |language=en |chapter=4. Categorical Syllogisms |pages=189–237 }}
* {{cite web |last1=IEP Staff |title=Deductive and Inductive Arguments |url=https://iep.utm.edu/ded-ind/ |access-date=6 January 2022 |archive-date=28 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528032124/https://iep.utm.edu/ded-ind/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Iqbal |first1=Mohammad |title=The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam |date=2013 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-8686-7 |pages=99–115 |url=http://www.allamaiqbal.com/works/prose/english/reconstruction/ |language=en |chapter=The Spirit of Muslim Culture }}
* {{cite web |last1=Irvine |first1=Andrew David |title=Bertrand Russell |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/russell/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=29 September 2022 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jacquette |first1=Dale |title=Philosophy of Logic |date=2006 |publisher=North Holland |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JACPOL |chapter=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184932/https://philpapers.org/rec/JACPOL |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-444-51541-4 |pages=1–12 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jago |first1=Mark |title=The Impossible: An Essay on Hyperintensionality |date=2014 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-101915-9 |page=41 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Janssen |first1=Theo M. V. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Thomas Ede |title=Montague Semantics |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/montague-semantics/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=10 March 2023 |date=2021 |pages=3–4 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Ralph H. |title=The Relation Between Formal and Informal Logic |journal=Argumentation |year=1999 |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=265–274 |doi=10.1023/A:1007789101256 |s2cid=141283158 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JOHTRB-2 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184706/https://philpapers.org/rec/JOHTRB-2 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Ralph H. |title=The Rise of Informal Logic: Essays on Argumentation, Critical Thinking, Reasoning and Politics |date=15 July 2014 |publisher=University of Windsor |isbn=978-0-920233-71-9 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Ketland |first1=Jeffrey |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 8 |date=2005 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/second-order-logic |chapter=Second Order Logic |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184921/https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/second-order-logic |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865788-2 |pages=707–708 |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA }}
* {{cite book |last1=King |first1=Jeffrey C. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Language |chapter=Formal Semantics |date=2 September 2009 |pages=557–558 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199552238.003.0023 |isbn=978-0-19-955223-8 }}
* {{cite web |last1=King |first1=Jeffrey C. |title=Structured Propositions |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/propositions-structured/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=25 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025211706/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/propositions-structured/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Klement |first1=Kevin C. |title=Propositional Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/prop-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=23 September 2022 |year=1995b |issn=2161-0002 }}
* {{cite book |last=Kline |first=Morris |title=Mathematical Thought From Ancient to Modern Times |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-19-506135-2 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Kneale |first1=William |author-link=William Kneale |last2=Kneale |first2=Martha |author2-link=Martha Kneale |title=The Development of Logic |date=1962 |publisher=Clarendon Press |language=en |isbn=978-0-19-824773-9 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Knuuttila |first1=Simo |title=Reforging the Great Chain of Being: Studies of the History of Modal Theories |date=1980 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-90-277-1125-0 |page=71 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Korb |first1=Kevin |title=Bayesian Informal Logic and Fallacy |journal=Informal Logic |year=2004 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=41–70 |doi=10.22329/il.v24i1.2132 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/KORBIL |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=10 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211110075255/https://philpapers.org/rec/KORBIL |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Koslowski |first1=Barbara |title=International Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-72569-7 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski |chapter=Abductive Reasoning and Explanation |doi=10.4324/9781315725697 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108225144/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski |url-status=live |pages=366–382 }}
* {{cite book |first1=Boris |last1=Kulik |first2=Alexander |last2=Fridman |title=N-ary Relations for Logical Analysis of Data and Knowledge |date=30 November 2017 |publisher=IGI Global |isbn=978-1-5225-2783-1 |page=74 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Kusch |first1=Martin |title=Psychologism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/psychologism/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=30 November 2021 |year=2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229220156/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/psychologism/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Lagerlund |first1=Henrik |title=Review of The Aftermath of Syllogism: Aristotelian Logical Argument from Avicenna to Hegel |url=https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/the-aftermath-of-syllogism-aristotelian-logical-argument-from-avicenna-to-hegel/ |website=Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews |access-date=19 July 2023 |language=en |date=27 September 2018 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lear |first1=Jonathan |title=Aristotle and Logical Theory |date=1980 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-31178-6 |page=34 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Leary |first1=Christopher C. |last2=Kristiansen |first2=Lars |title=A Friendly Introduction to Mathematical Logic |date=2015 |publisher=Suny |isbn=978-1-942341-07-9 |page=195 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lepore |first1=Ernest |last2=Cumming |first2=Sam |title=Meaning and Argument: An Introduction to Logic Through Language |date=14 September 2012 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-118-45521-0 |page=5 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Li |first1=Wei |title=Mathematical Logic: Foundations for Information Science |date=26 February 2010 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-3-7643-9977-1 |page=ix |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Linsky |first1=Bernard |title=The Evolution of Principia Mathematica: Bertrand Russell's Manuscripts and Notes |edition=2nd |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49733-6 |page=4 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Liu |first1=Shiyong |last2=Guo |first2=Kaizhong |title=Error Logic: Paving Pathways for Intelligent Error Identification and Management |date=7 March 2023 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-031-00820-7 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Łukasiewicz |first=Jan |author-link=يان ووڪاشيوچ |title=Aristotle's Syllogistic from the Standpoint of Modern Formal Logic |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1957 |edition=2nd |page=7 |oclc=656161566 }}
* {{cite web |last1=MacFarlane |first1=John |title=Logical Constants |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-constants/#SynTer |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=21 November 2021 |year=2017 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317180221/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-constants/#SynTer |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Mackie |first1=J. L. |author-link=جي. ايل. ميڪي |title=Fallacies |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/fallacies |website=encyclopedia.com |access-date=19 March 2021 |year=1967 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415101134/https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/fallacies |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Magnus |first1=P. D. |title=Forall X: An Introduction to Formal Logic |date=2005 |publisher=Victoria, BC, Canada: State University of New York Oer Services |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/MAGFXI |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207200544/https://philpapers.org/rec/MAGFXI |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-64176-026-3 |pages=8–9 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Makridis |first1=Odysseus |title=Symbolic Logic |date=2022 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-67396-3 |pages=1–2 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Maltby |first1=John |last2=Day |first2=Liz |last3=Macaskill |first3=Ann |title=Personality, Individual Differences and Intelligence |date=2007 |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-13-129760-9 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Marenbon |first1=John |title=Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/boethius/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2021 }}
* {{cite web |last1=McKeon |first1=Matthew |title=Logical Consequence |url=https://iep.utm.edu/logcon/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=20 November 2021 |archive-date=12 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112071437/https://iep.utm.edu/logcon/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Michaelson |first1=Eliot |last2=Reimer |first2=Marga |title=Reference |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reference/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184705/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reference/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Mills |first1=Ethan |title=Three Pillars of Skepticism in Classical India: Nagarjuna, Jayarasi, and Sri Harsa |date=2018 |publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4985-5570-8 |page=121 |language=en |quote=... for Nyāya all inference is ultimately rooted in perception ... Naiyāyikas typically accept four means of knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. }}
* {{cite book |last1=Monk |first1=J. Donald |title=Mathematical Logic |date=1976 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4684-9452-5 |pages=1–9 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |language=en |chapter=Introduction |doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=9 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109131251/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Kevin |last2=Cromby |first2=John |title=How Best to 'Go On'? Prospects for a 'Modern Synthesis' in the Sciences of Mind |date=8 August 2016 |publisher=Frontiers Media SA |isbn=978-2-88919-906-8 |page=60 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Terence |last2=Carling |first2=Christine |title=Understanding Language: Towards a Post-Chomskyan Linguistics |date=1982 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-16895-8 |page=53 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Moschovakis |first1=Joan |author1-link=جوان موشووڪيس |title=Intuitionistic Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-intuitionistic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Introduction |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Nolt |first1=John |title=Free Logic: 1. The Basics |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-free/#1 |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=10 September 2022 |year=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Nunes |first1=Terezinha |author1-link=تريزينا نونيس |editor1-last=Seel |editor1-first=Norbert M. |title=Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning |date=2011 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4419-1427-9 |language=en |pages=2066–2069 |chapter=Logical Reasoning and Learning }}
* {{cite book |last1=O'Regan |first1=Gerard |title=Introduction to the History of Computing: A Computing History Primer |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-33138-6 |page=49 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Oaksford |first1=Mike |last2=Chater |first2=Nick |title=Bayesian Rationality: The Probabilistic Approach to Human Reasoning |date=2007 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-852449-6 |page=47 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Olkowski |first1=Dorothea |last2=Pirovolakis |first2=Eftichis |title=Deleuze and Guattari's Philosophy of Freedom: Freedom's Refrains |date=31 January 2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-66352-9 |pages=65–66 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Olsson |first1=Erik J. |title=Introduction to Formal Philosophy |date=2018 |publisher=Springer |pages=431–442 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/OLSBE |chapter=Bayesian Epistemology |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516095057/https://philpapers.org/rec/OLSBE |url-status=live |isbn=978-3-030-08454-7 }}
* {{cite web |author=Online Etymology Staff |title=Logic |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/logic?ref=etymonline_crossreference |website=etymonline.com |access-date=29 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229134626/https://www.etymonline.com/word/logic?ref=etymonline_crossreference |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Partee |first1=Barbara H. |author1-link=باربرا ايڇ پارٽي |editor1-last=Aloni |editor1-first=Maria |editor1-link=ماريا الوني |editor2-last=Dekker |editor2-first=Paul |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-02839-5 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Paulson |first1=Lawrence C. |title=Computational Logic: Its Origins and Applications |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |date=February 2018 |volume=474 |issue=2210 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1098/rspa.2017.0872 |pmid=29507522 |pmc=5832843 |arxiv=1712.04375 |bibcode=2018RSPSA.47470872P |s2cid=3805901 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pedemonte |first1=Bettina |title=Strategic vs Definitory Rules: Their Role in Abductive Argumentation and their Relationship with Deductive Proof |journal=Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education |date=25 June 2018 |volume=14 |issue=9 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.29333/ejmste/92562 |s2cid=126245285 |url=https://www.ejmste.com/article/strategic-vs-definitory-rules-their-role-in-abductive-argumentation-and-their-relationship-with-5539 |language=english |issn=1305-8215 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207195246/https://www.ejmste.com/article/strategic-vs-definitory-rules-their-role-in-abductive-argumentation-and-their-relationship-with-5539 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pickel |first1=Bryan |title=Structured Propositions and Trivial Composition |journal=Synthese |date=1 July 2020 |volume=197 |issue=7 |pages=2991–3006 |doi=10.1007/s11229-018-1853-1 |s2cid=49729020 |language=en |issn=1573-0964 |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.11820/3427c028-f2cb-4216-a199-9679a49ce71c |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Pietroski |first1=Paul |title=Logical Form: 1. Patterns of Reason |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-form/#pat |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=2 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002190116/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-form/#pat |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Planty-Bonjour |first1=Guy |title=The Categories of Dialectical Materialism: Contemporary Soviet Ontology |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-010-3517-0 |page=62 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Possin |first1=Kevin |title=Conductive Arguments: Why is This Still a Thing? |journal=Informal Logic |year=2016 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=563–593 |doi=10.22329/il.v36i4.4527 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/POSCAW-4 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171723/https://philpapers.org/rec/POSCAW-4 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Priest |first1=Graham |last2=Tanaka |first2=Koji |last3=Weber |first3=Zach |title=Paraconsistent Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-paraconsistent/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=14 December 2021 |year=2018 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Pépin |first1=Jean |title=Encyclopedia of Religion |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/logos |chapter=Logos |year=2004 |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229134626/https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/logos |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865733-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Putnam |first=H. |author-link=هلري پٽنم |title=Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science |chapter=Is Logic Empirical? |year=1969 |volume=5 |pages=216–241 |doi=10.1007/978-94-010-3381-7_5 |isbn=978-94-010-3383-1 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Quine |first1=Willard Van Orman |author-link=ولارڊ وان اورمن ڪوائن |title=Mathematical Logic |date=1981 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-55451-1 |page=1 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Rathjen |first1=Michael |last2=Sieg |first2=Wilfried |title=Proof Theory |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/proof-theory/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rautenberg |first1=Wolfgang |title=A Concise Introduction to Mathematical Logic |date=1 July 2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4419-1221-3 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Rendsvig |first1=Rasmus |last2=Symons |first2=John |title=Epistemic Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-epistemic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Restall |first1=Greg |last2=Standefer |first2=Shawn |title=Logical Methods |date=2023 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-54484-9 |page=91 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Richardson |first1=Alan W. |title=Carnap's Construction of the World: The Aufbau and the Emergence of Logical Empiricism |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-43008-1 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rini |first1=Adriane |author1-link=ايڊريان ريني |title=Aristotle's Modal Proofs: Prior Analytics A8-22 in Predicate Logic |date=13 December 2010 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-007-0050-5 |page=26 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ritola |first1=Juho |title=Walton's Informal Logic: A Pragmatic Approach |journal=Informal Logic |date=1 December 2008 |volume=28 |issue=4 |page=335 |doi=10.22329/il.v28i4.2856 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rocci |first1=Andrea |title=Modality in Argumentation: A Semantic Investigation of the Role of Modalities in the Structure of Arguments with an Application to Italian Modal Expressions |date=8 March 2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-024-1063-1 |page=26 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rošker |first1=Jana S. |author1-link=يانا ايس روشڪر |title=Classical Chinese Logic: Philosophy Compass |journal=Philosophy Compass |date=May 2015 |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=301–309 |doi=10.1111/phc3.12226 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Runco |first1=Mark A. |last2=Pritzker |first2=Steven R. |title=Encyclopedia of Creativity |date=1999 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-227075-8 |page=155 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rush |first1=Penelope |title=The Metaphysics of Logic |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/RUSTMO-4 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184954/https://philpapers.org/rec/RUSTMO-4 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-03964-3 |pages=1–10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Sadegh-Zadeh |first1=Kazem |title=Handbook of Analytic Philosophy of Medicine |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-017-9579-1 |page=983 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sagüillo |first1=José M. |title=Hintikka on Information and Deduction |journal=Teorema: Revista Internacional de Filosofía |year=2014 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=75–88 |jstor=43047609 |issn=0210-1602 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Sarukkai |first1=Sundar |last2=Chakraborty |first2=Mihir Kumar |title=Handbook of Logical Thought in India |date=2022 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-81-322-2577-5 |pages=117–118 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Schagrin |first1=Morton L. |title=Metalogic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/metalogic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Schechter |first1=Joshua |title=Epistemology of Logic – Bibliography |url=https://philpapers.org/browse/epistemology-of-logic |website=PhilPapers |access-date=11 September 2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Schlesinger |first1=I. M. |last2=Keren-Portnoy |first2=Tamar |last3=Parush |first3=Tamar |title=The Structure of Arguments |date=1 January 2001 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-90-272-2359-3 |page=220 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Schreiner |first1=Wolfgang |title=Thinking Programs: Logical Modeling and Reasoning About Languages, Data, Computations, and Executions |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-80507-4 |page=22 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Scott |first1=John |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon |title=A Dictionary of Sociology |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095410661 |language=en |chapter=analytic induction |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108173225/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095410661 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Shapiro |first1=Stewart |last2=Kouri Kissel |first2=Teresa |title=Classical Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-classical/#Sema |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Shermer |first1=Michael |title=Conspiracy: Why the Rational Believe the Irrational |date=25 October 2022 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-1-4214-4445-1 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Sider |first=Theodore |author-link=ٿيوڊور سائيڊر |year=2010 |title=Logic for Philosophy |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-957558-9 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Siegel |first1=Harvey |last2=Biro |first2=John |title=Epistemic Normativity, Argumentation, and Fallacies |journal=Argumentation |year=1997 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=277–292 |doi=10.1023/A:1007799325361 |s2cid=126269789 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/SIEENA |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228035651/https://philpapers.org/rec/SIEENA |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Simpson |first1=R. L. |title=Essentials of Symbolic Logic |edition=3rd |date=2008 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=978-1-77048-495-5 |page=14 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Smith |first1=Robin |title=Aristotle's Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Spade |first1=Paul Vincent |last2=Panaccio |first2=Claude |title=William of Ockham |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ockham/#SummLogi |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2019 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Spriggs |first1=John |title=GSN – The Goal Structuring Notation: A Structured Approach to Presenting Arguments |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4471-2312-5 |pages=20–22 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Stairs |first1=Allen |title=A Thinker's Guide to the Philosophy of Religion |year=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-21981-5 |page=343 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Sternberg |first1=Robert J. |title=Thought |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/thought |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=14 October 2021 |language=en |archive-date=13 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211013145532/https://www.britannica.com/topic/thought |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Stolyar |first1=Abram Aronovich |title=Introduction to Elementary Mathematical Logic |date=1 January 1984 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=978-0-486-64561-2 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Stone |first1=Mark A. |title=Denying the Antecedent: Its Effective Use in Argumentation |journal=Informal Logic |year=2012 |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=327–356 |doi=10.22329/il.v32i3.3681 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/STODTA |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228123240/https://philpapers.org/rec/STODTA |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Stump |first1=David J. |title=Fallacy, Logical |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/fallacy-logical |website=encyclopedia.com |access-date=20 March 2021 |archive-date=15 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215112403/https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/fallacy-logical |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Talbott |first1=William |title=Bayesian Epistemology |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-bayesian/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=6 March 2021 |year=2016 |archive-date=1 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401034856/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-bayesian/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Tarski |first1=Alfred |author-link=الفريڊ تارسڪي |title=Introduction to Logic and to the Methodology of the Deductive Sciences |date=1994 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-802139-1 |page=40 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Tondl |first1=L. |title=Problems of Semantics: A Contribution to the Analysis of the Language Science |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-009-8364-9 |page=111 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Velleman |first1=Daniel J. |title=How to Prove It: A Structured Approach |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-67599-4 |pages=8, 103 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Vickers |first1=John M. |title=Inductive Reasoning |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0171.xml |website=Oxford Bibliographies |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=18 January 2023 |language=en |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Vidyabhusana |first1=Satis Chandra |title=A History of Indian Logic: Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern Schools |date=1988 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publisher |isbn=978-81-208-0565-1 |page=221 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Vleet |first1=Van Jacob E. |title=Informal Logical Fallacies: A Brief Guide |date=2010 |publisher=Upa |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/VLEILF |chapter=Introduction |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228035654/https://philpapers.org/rec/VLEILF |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-7618-5432-6 |pages=ix–x }}
* {{cite web |last1=Väänänen |first1=Jouko |title=Second-order and Higher-order Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-higher-order/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=23 November 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030222316/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-higher-order/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Walton |first1=Douglas N. |author-link=ڊگلس اين والٽن |title=Informal Fallacies: Towards a Theory of Argument Criticisms |date=1987 |publisher=John Benjamins |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WALIFT |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302001111/https://philpapers.org/rec/WALIFT |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-55619-010-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Warren |first1=Jared |title=Shadows of Syntax: Revitalizing Logical and Mathematical Conventionalism |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-008615-2 |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/shadows-of-syntax-9780190086152 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Washell |first1=Richard F. |title=Logic, Language, and Albert the Great |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |date=1973 |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=445–450 |doi=10.2307/2708963 |jstor=2708963 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WASLLA-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wasilewska |first1=Anita |title=Logics for Computer Science: Classical and Non-Classical |date=2018 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-92591-2 |pages=145–146 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Weber |first1=Zach |title=Paraconsistent Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/para-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=12 December 2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Weddle |first1=Perry |title=Across the Lines of Disciplines |chapter=Chapter 36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction |date=2011 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |isbn=978-3-11-086771-8 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110867718.383/html |language=en |doi=10.1515/9783110867718.383 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231172343/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110867718.383/html |url-status=live |pages=383–388 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Westerståhl |first1=Dag |title=Aristotelian Syllogisms and Generalized Quantifiers |journal=Studia Logica |year=1989 |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=577–585 |doi=10.1007/BF00370209 |s2cid=32089424 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WESASA |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104182746/https://philpapers.org/rec/WESASA |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wilbanks |first1=Jan J. |title=Defining Deduction, Induction, and Validity |journal=Argumentation |date=1 March 2010 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=107–124 |doi=10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |s2cid=144481717 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |language=en |issn=1572-8374 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171721/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite web |last1=Wilce |first1=Alexander |title=Quantum Logic and Probability Theory: 2.1 Realist Quantum Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qt-quantlog/#RealQuanLogi |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wile |first1=Bruce |last2=Goss |first2=John |last3=Roesner |first3=Wolfgang |title=Comprehensive Functional Verification: The Complete Industry Cycle |date=2005 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-047664-3 |page=447 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Willman |first1=Marshall D. |title=Logic and Language in Early Chinese Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-logic-language/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |at=Introduction |date=2022 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wolf |first1=Robert G. |title=Are Relevant Logics Deviant? |journal=Philosophia |year=1978 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=327–340 |doi=10.1007/BF02378819 |s2cid=143697796 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WOLARL |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216143955/https://philpapers.org/rec/WOLARL |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Zegarelli |first=Mark |title=Logic For Dummies |page=30 |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-118-05307-2 }}
{{refend}}

==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|date=5 November 2023|En-Logic-article.ogg}}
{{Sister project links|منطق}}
{{Library resources box}}

{{منطق}}
{{فلسفي جا موضوع}}
{{Authority control}}

[[زمرو:رسمي سائنسون]]
[[زمرو:منطق| ]]
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>4oftk8shpyp49a7flz5xivc5bkp718f</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399247</id>
      <parentid>399246</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T15:48:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* پڻ ڏسو */</comment>
      <origin>399247</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="178309" sha1="iq3nb59ftv7sc67dgs0dienh19uk4ad" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.


منطق (اُچار: مَنتِڪُ، انگريزي: Logic لاجِڪ)دليل بازيءَ جو علم. هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==تاريخ==
{{Main|منطق جي تاريخ}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=330
| image1= Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg
| alt1= ارسطو جو مجسمو
| image2= Avicenne - Avicenna - Ibn_Sina (980-1037) CIPB2067.jpg
| alt2= ابن سينا جو پورٽريٽ
| image3= Guillaume Occam.jpg
| alt3= وليم آف اوڪهم جو پورٽريٽ
| image4= Wismar Marienkirche Bronzebüste Gottlob Frege (01-1).JPG
| alt4= گوٽلوب فريگي جو مجسمو
| footer= مٿيون قطار: [[ارسطو]]، جنهن مغربي منطق جي بنيادي روايت قائم ڪئي؛{{sfn|Groarke}} ۽ [[ابن سينا]]، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ تي پنهنجو منطقي نظام متعارف ڪرايو.{{sfn|Lagerlund|2018}} هيٺيون قطار: [[وليم آف اوڪهم]]، وچئين دور جي علمي فڪر جي اهم شخصيت؛{{sfn|Spade|Panaccio|2019}} ۽ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]]، جديد علامتي منطق جي بانيَن مان هڪ.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900|3a=Klement|3y=1995a}}
}}

قديم دور ۾ منطق ڪيترين ئي تهذيبن ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان الڳ نموني ترقي ڪئي. شروعاتي اهم مفڪرن مان هڪ [[ارسطو]] هو، جنهن پنهنجي ڪتابن ''[[اورگينون]]'' ۽ ''[[پرائر اينالٽڪس]]'' ۾ '''اصطلاحي منطق''' (ٽرم لاجڪ) کي منظم صورت ڏني.{{sfnm|1a1=Kline|1y=1972|1loc=&quot;A major achievement of Aristotle was the founding of the science of logic&quot;, p. 53|2a1=Łukasiewicz|2y=1957|2p=7|3a1=Liu|3a2=Guo|3y=2023|3p=15}} هن [[شرطي قياس]] (ھيپوٿيٽيڪل سلاجزم){{sfn|Lear|1980|p=34}} ۽ [[زماني موڊل منطق]] (ٽيمپورل موڊل لاجڪ) جي به بنياد وڌي.{{sfnm|1a1=Knuuttila|1y=1980|1p=71|2a1=Fisher|2a2=Gabbay|2a3=Vila|2y=2005|2p=119}} ارسطو [[استقرائي منطق]] (انڊڪٽو لاجڪ){{sfn|Berman|2009|p=133}} ۽ نون منطقي تصورن، جهڙوڪ [[اصطلاح]]، [[محموليت]] (پريڊيڪبلز)، قياس ۽ تجويزن تي پڻ اهم بحث ڪيو. ارسطوي منطق کي قديم ۽ وچئين دور ۾، يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر ٻنهي ۾ وڏي اهميت حاصل رهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} ۽ اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي شروعات تائين اهو غالب منطقي نظام رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} اڄ جي دور ۾ جيتوڻيڪ ان جي جاءِ جديد منطق ورتي آهي، پر ان جا ڪيترائي بنيادي خيال اڃا به جديد منطقي نظامن ۾ موجود آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|loc=1. Introduction}}

[[ابن سينا]] (ايويسينا) ابن سيناوي منطق جو باني هو، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] جي ميدان ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ ورتي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hasse|1y=2008|2a1=Lagerlund|2y=2018}} سندس خيالن جو اثر [[البرٽس ميگنس]] ۽ [[وليم آف اوڪهم]] جهڙن يورپي مفڪرن تي به پيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Washell|1y=1973|1pp=445–450|2a1=Kneale|2a2=Kneale|2y=1962|2pp=229, 266}} ابن سينا شرطي قياس{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} ۽ [[تجويزي منطق]] (پروپوزيشنل ڪلڪيولس){{sfn|Goodman|1992|p=188}} تي اهم تحريرون لکيون. هن زماني ۽ امڪان کي گڏائيندڙ هڪ نئون قياسي نظريو تيار ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[زماني منطق]] ۽ [[موڊل منطق]] جا عنصر شامل هئا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Spade|loc=Arabic Logic}} هن استقرائي منطق جا به طريقا بيان ڪيا، جهڙوڪ موافقت، اختلاف ۽ گڏيل تبديلي جا طريقا، جيڪي [[سائنسي طريقو|سائنسي طريقي]] لاءِ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا.{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} [[فخر الدين رازي]] پڻ هڪ اثرائتو مسلمان منطق دان هو. هن ارسطوي قياس تي تنقيد ڪئي ۽ استقرائي منطق جو اهڙو ابتدائي نظام پيش ڪيو، جنهن بعد ۾ [[جان اسٽوارٽ مل]] جي استقرائي منطق جي اڳواٽ نشاندهي ڪئي.{{sfn|Iqbal|2013|pp=99–115|loc=The Spirit of Muslim Culture}}

وچئين دور ۾ ارسطو جي منطقي ڪتابن جا ڪيترائي ترجما ۽ تشريحون تيار ڪيون ويون. [[بوئٿيوس]] جا ڪم خاص طور تي گهڻو اثرائتا رهيا. هن نه رڳو ارسطو جي تصنيفن کي لاطيني ۾ ترجمو ڪيو، پر منطق بابت درسي ڪتاب پڻ لکيا.{{sfnm|1a1=Marenbon|1y=2021|1loc=Introduction; 3. The Logical Text-Books|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade}} بعد ۾ ابن سينا ۽ [[ابن رشد]] (ايوريس) جهڙن اسلامي فلسفين جي تحريرن مان پڻ فائدو ورتو ويو، جنهن سان وچئين دور جي عيسائي عالمن کي قديم يوناني فڪر تائين وڌيڪ رسائي ملي. سنه 1323ع ۾ وليم آف اوڪهم جو مشهور ڪتاب ''{{lang|la|[[Summa Logicae]]}}'' شايع ٿيو، جيڪو منطق جو جامع رسالو آهي ۽ جنهن ۾ منطقي تجويزن، انهن جي قسمن ۽ سندن صدق جي شرطن بابت منظم بحث ڪيو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|2a1=Hasse|2y=2008|3a1=Spade|3a2=Panaccio|3y=2019}}

چيني فلسفي ۾ [[نالن جو مذهب]] (اسڪول آف نيمز) ۽ [[موهزم]] (Mohism) خاص اهميت رکندا هئا. نالن جي مذهب ٻوليءَ جي استعمال ۽ منطقي تضادن تي ڌيان ڏنو. مثال طور [[گونگسن لانگ]] مشهور ''اڇي گهوڙي جو تضاد'' (وائيٽ ھارس پيراڊوڪس) پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ دليل ڏنو ويو ته &quot;اڇو گهوڙو، گهوڙو ناهي.&quot; موهزم پڻ منطق ۾ ٻوليءَ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪيو ۽ ان کي اخلاقيات سان ڳنڍڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Willman|1y=2022|2a1=Rošker|2y=2015|2pp=301–309}}

هندستان ۾ منطق جو مطالعو بنيادي طور [[نيايه]]، [[ٻڌ مت]] ۽ [[جين مت]] جي فڪري روايتن ۾ ٿيو. ان کي الڳ علمي شعبي طور نه، پر علمُ المعرفت، مناظري ۽ استدلال جي بحثن جي حصي طور سمجهيو ويندو هو.{{sfn|Sarukkai|Chakraborty|2022|pp=117–118}} نيايه فلسفي ۾ استدلال کي علم حاصل ڪرڻ جو هڪ ذريعو (''[[پرمان]]'') سمجهيو ويو، جيڪو مشاهدي کان پوءِ شين جي سببن بابت نتيجا ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو.{{sfnm|1a1=Dasti|1loc=Lead section; 1b. Inference|2a1=Mills|2y=2018|2p=121}} ٻڌ ۽ جين منطق ۾ به استدلال کي ٻين ذريعن مان حاصل ٿيل علم کي وڌائڻ جو وسيلو سمجهيو ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Emmanuel|1y=2015|1pp=320–322|2a1=Vidyabhusana|2y=1988|2p=221}} نيايه جي پوئين دور جي [[نويا نيايه]] روايت جا ڪيئي خيال جديد منطق سان ملندڙ جلندڙ آهن، جهڙوڪ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جو ''معنيٰ ۽ مرجع'' (سينس اينڊ ريفرنس) وارو فرق ۽ انگ جي تعريف.{{sfn|Chakrabarti|1976|pp=554–563}}

ارسطو جي قياسي منطق اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي وچ تائين غالب رهي، پر رياضيات جي بنيادن بابت وڌندڙ دلچسپي جديد علامتي منطق جي ترقي جو سبب بڻي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Haaparanta|2y=2009|2pp=3–5|2loc=1. Introduction}} گهڻا محقق [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جي ''[[بيگرفس شرفٽ]]'' (Begriffsschrift) کي جديد منطق جي شروعات سمجهن ٿا. [[گوٽفريڊ وِلهم لائبنٽس]] جي [[عالمي رسمي ٻولي]] (ڪئريڪٽرسٽڪا يونيورسلس) جو تصور ان جو اڳواٽ اشارو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. ٻين اهم اڳواڻن ۾ [[جارج بول]] شامل آهي، جنهن [[بولي الجبرا]] (بوليئن آلجبرا) کي منطقي رياضيائي نظام طور پيش ڪيو، ۽ [[چارلس سينڊرس پيرس]]، جنهن [[لاڳاپن جي منطق]] (لاجڪ آگ رليٽوز) کي ترقي ڏني. بعد ۾ [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] انهن خيالن کي پنهنجي مشهور ڪتاب '' پرنسپيا ميٿميٽيڪا'' ۾ منظم ڪيو.

جديد منطق نوان تصور متعارف ڪرايا، جهڙوڪ [[تابع]] (فنڪشن)، مقدارساز (ڪونٽيفائر) ۽ لاڳاپائي محمول (رليشنل پريڊيڪيٽس). جديد علامتي منطق جي نمايان خاصيت رسمي ٻوليءَ جو استعمال آهي، جنهن ذريعي منطقي اصولن کي نهايت درست نموني بيان ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان لحاظ کان اهو اڳين منطق دانن کان مختلف آهي، جيڪي بنيادي طور قدرتي ٻوليءَ تي ڀاڙيندا هئا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900}} خاص طور تي [[اول-درجي منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) جي ترقي جديد منطق ۾ بنيادي حيثيت اختيار ڪئي.{{sfn|Ewald|2019}} ان جي تجزياتي وسعت رياضيات کي رسمي صورت ڏيڻ، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] جي ترقي ۽ [[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) جي قيام لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪيو، ۽ اهو جديد [[رياضياتي منطق]] جو مرڪزي نظام بڻجي ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Schreiner|2y=2021|2p=22}}

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (ڪوانٽيفڪيشن) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}

==تحقيق جا شعبا==

منطق جو مطالعو مختلف علمي شعبن ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪيترن ئي حالتن ۾ ان جي رسمي طريقن کي انهن موضوعن تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي پاڻ منطق جي دائري کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[اخلاقيات]] يا [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Logic and other disciplines|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10}}

ٻين حالتن ۾ خود منطق ئي ڪنهن ٻئي علمي شعبي ۾ تحقيق جو موضوع بڻجي ٿي. اهو مختلف طريقن سان ٿي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، منطق جي بنيادي تصورن سان لاڳاپيل فلسفياتي مفروضن جو جائزو وٺڻ، منطقي نظامن کي رياضيائي بناوتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جو تجزيو ڪرڻ، يا رسمي منطقي نظامن جي تجريدي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ۽ ڀيٽ ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Features and problems of logic|2a1=Gödel|2y=1984|2pp=447–469|2loc=Russell's mathematical logic|3a1=Monk|3y=1976|3pp=1–9|3loc=Introduction}}

===منطق جو فلسفو ۽ فلسفياتي منطق===
{{Main|منطق جو فلسفو|فلسفياتي منطق}}

'''منطق جو فلسفو''' (فلاسافي آف لاجڪ) فلسفي جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطق جي دائري، ماهيت ۽ بنيادي نوعيت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} ان ۾ انهن ڪيترن ئي مفروضن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيڪي منطق ۾ ضمني طور قبول ڪيا ويندا آهن، جيئن ان جي بنيادي تصورن جي تعريف يا انهن سان لاڳاپيل [[مابعدالطبيعات|مابعدالطبيعي]] مفروضا.{{sfn|Jacquette|2006|loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|pp=1–12}}

هي شعبي منطقي نظامن جي درجابندي ۽ انهن سان وابسته [[وجوديات|وجودياتي]] وابستگين (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪمٽمينٽ) جو پڻ مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=§Problems of ontology}}

'''فلسفياتي منطق''' (فلاسافيڪل لاجڪ) منطق جي فلسفي جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطقي طريقن کي فلسفي جي مسئلن تي لاڳو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Burgess|2y=2009|2loc=1. Classical logic}}
اهو استعمال گهڻو ڪري [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي]] يا [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظامن]] جي صورت ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Goble|1y=2001|1loc=Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32}}

===مابعد منطق===
{{Main|مابعد منطق}}

'''مابعد منطق''' (ميٽالاجڪ) اهو علمي شعبو آهي، جيڪو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.

مثال طور، جڏهن ڪو نئون رسمي منطقي نظام تيار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ته مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو معلوم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته ان نظام ۾ ڪهڙا فارمولا ثابت ڪري سگهجن ٿا. اهي اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته ڇا اهڙو [[الگورٿم]] تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو هر فارمولي لاءِ ثبوت ڳولي سگهي، ۽ ڇا ان نظام ۾ هر قابلِ ثبوت فارمولو لازمي طور [[منطقي صداقت]] (Tautology) آهي.

اهي مختلف منطقي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ تقابلي مطالعو پڻ ڪندا آهن ته جيئن انهن جون منفرد خاصيتون واضح ٿي سگهن.

مابعد منطق جو هڪ بنيادي موضوع [[نحو]] (سنٽيڪس) ۽ [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) جي وچ ۾ تعلق آهي. رسمي منطقي نظام جا نحوي ضابطا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدمات مان نتيجا ڪيئن اخذ ڪيا وڃن، يعني ثبوت ڪيئن ترتيب ڏنا وڃن. جڏهن⁠ته معنيات اهو طئي ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙا جملا سچا آهن ۽ ڪهڙا ڪوڙا. انهيءَ بنياد تي دليل جي صحت جو تعين ڪيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صحيح دليل ۾ اهو ناممڪن هوندو آهي ته مقدمات سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو هجي.

نحو ۽ معنيات جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي بابت اهم سوالن ۾ اهو شامل آهي ته ڇا هر صحيح دليل قابلِ ثبوت آهي، ۽ ڇا هر قابلِ ثبوت دليل لازمي طور صحيح به هوندو آهي.

مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته منطقي نظام [[مڪمليت]] (ڪمپليٽنيس)، [[صحت (منطق)|صحت]] (سائونڊنيس) ۽ [[هم آهنگي (منطق)|هم آهنگي]] (ڪنسسٽنسي) جون خاصيتون رکن ٿا يا نه. ان کان علاوه، اهي اهو به ڏسندا آهن ته اهي نظام [[فيصلي پذيري]] (ڊسائيڊبلٽي) رکن ٿا يا نه، ۽ انهن جي [[اظهاري قوت]] ڪيتري آهي.

انهن موضوعن جي تحقيق دوران مابعد منطق گهڻو ڪري تجريدي رياضيائي استدلال تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جنهن جو مقصد انهن مسئلن بابت صحيح، عام ۽ جامع نتيجا حاصل ڪرڻ هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1pp=xliii–xliv|2a1=Sider|2y=2010|2pp=4–6|3a1=Schagrin}}

===رياضيائي منطق===
{{Main|رياضيائي منطق}}

[[File:Russell1907-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=برٽرينڊ رسل جو تصوير|[[برٽرينڊ رسل]] رياضيائي منطق جي ترقي ۾ ڪيترائي اهم علمي حصا ورتا.{{sfn|Irvine|2022}}]]

اصطلاح '''رياضيائي منطق''' (ميٿميٽيڪل لاجڪ) ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[رسمي منطق]] جي مترادف طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر وڌيڪ محدود معنيٰ ۾ اهو رياضيات جي اندر منطق جي مطالعي ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. ان جون اهم شاخون [[ماڊل نظريو]]، [[ثبوت جو نظريو]]، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) ۽ [[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Li|1y=2010|1p=ix|2a1=Rautenberg|2y=2010|2p=15|3a1=Quine|3y=1981|3p=1|4a1=Stolyar|4y=1984|4p=2}}

رياضيائي منطق جي تحقيق جو وڏو حصو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي رياضيائي خاصيتن جي مطالعي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. ان سان گڏ اهو پڻ ڏٺو ويندو آهي ته منطق کي رياضيائي استدلال جي تجزيي يا [[رياضيات جا بنياد|رياضيات جي منطقي بنيادن]] جي قيام لاءِ ڪيئن استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfn|Stolyar|1984|pp=3–6}}

ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ رياضيائي منطق جو هڪ اهم مقصد [[منطق پرستي]] (لاجڪئزم) واري پروگرام کي اڳتي وڌائڻ هو، جنهن جي شروعات [[گاٽلوب فريگي]]، [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] جهڙن فلسفي-منطق دانن ڪئي هئي. هن پروگرام موجب سڀئي رياضيائي نظريا اصل ۾ منطقي [[منطقي صداقت|صداقتون]] (Tautologies) آهن، ۽ ان کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ رياضيات کي منطق تائين محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي. پر هن پروگرام کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جون گهڻيون ڪوششون ناڪام ويون. مثال طور، فريگي جو منصوبو سندس ڪتاب '' گرُنڊگيزيٽسي:Grundgesetze'' (بنيادي قانون) ۾ [[رسل جو تضاد|رسل جي تضاد]] سبب متاثر ٿيو، جڏهن⁠ته [[هلبرٽ جو پروگرام]] [[گوڊل جا نامڪمليت جا نظريا|گوڊل جي نامڪمليت جي نظرين]] سبب ناڪام ثابت ٿيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|1loc=Gödel's incompleteness theorems|2a1=Linsky|2y=2011|2p=4|3a1=Richardson|3y=1998|3p=15}}

[[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) جي شروعات [[جارج ڪينٽر]] لامحدوديت جي مطالعي دوران ڪئي. هي شعبي رياضيائي منطق جي ڪيترن ئي اهم ۽ پيچيده مسئلن جو سرچشمو بڻيو، جن ۾ [[ڪينٽر جو نظريو]]، [[اختيار جو اصول]] (اگزيوم آف چوائس)، [[مسلسل مفروضي]] (ڪنٽينيوئم ھيپوٿيسز) جي آزاديءَ جو سوال، ۽ [[وڏي ڪارڊينل]] (لارج ڪارڊينل) اصولن بابت جديد بحث شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Bagaria|1y=2021|2a1=Cunningham}}

[[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) رياضيائي منطق جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا حسابي مسئلن کي حل ڪرڻ لاءِ مؤثر طريقن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان جو هڪ بنيادي مقصد اهو معلوم ڪرڻ آهي ته ڪنهن خاص مسئلي کي [[الگورٿم]] ذريعي حل ڪرڻ ممڪن آهي يا نه. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صحيح عددن بابت ڪو خاص دعويٰ ڏني وڃي، ته هي شعبي اهو جاچيندو آهي ته ڇا اهڙو الگورٿم تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو اهو طئي ڪري سگهي ته اها دعويٰ صحيح آهي يا غلط. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ [[ٽيورنگ مشين]] (Turing machine) سميت مختلف نظرياتي ماڊلن ۽ اوزارن کي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006a|1loc=Computability Theory|2a1=Leary|2a2=Kristiansen|2y=2015|2p=195}}

===حسابياتي منطق===
{{Main|حسابياتي منطق|ڪمپيوٽر سائنس ۾ منطق}}

[[File:TransistorANDgate.png|thumb|ٽرانزسٽرن جي مدد سان تيار ڪيل هڪ AND گيٽ جو خاڪو. [[منطقي عطف]] (AND) [[بولين منطق]] جي بنيادي عملن مان هڪ آهي، جنهن کي برقي طور مختلف طريقن سان، مثال طور ٻن [[ٽرانزسٽر]]ن ذريعي، عمل ۾ آڻي سگهجي ٿو.]]

'''حسابياتي منطق''' (ڪمپيوٽيشنل لاجڪ) منطق ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ڪمپيوٽرن جي ذريعي رياضيائي استدلال ۽ رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عملي صورت ڏيڻ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان ۾، مثال طور، [[خودڪار نظريي ثابت ڪندڙ]] (آٽوميٽڪ ٿيورم پروور) شامل آهن، جيڪي [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] استعمال ڪندي، بغير انساني مداخلت جي، مقدمات مان گهربل نتيجي تائين مرحليوار ثبوت تيار ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Paulson|1y=2018|1pp=1–14|2a1=Castaño|2y=2018|2p=2|3a1=Wile|3a2=Goss|3a3=Roesner|3y=2005|3p=447}}

[[منطقي پروگرامنگ]] (لاجڪ پروگرامنگ) جون ٻوليون خاص طور اهڙي نموني تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن، جو حقيقتن کي منطقي فارمولن جي صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ۽ انهن مان استدلال ذريعي نوان نتيجا اخذ ڪري سگهجن. مثال طور، [[پرولاگ]] (Prolog) محمولي منطق تي ٻڌل هڪ منطقي پروگرامنگ ٻولي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Clocksin|1a2=Mellish|1y=2003|1pp=237–238, 252–255, 257|1loc=The Relation of Prolog to Logic|2a1=Daintith|2a2=Wright|2y=2008|2loc=Logic Programming Languages}}

ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽنگ سان لاڳاپيل مسئلن جي حل لاءِ پڻ منطقي تصورن کي استعمال ڪندا آهن. هن ميدان ۾ [[ڪلاڊ شينن]] جو ڪم انتهائي اثرائتو رهيو، جنهن ڏيکاريو ته [[بولين منطق]] کي ڪمپيوٽرن جي برقي سرڪٽن کي سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=O'Regan|1y=2016|1p=49|2a1=Calderbank|2a2=Sloane|2y=2001|2p=768}}

اهو ڪم [[منطقي دروازو|منطقي دروازن]] (لاجڪ گيٽ) ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي اهڙا برقي سرڪٽ هوندا آهن، جن ۾ هڪ يا وڌيڪ ان پُٽ ۽ عام طور هڪ آئوٽ پُٽ هوندو آهي. انهن ۾ منطقي قضين جي صداقت جا قدر برقي وولٽيج جي سطحن جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهڙيءَ طرح، سرڪٽ جي ان پُٽن تي مناسب وولٽيج لاڳو ڪري ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ جي وولٽيج کي ماپي، مختلف منطقي عملن جي نقل (سميوليشن) ڪئي ويندي آهي.{{sfn|Daintith|Wright|2008|loc=Logic Gate}}

===قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات===
{{Main|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات}}

'''قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) منطق، [[لسانيات]] ۽ [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]] جي گڏيل ذيلي شاخ آهي. [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) ٻوليءَ جي معنائن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته رسمي معنيات علامتي منطق ۽ رياضيات جا رسمي اوزار استعمال ڪندي [[قدرتي ٻولي]] جي اظهارَن جي معنائن بابت درست ۽ منظم نظريا پيش ڪري ٿي.

رسمي معنيات عام طور معنٰي کي [[صدق جون شرطون]] (ٽرٿ ڪنڊيشنر) سان وابسته ڪري سمجهي ٿي؛ يعني اها جاچ ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙين حالتن ۾ ڪو جملو سچو يا ڪوڙو ٿيندو. هن شعبي جي بنيادي اصولن مان هڪ [[ترڪيبي اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) آهي، جنهن موجب ڪنهن پيچيده اظهار جي معنٰي ان جي جزن جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي پاڻ ۾ ڳانڍاپي جي طريقي سان طئي ٿيندي آهي. مثال طور، فعل واري فقري &quot;هلڻ ۽ ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنٰي انفرادي اظهارَن &quot;هلڻ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.

رسمي معنيات جا ڪيترائي نظريا [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. ان جو مطلب آهي ته اهي [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) استعمال ڪري هڪ نمونو (ماڊل) تيار ڪندا آهن ۽ پوءِ ان نموني جي عنصرن جي حوالي سان ٻوليءَ جي اظهارَن جي معنائن جي تشريح ڪندا آهن. مثال طور، اصطلاح &quot;هلڻ&quot; کي نموني ۾ موجود انهن سڀني فردن جي مجموعي طور سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي هلڻ جي خاصيت رکن ٿا.

هن شعبي جا شروعاتي ۽ اثرائتا مفڪر [[رچرڊ مونٽيگ]] ۽ [[باربرا پارٽي]] هئا، جن پنهنجي تجزين جو بنيادي مرڪز انگريزي ٻوليءَ کي بڻايو.{{sfnm|1a1=Janssen|1a2=Zimmermann|1y=2021|1pp=3–4|2a1=Partee|2y=2016|3a1=King|3y=2009|3pp=557–558|4a1=Aloni|4a2=Dekker|4y=2016|4pp=22–23}}

===منطق جو علمُ المعرفت===
{{Main|منطق جو علمُ المعرفت}}

'''منطق جو علمُ المعرفت''' (ايپسٽيمولاجي آف لاجڪ) هن ڳالهه جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو ته انسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوي ٿي ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا ڪا تجويز منطقي طور سچي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Schechter}} هن ۾ اهڙا سوال شامل آهن، جيئن: {{lang|la|modus ponens}} استدلال جو صحيح قاعدو ڇو آهي؟ يا تضاد هميشه ڪوڙا ڇو سمجهيا وڃن ٿا؟{{sfn|Warren|2020|loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic}}

روايتي طور تي غالب نظريو اهو رهيو آهي ته اهڙي قسم جي منطقي ڄاڻ [[قبلي علم]] (''a priori'') سان واسطو رکي ٿي.{{sfn|Schechter}} هن نظرئي موجب، اڪثر اهو دليل ڏنو ويندو آهي ته [[ذهن]] وٽ هڪ خاص صلاحيت هوندي آهي، جيڪا خالص خيالن جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي پرکڻ جي قابل هوندي آهي، ۽ اها ئي صلاحيت منطقي سچائين کي سمجهڻ جو ذريعو پڻ آهي.{{sfn|Gómez-Torrente|2019}}

هڪ ٻيو ويجهو نظريو منطق جي قاعدن کي [[اصطلاحيت]] (ڪنوينشنلزم) يا لساني روايتن جي بنياد تي سمجهي ٿو. هن راءِ موجب، منطق جا قانون تعريف جي لحاظ کان سچا آهن، تنهنڪري اهي بنيادي طور غيرتڪراري آهن؛ اهي رڳو منطقي اصطلاحن جي معنائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Gómez-Torrente|2y=2019|3a1=Warren|3y=2020|3loc=1. What is Conventionalism}}

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[هلري پٽنم]] ۽ [[پينيلوپي ميڊي]]، هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪن ٿا ته منطق کي مڪمل طور قبلي علم ذريعي ڄاڻي سگهجي ٿو. انهن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي سچايون [[تجربي تي ٻڌل علم]] (امپريڪل نالج) سان به لاڳاپيل آهن. هن راءِ کي عام طور ان دعويٰ سان گڏ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي ته منطق جا قانون دنيا جي بناوت ۾ موجود عام ۽ آفاقي قاعدن جو اظهار ڪن ٿا. ان مطابق، انهن قاعدن کي [[بنيادي سائنسون|بنيادي سائنسن]] ۾ موجود عام نمونن ۽ اصولن جي مطالعي ذريعي به سمجهي سگهجي ٿو.

مثال طور، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم ميڪانيات]] جون ڪجهه دريافتون روايتي منطق جي [[ورڇ جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڊسٽريبيوٽوٽي) کي چئلينج ڪن ٿيون، جنهن موجب فارمولو &lt;math&gt;A \land (B \lor C)&lt;/math&gt; هم معنيٰ آهي &lt;math&gt;(A \land B) \lor (A \land C)&lt;/math&gt; سان. هن دعويٰ کي ان ڳالهه جي تجربي تي ٻڌل دليل طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم منطق]] روايتي منطق کان وڌيڪ مناسب منطقي نظام آهي، ۽ ان کي روايتي منطق جي جاءِ وٺڻ گهرجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Chua|1y=2017|1pp=631–636|2a1=Wilce|2y=2021|3a1=Putnam|3y=1969|3pp=216–241}}

==پڻ ڏسو==
{{Portal|فلسفو}}

* {{annotated link|منطق جي اصطلاحن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جو خاڪو}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جي تحقيقي رسالن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي نشانين جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق دانن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي ڳجهارت}}
* {{annotated link|لوگوس}}
* {{annotated link|ویکٽر منطق}}

==حوالا==

===وضاحتي نوٽ===
{{notelist}}
&lt;references group=&quot;lower-alpha&quot;/&gt;
===حوالا===
{{reflist|1=30em}}

===ڪتابيات===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Aloni |first1=Maria |author1-link=ماريا الوني |last2=Dekker |first2=Paul |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics |date=7 July 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-55273-5 |pages=22–23 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Angell |first1=Richard B. |title=Reasoning and Logic |date=1964 |publisher=Ardent Media |page=164 |language=en |oclc=375322 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Informal logic |year=1999a |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |page=435 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Philosophy of logic |year=1999b |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |pages=679–681 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Backmann |first1=Marius |title=Varieties of Justification—How (Not) to Solve the Problem of Induction |journal=Acta Analytica |date=1 June 2019 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=235–255 |doi=10.1007/s12136-018-0371-6 |s2cid=125767384 |language=en |issn=1874-6349 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bagaria |first1=Joan |author-link=جوان باگاريا |title=Set Theory |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/set-theory/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=23 September 2022 |year=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Jonathan |title=Truth, etc.: Six Lectures on Ancient Logic |date=25 January 2007 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-151574-3 |page=274 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Benthem |first1=Johan van |title=Modal Logic: Contemporary View: 1. Modal Notions and Reasoning Patterns: a First Pass |url=https://iep.utm.edu/modal-lo/#H1 |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=11 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berlemann |first1=Lars |last2=Mangold |first2=Stefan |title=Cognitive Radio and Dynamic Spectrum Access |date=10 July 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-0-470-75443-6 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berman |first1=Harold J. |title=Law and Revolution, the Formation of the Western Legal Tradition |date=1 July 2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02085-6 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bimbó |first1=Katalin |author-link=ڪيٽلن بمبو |title=J. Michael Dunn on Information Based Logics |date=2 April 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-29300-4 |pages=8–9 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=1 January 2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |language=en |chapter=argument |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194756/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=24 March 2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |language=en |chapter=rule of inference |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194809/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=The Current State of Informal Logic |journal=Informal Logic |year=1987 |volume=9 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v9i2.2671 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230194638/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |url-status=live |pages=147–151 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=Informal Logic: An Overview |journal=Informal Logic |year=2000 |volume=20 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v20i2.2262 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209195317/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |url-status=live |pages=93–107 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |title=Groundwork in the Theory of Argumentation: Selected Papers of J. Anthony Blair |date=20 October 2011 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-007-2363-4 |page=47 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bobzien |first1=Susanne |author-link=سوزاني بوبزين |title=Ancient Logic: 2. Aristotle |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=3 January 2022 |year=2020 |archive-date=28 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828102117/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Borchert |editor1-first=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 2 |edition=2nd |date=2006a |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |isbn=978-0-02-865782-0 |chapter=Computability Theory |pages=372–390 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 4 |edition=2nd |date=2006b |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Induction |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865784-4 |pages=635–648 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 5 |edition=2nd |date=2006c |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Logic, Non-Classical |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865785-1 |pages=485–492 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bridges |first1=Douglas |last2=Ishihara |first2=Hajime |last3=Rathjen |first3=Michael |last4=Schwichtenberg |first4=Helmut |title=Handbook of Constructive Mathematics |date=30 April 2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-51086-5 |pages=73–74 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Brody |first=Boruch A. |title=Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=2006 |publisher=Thomson Gale/Macmillan Reference US |others=Donald M. Borchert |isbn=978-0-02-865780-6 |edition=2nd |volume=5 |pages=535–536 |oclc=61151356 |quote=The two most important types of logical calculi are propositional (or sentential) calculi and functional (or predicate) calculi. A propositional calculus is a system containing propositional variables and connectives (some also contain propositional constants) but not individual or functional variables or constants. In the extended propositional calculus, quantifiers whose operator variables are propositional variables are added. }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bunnin |first1=Nicholas |last2=Yu |first2=Jiyuan |title=The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy |date=27 January 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9112-8 |page=179 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Burgess |first1=John P. |author-link=جان پي. برجس |title=Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |chapter=1. Classical logic |pages=1–12 |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216143954/https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-691-15633-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bäck |first1=Allan T. |title=Aristotle's Theory of Predication |date=2016 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-32109-0 |page=317 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Calderbank |first1=Robert |last2=Sloane |first2=Neil J. A. |title=Claude Shannon (1916–2001) |journal=Nature |date=April 2001 |volume=410 |issue=6830 |page=768 |doi=10.1038/35071223 |pmid=11298432 |s2cid=4402158 |language=en |issn=1476-4687 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Carnielli |first1=Walter |last2=Pizzi |first2=Claudio |title=Modalities and Multimodalities |date=2008 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-8590-1 |page=3 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Castaño |first1=Arnaldo Pérez |title=Practical Artificial Intelligence: Machine Learning, Bots, and Agent Solutions Using C# |date=23 May 2018 |publisher=Apress |isbn=978-1-4842-3357-3 |page=2 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Chakrabarti |first1=Kisor Kumar |title=Some Comparisons Between Frege's Logic and Navya-Nyaya Logic |journal=Philosophy and Phenomenological Research |date=June 1976 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=554–563 |doi=10.2307/2106873 |jstor=2106873 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chatfield |first1=Tom |title=Critical Thinking: Your Guide to Effective Argument, Successful Analysis and Independent Study |date=2017 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-5264-1877-7 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chua |first1=Eugene |title=Logic, Rationality, and Interaction |chapter=An Empirical Route to Logical 'Conventionalism' |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |date=2017 |volume=10455 |pages=631–636 |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-55665-8_43 |isbn=978-3-662-55664-1 |chapter-url=https://philpapers.org/rec/CHUAER }}
* {{cite book |last1=Clocksin |first1=William F. |last2=Mellish |first2=Christopher S. |title=Programming in Prolog: Using the ISO Standard |date=2003 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-55481-0 |pages=237–257 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 |language=en |chapter=The Relation of Prolog to Logic |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cook |first1=Roy T. |title=Dictionary of Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-3197-1 |language=en |page=124 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Copi |first1=Irving M. |author1-link=ارونگ ڪوپي |last2=Cohen |first2=Carl |last3=Rodych |first3=Victor |title=Introduction to Logic |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-38697-5 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Corkum |first1=Philip |title=Generality and Logical Constancy |journal=Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia |year=2015 |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=753–767 |doi=10.17990/rpf/2015_71_4_0753 |jstor=43744657 |issn=0870-5283 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Craig |first1=Edward |author-link=ايڊورڊ ڪريگ (فلسفي) |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=1996 |publisher=Routledge |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116111145/https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-07310-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cummings |first1=Louise |title=The Routledge Pragmatics Encyclopedia |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-21457-9 |page=1 |language=en |chapter=Abduction }}
* {{cite web |last1=Cunningham |first1=Daniel |title=Set Theory |url=https://iep.utm.edu/set-theo/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=23 September 2022 }}

* {{cite journal |last1=D'Agostino |first1=Marcello |last2=Floridi |first2=Luciano |title=The Enduring Scandal of Deduction: Is Propositional Logic Really Uninformative? |journal=Synthese |year=2009 |volume=167 |issue=2 |pages=271–315 |doi=10.1007/s11229-008-9409-4 |jstor=40271192 |hdl=2299/2995 |hdl-access=free |s2cid=9602882 |language=en |issn=0039-7857 }}
* {{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Computing |isbn=978-0-19-923400-4 |last1=Daintith |first1=John |last2=Wright |first2=Edmund |date=2008 |publisher=OUP }}
* {{cite book |last=van Dalen |first=Dirk |author-link=ڊرڪ وان ڊالن |year=1994 |title=Logic and Structure |publisher=Springer |at=Chapter 1.5 |isbn=978-0-387-57839-2 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dasti |first1=Matthew R. |title=Nyaya |url=https://iep.utm.edu/nyaya/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=12 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Dick |first1=Anthony S. |last2=Müller |first2=Ulrich |title=Advancing Developmental Science: Philosophy, Theory, and Method |date=2017 |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-1-351-70456-4 |page=157 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Douven |first1=Igor |author-link=ايگور ڊاووين |title=Abduction |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |year=2021 |access-date=24 August 2021 |archive-date=7 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907202119/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dowden |first1=Bradley |author-link=بريڊلي ڊائوڊن |title=Fallacies |url=https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=19 March 2021 |archive-date=29 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100429214410/https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |title=Pondering on Problems of Argumentation: Twenty Essays on Theoretical Issues |date=2009 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-9165-0 |page=191 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |last3=Krabbe |first3=Erik C. W. |last4=Snoeck Henkemans |first4=A. Francisca |last5=Verheij |first5=Bart |last6=Wagemans |first6=Jean H. M. |title=Handbook of Argumentation Theory |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-94-007-6883-3 |pages=1–45 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |language=en |chapter=Informal Logic |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231172324/https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |url-status=live |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGarssenKrabbeSnoeck_Henkemans }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Grootendorst |first2=Rob |last3=Johnson |first3=Ralph H. |last4=Plantin |first4=Christian |last5=Willard |first5=Charles A. |title=Fundamentals of Argumentation Theory: A Handbook of Historical Backgrounds and Contemporary Developments |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-68804-1 |page=169 |language=en |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGrootendorstJohnsonPlantin }}
* {{cite book |last1=Emmanuel |first1=Steven M. |title=A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy |date=2015 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-119-14466-3 |pages=320–322 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Enderton |first=Herbert |author-link=هربرٽ اينڊرٽن |year=2001 |title=A Mathematical Introduction to Logic |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-238452-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Engel |first1=S. Morris |title=With Good Reason an Introduction to Informal Fallacies |date=1982 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=1 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301065815/https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-312-08479-0 |publisher=St. Martin's Press }}
* {{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Jonathan St. B. T. |editor1-last=Morrison |editor1-first=Robert |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82417-0 |page=169 |language=en |chapter=8. Deductive Reasoning }}
* {{cite web |last1=Ewald |first1=William |title=The Emergence of First-Order Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-firstorder-emergence/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=12 March 2023 |date=2019 }}

* {{cite web |last1=Falguera |first1=José L. |last2=Martínez-Vidal |first2=Concha |last3=Rosen |first3=Gideon |title=Abstract Objects |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=7 January 2022 |year=2021 |archive-date=22 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122003334/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Falikowski |first1=Anthony |last2=Mills |first2=Susan |title=Experiencing Philosophy |edition=2nd |date=2022 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=978-1-77048-841-0 |page=98 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=Michael David |last2=Gabbay |first2=Dov M. |last3=Vila |first3=Lluis |title=Handbook of Temporal Reasoning in Artificial Intelligence |date=2005 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-053336-0 |page=119 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fitch |first1=G. W. |title=Saul Kripke |date=18 December 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-48917-7 |page=17 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Flotyński |first1=Jakub |title=Knowledge-Based Explorable Extended Reality Environments |date=7 December 2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-59965-2 |page=39 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Font |first1=Josep Maria |last2=Jansana |first2=Ramon |title=A General Algebraic Semantics for Sentential Logics |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-16797-1 |page=8 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Frede |first1=Michael |title=Aristotle |url=https://pages.mtu.edu/~pcharles/SCIHISTORY/aristotle.html |website=Michigan Technological University |access-date=1 November 2022 |archive-date=21 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921073920/https://pages.mtu.edu/~pcharles/SCIHISTORY/aristotle.html |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |last1=Friend |first1=Michele |title=Introducing Philosophy of Mathematics |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-49379-2 |page=101 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Gamut |first=L.T.F. |author-link=ايل. ٽي. ايف. گيمٽ |date=1991 |title=Logic, Language and Meaning Vol 1: Introduction to Logic |publisher=University of Chicago Press |at=5.5 |isbn=978-0-226-28085-1 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Garson |first1=James |title=Modal Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-modal/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2023 }}
* {{cite book |last=Gensler |first=Harry J. |date=2006 |title=The A to Z of Logic |pages=xliii–xliv |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-1-4617-3182-5 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goble |first1=Lou |title=The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic |date=2001 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/GOBTBG-2 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184959/https://philpapers.org/rec/GOBTBG-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-631-20692-7 |pages=1–8 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goodman |first1=Lenn Evan |title=Avicenna |date=1992 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-01929-3 |page=188 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goodman |first1=Lenn Evan |title=Islamic Humanism |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513580-0 |page=155 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Groarke |first1=Louis F. |title=Aristotle: Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=1 January 2022 |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229235433/https://iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Groarke |first1=Leo |title=Informal Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=31 December 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112030519/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Gómez-Torrente |first1=Mario |title=Logical Truth |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-truth/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=22 November 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=2 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002190110/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-truth/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gödel |first1=Kurt |author1-link=Kurt Gödel |editor1-last=Benacerraf |editor1-first=Paul |editor2-last=Putnam |editor2-first=Hilary |title=Philosophy of Mathematics: Selected Readings |date=1984 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29648-9 |pages=447–469 |edition=2nd |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/philosophy-of-mathematics/russells-mathematical-logic/4D82F215FABFE06149D03EF1EF5BE7E4 |chapter=Russell's mathematical logic |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111091740/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/philosophy-of-mathematics/russells-mathematical-logic/4D82F215FABFE06149D03EF1EF5BE7E4 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hájek |first1=Petr |title=Fuzzy Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/Archives/Win2012/entries/logic-fuzzy/ |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |language=en |date=3 September 2006 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hájek |first1=Alan |last2=Lin |first2=Hanti |title=A Tale of Two Epistemologies? |journal=Res Philosophica |year=2017 |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=207–232 |doi=10.11612/resphil.1540 |s2cid=160029122 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HJEATO |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104182746/https://philpapers.org/rec/HJEATO |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Cordelia |last2=O'Donnell |first2=John |title=Discrete Mathematics Using a Computer |date=2000 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-85233-089-7 |page=48 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Houde |first1=R. |last2=Camacho |first2=L. |title=New Catholic Encyclopedia |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/electrical-engineering/induction |chapter=Induction |year=2003 |publisher=Thomson/Gale |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171720/https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/electrical-engineering/induction |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-7876-4004-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Deviant Logic: Some Philosophical Issues |date=1974 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-20500-9 |page=51 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Philosophy of Logics |date=1978 |publisher=London and New York: Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HAAPOL-2 |chapter=1. 'Philosophy of logics' |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207200551/https://philpapers.org/rec/HAAPOL-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-521-29329-7 |pages=1–10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Deviant Logic, Fuzzy Logic: Beyond the Formalism |date=1996 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31133-3 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haaparanta |first1=Leila |author1-link=Leila Haaparanta |title=The Development of Modern Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513731-6 |pages=4–6 |chapter=1. Introduction }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hansen |first1=Hans |title=Fallacies |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fallacies/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=18 March 2021 |year=2020 |archive-date=29 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329182946/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fallacies/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hartmann |first1=Stephan |last2=Sprenger |first2=Jan |title=The Routledge Companion to Epistemology |date=2010 |publisher=London: Routledge |pages=609–620 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO |chapter=Bayesian Epistemology |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516095047/https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-96219-3 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hasse |first1=Dag Nikolaus |title=Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-influence/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |date=2008 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hawthorne |first1=James |title=Inductive Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-inductive/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=6 January 2022 |year=2021 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121081805/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-inductive/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Philosophy of logic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-logic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=21 November 2021 |language=en |archive-date=28 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428101732/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/346240/philosophy-of-logic |url-status=live |date=2019 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Logical systems |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic/Logical-systems |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=4 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184656/https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic/Logical-systems |url-status=live |date=2023 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Information, Deduction, and the A Priori |journal=Noûs |year=1970 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=135–152 |doi=10.2307/2214318 |jstor=2214318 |issn=0029-4624 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |last2=Sandu |first2=Gabriel |editor-last=Jacquette |editor-first=D. |title=Philosophy of Logic |date=2006 |publisher=North Holland |pages=13–39 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JAAWIL |chapter=What is Logic? |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207235525/https://philpapers.org/rec/JAAWIL |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-444-51541-4 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |last2=Spade |first2=Paul Vincent |title=History of logic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-logic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Honderich |first1=Ted |author-link=Ted Honderich |title=The Oxford Companion to Philosophy |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=29 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129082636/https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-19-926479-7 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hurley |first1=Patrick J. |title=Logic: The Essentials |date=2015 |publisher=Wadsworth |isbn=978-1-305-59041-0 |language=en |chapter=4. Categorical Syllogisms |pages=189–237 }}
* {{cite web |last1=IEP Staff |title=Deductive and Inductive Arguments |url=https://iep.utm.edu/ded-ind/ |access-date=6 January 2022 |archive-date=28 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528032124/https://iep.utm.edu/ded-ind/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Iqbal |first1=Mohammad |title=The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam |date=2013 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-8686-7 |pages=99–115 |url=http://www.allamaiqbal.com/works/prose/english/reconstruction/ |language=en |chapter=The Spirit of Muslim Culture }}
* {{cite web |last1=Irvine |first1=Andrew David |title=Bertrand Russell |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/russell/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=29 September 2022 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jacquette |first1=Dale |title=Philosophy of Logic |date=2006 |publisher=North Holland |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JACPOL |chapter=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184932/https://philpapers.org/rec/JACPOL |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-444-51541-4 |pages=1–12 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jago |first1=Mark |title=The Impossible: An Essay on Hyperintensionality |date=2014 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-101915-9 |page=41 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Janssen |first1=Theo M. V. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Thomas Ede |title=Montague Semantics |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/montague-semantics/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=10 March 2023 |date=2021 |pages=3–4 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Ralph H. |title=The Relation Between Formal and Informal Logic |journal=Argumentation |year=1999 |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=265–274 |doi=10.1023/A:1007789101256 |s2cid=141283158 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JOHTRB-2 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184706/https://philpapers.org/rec/JOHTRB-2 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Ralph H. |title=The Rise of Informal Logic: Essays on Argumentation, Critical Thinking, Reasoning and Politics |date=15 July 2014 |publisher=University of Windsor |isbn=978-0-920233-71-9 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Ketland |first1=Jeffrey |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 8 |date=2005 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/second-order-logic |chapter=Second Order Logic |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184921/https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/second-order-logic |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865788-2 |pages=707–708 |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA }}
* {{cite book |last1=King |first1=Jeffrey C. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Language |chapter=Formal Semantics |date=2 September 2009 |pages=557–558 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199552238.003.0023 |isbn=978-0-19-955223-8 }}
* {{cite web |last1=King |first1=Jeffrey C. |title=Structured Propositions |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/propositions-structured/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=25 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025211706/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/propositions-structured/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Klement |first1=Kevin C. |title=Propositional Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/prop-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=23 September 2022 |year=1995b |issn=2161-0002 }}
* {{cite book |last=Kline |first=Morris |title=Mathematical Thought From Ancient to Modern Times |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-19-506135-2 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Kneale |first1=William |author-link=William Kneale |last2=Kneale |first2=Martha |author2-link=Martha Kneale |title=The Development of Logic |date=1962 |publisher=Clarendon Press |language=en |isbn=978-0-19-824773-9 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Knuuttila |first1=Simo |title=Reforging the Great Chain of Being: Studies of the History of Modal Theories |date=1980 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-90-277-1125-0 |page=71 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Korb |first1=Kevin |title=Bayesian Informal Logic and Fallacy |journal=Informal Logic |year=2004 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=41–70 |doi=10.22329/il.v24i1.2132 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/KORBIL |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=10 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211110075255/https://philpapers.org/rec/KORBIL |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Koslowski |first1=Barbara |title=International Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-72569-7 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski |chapter=Abductive Reasoning and Explanation |doi=10.4324/9781315725697 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108225144/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski |url-status=live |pages=366–382 }}
* {{cite book |first1=Boris |last1=Kulik |first2=Alexander |last2=Fridman |title=N-ary Relations for Logical Analysis of Data and Knowledge |date=30 November 2017 |publisher=IGI Global |isbn=978-1-5225-2783-1 |page=74 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Kusch |first1=Martin |title=Psychologism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/psychologism/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=30 November 2021 |year=2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229220156/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/psychologism/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Lagerlund |first1=Henrik |title=Review of The Aftermath of Syllogism: Aristotelian Logical Argument from Avicenna to Hegel |url=https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/the-aftermath-of-syllogism-aristotelian-logical-argument-from-avicenna-to-hegel/ |website=Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews |access-date=19 July 2023 |language=en |date=27 September 2018 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lear |first1=Jonathan |title=Aristotle and Logical Theory |date=1980 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-31178-6 |page=34 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Leary |first1=Christopher C. |last2=Kristiansen |first2=Lars |title=A Friendly Introduction to Mathematical Logic |date=2015 |publisher=Suny |isbn=978-1-942341-07-9 |page=195 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lepore |first1=Ernest |last2=Cumming |first2=Sam |title=Meaning and Argument: An Introduction to Logic Through Language |date=14 September 2012 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-118-45521-0 |page=5 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Li |first1=Wei |title=Mathematical Logic: Foundations for Information Science |date=26 February 2010 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-3-7643-9977-1 |page=ix |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Linsky |first1=Bernard |title=The Evolution of Principia Mathematica: Bertrand Russell's Manuscripts and Notes |edition=2nd |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49733-6 |page=4 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Liu |first1=Shiyong |last2=Guo |first2=Kaizhong |title=Error Logic: Paving Pathways for Intelligent Error Identification and Management |date=7 March 2023 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-031-00820-7 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Łukasiewicz |first=Jan |author-link=يان ووڪاشيوچ |title=Aristotle's Syllogistic from the Standpoint of Modern Formal Logic |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1957 |edition=2nd |page=7 |oclc=656161566 }}
* {{cite web |last1=MacFarlane |first1=John |title=Logical Constants |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-constants/#SynTer |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=21 November 2021 |year=2017 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317180221/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-constants/#SynTer |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Mackie |first1=J. L. |author-link=جي. ايل. ميڪي |title=Fallacies |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/fallacies |website=encyclopedia.com |access-date=19 March 2021 |year=1967 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415101134/https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/fallacies |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Magnus |first1=P. D. |title=Forall X: An Introduction to Formal Logic |date=2005 |publisher=Victoria, BC, Canada: State University of New York Oer Services |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/MAGFXI |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207200544/https://philpapers.org/rec/MAGFXI |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-64176-026-3 |pages=8–9 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Makridis |first1=Odysseus |title=Symbolic Logic |date=2022 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-67396-3 |pages=1–2 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Maltby |first1=John |last2=Day |first2=Liz |last3=Macaskill |first3=Ann |title=Personality, Individual Differences and Intelligence |date=2007 |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-13-129760-9 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Marenbon |first1=John |title=Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/boethius/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2021 }}
* {{cite web |last1=McKeon |first1=Matthew |title=Logical Consequence |url=https://iep.utm.edu/logcon/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=20 November 2021 |archive-date=12 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112071437/https://iep.utm.edu/logcon/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Michaelson |first1=Eliot |last2=Reimer |first2=Marga |title=Reference |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reference/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184705/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reference/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Mills |first1=Ethan |title=Three Pillars of Skepticism in Classical India: Nagarjuna, Jayarasi, and Sri Harsa |date=2018 |publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4985-5570-8 |page=121 |language=en |quote=... for Nyāya all inference is ultimately rooted in perception ... Naiyāyikas typically accept four means of knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. }}
* {{cite book |last1=Monk |first1=J. Donald |title=Mathematical Logic |date=1976 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4684-9452-5 |pages=1–9 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |language=en |chapter=Introduction |doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=9 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109131251/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Kevin |last2=Cromby |first2=John |title=How Best to 'Go On'? Prospects for a 'Modern Synthesis' in the Sciences of Mind |date=8 August 2016 |publisher=Frontiers Media SA |isbn=978-2-88919-906-8 |page=60 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Terence |last2=Carling |first2=Christine |title=Understanding Language: Towards a Post-Chomskyan Linguistics |date=1982 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-16895-8 |page=53 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Moschovakis |first1=Joan |author1-link=جوان موشووڪيس |title=Intuitionistic Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-intuitionistic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Introduction |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Nolt |first1=John |title=Free Logic: 1. The Basics |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-free/#1 |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=10 September 2022 |year=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Nunes |first1=Terezinha |author1-link=تريزينا نونيس |editor1-last=Seel |editor1-first=Norbert M. |title=Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning |date=2011 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4419-1427-9 |language=en |pages=2066–2069 |chapter=Logical Reasoning and Learning }}
* {{cite book |last1=O'Regan |first1=Gerard |title=Introduction to the History of Computing: A Computing History Primer |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-33138-6 |page=49 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Oaksford |first1=Mike |last2=Chater |first2=Nick |title=Bayesian Rationality: The Probabilistic Approach to Human Reasoning |date=2007 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-852449-6 |page=47 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Olkowski |first1=Dorothea |last2=Pirovolakis |first2=Eftichis |title=Deleuze and Guattari's Philosophy of Freedom: Freedom's Refrains |date=31 January 2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-66352-9 |pages=65–66 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Olsson |first1=Erik J. |title=Introduction to Formal Philosophy |date=2018 |publisher=Springer |pages=431–442 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/OLSBE |chapter=Bayesian Epistemology |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516095057/https://philpapers.org/rec/OLSBE |url-status=live |isbn=978-3-030-08454-7 }}
* {{cite web |author=Online Etymology Staff |title=Logic |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/logic?ref=etymonline_crossreference |website=etymonline.com |access-date=29 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229134626/https://www.etymonline.com/word/logic?ref=etymonline_crossreference |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Partee |first1=Barbara H. |author1-link=باربرا ايڇ پارٽي |editor1-last=Aloni |editor1-first=Maria |editor1-link=ماريا الوني |editor2-last=Dekker |editor2-first=Paul |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-02839-5 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Paulson |first1=Lawrence C. |title=Computational Logic: Its Origins and Applications |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |date=February 2018 |volume=474 |issue=2210 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1098/rspa.2017.0872 |pmid=29507522 |pmc=5832843 |arxiv=1712.04375 |bibcode=2018RSPSA.47470872P |s2cid=3805901 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pedemonte |first1=Bettina |title=Strategic vs Definitory Rules: Their Role in Abductive Argumentation and their Relationship with Deductive Proof |journal=Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education |date=25 June 2018 |volume=14 |issue=9 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.29333/ejmste/92562 |s2cid=126245285 |url=https://www.ejmste.com/article/strategic-vs-definitory-rules-their-role-in-abductive-argumentation-and-their-relationship-with-5539 |language=english |issn=1305-8215 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207195246/https://www.ejmste.com/article/strategic-vs-definitory-rules-their-role-in-abductive-argumentation-and-their-relationship-with-5539 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pickel |first1=Bryan |title=Structured Propositions and Trivial Composition |journal=Synthese |date=1 July 2020 |volume=197 |issue=7 |pages=2991–3006 |doi=10.1007/s11229-018-1853-1 |s2cid=49729020 |language=en |issn=1573-0964 |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.11820/3427c028-f2cb-4216-a199-9679a49ce71c |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Pietroski |first1=Paul |title=Logical Form: 1. Patterns of Reason |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-form/#pat |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=2 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002190116/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-form/#pat |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Planty-Bonjour |first1=Guy |title=The Categories of Dialectical Materialism: Contemporary Soviet Ontology |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-010-3517-0 |page=62 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Possin |first1=Kevin |title=Conductive Arguments: Why is This Still a Thing? |journal=Informal Logic |year=2016 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=563–593 |doi=10.22329/il.v36i4.4527 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/POSCAW-4 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171723/https://philpapers.org/rec/POSCAW-4 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Priest |first1=Graham |last2=Tanaka |first2=Koji |last3=Weber |first3=Zach |title=Paraconsistent Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-paraconsistent/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=14 December 2021 |year=2018 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Pépin |first1=Jean |title=Encyclopedia of Religion |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/logos |chapter=Logos |year=2004 |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229134626/https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/logos |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865733-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Putnam |first=H. |author-link=هلري پٽنم |title=Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science |chapter=Is Logic Empirical? |year=1969 |volume=5 |pages=216–241 |doi=10.1007/978-94-010-3381-7_5 |isbn=978-94-010-3383-1 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Quine |first1=Willard Van Orman |author-link=ولارڊ وان اورمن ڪوائن |title=Mathematical Logic |date=1981 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-55451-1 |page=1 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Rathjen |first1=Michael |last2=Sieg |first2=Wilfried |title=Proof Theory |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/proof-theory/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rautenberg |first1=Wolfgang |title=A Concise Introduction to Mathematical Logic |date=1 July 2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4419-1221-3 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Rendsvig |first1=Rasmus |last2=Symons |first2=John |title=Epistemic Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-epistemic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Restall |first1=Greg |last2=Standefer |first2=Shawn |title=Logical Methods |date=2023 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-54484-9 |page=91 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Richardson |first1=Alan W. |title=Carnap's Construction of the World: The Aufbau and the Emergence of Logical Empiricism |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-43008-1 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rini |first1=Adriane |author1-link=ايڊريان ريني |title=Aristotle's Modal Proofs: Prior Analytics A8-22 in Predicate Logic |date=13 December 2010 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-007-0050-5 |page=26 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ritola |first1=Juho |title=Walton's Informal Logic: A Pragmatic Approach |journal=Informal Logic |date=1 December 2008 |volume=28 |issue=4 |page=335 |doi=10.22329/il.v28i4.2856 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rocci |first1=Andrea |title=Modality in Argumentation: A Semantic Investigation of the Role of Modalities in the Structure of Arguments with an Application to Italian Modal Expressions |date=8 March 2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-024-1063-1 |page=26 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rošker |first1=Jana S. |author1-link=يانا ايس روشڪر |title=Classical Chinese Logic: Philosophy Compass |journal=Philosophy Compass |date=May 2015 |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=301–309 |doi=10.1111/phc3.12226 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Runco |first1=Mark A. |last2=Pritzker |first2=Steven R. |title=Encyclopedia of Creativity |date=1999 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-227075-8 |page=155 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rush |first1=Penelope |title=The Metaphysics of Logic |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/RUSTMO-4 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184954/https://philpapers.org/rec/RUSTMO-4 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-03964-3 |pages=1–10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Sadegh-Zadeh |first1=Kazem |title=Handbook of Analytic Philosophy of Medicine |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-017-9579-1 |page=983 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sagüillo |first1=José M. |title=Hintikka on Information and Deduction |journal=Teorema: Revista Internacional de Filosofía |year=2014 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=75–88 |jstor=43047609 |issn=0210-1602 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Sarukkai |first1=Sundar |last2=Chakraborty |first2=Mihir Kumar |title=Handbook of Logical Thought in India |date=2022 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-81-322-2577-5 |pages=117–118 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Schagrin |first1=Morton L. |title=Metalogic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/metalogic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Schechter |first1=Joshua |title=Epistemology of Logic – Bibliography |url=https://philpapers.org/browse/epistemology-of-logic |website=PhilPapers |access-date=11 September 2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Schlesinger |first1=I. M. |last2=Keren-Portnoy |first2=Tamar |last3=Parush |first3=Tamar |title=The Structure of Arguments |date=1 January 2001 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-90-272-2359-3 |page=220 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Schreiner |first1=Wolfgang |title=Thinking Programs: Logical Modeling and Reasoning About Languages, Data, Computations, and Executions |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-80507-4 |page=22 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Scott |first1=John |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon |title=A Dictionary of Sociology |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095410661 |language=en |chapter=analytic induction |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108173225/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095410661 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Shapiro |first1=Stewart |last2=Kouri Kissel |first2=Teresa |title=Classical Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-classical/#Sema |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Shermer |first1=Michael |title=Conspiracy: Why the Rational Believe the Irrational |date=25 October 2022 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-1-4214-4445-1 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Sider |first=Theodore |author-link=ٿيوڊور سائيڊر |year=2010 |title=Logic for Philosophy |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-957558-9 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Siegel |first1=Harvey |last2=Biro |first2=John |title=Epistemic Normativity, Argumentation, and Fallacies |journal=Argumentation |year=1997 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=277–292 |doi=10.1023/A:1007799325361 |s2cid=126269789 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/SIEENA |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228035651/https://philpapers.org/rec/SIEENA |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Simpson |first1=R. L. |title=Essentials of Symbolic Logic |edition=3rd |date=2008 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=978-1-77048-495-5 |page=14 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Smith |first1=Robin |title=Aristotle's Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Spade |first1=Paul Vincent |last2=Panaccio |first2=Claude |title=William of Ockham |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ockham/#SummLogi |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2019 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Spriggs |first1=John |title=GSN – The Goal Structuring Notation: A Structured Approach to Presenting Arguments |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4471-2312-5 |pages=20–22 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Stairs |first1=Allen |title=A Thinker's Guide to the Philosophy of Religion |year=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-21981-5 |page=343 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Sternberg |first1=Robert J. |title=Thought |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/thought |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=14 October 2021 |language=en |archive-date=13 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211013145532/https://www.britannica.com/topic/thought |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Stolyar |first1=Abram Aronovich |title=Introduction to Elementary Mathematical Logic |date=1 January 1984 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=978-0-486-64561-2 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Stone |first1=Mark A. |title=Denying the Antecedent: Its Effective Use in Argumentation |journal=Informal Logic |year=2012 |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=327–356 |doi=10.22329/il.v32i3.3681 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/STODTA |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228123240/https://philpapers.org/rec/STODTA |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Stump |first1=David J. |title=Fallacy, Logical |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/fallacy-logical |website=encyclopedia.com |access-date=20 March 2021 |archive-date=15 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215112403/https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/fallacy-logical |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Talbott |first1=William |title=Bayesian Epistemology |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-bayesian/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=6 March 2021 |year=2016 |archive-date=1 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401034856/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-bayesian/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Tarski |first1=Alfred |author-link=الفريڊ تارسڪي |title=Introduction to Logic and to the Methodology of the Deductive Sciences |date=1994 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-802139-1 |page=40 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Tondl |first1=L. |title=Problems of Semantics: A Contribution to the Analysis of the Language Science |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-009-8364-9 |page=111 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Velleman |first1=Daniel J. |title=How to Prove It: A Structured Approach |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-67599-4 |pages=8, 103 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Vickers |first1=John M. |title=Inductive Reasoning |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0171.xml |website=Oxford Bibliographies |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=18 January 2023 |language=en |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Vidyabhusana |first1=Satis Chandra |title=A History of Indian Logic: Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern Schools |date=1988 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publisher |isbn=978-81-208-0565-1 |page=221 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Vleet |first1=Van Jacob E. |title=Informal Logical Fallacies: A Brief Guide |date=2010 |publisher=Upa |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/VLEILF |chapter=Introduction |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228035654/https://philpapers.org/rec/VLEILF |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-7618-5432-6 |pages=ix–x }}
* {{cite web |last1=Väänänen |first1=Jouko |title=Second-order and Higher-order Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-higher-order/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=23 November 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030222316/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-higher-order/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Walton |first1=Douglas N. |author-link=ڊگلس اين والٽن |title=Informal Fallacies: Towards a Theory of Argument Criticisms |date=1987 |publisher=John Benjamins |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WALIFT |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302001111/https://philpapers.org/rec/WALIFT |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-55619-010-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Warren |first1=Jared |title=Shadows of Syntax: Revitalizing Logical and Mathematical Conventionalism |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-008615-2 |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/shadows-of-syntax-9780190086152 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Washell |first1=Richard F. |title=Logic, Language, and Albert the Great |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |date=1973 |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=445–450 |doi=10.2307/2708963 |jstor=2708963 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WASLLA-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wasilewska |first1=Anita |title=Logics for Computer Science: Classical and Non-Classical |date=2018 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-92591-2 |pages=145–146 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Weber |first1=Zach |title=Paraconsistent Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/para-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=12 December 2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Weddle |first1=Perry |title=Across the Lines of Disciplines |chapter=Chapter 36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction |date=2011 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |isbn=978-3-11-086771-8 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110867718.383/html |language=en |doi=10.1515/9783110867718.383 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231172343/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110867718.383/html |url-status=live |pages=383–388 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Westerståhl |first1=Dag |title=Aristotelian Syllogisms and Generalized Quantifiers |journal=Studia Logica |year=1989 |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=577–585 |doi=10.1007/BF00370209 |s2cid=32089424 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WESASA |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104182746/https://philpapers.org/rec/WESASA |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wilbanks |first1=Jan J. |title=Defining Deduction, Induction, and Validity |journal=Argumentation |date=1 March 2010 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=107–124 |doi=10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |s2cid=144481717 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |language=en |issn=1572-8374 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171721/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite web |last1=Wilce |first1=Alexander |title=Quantum Logic and Probability Theory: 2.1 Realist Quantum Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qt-quantlog/#RealQuanLogi |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wile |first1=Bruce |last2=Goss |first2=John |last3=Roesner |first3=Wolfgang |title=Comprehensive Functional Verification: The Complete Industry Cycle |date=2005 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-047664-3 |page=447 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Willman |first1=Marshall D. |title=Logic and Language in Early Chinese Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-logic-language/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |at=Introduction |date=2022 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wolf |first1=Robert G. |title=Are Relevant Logics Deviant? |journal=Philosophia |year=1978 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=327–340 |doi=10.1007/BF02378819 |s2cid=143697796 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WOLARL |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216143955/https://philpapers.org/rec/WOLARL |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Zegarelli |first=Mark |title=Logic For Dummies |page=30 |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-118-05307-2 }}
{{refend}}

==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|date=5 November 2023|En-Logic-article.ogg}}
{{Sister project links|منطق}}
{{Library resources box}}

{{منطق}}
{{فلسفي جا موضوع}}
{{Authority control}}

[[زمرو:رسمي سائنسون]]
[[زمرو:منطق| ]]
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>iq3nb59ftv7sc67dgs0dienh19uk4ad</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399248</id>
      <parentid>399247</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T15:53:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399248</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="178200" sha1="eez2zkej0oi1ygxipnlvs1ft259zzja" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.

هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==تاريخ==
{{Main|منطق جي تاريخ}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=330
| image1= Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg
| alt1= ارسطو جو مجسمو
| image2= Avicenne - Avicenna - Ibn_Sina (980-1037) CIPB2067.jpg
| alt2= ابن سينا جو پورٽريٽ
| image3= Guillaume Occam.jpg
| alt3= وليم آف اوڪهم جو پورٽريٽ
| image4= Wismar Marienkirche Bronzebüste Gottlob Frege (01-1).JPG
| alt4= گوٽلوب فريگي جو مجسمو
| footer= مٿيون قطار: [[ارسطو]]، جنهن مغربي منطق جي بنيادي روايت قائم ڪئي؛{{sfn|Groarke}} ۽ [[ابن سينا]]، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ تي پنهنجو منطقي نظام متعارف ڪرايو.{{sfn|Lagerlund|2018}} هيٺيون قطار: [[وليم آف اوڪهم]]، وچئين دور جي علمي فڪر جي اهم شخصيت؛{{sfn|Spade|Panaccio|2019}} ۽ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]]، جديد علامتي منطق جي بانيَن مان هڪ.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900|3a=Klement|3y=1995a}}
}}

قديم دور ۾ منطق ڪيترين ئي تهذيبن ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان الڳ نموني ترقي ڪئي. شروعاتي اهم مفڪرن مان هڪ [[ارسطو]] هو، جنهن پنهنجي ڪتابن ''[[اورگينون]]'' ۽ ''[[پرائر اينالٽڪس]]'' ۾ '''اصطلاحي منطق''' (ٽرم لاجڪ) کي منظم صورت ڏني.{{sfnm|1a1=Kline|1y=1972|1loc=&quot;A major achievement of Aristotle was the founding of the science of logic&quot;, p. 53|2a1=Łukasiewicz|2y=1957|2p=7|3a1=Liu|3a2=Guo|3y=2023|3p=15}} هن [[شرطي قياس]] (ھيپوٿيٽيڪل سلاجزم){{sfn|Lear|1980|p=34}} ۽ [[زماني موڊل منطق]] (ٽيمپورل موڊل لاجڪ) جي به بنياد وڌي.{{sfnm|1a1=Knuuttila|1y=1980|1p=71|2a1=Fisher|2a2=Gabbay|2a3=Vila|2y=2005|2p=119}} ارسطو [[استقرائي منطق]] (انڊڪٽو لاجڪ){{sfn|Berman|2009|p=133}} ۽ نون منطقي تصورن، جهڙوڪ [[اصطلاح]]، [[محموليت]] (پريڊيڪبلز)، قياس ۽ تجويزن تي پڻ اهم بحث ڪيو. ارسطوي منطق کي قديم ۽ وچئين دور ۾، يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر ٻنهي ۾ وڏي اهميت حاصل رهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} ۽ اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي شروعات تائين اهو غالب منطقي نظام رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} اڄ جي دور ۾ جيتوڻيڪ ان جي جاءِ جديد منطق ورتي آهي، پر ان جا ڪيترائي بنيادي خيال اڃا به جديد منطقي نظامن ۾ موجود آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|loc=1. Introduction}}

[[ابن سينا]] (ايويسينا) ابن سيناوي منطق جو باني هو، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] جي ميدان ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ ورتي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hasse|1y=2008|2a1=Lagerlund|2y=2018}} سندس خيالن جو اثر [[البرٽس ميگنس]] ۽ [[وليم آف اوڪهم]] جهڙن يورپي مفڪرن تي به پيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Washell|1y=1973|1pp=445–450|2a1=Kneale|2a2=Kneale|2y=1962|2pp=229, 266}} ابن سينا شرطي قياس{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} ۽ [[تجويزي منطق]] (پروپوزيشنل ڪلڪيولس){{sfn|Goodman|1992|p=188}} تي اهم تحريرون لکيون. هن زماني ۽ امڪان کي گڏائيندڙ هڪ نئون قياسي نظريو تيار ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[زماني منطق]] ۽ [[موڊل منطق]] جا عنصر شامل هئا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Spade|loc=Arabic Logic}} هن استقرائي منطق جا به طريقا بيان ڪيا، جهڙوڪ موافقت، اختلاف ۽ گڏيل تبديلي جا طريقا، جيڪي [[سائنسي طريقو|سائنسي طريقي]] لاءِ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا.{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} [[فخر الدين رازي]] پڻ هڪ اثرائتو مسلمان منطق دان هو. هن ارسطوي قياس تي تنقيد ڪئي ۽ استقرائي منطق جو اهڙو ابتدائي نظام پيش ڪيو، جنهن بعد ۾ [[جان اسٽوارٽ مل]] جي استقرائي منطق جي اڳواٽ نشاندهي ڪئي.{{sfn|Iqbal|2013|pp=99–115|loc=The Spirit of Muslim Culture}}

وچئين دور ۾ ارسطو جي منطقي ڪتابن جا ڪيترائي ترجما ۽ تشريحون تيار ڪيون ويون. [[بوئٿيوس]] جا ڪم خاص طور تي گهڻو اثرائتا رهيا. هن نه رڳو ارسطو جي تصنيفن کي لاطيني ۾ ترجمو ڪيو، پر منطق بابت درسي ڪتاب پڻ لکيا.{{sfnm|1a1=Marenbon|1y=2021|1loc=Introduction; 3. The Logical Text-Books|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade}} بعد ۾ ابن سينا ۽ [[ابن رشد]] (ايوريس) جهڙن اسلامي فلسفين جي تحريرن مان پڻ فائدو ورتو ويو، جنهن سان وچئين دور جي عيسائي عالمن کي قديم يوناني فڪر تائين وڌيڪ رسائي ملي. سنه 1323ع ۾ وليم آف اوڪهم جو مشهور ڪتاب ''{{lang|la|[[Summa Logicae]]}}'' شايع ٿيو، جيڪو منطق جو جامع رسالو آهي ۽ جنهن ۾ منطقي تجويزن، انهن جي قسمن ۽ سندن صدق جي شرطن بابت منظم بحث ڪيو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|2a1=Hasse|2y=2008|3a1=Spade|3a2=Panaccio|3y=2019}}

چيني فلسفي ۾ [[نالن جو مذهب]] (اسڪول آف نيمز) ۽ [[موهزم]] (Mohism) خاص اهميت رکندا هئا. نالن جي مذهب ٻوليءَ جي استعمال ۽ منطقي تضادن تي ڌيان ڏنو. مثال طور [[گونگسن لانگ]] مشهور ''اڇي گهوڙي جو تضاد'' (وائيٽ ھارس پيراڊوڪس) پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ دليل ڏنو ويو ته &quot;اڇو گهوڙو، گهوڙو ناهي.&quot; موهزم پڻ منطق ۾ ٻوليءَ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪيو ۽ ان کي اخلاقيات سان ڳنڍڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Willman|1y=2022|2a1=Rošker|2y=2015|2pp=301–309}}

هندستان ۾ منطق جو مطالعو بنيادي طور [[نيايه]]، [[ٻڌ مت]] ۽ [[جين مت]] جي فڪري روايتن ۾ ٿيو. ان کي الڳ علمي شعبي طور نه، پر علمُ المعرفت، مناظري ۽ استدلال جي بحثن جي حصي طور سمجهيو ويندو هو.{{sfn|Sarukkai|Chakraborty|2022|pp=117–118}} نيايه فلسفي ۾ استدلال کي علم حاصل ڪرڻ جو هڪ ذريعو (''[[پرمان]]'') سمجهيو ويو، جيڪو مشاهدي کان پوءِ شين جي سببن بابت نتيجا ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو.{{sfnm|1a1=Dasti|1loc=Lead section; 1b. Inference|2a1=Mills|2y=2018|2p=121}} ٻڌ ۽ جين منطق ۾ به استدلال کي ٻين ذريعن مان حاصل ٿيل علم کي وڌائڻ جو وسيلو سمجهيو ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Emmanuel|1y=2015|1pp=320–322|2a1=Vidyabhusana|2y=1988|2p=221}} نيايه جي پوئين دور جي [[نويا نيايه]] روايت جا ڪيئي خيال جديد منطق سان ملندڙ جلندڙ آهن، جهڙوڪ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جو ''معنيٰ ۽ مرجع'' (سينس اينڊ ريفرنس) وارو فرق ۽ انگ جي تعريف.{{sfn|Chakrabarti|1976|pp=554–563}}

ارسطو جي قياسي منطق اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي وچ تائين غالب رهي، پر رياضيات جي بنيادن بابت وڌندڙ دلچسپي جديد علامتي منطق جي ترقي جو سبب بڻي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Haaparanta|2y=2009|2pp=3–5|2loc=1. Introduction}} گهڻا محقق [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جي ''[[بيگرفس شرفٽ]]'' (Begriffsschrift) کي جديد منطق جي شروعات سمجهن ٿا. [[گوٽفريڊ وِلهم لائبنٽس]] جي [[عالمي رسمي ٻولي]] (ڪئريڪٽرسٽڪا يونيورسلس) جو تصور ان جو اڳواٽ اشارو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. ٻين اهم اڳواڻن ۾ [[جارج بول]] شامل آهي، جنهن [[بولي الجبرا]] (بوليئن آلجبرا) کي منطقي رياضيائي نظام طور پيش ڪيو، ۽ [[چارلس سينڊرس پيرس]]، جنهن [[لاڳاپن جي منطق]] (لاجڪ آگ رليٽوز) کي ترقي ڏني. بعد ۾ [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] انهن خيالن کي پنهنجي مشهور ڪتاب '' پرنسپيا ميٿميٽيڪا'' ۾ منظم ڪيو.

جديد منطق نوان تصور متعارف ڪرايا، جهڙوڪ [[تابع]] (فنڪشن)، مقدارساز (ڪونٽيفائر) ۽ لاڳاپائي محمول (رليشنل پريڊيڪيٽس). جديد علامتي منطق جي نمايان خاصيت رسمي ٻوليءَ جو استعمال آهي، جنهن ذريعي منطقي اصولن کي نهايت درست نموني بيان ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان لحاظ کان اهو اڳين منطق دانن کان مختلف آهي، جيڪي بنيادي طور قدرتي ٻوليءَ تي ڀاڙيندا هئا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900}} خاص طور تي [[اول-درجي منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) جي ترقي جديد منطق ۾ بنيادي حيثيت اختيار ڪئي.{{sfn|Ewald|2019}} ان جي تجزياتي وسعت رياضيات کي رسمي صورت ڏيڻ، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] جي ترقي ۽ [[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) جي قيام لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪيو، ۽ اهو جديد [[رياضياتي منطق]] جو مرڪزي نظام بڻجي ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Schreiner|2y=2021|2p=22}}

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (ڪوانٽيفڪيشن) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}

==تحقيق جا شعبا==

منطق جو مطالعو مختلف علمي شعبن ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪيترن ئي حالتن ۾ ان جي رسمي طريقن کي انهن موضوعن تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي پاڻ منطق جي دائري کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[اخلاقيات]] يا [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Logic and other disciplines|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10}}

ٻين حالتن ۾ خود منطق ئي ڪنهن ٻئي علمي شعبي ۾ تحقيق جو موضوع بڻجي ٿي. اهو مختلف طريقن سان ٿي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، منطق جي بنيادي تصورن سان لاڳاپيل فلسفياتي مفروضن جو جائزو وٺڻ، منطقي نظامن کي رياضيائي بناوتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جو تجزيو ڪرڻ، يا رسمي منطقي نظامن جي تجريدي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ۽ ڀيٽ ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Features and problems of logic|2a1=Gödel|2y=1984|2pp=447–469|2loc=Russell's mathematical logic|3a1=Monk|3y=1976|3pp=1–9|3loc=Introduction}}

===منطق جو فلسفو ۽ فلسفياتي منطق===
{{Main|منطق جو فلسفو|فلسفياتي منطق}}

'''منطق جو فلسفو''' (فلاسافي آف لاجڪ) فلسفي جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطق جي دائري، ماهيت ۽ بنيادي نوعيت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} ان ۾ انهن ڪيترن ئي مفروضن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيڪي منطق ۾ ضمني طور قبول ڪيا ويندا آهن، جيئن ان جي بنيادي تصورن جي تعريف يا انهن سان لاڳاپيل [[مابعدالطبيعات|مابعدالطبيعي]] مفروضا.{{sfn|Jacquette|2006|loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|pp=1–12}}

هي شعبي منطقي نظامن جي درجابندي ۽ انهن سان وابسته [[وجوديات|وجودياتي]] وابستگين (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪمٽمينٽ) جو پڻ مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=§Problems of ontology}}

'''فلسفياتي منطق''' (فلاسافيڪل لاجڪ) منطق جي فلسفي جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطقي طريقن کي فلسفي جي مسئلن تي لاڳو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Burgess|2y=2009|2loc=1. Classical logic}}
اهو استعمال گهڻو ڪري [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي]] يا [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظامن]] جي صورت ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Goble|1y=2001|1loc=Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32}}

===مابعد منطق===
{{Main|مابعد منطق}}

'''مابعد منطق''' (ميٽالاجڪ) اهو علمي شعبو آهي، جيڪو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.

مثال طور، جڏهن ڪو نئون رسمي منطقي نظام تيار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ته مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو معلوم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته ان نظام ۾ ڪهڙا فارمولا ثابت ڪري سگهجن ٿا. اهي اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته ڇا اهڙو [[الگورٿم]] تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو هر فارمولي لاءِ ثبوت ڳولي سگهي، ۽ ڇا ان نظام ۾ هر قابلِ ثبوت فارمولو لازمي طور [[منطقي صداقت]] (Tautology) آهي.

اهي مختلف منطقي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ تقابلي مطالعو پڻ ڪندا آهن ته جيئن انهن جون منفرد خاصيتون واضح ٿي سگهن.

مابعد منطق جو هڪ بنيادي موضوع [[نحو]] (سنٽيڪس) ۽ [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) جي وچ ۾ تعلق آهي. رسمي منطقي نظام جا نحوي ضابطا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدمات مان نتيجا ڪيئن اخذ ڪيا وڃن، يعني ثبوت ڪيئن ترتيب ڏنا وڃن. جڏهن⁠ته معنيات اهو طئي ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙا جملا سچا آهن ۽ ڪهڙا ڪوڙا. انهيءَ بنياد تي دليل جي صحت جو تعين ڪيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صحيح دليل ۾ اهو ناممڪن هوندو آهي ته مقدمات سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو هجي.

نحو ۽ معنيات جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي بابت اهم سوالن ۾ اهو شامل آهي ته ڇا هر صحيح دليل قابلِ ثبوت آهي، ۽ ڇا هر قابلِ ثبوت دليل لازمي طور صحيح به هوندو آهي.

مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته منطقي نظام [[مڪمليت]] (ڪمپليٽنيس)، [[صحت (منطق)|صحت]] (سائونڊنيس) ۽ [[هم آهنگي (منطق)|هم آهنگي]] (ڪنسسٽنسي) جون خاصيتون رکن ٿا يا نه. ان کان علاوه، اهي اهو به ڏسندا آهن ته اهي نظام [[فيصلي پذيري]] (ڊسائيڊبلٽي) رکن ٿا يا نه، ۽ انهن جي [[اظهاري قوت]] ڪيتري آهي.

انهن موضوعن جي تحقيق دوران مابعد منطق گهڻو ڪري تجريدي رياضيائي استدلال تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جنهن جو مقصد انهن مسئلن بابت صحيح، عام ۽ جامع نتيجا حاصل ڪرڻ هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1pp=xliii–xliv|2a1=Sider|2y=2010|2pp=4–6|3a1=Schagrin}}

===رياضيائي منطق===
{{Main|رياضيائي منطق}}

[[File:Russell1907-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=برٽرينڊ رسل جو تصوير|[[برٽرينڊ رسل]] رياضيائي منطق جي ترقي ۾ ڪيترائي اهم علمي حصا ورتا.{{sfn|Irvine|2022}}]]

اصطلاح '''رياضيائي منطق''' (ميٿميٽيڪل لاجڪ) ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[رسمي منطق]] جي مترادف طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر وڌيڪ محدود معنيٰ ۾ اهو رياضيات جي اندر منطق جي مطالعي ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. ان جون اهم شاخون [[ماڊل نظريو]]، [[ثبوت جو نظريو]]، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) ۽ [[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Li|1y=2010|1p=ix|2a1=Rautenberg|2y=2010|2p=15|3a1=Quine|3y=1981|3p=1|4a1=Stolyar|4y=1984|4p=2}}

رياضيائي منطق جي تحقيق جو وڏو حصو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي رياضيائي خاصيتن جي مطالعي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. ان سان گڏ اهو پڻ ڏٺو ويندو آهي ته منطق کي رياضيائي استدلال جي تجزيي يا [[رياضيات جا بنياد|رياضيات جي منطقي بنيادن]] جي قيام لاءِ ڪيئن استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfn|Stolyar|1984|pp=3–6}}

ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ رياضيائي منطق جو هڪ اهم مقصد [[منطق پرستي]] (لاجڪئزم) واري پروگرام کي اڳتي وڌائڻ هو، جنهن جي شروعات [[گاٽلوب فريگي]]، [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] جهڙن فلسفي-منطق دانن ڪئي هئي. هن پروگرام موجب سڀئي رياضيائي نظريا اصل ۾ منطقي [[منطقي صداقت|صداقتون]] (Tautologies) آهن، ۽ ان کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ رياضيات کي منطق تائين محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي. پر هن پروگرام کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جون گهڻيون ڪوششون ناڪام ويون. مثال طور، فريگي جو منصوبو سندس ڪتاب '' گرُنڊگيزيٽسي:Grundgesetze'' (بنيادي قانون) ۾ [[رسل جو تضاد|رسل جي تضاد]] سبب متاثر ٿيو، جڏهن⁠ته [[هلبرٽ جو پروگرام]] [[گوڊل جا نامڪمليت جا نظريا|گوڊل جي نامڪمليت جي نظرين]] سبب ناڪام ثابت ٿيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|1loc=Gödel's incompleteness theorems|2a1=Linsky|2y=2011|2p=4|3a1=Richardson|3y=1998|3p=15}}

[[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) جي شروعات [[جارج ڪينٽر]] لامحدوديت جي مطالعي دوران ڪئي. هي شعبي رياضيائي منطق جي ڪيترن ئي اهم ۽ پيچيده مسئلن جو سرچشمو بڻيو، جن ۾ [[ڪينٽر جو نظريو]]، [[اختيار جو اصول]] (اگزيوم آف چوائس)، [[مسلسل مفروضي]] (ڪنٽينيوئم ھيپوٿيسز) جي آزاديءَ جو سوال، ۽ [[وڏي ڪارڊينل]] (لارج ڪارڊينل) اصولن بابت جديد بحث شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Bagaria|1y=2021|2a1=Cunningham}}

[[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) رياضيائي منطق جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا حسابي مسئلن کي حل ڪرڻ لاءِ مؤثر طريقن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان جو هڪ بنيادي مقصد اهو معلوم ڪرڻ آهي ته ڪنهن خاص مسئلي کي [[الگورٿم]] ذريعي حل ڪرڻ ممڪن آهي يا نه. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صحيح عددن بابت ڪو خاص دعويٰ ڏني وڃي، ته هي شعبي اهو جاچيندو آهي ته ڇا اهڙو الگورٿم تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو اهو طئي ڪري سگهي ته اها دعويٰ صحيح آهي يا غلط. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ [[ٽيورنگ مشين]] (Turing machine) سميت مختلف نظرياتي ماڊلن ۽ اوزارن کي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006a|1loc=Computability Theory|2a1=Leary|2a2=Kristiansen|2y=2015|2p=195}}

===حسابياتي منطق===
{{Main|حسابياتي منطق|ڪمپيوٽر سائنس ۾ منطق}}

[[File:TransistorANDgate.png|thumb|ٽرانزسٽرن جي مدد سان تيار ڪيل هڪ AND گيٽ جو خاڪو. [[منطقي عطف]] (AND) [[بولين منطق]] جي بنيادي عملن مان هڪ آهي، جنهن کي برقي طور مختلف طريقن سان، مثال طور ٻن [[ٽرانزسٽر]]ن ذريعي، عمل ۾ آڻي سگهجي ٿو.]]

'''حسابياتي منطق''' (ڪمپيوٽيشنل لاجڪ) منطق ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ڪمپيوٽرن جي ذريعي رياضيائي استدلال ۽ رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عملي صورت ڏيڻ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان ۾، مثال طور، [[خودڪار نظريي ثابت ڪندڙ]] (آٽوميٽڪ ٿيورم پروور) شامل آهن، جيڪي [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] استعمال ڪندي، بغير انساني مداخلت جي، مقدمات مان گهربل نتيجي تائين مرحليوار ثبوت تيار ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Paulson|1y=2018|1pp=1–14|2a1=Castaño|2y=2018|2p=2|3a1=Wile|3a2=Goss|3a3=Roesner|3y=2005|3p=447}}

[[منطقي پروگرامنگ]] (لاجڪ پروگرامنگ) جون ٻوليون خاص طور اهڙي نموني تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن، جو حقيقتن کي منطقي فارمولن جي صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ۽ انهن مان استدلال ذريعي نوان نتيجا اخذ ڪري سگهجن. مثال طور، [[پرولاگ]] (Prolog) محمولي منطق تي ٻڌل هڪ منطقي پروگرامنگ ٻولي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Clocksin|1a2=Mellish|1y=2003|1pp=237–238, 252–255, 257|1loc=The Relation of Prolog to Logic|2a1=Daintith|2a2=Wright|2y=2008|2loc=Logic Programming Languages}}

ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽنگ سان لاڳاپيل مسئلن جي حل لاءِ پڻ منطقي تصورن کي استعمال ڪندا آهن. هن ميدان ۾ [[ڪلاڊ شينن]] جو ڪم انتهائي اثرائتو رهيو، جنهن ڏيکاريو ته [[بولين منطق]] کي ڪمپيوٽرن جي برقي سرڪٽن کي سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=O'Regan|1y=2016|1p=49|2a1=Calderbank|2a2=Sloane|2y=2001|2p=768}}

اهو ڪم [[منطقي دروازو|منطقي دروازن]] (لاجڪ گيٽ) ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي اهڙا برقي سرڪٽ هوندا آهن، جن ۾ هڪ يا وڌيڪ ان پُٽ ۽ عام طور هڪ آئوٽ پُٽ هوندو آهي. انهن ۾ منطقي قضين جي صداقت جا قدر برقي وولٽيج جي سطحن جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهڙيءَ طرح، سرڪٽ جي ان پُٽن تي مناسب وولٽيج لاڳو ڪري ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ جي وولٽيج کي ماپي، مختلف منطقي عملن جي نقل (سميوليشن) ڪئي ويندي آهي.{{sfn|Daintith|Wright|2008|loc=Logic Gate}}

===قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات===
{{Main|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات}}

'''قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) منطق، [[لسانيات]] ۽ [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]] جي گڏيل ذيلي شاخ آهي. [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) ٻوليءَ جي معنائن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته رسمي معنيات علامتي منطق ۽ رياضيات جا رسمي اوزار استعمال ڪندي [[قدرتي ٻولي]] جي اظهارَن جي معنائن بابت درست ۽ منظم نظريا پيش ڪري ٿي.

رسمي معنيات عام طور معنٰي کي [[صدق جون شرطون]] (ٽرٿ ڪنڊيشنر) سان وابسته ڪري سمجهي ٿي؛ يعني اها جاچ ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙين حالتن ۾ ڪو جملو سچو يا ڪوڙو ٿيندو. هن شعبي جي بنيادي اصولن مان هڪ [[ترڪيبي اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) آهي، جنهن موجب ڪنهن پيچيده اظهار جي معنٰي ان جي جزن جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي پاڻ ۾ ڳانڍاپي جي طريقي سان طئي ٿيندي آهي. مثال طور، فعل واري فقري &quot;هلڻ ۽ ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنٰي انفرادي اظهارَن &quot;هلڻ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.

رسمي معنيات جا ڪيترائي نظريا [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. ان جو مطلب آهي ته اهي [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) استعمال ڪري هڪ نمونو (ماڊل) تيار ڪندا آهن ۽ پوءِ ان نموني جي عنصرن جي حوالي سان ٻوليءَ جي اظهارَن جي معنائن جي تشريح ڪندا آهن. مثال طور، اصطلاح &quot;هلڻ&quot; کي نموني ۾ موجود انهن سڀني فردن جي مجموعي طور سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي هلڻ جي خاصيت رکن ٿا.

هن شعبي جا شروعاتي ۽ اثرائتا مفڪر [[رچرڊ مونٽيگ]] ۽ [[باربرا پارٽي]] هئا، جن پنهنجي تجزين جو بنيادي مرڪز انگريزي ٻوليءَ کي بڻايو.{{sfnm|1a1=Janssen|1a2=Zimmermann|1y=2021|1pp=3–4|2a1=Partee|2y=2016|3a1=King|3y=2009|3pp=557–558|4a1=Aloni|4a2=Dekker|4y=2016|4pp=22–23}}

===منطق جو علمُ المعرفت===
{{Main|منطق جو علمُ المعرفت}}

'''منطق جو علمُ المعرفت''' (ايپسٽيمولاجي آف لاجڪ) هن ڳالهه جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو ته انسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوي ٿي ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا ڪا تجويز منطقي طور سچي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Schechter}} هن ۾ اهڙا سوال شامل آهن، جيئن: {{lang|la|modus ponens}} استدلال جو صحيح قاعدو ڇو آهي؟ يا تضاد هميشه ڪوڙا ڇو سمجهيا وڃن ٿا؟{{sfn|Warren|2020|loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic}}

روايتي طور تي غالب نظريو اهو رهيو آهي ته اهڙي قسم جي منطقي ڄاڻ [[قبلي علم]] (''a priori'') سان واسطو رکي ٿي.{{sfn|Schechter}} هن نظرئي موجب، اڪثر اهو دليل ڏنو ويندو آهي ته [[ذهن]] وٽ هڪ خاص صلاحيت هوندي آهي، جيڪا خالص خيالن جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي پرکڻ جي قابل هوندي آهي، ۽ اها ئي صلاحيت منطقي سچائين کي سمجهڻ جو ذريعو پڻ آهي.{{sfn|Gómez-Torrente|2019}}

هڪ ٻيو ويجهو نظريو منطق جي قاعدن کي [[اصطلاحيت]] (ڪنوينشنلزم) يا لساني روايتن جي بنياد تي سمجهي ٿو. هن راءِ موجب، منطق جا قانون تعريف جي لحاظ کان سچا آهن، تنهنڪري اهي بنيادي طور غيرتڪراري آهن؛ اهي رڳو منطقي اصطلاحن جي معنائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Gómez-Torrente|2y=2019|3a1=Warren|3y=2020|3loc=1. What is Conventionalism}}

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[هلري پٽنم]] ۽ [[پينيلوپي ميڊي]]، هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪن ٿا ته منطق کي مڪمل طور قبلي علم ذريعي ڄاڻي سگهجي ٿو. انهن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي سچايون [[تجربي تي ٻڌل علم]] (امپريڪل نالج) سان به لاڳاپيل آهن. هن راءِ کي عام طور ان دعويٰ سان گڏ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي ته منطق جا قانون دنيا جي بناوت ۾ موجود عام ۽ آفاقي قاعدن جو اظهار ڪن ٿا. ان مطابق، انهن قاعدن کي [[بنيادي سائنسون|بنيادي سائنسن]] ۾ موجود عام نمونن ۽ اصولن جي مطالعي ذريعي به سمجهي سگهجي ٿو.

مثال طور، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم ميڪانيات]] جون ڪجهه دريافتون روايتي منطق جي [[ورڇ جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڊسٽريبيوٽوٽي) کي چئلينج ڪن ٿيون، جنهن موجب فارمولو &lt;math&gt;A \land (B \lor C)&lt;/math&gt; هم معنيٰ آهي &lt;math&gt;(A \land B) \lor (A \land C)&lt;/math&gt; سان. هن دعويٰ کي ان ڳالهه جي تجربي تي ٻڌل دليل طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم منطق]] روايتي منطق کان وڌيڪ مناسب منطقي نظام آهي، ۽ ان کي روايتي منطق جي جاءِ وٺڻ گهرجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Chua|1y=2017|1pp=631–636|2a1=Wilce|2y=2021|3a1=Putnam|3y=1969|3pp=216–241}}

==پڻ ڏسو==
{{Portal|فلسفو}}

* {{annotated link|منطق جي اصطلاحن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جو خاڪو}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جي تحقيقي رسالن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي نشانين جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق دانن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي ڳجهارت}}
* {{annotated link|لوگوس}}
* {{annotated link|ویکٽر منطق}}

==حوالا==

===وضاحتي نوٽ===
{{notelist}}
&lt;references group=&quot;lower-alpha&quot;/&gt;
===حوالا===
{{reflist|1=30em}}

===ڪتابيات===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Aloni |first1=Maria |author1-link=ماريا الوني |last2=Dekker |first2=Paul |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics |date=7 July 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-55273-5 |pages=22–23 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Angell |first1=Richard B. |title=Reasoning and Logic |date=1964 |publisher=Ardent Media |page=164 |language=en |oclc=375322 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Informal logic |year=1999a |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |page=435 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Philosophy of logic |year=1999b |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |pages=679–681 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Backmann |first1=Marius |title=Varieties of Justification—How (Not) to Solve the Problem of Induction |journal=Acta Analytica |date=1 June 2019 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=235–255 |doi=10.1007/s12136-018-0371-6 |s2cid=125767384 |language=en |issn=1874-6349 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bagaria |first1=Joan |author-link=جوان باگاريا |title=Set Theory |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/set-theory/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=23 September 2022 |year=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Jonathan |title=Truth, etc.: Six Lectures on Ancient Logic |date=25 January 2007 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-151574-3 |page=274 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Benthem |first1=Johan van |title=Modal Logic: Contemporary View: 1. Modal Notions and Reasoning Patterns: a First Pass |url=https://iep.utm.edu/modal-lo/#H1 |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=11 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berlemann |first1=Lars |last2=Mangold |first2=Stefan |title=Cognitive Radio and Dynamic Spectrum Access |date=10 July 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-0-470-75443-6 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berman |first1=Harold J. |title=Law and Revolution, the Formation of the Western Legal Tradition |date=1 July 2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02085-6 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bimbó |first1=Katalin |author-link=ڪيٽلن بمبو |title=J. Michael Dunn on Information Based Logics |date=2 April 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-29300-4 |pages=8–9 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=1 January 2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |language=en |chapter=argument |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194756/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=24 March 2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |language=en |chapter=rule of inference |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194809/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=The Current State of Informal Logic |journal=Informal Logic |year=1987 |volume=9 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v9i2.2671 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230194638/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |url-status=live |pages=147–151 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=Informal Logic: An Overview |journal=Informal Logic |year=2000 |volume=20 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v20i2.2262 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209195317/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |url-status=live |pages=93–107 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |title=Groundwork in the Theory of Argumentation: Selected Papers of J. Anthony Blair |date=20 October 2011 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-007-2363-4 |page=47 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bobzien |first1=Susanne |author-link=سوزاني بوبزين |title=Ancient Logic: 2. Aristotle |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=3 January 2022 |year=2020 |archive-date=28 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828102117/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Borchert |editor1-first=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 2 |edition=2nd |date=2006a |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |isbn=978-0-02-865782-0 |chapter=Computability Theory |pages=372–390 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 4 |edition=2nd |date=2006b |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Induction |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865784-4 |pages=635–648 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 5 |edition=2nd |date=2006c |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Logic, Non-Classical |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865785-1 |pages=485–492 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bridges |first1=Douglas |last2=Ishihara |first2=Hajime |last3=Rathjen |first3=Michael |last4=Schwichtenberg |first4=Helmut |title=Handbook of Constructive Mathematics |date=30 April 2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-51086-5 |pages=73–74 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Brody |first=Boruch A. |title=Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=2006 |publisher=Thomson Gale/Macmillan Reference US |others=Donald M. Borchert |isbn=978-0-02-865780-6 |edition=2nd |volume=5 |pages=535–536 |oclc=61151356 |quote=The two most important types of logical calculi are propositional (or sentential) calculi and functional (or predicate) calculi. A propositional calculus is a system containing propositional variables and connectives (some also contain propositional constants) but not individual or functional variables or constants. In the extended propositional calculus, quantifiers whose operator variables are propositional variables are added. }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bunnin |first1=Nicholas |last2=Yu |first2=Jiyuan |title=The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy |date=27 January 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9112-8 |page=179 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Burgess |first1=John P. |author-link=جان پي. برجس |title=Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |chapter=1. Classical logic |pages=1–12 |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216143954/https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-691-15633-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bäck |first1=Allan T. |title=Aristotle's Theory of Predication |date=2016 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-32109-0 |page=317 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Calderbank |first1=Robert |last2=Sloane |first2=Neil J. A. |title=Claude Shannon (1916–2001) |journal=Nature |date=April 2001 |volume=410 |issue=6830 |page=768 |doi=10.1038/35071223 |pmid=11298432 |s2cid=4402158 |language=en |issn=1476-4687 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Carnielli |first1=Walter |last2=Pizzi |first2=Claudio |title=Modalities and Multimodalities |date=2008 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-8590-1 |page=3 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Castaño |first1=Arnaldo Pérez |title=Practical Artificial Intelligence: Machine Learning, Bots, and Agent Solutions Using C# |date=23 May 2018 |publisher=Apress |isbn=978-1-4842-3357-3 |page=2 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Chakrabarti |first1=Kisor Kumar |title=Some Comparisons Between Frege's Logic and Navya-Nyaya Logic |journal=Philosophy and Phenomenological Research |date=June 1976 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=554–563 |doi=10.2307/2106873 |jstor=2106873 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chatfield |first1=Tom |title=Critical Thinking: Your Guide to Effective Argument, Successful Analysis and Independent Study |date=2017 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-5264-1877-7 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chua |first1=Eugene |title=Logic, Rationality, and Interaction |chapter=An Empirical Route to Logical 'Conventionalism' |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |date=2017 |volume=10455 |pages=631–636 |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-55665-8_43 |isbn=978-3-662-55664-1 |chapter-url=https://philpapers.org/rec/CHUAER }}
* {{cite book |last1=Clocksin |first1=William F. |last2=Mellish |first2=Christopher S. |title=Programming in Prolog: Using the ISO Standard |date=2003 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-55481-0 |pages=237–257 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 |language=en |chapter=The Relation of Prolog to Logic |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cook |first1=Roy T. |title=Dictionary of Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-3197-1 |language=en |page=124 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Copi |first1=Irving M. |author1-link=ارونگ ڪوپي |last2=Cohen |first2=Carl |last3=Rodych |first3=Victor |title=Introduction to Logic |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-38697-5 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Corkum |first1=Philip |title=Generality and Logical Constancy |journal=Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia |year=2015 |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=753–767 |doi=10.17990/rpf/2015_71_4_0753 |jstor=43744657 |issn=0870-5283 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Craig |first1=Edward |author-link=ايڊورڊ ڪريگ (فلسفي) |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=1996 |publisher=Routledge |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116111145/https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-07310-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cummings |first1=Louise |title=The Routledge Pragmatics Encyclopedia |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-21457-9 |page=1 |language=en |chapter=Abduction }}
* {{cite web |last1=Cunningham |first1=Daniel |title=Set Theory |url=https://iep.utm.edu/set-theo/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=23 September 2022 }}

* {{cite journal |last1=D'Agostino |first1=Marcello |last2=Floridi |first2=Luciano |title=The Enduring Scandal of Deduction: Is Propositional Logic Really Uninformative? |journal=Synthese |year=2009 |volume=167 |issue=2 |pages=271–315 |doi=10.1007/s11229-008-9409-4 |jstor=40271192 |hdl=2299/2995 |hdl-access=free |s2cid=9602882 |language=en |issn=0039-7857 }}
* {{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Computing |isbn=978-0-19-923400-4 |last1=Daintith |first1=John |last2=Wright |first2=Edmund |date=2008 |publisher=OUP }}
* {{cite book |last=van Dalen |first=Dirk |author-link=ڊرڪ وان ڊالن |year=1994 |title=Logic and Structure |publisher=Springer |at=Chapter 1.5 |isbn=978-0-387-57839-2 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dasti |first1=Matthew R. |title=Nyaya |url=https://iep.utm.edu/nyaya/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=12 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Dick |first1=Anthony S. |last2=Müller |first2=Ulrich |title=Advancing Developmental Science: Philosophy, Theory, and Method |date=2017 |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-1-351-70456-4 |page=157 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Douven |first1=Igor |author-link=ايگور ڊاووين |title=Abduction |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |year=2021 |access-date=24 August 2021 |archive-date=7 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907202119/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dowden |first1=Bradley |author-link=بريڊلي ڊائوڊن |title=Fallacies |url=https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=19 March 2021 |archive-date=29 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100429214410/https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |title=Pondering on Problems of Argumentation: Twenty Essays on Theoretical Issues |date=2009 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-9165-0 |page=191 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |last3=Krabbe |first3=Erik C. W. |last4=Snoeck Henkemans |first4=A. Francisca |last5=Verheij |first5=Bart |last6=Wagemans |first6=Jean H. M. |title=Handbook of Argumentation Theory |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-94-007-6883-3 |pages=1–45 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |language=en |chapter=Informal Logic |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231172324/https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |url-status=live |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGarssenKrabbeSnoeck_Henkemans }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Grootendorst |first2=Rob |last3=Johnson |first3=Ralph H. |last4=Plantin |first4=Christian |last5=Willard |first5=Charles A. |title=Fundamentals of Argumentation Theory: A Handbook of Historical Backgrounds and Contemporary Developments |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-68804-1 |page=169 |language=en |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGrootendorstJohnsonPlantin }}
* {{cite book |last1=Emmanuel |first1=Steven M. |title=A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy |date=2015 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-119-14466-3 |pages=320–322 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Enderton |first=Herbert |author-link=هربرٽ اينڊرٽن |year=2001 |title=A Mathematical Introduction to Logic |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-238452-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Engel |first1=S. Morris |title=With Good Reason an Introduction to Informal Fallacies |date=1982 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=1 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301065815/https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-312-08479-0 |publisher=St. Martin's Press }}
* {{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Jonathan St. B. T. |editor1-last=Morrison |editor1-first=Robert |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82417-0 |page=169 |language=en |chapter=8. Deductive Reasoning }}
* {{cite web |last1=Ewald |first1=William |title=The Emergence of First-Order Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-firstorder-emergence/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=12 March 2023 |date=2019 }}

* {{cite web |last1=Falguera |first1=José L. |last2=Martínez-Vidal |first2=Concha |last3=Rosen |first3=Gideon |title=Abstract Objects |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=7 January 2022 |year=2021 |archive-date=22 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122003334/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Falikowski |first1=Anthony |last2=Mills |first2=Susan |title=Experiencing Philosophy |edition=2nd |date=2022 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=978-1-77048-841-0 |page=98 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=Michael David |last2=Gabbay |first2=Dov M. |last3=Vila |first3=Lluis |title=Handbook of Temporal Reasoning in Artificial Intelligence |date=2005 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-053336-0 |page=119 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fitch |first1=G. W. |title=Saul Kripke |date=18 December 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-48917-7 |page=17 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Flotyński |first1=Jakub |title=Knowledge-Based Explorable Extended Reality Environments |date=7 December 2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-59965-2 |page=39 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Font |first1=Josep Maria |last2=Jansana |first2=Ramon |title=A General Algebraic Semantics for Sentential Logics |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-16797-1 |page=8 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Frede |first1=Michael |title=Aristotle |url=https://pages.mtu.edu/~pcharles/SCIHISTORY/aristotle.html |website=Michigan Technological University |access-date=1 November 2022 |archive-date=21 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921073920/https://pages.mtu.edu/~pcharles/SCIHISTORY/aristotle.html |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |last1=Friend |first1=Michele |title=Introducing Philosophy of Mathematics |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-49379-2 |page=101 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Gamut |first=L.T.F. |author-link=ايل. ٽي. ايف. گيمٽ |date=1991 |title=Logic, Language and Meaning Vol 1: Introduction to Logic |publisher=University of Chicago Press |at=5.5 |isbn=978-0-226-28085-1 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Garson |first1=James |title=Modal Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-modal/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2023 }}
* {{cite book |last=Gensler |first=Harry J. |date=2006 |title=The A to Z of Logic |pages=xliii–xliv |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-1-4617-3182-5 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goble |first1=Lou |title=The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic |date=2001 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/GOBTBG-2 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184959/https://philpapers.org/rec/GOBTBG-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-631-20692-7 |pages=1–8 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goodman |first1=Lenn Evan |title=Avicenna |date=1992 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-01929-3 |page=188 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goodman |first1=Lenn Evan |title=Islamic Humanism |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513580-0 |page=155 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Groarke |first1=Louis F. |title=Aristotle: Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=1 January 2022 |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229235433/https://iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Groarke |first1=Leo |title=Informal Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=31 December 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112030519/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Gómez-Torrente |first1=Mario |title=Logical Truth |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-truth/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=22 November 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=2 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002190110/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-truth/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gödel |first1=Kurt |author1-link=Kurt Gödel |editor1-last=Benacerraf |editor1-first=Paul |editor2-last=Putnam |editor2-first=Hilary |title=Philosophy of Mathematics: Selected Readings |date=1984 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29648-9 |pages=447–469 |edition=2nd |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/philosophy-of-mathematics/russells-mathematical-logic/4D82F215FABFE06149D03EF1EF5BE7E4 |chapter=Russell's mathematical logic |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111091740/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/philosophy-of-mathematics/russells-mathematical-logic/4D82F215FABFE06149D03EF1EF5BE7E4 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hájek |first1=Petr |title=Fuzzy Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/Archives/Win2012/entries/logic-fuzzy/ |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |language=en |date=3 September 2006 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hájek |first1=Alan |last2=Lin |first2=Hanti |title=A Tale of Two Epistemologies? |journal=Res Philosophica |year=2017 |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=207–232 |doi=10.11612/resphil.1540 |s2cid=160029122 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HJEATO |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104182746/https://philpapers.org/rec/HJEATO |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Cordelia |last2=O'Donnell |first2=John |title=Discrete Mathematics Using a Computer |date=2000 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-85233-089-7 |page=48 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Houde |first1=R. |last2=Camacho |first2=L. |title=New Catholic Encyclopedia |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/electrical-engineering/induction |chapter=Induction |year=2003 |publisher=Thomson/Gale |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171720/https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/electrical-engineering/induction |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-7876-4004-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Deviant Logic: Some Philosophical Issues |date=1974 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-20500-9 |page=51 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Philosophy of Logics |date=1978 |publisher=London and New York: Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HAAPOL-2 |chapter=1. 'Philosophy of logics' |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207200551/https://philpapers.org/rec/HAAPOL-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-521-29329-7 |pages=1–10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Deviant Logic, Fuzzy Logic: Beyond the Formalism |date=1996 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31133-3 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haaparanta |first1=Leila |author1-link=Leila Haaparanta |title=The Development of Modern Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513731-6 |pages=4–6 |chapter=1. Introduction }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hansen |first1=Hans |title=Fallacies |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fallacies/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=18 March 2021 |year=2020 |archive-date=29 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329182946/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fallacies/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hartmann |first1=Stephan |last2=Sprenger |first2=Jan |title=The Routledge Companion to Epistemology |date=2010 |publisher=London: Routledge |pages=609–620 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO |chapter=Bayesian Epistemology |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516095047/https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-96219-3 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hasse |first1=Dag Nikolaus |title=Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-influence/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |date=2008 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hawthorne |first1=James |title=Inductive Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-inductive/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=6 January 2022 |year=2021 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121081805/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-inductive/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Philosophy of logic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-logic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=21 November 2021 |language=en |archive-date=28 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428101732/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/346240/philosophy-of-logic |url-status=live |date=2019 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Logical systems |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic/Logical-systems |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=4 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184656/https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic/Logical-systems |url-status=live |date=2023 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Information, Deduction, and the A Priori |journal=Noûs |year=1970 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=135–152 |doi=10.2307/2214318 |jstor=2214318 |issn=0029-4624 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |last2=Sandu |first2=Gabriel |editor-last=Jacquette |editor-first=D. |title=Philosophy of Logic |date=2006 |publisher=North Holland |pages=13–39 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JAAWIL |chapter=What is Logic? |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207235525/https://philpapers.org/rec/JAAWIL |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-444-51541-4 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |last2=Spade |first2=Paul Vincent |title=History of logic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-logic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Honderich |first1=Ted |author-link=Ted Honderich |title=The Oxford Companion to Philosophy |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=29 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129082636/https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-19-926479-7 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hurley |first1=Patrick J. |title=Logic: The Essentials |date=2015 |publisher=Wadsworth |isbn=978-1-305-59041-0 |language=en |chapter=4. Categorical Syllogisms |pages=189–237 }}
* {{cite web |last1=IEP Staff |title=Deductive and Inductive Arguments |url=https://iep.utm.edu/ded-ind/ |access-date=6 January 2022 |archive-date=28 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528032124/https://iep.utm.edu/ded-ind/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Iqbal |first1=Mohammad |title=The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam |date=2013 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-8686-7 |pages=99–115 |url=http://www.allamaiqbal.com/works/prose/english/reconstruction/ |language=en |chapter=The Spirit of Muslim Culture }}
* {{cite web |last1=Irvine |first1=Andrew David |title=Bertrand Russell |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/russell/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=29 September 2022 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jacquette |first1=Dale |title=Philosophy of Logic |date=2006 |publisher=North Holland |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JACPOL |chapter=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184932/https://philpapers.org/rec/JACPOL |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-444-51541-4 |pages=1–12 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jago |first1=Mark |title=The Impossible: An Essay on Hyperintensionality |date=2014 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-101915-9 |page=41 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Janssen |first1=Theo M. V. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Thomas Ede |title=Montague Semantics |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/montague-semantics/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=10 March 2023 |date=2021 |pages=3–4 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Ralph H. |title=The Relation Between Formal and Informal Logic |journal=Argumentation |year=1999 |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=265–274 |doi=10.1023/A:1007789101256 |s2cid=141283158 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JOHTRB-2 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184706/https://philpapers.org/rec/JOHTRB-2 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Ralph H. |title=The Rise of Informal Logic: Essays on Argumentation, Critical Thinking, Reasoning and Politics |date=15 July 2014 |publisher=University of Windsor |isbn=978-0-920233-71-9 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Ketland |first1=Jeffrey |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 8 |date=2005 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/second-order-logic |chapter=Second Order Logic |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184921/https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/second-order-logic |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865788-2 |pages=707–708 |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA }}
* {{cite book |last1=King |first1=Jeffrey C. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Language |chapter=Formal Semantics |date=2 September 2009 |pages=557–558 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199552238.003.0023 |isbn=978-0-19-955223-8 }}
* {{cite web |last1=King |first1=Jeffrey C. |title=Structured Propositions |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/propositions-structured/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=25 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025211706/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/propositions-structured/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Klement |first1=Kevin C. |title=Propositional Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/prop-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=23 September 2022 |year=1995b |issn=2161-0002 }}
* {{cite book |last=Kline |first=Morris |title=Mathematical Thought From Ancient to Modern Times |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-19-506135-2 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Kneale |first1=William |author-link=William Kneale |last2=Kneale |first2=Martha |author2-link=Martha Kneale |title=The Development of Logic |date=1962 |publisher=Clarendon Press |language=en |isbn=978-0-19-824773-9 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Knuuttila |first1=Simo |title=Reforging the Great Chain of Being: Studies of the History of Modal Theories |date=1980 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-90-277-1125-0 |page=71 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Korb |first1=Kevin |title=Bayesian Informal Logic and Fallacy |journal=Informal Logic |year=2004 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=41–70 |doi=10.22329/il.v24i1.2132 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/KORBIL |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=10 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211110075255/https://philpapers.org/rec/KORBIL |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Koslowski |first1=Barbara |title=International Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-72569-7 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski |chapter=Abductive Reasoning and Explanation |doi=10.4324/9781315725697 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108225144/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski |url-status=live |pages=366–382 }}
* {{cite book |first1=Boris |last1=Kulik |first2=Alexander |last2=Fridman |title=N-ary Relations for Logical Analysis of Data and Knowledge |date=30 November 2017 |publisher=IGI Global |isbn=978-1-5225-2783-1 |page=74 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Kusch |first1=Martin |title=Psychologism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/psychologism/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=30 November 2021 |year=2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229220156/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/psychologism/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Lagerlund |first1=Henrik |title=Review of The Aftermath of Syllogism: Aristotelian Logical Argument from Avicenna to Hegel |url=https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/the-aftermath-of-syllogism-aristotelian-logical-argument-from-avicenna-to-hegel/ |website=Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews |access-date=19 July 2023 |language=en |date=27 September 2018 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lear |first1=Jonathan |title=Aristotle and Logical Theory |date=1980 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-31178-6 |page=34 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Leary |first1=Christopher C. |last2=Kristiansen |first2=Lars |title=A Friendly Introduction to Mathematical Logic |date=2015 |publisher=Suny |isbn=978-1-942341-07-9 |page=195 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lepore |first1=Ernest |last2=Cumming |first2=Sam |title=Meaning and Argument: An Introduction to Logic Through Language |date=14 September 2012 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-118-45521-0 |page=5 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Li |first1=Wei |title=Mathematical Logic: Foundations for Information Science |date=26 February 2010 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-3-7643-9977-1 |page=ix |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Linsky |first1=Bernard |title=The Evolution of Principia Mathematica: Bertrand Russell's Manuscripts and Notes |edition=2nd |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49733-6 |page=4 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Liu |first1=Shiyong |last2=Guo |first2=Kaizhong |title=Error Logic: Paving Pathways for Intelligent Error Identification and Management |date=7 March 2023 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-031-00820-7 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Łukasiewicz |first=Jan |author-link=يان ووڪاشيوچ |title=Aristotle's Syllogistic from the Standpoint of Modern Formal Logic |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1957 |edition=2nd |page=7 |oclc=656161566 }}
* {{cite web |last1=MacFarlane |first1=John |title=Logical Constants |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-constants/#SynTer |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=21 November 2021 |year=2017 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317180221/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-constants/#SynTer |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Mackie |first1=J. L. |author-link=جي. ايل. ميڪي |title=Fallacies |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/fallacies |website=encyclopedia.com |access-date=19 March 2021 |year=1967 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415101134/https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/fallacies |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Magnus |first1=P. D. |title=Forall X: An Introduction to Formal Logic |date=2005 |publisher=Victoria, BC, Canada: State University of New York Oer Services |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/MAGFXI |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207200544/https://philpapers.org/rec/MAGFXI |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-64176-026-3 |pages=8–9 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Makridis |first1=Odysseus |title=Symbolic Logic |date=2022 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-67396-3 |pages=1–2 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Maltby |first1=John |last2=Day |first2=Liz |last3=Macaskill |first3=Ann |title=Personality, Individual Differences and Intelligence |date=2007 |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-13-129760-9 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Marenbon |first1=John |title=Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/boethius/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2021 }}
* {{cite web |last1=McKeon |first1=Matthew |title=Logical Consequence |url=https://iep.utm.edu/logcon/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=20 November 2021 |archive-date=12 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112071437/https://iep.utm.edu/logcon/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Michaelson |first1=Eliot |last2=Reimer |first2=Marga |title=Reference |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reference/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184705/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reference/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Mills |first1=Ethan |title=Three Pillars of Skepticism in Classical India: Nagarjuna, Jayarasi, and Sri Harsa |date=2018 |publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4985-5570-8 |page=121 |language=en |quote=... for Nyāya all inference is ultimately rooted in perception ... Naiyāyikas typically accept four means of knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. }}
* {{cite book |last1=Monk |first1=J. Donald |title=Mathematical Logic |date=1976 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4684-9452-5 |pages=1–9 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |language=en |chapter=Introduction |doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=9 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109131251/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Kevin |last2=Cromby |first2=John |title=How Best to 'Go On'? Prospects for a 'Modern Synthesis' in the Sciences of Mind |date=8 August 2016 |publisher=Frontiers Media SA |isbn=978-2-88919-906-8 |page=60 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Terence |last2=Carling |first2=Christine |title=Understanding Language: Towards a Post-Chomskyan Linguistics |date=1982 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-16895-8 |page=53 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Moschovakis |first1=Joan |author1-link=جوان موشووڪيس |title=Intuitionistic Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-intuitionistic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Introduction |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Nolt |first1=John |title=Free Logic: 1. The Basics |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-free/#1 |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=10 September 2022 |year=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Nunes |first1=Terezinha |author1-link=تريزينا نونيس |editor1-last=Seel |editor1-first=Norbert M. |title=Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning |date=2011 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4419-1427-9 |language=en |pages=2066–2069 |chapter=Logical Reasoning and Learning }}
* {{cite book |last1=O'Regan |first1=Gerard |title=Introduction to the History of Computing: A Computing History Primer |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-33138-6 |page=49 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Oaksford |first1=Mike |last2=Chater |first2=Nick |title=Bayesian Rationality: The Probabilistic Approach to Human Reasoning |date=2007 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-852449-6 |page=47 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Olkowski |first1=Dorothea |last2=Pirovolakis |first2=Eftichis |title=Deleuze and Guattari's Philosophy of Freedom: Freedom's Refrains |date=31 January 2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-66352-9 |pages=65–66 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Olsson |first1=Erik J. |title=Introduction to Formal Philosophy |date=2018 |publisher=Springer |pages=431–442 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/OLSBE |chapter=Bayesian Epistemology |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516095057/https://philpapers.org/rec/OLSBE |url-status=live |isbn=978-3-030-08454-7 }}
* {{cite web |author=Online Etymology Staff |title=Logic |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/logic?ref=etymonline_crossreference |website=etymonline.com |access-date=29 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229134626/https://www.etymonline.com/word/logic?ref=etymonline_crossreference |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Partee |first1=Barbara H. |author1-link=باربرا ايڇ پارٽي |editor1-last=Aloni |editor1-first=Maria |editor1-link=ماريا الوني |editor2-last=Dekker |editor2-first=Paul |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-02839-5 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Paulson |first1=Lawrence C. |title=Computational Logic: Its Origins and Applications |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |date=February 2018 |volume=474 |issue=2210 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1098/rspa.2017.0872 |pmid=29507522 |pmc=5832843 |arxiv=1712.04375 |bibcode=2018RSPSA.47470872P |s2cid=3805901 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pedemonte |first1=Bettina |title=Strategic vs Definitory Rules: Their Role in Abductive Argumentation and their Relationship with Deductive Proof |journal=Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education |date=25 June 2018 |volume=14 |issue=9 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.29333/ejmste/92562 |s2cid=126245285 |url=https://www.ejmste.com/article/strategic-vs-definitory-rules-their-role-in-abductive-argumentation-and-their-relationship-with-5539 |language=english |issn=1305-8215 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207195246/https://www.ejmste.com/article/strategic-vs-definitory-rules-their-role-in-abductive-argumentation-and-their-relationship-with-5539 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pickel |first1=Bryan |title=Structured Propositions and Trivial Composition |journal=Synthese |date=1 July 2020 |volume=197 |issue=7 |pages=2991–3006 |doi=10.1007/s11229-018-1853-1 |s2cid=49729020 |language=en |issn=1573-0964 |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.11820/3427c028-f2cb-4216-a199-9679a49ce71c |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Pietroski |first1=Paul |title=Logical Form: 1. Patterns of Reason |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-form/#pat |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=2 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002190116/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-form/#pat |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Planty-Bonjour |first1=Guy |title=The Categories of Dialectical Materialism: Contemporary Soviet Ontology |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-010-3517-0 |page=62 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Possin |first1=Kevin |title=Conductive Arguments: Why is This Still a Thing? |journal=Informal Logic |year=2016 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=563–593 |doi=10.22329/il.v36i4.4527 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/POSCAW-4 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171723/https://philpapers.org/rec/POSCAW-4 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Priest |first1=Graham |last2=Tanaka |first2=Koji |last3=Weber |first3=Zach |title=Paraconsistent Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-paraconsistent/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=14 December 2021 |year=2018 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Pépin |first1=Jean |title=Encyclopedia of Religion |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/logos |chapter=Logos |year=2004 |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229134626/https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/logos |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865733-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Putnam |first=H. |author-link=هلري پٽنم |title=Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science |chapter=Is Logic Empirical? |year=1969 |volume=5 |pages=216–241 |doi=10.1007/978-94-010-3381-7_5 |isbn=978-94-010-3383-1 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Quine |first1=Willard Van Orman |author-link=ولارڊ وان اورمن ڪوائن |title=Mathematical Logic |date=1981 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-55451-1 |page=1 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Rathjen |first1=Michael |last2=Sieg |first2=Wilfried |title=Proof Theory |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/proof-theory/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rautenberg |first1=Wolfgang |title=A Concise Introduction to Mathematical Logic |date=1 July 2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4419-1221-3 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Rendsvig |first1=Rasmus |last2=Symons |first2=John |title=Epistemic Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-epistemic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Restall |first1=Greg |last2=Standefer |first2=Shawn |title=Logical Methods |date=2023 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-54484-9 |page=91 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Richardson |first1=Alan W. |title=Carnap's Construction of the World: The Aufbau and the Emergence of Logical Empiricism |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-43008-1 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rini |first1=Adriane |author1-link=ايڊريان ريني |title=Aristotle's Modal Proofs: Prior Analytics A8-22 in Predicate Logic |date=13 December 2010 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-007-0050-5 |page=26 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ritola |first1=Juho |title=Walton's Informal Logic: A Pragmatic Approach |journal=Informal Logic |date=1 December 2008 |volume=28 |issue=4 |page=335 |doi=10.22329/il.v28i4.2856 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rocci |first1=Andrea |title=Modality in Argumentation: A Semantic Investigation of the Role of Modalities in the Structure of Arguments with an Application to Italian Modal Expressions |date=8 March 2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-024-1063-1 |page=26 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rošker |first1=Jana S. |author1-link=يانا ايس روشڪر |title=Classical Chinese Logic: Philosophy Compass |journal=Philosophy Compass |date=May 2015 |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=301–309 |doi=10.1111/phc3.12226 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Runco |first1=Mark A. |last2=Pritzker |first2=Steven R. |title=Encyclopedia of Creativity |date=1999 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-227075-8 |page=155 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rush |first1=Penelope |title=The Metaphysics of Logic |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/RUSTMO-4 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184954/https://philpapers.org/rec/RUSTMO-4 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-03964-3 |pages=1–10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Sadegh-Zadeh |first1=Kazem |title=Handbook of Analytic Philosophy of Medicine |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-017-9579-1 |page=983 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sagüillo |first1=José M. |title=Hintikka on Information and Deduction |journal=Teorema: Revista Internacional de Filosofía |year=2014 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=75–88 |jstor=43047609 |issn=0210-1602 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Sarukkai |first1=Sundar |last2=Chakraborty |first2=Mihir Kumar |title=Handbook of Logical Thought in India |date=2022 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-81-322-2577-5 |pages=117–118 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Schagrin |first1=Morton L. |title=Metalogic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/metalogic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Schechter |first1=Joshua |title=Epistemology of Logic – Bibliography |url=https://philpapers.org/browse/epistemology-of-logic |website=PhilPapers |access-date=11 September 2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Schlesinger |first1=I. M. |last2=Keren-Portnoy |first2=Tamar |last3=Parush |first3=Tamar |title=The Structure of Arguments |date=1 January 2001 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-90-272-2359-3 |page=220 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Schreiner |first1=Wolfgang |title=Thinking Programs: Logical Modeling and Reasoning About Languages, Data, Computations, and Executions |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-80507-4 |page=22 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Scott |first1=John |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon |title=A Dictionary of Sociology |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095410661 |language=en |chapter=analytic induction |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108173225/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095410661 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Shapiro |first1=Stewart |last2=Kouri Kissel |first2=Teresa |title=Classical Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-classical/#Sema |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Shermer |first1=Michael |title=Conspiracy: Why the Rational Believe the Irrational |date=25 October 2022 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-1-4214-4445-1 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Sider |first=Theodore |author-link=ٿيوڊور سائيڊر |year=2010 |title=Logic for Philosophy |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-957558-9 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Siegel |first1=Harvey |last2=Biro |first2=John |title=Epistemic Normativity, Argumentation, and Fallacies |journal=Argumentation |year=1997 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=277–292 |doi=10.1023/A:1007799325361 |s2cid=126269789 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/SIEENA |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228035651/https://philpapers.org/rec/SIEENA |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Simpson |first1=R. L. |title=Essentials of Symbolic Logic |edition=3rd |date=2008 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=978-1-77048-495-5 |page=14 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Smith |first1=Robin |title=Aristotle's Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Spade |first1=Paul Vincent |last2=Panaccio |first2=Claude |title=William of Ockham |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ockham/#SummLogi |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2019 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Spriggs |first1=John |title=GSN – The Goal Structuring Notation: A Structured Approach to Presenting Arguments |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4471-2312-5 |pages=20–22 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Stairs |first1=Allen |title=A Thinker's Guide to the Philosophy of Religion |year=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-21981-5 |page=343 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Sternberg |first1=Robert J. |title=Thought |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/thought |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=14 October 2021 |language=en |archive-date=13 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211013145532/https://www.britannica.com/topic/thought |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Stolyar |first1=Abram Aronovich |title=Introduction to Elementary Mathematical Logic |date=1 January 1984 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=978-0-486-64561-2 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Stone |first1=Mark A. |title=Denying the Antecedent: Its Effective Use in Argumentation |journal=Informal Logic |year=2012 |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=327–356 |doi=10.22329/il.v32i3.3681 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/STODTA |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228123240/https://philpapers.org/rec/STODTA |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Stump |first1=David J. |title=Fallacy, Logical |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/fallacy-logical |website=encyclopedia.com |access-date=20 March 2021 |archive-date=15 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215112403/https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/fallacy-logical |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Talbott |first1=William |title=Bayesian Epistemology |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-bayesian/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=6 March 2021 |year=2016 |archive-date=1 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401034856/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-bayesian/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Tarski |first1=Alfred |author-link=الفريڊ تارسڪي |title=Introduction to Logic and to the Methodology of the Deductive Sciences |date=1994 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-802139-1 |page=40 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Tondl |first1=L. |title=Problems of Semantics: A Contribution to the Analysis of the Language Science |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-009-8364-9 |page=111 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Velleman |first1=Daniel J. |title=How to Prove It: A Structured Approach |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-67599-4 |pages=8, 103 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Vickers |first1=John M. |title=Inductive Reasoning |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0171.xml |website=Oxford Bibliographies |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=18 January 2023 |language=en |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Vidyabhusana |first1=Satis Chandra |title=A History of Indian Logic: Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern Schools |date=1988 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publisher |isbn=978-81-208-0565-1 |page=221 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Vleet |first1=Van Jacob E. |title=Informal Logical Fallacies: A Brief Guide |date=2010 |publisher=Upa |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/VLEILF |chapter=Introduction |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228035654/https://philpapers.org/rec/VLEILF |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-7618-5432-6 |pages=ix–x }}
* {{cite web |last1=Väänänen |first1=Jouko |title=Second-order and Higher-order Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-higher-order/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=23 November 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030222316/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-higher-order/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Walton |first1=Douglas N. |author-link=ڊگلس اين والٽن |title=Informal Fallacies: Towards a Theory of Argument Criticisms |date=1987 |publisher=John Benjamins |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WALIFT |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302001111/https://philpapers.org/rec/WALIFT |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-55619-010-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Warren |first1=Jared |title=Shadows of Syntax: Revitalizing Logical and Mathematical Conventionalism |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-008615-2 |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/shadows-of-syntax-9780190086152 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Washell |first1=Richard F. |title=Logic, Language, and Albert the Great |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |date=1973 |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=445–450 |doi=10.2307/2708963 |jstor=2708963 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WASLLA-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wasilewska |first1=Anita |title=Logics for Computer Science: Classical and Non-Classical |date=2018 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-92591-2 |pages=145–146 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Weber |first1=Zach |title=Paraconsistent Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/para-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=12 December 2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Weddle |first1=Perry |title=Across the Lines of Disciplines |chapter=Chapter 36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction |date=2011 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |isbn=978-3-11-086771-8 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110867718.383/html |language=en |doi=10.1515/9783110867718.383 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231172343/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110867718.383/html |url-status=live |pages=383–388 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Westerståhl |first1=Dag |title=Aristotelian Syllogisms and Generalized Quantifiers |journal=Studia Logica |year=1989 |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=577–585 |doi=10.1007/BF00370209 |s2cid=32089424 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WESASA |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104182746/https://philpapers.org/rec/WESASA |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wilbanks |first1=Jan J. |title=Defining Deduction, Induction, and Validity |journal=Argumentation |date=1 March 2010 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=107–124 |doi=10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |s2cid=144481717 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |language=en |issn=1572-8374 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171721/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite web |last1=Wilce |first1=Alexander |title=Quantum Logic and Probability Theory: 2.1 Realist Quantum Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qt-quantlog/#RealQuanLogi |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wile |first1=Bruce |last2=Goss |first2=John |last3=Roesner |first3=Wolfgang |title=Comprehensive Functional Verification: The Complete Industry Cycle |date=2005 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-047664-3 |page=447 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Willman |first1=Marshall D. |title=Logic and Language in Early Chinese Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-logic-language/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |at=Introduction |date=2022 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wolf |first1=Robert G. |title=Are Relevant Logics Deviant? |journal=Philosophia |year=1978 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=327–340 |doi=10.1007/BF02378819 |s2cid=143697796 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WOLARL |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216143955/https://philpapers.org/rec/WOLARL |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Zegarelli |first=Mark |title=Logic For Dummies |page=30 |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-118-05307-2 }}
{{refend}}

==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|date=5 November 2023|En-Logic-article.ogg}}
{{Sister project links|منطق}}
{{Library resources box}}

{{منطق}}
{{فلسفي جا موضوع}}
{{Authority control}}

[[زمرو:رسمي سائنسون]]
[[زمرو:منطق| ]]
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>eez2zkej0oi1ygxipnlvs1ft259zzja</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399249</id>
      <parentid>399248</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T15:54:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399249</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="178204" sha1="ihorjz49jpp1zmm88w1aw4qc43tz3ur" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.

هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; 

ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; 

دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==تاريخ==
{{Main|منطق جي تاريخ}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=330
| image1= Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg
| alt1= ارسطو جو مجسمو
| image2= Avicenne - Avicenna - Ibn_Sina (980-1037) CIPB2067.jpg
| alt2= ابن سينا جو پورٽريٽ
| image3= Guillaume Occam.jpg
| alt3= وليم آف اوڪهم جو پورٽريٽ
| image4= Wismar Marienkirche Bronzebüste Gottlob Frege (01-1).JPG
| alt4= گوٽلوب فريگي جو مجسمو
| footer= مٿيون قطار: [[ارسطو]]، جنهن مغربي منطق جي بنيادي روايت قائم ڪئي؛{{sfn|Groarke}} ۽ [[ابن سينا]]، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ تي پنهنجو منطقي نظام متعارف ڪرايو.{{sfn|Lagerlund|2018}} هيٺيون قطار: [[وليم آف اوڪهم]]، وچئين دور جي علمي فڪر جي اهم شخصيت؛{{sfn|Spade|Panaccio|2019}} ۽ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]]، جديد علامتي منطق جي بانيَن مان هڪ.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900|3a=Klement|3y=1995a}}
}}

قديم دور ۾ منطق ڪيترين ئي تهذيبن ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان الڳ نموني ترقي ڪئي. شروعاتي اهم مفڪرن مان هڪ [[ارسطو]] هو، جنهن پنهنجي ڪتابن ''[[اورگينون]]'' ۽ ''[[پرائر اينالٽڪس]]'' ۾ '''اصطلاحي منطق''' (ٽرم لاجڪ) کي منظم صورت ڏني.{{sfnm|1a1=Kline|1y=1972|1loc=&quot;A major achievement of Aristotle was the founding of the science of logic&quot;, p. 53|2a1=Łukasiewicz|2y=1957|2p=7|3a1=Liu|3a2=Guo|3y=2023|3p=15}} هن [[شرطي قياس]] (ھيپوٿيٽيڪل سلاجزم){{sfn|Lear|1980|p=34}} ۽ [[زماني موڊل منطق]] (ٽيمپورل موڊل لاجڪ) جي به بنياد وڌي.{{sfnm|1a1=Knuuttila|1y=1980|1p=71|2a1=Fisher|2a2=Gabbay|2a3=Vila|2y=2005|2p=119}} ارسطو [[استقرائي منطق]] (انڊڪٽو لاجڪ){{sfn|Berman|2009|p=133}} ۽ نون منطقي تصورن، جهڙوڪ [[اصطلاح]]، [[محموليت]] (پريڊيڪبلز)، قياس ۽ تجويزن تي پڻ اهم بحث ڪيو. ارسطوي منطق کي قديم ۽ وچئين دور ۾، يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر ٻنهي ۾ وڏي اهميت حاصل رهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} ۽ اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي شروعات تائين اهو غالب منطقي نظام رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} اڄ جي دور ۾ جيتوڻيڪ ان جي جاءِ جديد منطق ورتي آهي، پر ان جا ڪيترائي بنيادي خيال اڃا به جديد منطقي نظامن ۾ موجود آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|loc=1. Introduction}}

[[ابن سينا]] (ايويسينا) ابن سيناوي منطق جو باني هو، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] جي ميدان ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ ورتي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hasse|1y=2008|2a1=Lagerlund|2y=2018}} سندس خيالن جو اثر [[البرٽس ميگنس]] ۽ [[وليم آف اوڪهم]] جهڙن يورپي مفڪرن تي به پيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Washell|1y=1973|1pp=445–450|2a1=Kneale|2a2=Kneale|2y=1962|2pp=229, 266}} ابن سينا شرطي قياس{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} ۽ [[تجويزي منطق]] (پروپوزيشنل ڪلڪيولس){{sfn|Goodman|1992|p=188}} تي اهم تحريرون لکيون. هن زماني ۽ امڪان کي گڏائيندڙ هڪ نئون قياسي نظريو تيار ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[زماني منطق]] ۽ [[موڊل منطق]] جا عنصر شامل هئا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Spade|loc=Arabic Logic}} هن استقرائي منطق جا به طريقا بيان ڪيا، جهڙوڪ موافقت، اختلاف ۽ گڏيل تبديلي جا طريقا، جيڪي [[سائنسي طريقو|سائنسي طريقي]] لاءِ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا.{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} [[فخر الدين رازي]] پڻ هڪ اثرائتو مسلمان منطق دان هو. هن ارسطوي قياس تي تنقيد ڪئي ۽ استقرائي منطق جو اهڙو ابتدائي نظام پيش ڪيو، جنهن بعد ۾ [[جان اسٽوارٽ مل]] جي استقرائي منطق جي اڳواٽ نشاندهي ڪئي.{{sfn|Iqbal|2013|pp=99–115|loc=The Spirit of Muslim Culture}}

وچئين دور ۾ ارسطو جي منطقي ڪتابن جا ڪيترائي ترجما ۽ تشريحون تيار ڪيون ويون. [[بوئٿيوس]] جا ڪم خاص طور تي گهڻو اثرائتا رهيا. هن نه رڳو ارسطو جي تصنيفن کي لاطيني ۾ ترجمو ڪيو، پر منطق بابت درسي ڪتاب پڻ لکيا.{{sfnm|1a1=Marenbon|1y=2021|1loc=Introduction; 3. The Logical Text-Books|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade}} بعد ۾ ابن سينا ۽ [[ابن رشد]] (ايوريس) جهڙن اسلامي فلسفين جي تحريرن مان پڻ فائدو ورتو ويو، جنهن سان وچئين دور جي عيسائي عالمن کي قديم يوناني فڪر تائين وڌيڪ رسائي ملي. سنه 1323ع ۾ وليم آف اوڪهم جو مشهور ڪتاب ''{{lang|la|[[Summa Logicae]]}}'' شايع ٿيو، جيڪو منطق جو جامع رسالو آهي ۽ جنهن ۾ منطقي تجويزن، انهن جي قسمن ۽ سندن صدق جي شرطن بابت منظم بحث ڪيو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|2a1=Hasse|2y=2008|3a1=Spade|3a2=Panaccio|3y=2019}}

چيني فلسفي ۾ [[نالن جو مذهب]] (اسڪول آف نيمز) ۽ [[موهزم]] (Mohism) خاص اهميت رکندا هئا. نالن جي مذهب ٻوليءَ جي استعمال ۽ منطقي تضادن تي ڌيان ڏنو. مثال طور [[گونگسن لانگ]] مشهور ''اڇي گهوڙي جو تضاد'' (وائيٽ ھارس پيراڊوڪس) پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ دليل ڏنو ويو ته &quot;اڇو گهوڙو، گهوڙو ناهي.&quot; موهزم پڻ منطق ۾ ٻوليءَ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪيو ۽ ان کي اخلاقيات سان ڳنڍڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Willman|1y=2022|2a1=Rošker|2y=2015|2pp=301–309}}

هندستان ۾ منطق جو مطالعو بنيادي طور [[نيايه]]، [[ٻڌ مت]] ۽ [[جين مت]] جي فڪري روايتن ۾ ٿيو. ان کي الڳ علمي شعبي طور نه، پر علمُ المعرفت، مناظري ۽ استدلال جي بحثن جي حصي طور سمجهيو ويندو هو.{{sfn|Sarukkai|Chakraborty|2022|pp=117–118}} نيايه فلسفي ۾ استدلال کي علم حاصل ڪرڻ جو هڪ ذريعو (''[[پرمان]]'') سمجهيو ويو، جيڪو مشاهدي کان پوءِ شين جي سببن بابت نتيجا ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو.{{sfnm|1a1=Dasti|1loc=Lead section; 1b. Inference|2a1=Mills|2y=2018|2p=121}} ٻڌ ۽ جين منطق ۾ به استدلال کي ٻين ذريعن مان حاصل ٿيل علم کي وڌائڻ جو وسيلو سمجهيو ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Emmanuel|1y=2015|1pp=320–322|2a1=Vidyabhusana|2y=1988|2p=221}} نيايه جي پوئين دور جي [[نويا نيايه]] روايت جا ڪيئي خيال جديد منطق سان ملندڙ جلندڙ آهن، جهڙوڪ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جو ''معنيٰ ۽ مرجع'' (سينس اينڊ ريفرنس) وارو فرق ۽ انگ جي تعريف.{{sfn|Chakrabarti|1976|pp=554–563}}

ارسطو جي قياسي منطق اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي وچ تائين غالب رهي، پر رياضيات جي بنيادن بابت وڌندڙ دلچسپي جديد علامتي منطق جي ترقي جو سبب بڻي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Haaparanta|2y=2009|2pp=3–5|2loc=1. Introduction}} گهڻا محقق [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جي ''[[بيگرفس شرفٽ]]'' (Begriffsschrift) کي جديد منطق جي شروعات سمجهن ٿا. [[گوٽفريڊ وِلهم لائبنٽس]] جي [[عالمي رسمي ٻولي]] (ڪئريڪٽرسٽڪا يونيورسلس) جو تصور ان جو اڳواٽ اشارو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. ٻين اهم اڳواڻن ۾ [[جارج بول]] شامل آهي، جنهن [[بولي الجبرا]] (بوليئن آلجبرا) کي منطقي رياضيائي نظام طور پيش ڪيو، ۽ [[چارلس سينڊرس پيرس]]، جنهن [[لاڳاپن جي منطق]] (لاجڪ آگ رليٽوز) کي ترقي ڏني. بعد ۾ [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] انهن خيالن کي پنهنجي مشهور ڪتاب '' پرنسپيا ميٿميٽيڪا'' ۾ منظم ڪيو.

جديد منطق نوان تصور متعارف ڪرايا، جهڙوڪ [[تابع]] (فنڪشن)، مقدارساز (ڪونٽيفائر) ۽ لاڳاپائي محمول (رليشنل پريڊيڪيٽس). جديد علامتي منطق جي نمايان خاصيت رسمي ٻوليءَ جو استعمال آهي، جنهن ذريعي منطقي اصولن کي نهايت درست نموني بيان ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان لحاظ کان اهو اڳين منطق دانن کان مختلف آهي، جيڪي بنيادي طور قدرتي ٻوليءَ تي ڀاڙيندا هئا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900}} خاص طور تي [[اول-درجي منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) جي ترقي جديد منطق ۾ بنيادي حيثيت اختيار ڪئي.{{sfn|Ewald|2019}} ان جي تجزياتي وسعت رياضيات کي رسمي صورت ڏيڻ، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] جي ترقي ۽ [[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) جي قيام لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪيو، ۽ اهو جديد [[رياضياتي منطق]] جو مرڪزي نظام بڻجي ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Schreiner|2y=2021|2p=22}}

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (ڪوانٽيفڪيشن) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}

==تحقيق جا شعبا==

منطق جو مطالعو مختلف علمي شعبن ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪيترن ئي حالتن ۾ ان جي رسمي طريقن کي انهن موضوعن تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي پاڻ منطق جي دائري کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[اخلاقيات]] يا [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Logic and other disciplines|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10}}

ٻين حالتن ۾ خود منطق ئي ڪنهن ٻئي علمي شعبي ۾ تحقيق جو موضوع بڻجي ٿي. اهو مختلف طريقن سان ٿي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، منطق جي بنيادي تصورن سان لاڳاپيل فلسفياتي مفروضن جو جائزو وٺڻ، منطقي نظامن کي رياضيائي بناوتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جو تجزيو ڪرڻ، يا رسمي منطقي نظامن جي تجريدي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ۽ ڀيٽ ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Features and problems of logic|2a1=Gödel|2y=1984|2pp=447–469|2loc=Russell's mathematical logic|3a1=Monk|3y=1976|3pp=1–9|3loc=Introduction}}

===منطق جو فلسفو ۽ فلسفياتي منطق===
{{Main|منطق جو فلسفو|فلسفياتي منطق}}

'''منطق جو فلسفو''' (فلاسافي آف لاجڪ) فلسفي جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطق جي دائري، ماهيت ۽ بنيادي نوعيت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} ان ۾ انهن ڪيترن ئي مفروضن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيڪي منطق ۾ ضمني طور قبول ڪيا ويندا آهن، جيئن ان جي بنيادي تصورن جي تعريف يا انهن سان لاڳاپيل [[مابعدالطبيعات|مابعدالطبيعي]] مفروضا.{{sfn|Jacquette|2006|loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|pp=1–12}}

هي شعبي منطقي نظامن جي درجابندي ۽ انهن سان وابسته [[وجوديات|وجودياتي]] وابستگين (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪمٽمينٽ) جو پڻ مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=§Problems of ontology}}

'''فلسفياتي منطق''' (فلاسافيڪل لاجڪ) منطق جي فلسفي جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطقي طريقن کي فلسفي جي مسئلن تي لاڳو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Burgess|2y=2009|2loc=1. Classical logic}}
اهو استعمال گهڻو ڪري [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي]] يا [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظامن]] جي صورت ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Goble|1y=2001|1loc=Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32}}

===مابعد منطق===
{{Main|مابعد منطق}}

'''مابعد منطق''' (ميٽالاجڪ) اهو علمي شعبو آهي، جيڪو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.

مثال طور، جڏهن ڪو نئون رسمي منطقي نظام تيار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ته مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو معلوم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته ان نظام ۾ ڪهڙا فارمولا ثابت ڪري سگهجن ٿا. اهي اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته ڇا اهڙو [[الگورٿم]] تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو هر فارمولي لاءِ ثبوت ڳولي سگهي، ۽ ڇا ان نظام ۾ هر قابلِ ثبوت فارمولو لازمي طور [[منطقي صداقت]] (Tautology) آهي.

اهي مختلف منطقي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ تقابلي مطالعو پڻ ڪندا آهن ته جيئن انهن جون منفرد خاصيتون واضح ٿي سگهن.

مابعد منطق جو هڪ بنيادي موضوع [[نحو]] (سنٽيڪس) ۽ [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) جي وچ ۾ تعلق آهي. رسمي منطقي نظام جا نحوي ضابطا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدمات مان نتيجا ڪيئن اخذ ڪيا وڃن، يعني ثبوت ڪيئن ترتيب ڏنا وڃن. جڏهن⁠ته معنيات اهو طئي ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙا جملا سچا آهن ۽ ڪهڙا ڪوڙا. انهيءَ بنياد تي دليل جي صحت جو تعين ڪيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صحيح دليل ۾ اهو ناممڪن هوندو آهي ته مقدمات سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو هجي.

نحو ۽ معنيات جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي بابت اهم سوالن ۾ اهو شامل آهي ته ڇا هر صحيح دليل قابلِ ثبوت آهي، ۽ ڇا هر قابلِ ثبوت دليل لازمي طور صحيح به هوندو آهي.

مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته منطقي نظام [[مڪمليت]] (ڪمپليٽنيس)، [[صحت (منطق)|صحت]] (سائونڊنيس) ۽ [[هم آهنگي (منطق)|هم آهنگي]] (ڪنسسٽنسي) جون خاصيتون رکن ٿا يا نه. ان کان علاوه، اهي اهو به ڏسندا آهن ته اهي نظام [[فيصلي پذيري]] (ڊسائيڊبلٽي) رکن ٿا يا نه، ۽ انهن جي [[اظهاري قوت]] ڪيتري آهي.

انهن موضوعن جي تحقيق دوران مابعد منطق گهڻو ڪري تجريدي رياضيائي استدلال تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جنهن جو مقصد انهن مسئلن بابت صحيح، عام ۽ جامع نتيجا حاصل ڪرڻ هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1pp=xliii–xliv|2a1=Sider|2y=2010|2pp=4–6|3a1=Schagrin}}

===رياضيائي منطق===
{{Main|رياضيائي منطق}}

[[File:Russell1907-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=برٽرينڊ رسل جو تصوير|[[برٽرينڊ رسل]] رياضيائي منطق جي ترقي ۾ ڪيترائي اهم علمي حصا ورتا.{{sfn|Irvine|2022}}]]

اصطلاح '''رياضيائي منطق''' (ميٿميٽيڪل لاجڪ) ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[رسمي منطق]] جي مترادف طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر وڌيڪ محدود معنيٰ ۾ اهو رياضيات جي اندر منطق جي مطالعي ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. ان جون اهم شاخون [[ماڊل نظريو]]، [[ثبوت جو نظريو]]، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) ۽ [[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Li|1y=2010|1p=ix|2a1=Rautenberg|2y=2010|2p=15|3a1=Quine|3y=1981|3p=1|4a1=Stolyar|4y=1984|4p=2}}

رياضيائي منطق جي تحقيق جو وڏو حصو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي رياضيائي خاصيتن جي مطالعي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. ان سان گڏ اهو پڻ ڏٺو ويندو آهي ته منطق کي رياضيائي استدلال جي تجزيي يا [[رياضيات جا بنياد|رياضيات جي منطقي بنيادن]] جي قيام لاءِ ڪيئن استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfn|Stolyar|1984|pp=3–6}}

ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ رياضيائي منطق جو هڪ اهم مقصد [[منطق پرستي]] (لاجڪئزم) واري پروگرام کي اڳتي وڌائڻ هو، جنهن جي شروعات [[گاٽلوب فريگي]]، [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] جهڙن فلسفي-منطق دانن ڪئي هئي. هن پروگرام موجب سڀئي رياضيائي نظريا اصل ۾ منطقي [[منطقي صداقت|صداقتون]] (Tautologies) آهن، ۽ ان کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ رياضيات کي منطق تائين محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي. پر هن پروگرام کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جون گهڻيون ڪوششون ناڪام ويون. مثال طور، فريگي جو منصوبو سندس ڪتاب '' گرُنڊگيزيٽسي:Grundgesetze'' (بنيادي قانون) ۾ [[رسل جو تضاد|رسل جي تضاد]] سبب متاثر ٿيو، جڏهن⁠ته [[هلبرٽ جو پروگرام]] [[گوڊل جا نامڪمليت جا نظريا|گوڊل جي نامڪمليت جي نظرين]] سبب ناڪام ثابت ٿيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|1loc=Gödel's incompleteness theorems|2a1=Linsky|2y=2011|2p=4|3a1=Richardson|3y=1998|3p=15}}

[[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) جي شروعات [[جارج ڪينٽر]] لامحدوديت جي مطالعي دوران ڪئي. هي شعبي رياضيائي منطق جي ڪيترن ئي اهم ۽ پيچيده مسئلن جو سرچشمو بڻيو، جن ۾ [[ڪينٽر جو نظريو]]، [[اختيار جو اصول]] (اگزيوم آف چوائس)، [[مسلسل مفروضي]] (ڪنٽينيوئم ھيپوٿيسز) جي آزاديءَ جو سوال، ۽ [[وڏي ڪارڊينل]] (لارج ڪارڊينل) اصولن بابت جديد بحث شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Bagaria|1y=2021|2a1=Cunningham}}

[[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) رياضيائي منطق جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا حسابي مسئلن کي حل ڪرڻ لاءِ مؤثر طريقن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان جو هڪ بنيادي مقصد اهو معلوم ڪرڻ آهي ته ڪنهن خاص مسئلي کي [[الگورٿم]] ذريعي حل ڪرڻ ممڪن آهي يا نه. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صحيح عددن بابت ڪو خاص دعويٰ ڏني وڃي، ته هي شعبي اهو جاچيندو آهي ته ڇا اهڙو الگورٿم تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو اهو طئي ڪري سگهي ته اها دعويٰ صحيح آهي يا غلط. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ [[ٽيورنگ مشين]] (Turing machine) سميت مختلف نظرياتي ماڊلن ۽ اوزارن کي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006a|1loc=Computability Theory|2a1=Leary|2a2=Kristiansen|2y=2015|2p=195}}

===حسابياتي منطق===
{{Main|حسابياتي منطق|ڪمپيوٽر سائنس ۾ منطق}}

[[File:TransistorANDgate.png|thumb|ٽرانزسٽرن جي مدد سان تيار ڪيل هڪ AND گيٽ جو خاڪو. [[منطقي عطف]] (AND) [[بولين منطق]] جي بنيادي عملن مان هڪ آهي، جنهن کي برقي طور مختلف طريقن سان، مثال طور ٻن [[ٽرانزسٽر]]ن ذريعي، عمل ۾ آڻي سگهجي ٿو.]]

'''حسابياتي منطق''' (ڪمپيوٽيشنل لاجڪ) منطق ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ڪمپيوٽرن جي ذريعي رياضيائي استدلال ۽ رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عملي صورت ڏيڻ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان ۾، مثال طور، [[خودڪار نظريي ثابت ڪندڙ]] (آٽوميٽڪ ٿيورم پروور) شامل آهن، جيڪي [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] استعمال ڪندي، بغير انساني مداخلت جي، مقدمات مان گهربل نتيجي تائين مرحليوار ثبوت تيار ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Paulson|1y=2018|1pp=1–14|2a1=Castaño|2y=2018|2p=2|3a1=Wile|3a2=Goss|3a3=Roesner|3y=2005|3p=447}}

[[منطقي پروگرامنگ]] (لاجڪ پروگرامنگ) جون ٻوليون خاص طور اهڙي نموني تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن، جو حقيقتن کي منطقي فارمولن جي صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ۽ انهن مان استدلال ذريعي نوان نتيجا اخذ ڪري سگهجن. مثال طور، [[پرولاگ]] (Prolog) محمولي منطق تي ٻڌل هڪ منطقي پروگرامنگ ٻولي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Clocksin|1a2=Mellish|1y=2003|1pp=237–238, 252–255, 257|1loc=The Relation of Prolog to Logic|2a1=Daintith|2a2=Wright|2y=2008|2loc=Logic Programming Languages}}

ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽنگ سان لاڳاپيل مسئلن جي حل لاءِ پڻ منطقي تصورن کي استعمال ڪندا آهن. هن ميدان ۾ [[ڪلاڊ شينن]] جو ڪم انتهائي اثرائتو رهيو، جنهن ڏيکاريو ته [[بولين منطق]] کي ڪمپيوٽرن جي برقي سرڪٽن کي سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=O'Regan|1y=2016|1p=49|2a1=Calderbank|2a2=Sloane|2y=2001|2p=768}}

اهو ڪم [[منطقي دروازو|منطقي دروازن]] (لاجڪ گيٽ) ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي اهڙا برقي سرڪٽ هوندا آهن، جن ۾ هڪ يا وڌيڪ ان پُٽ ۽ عام طور هڪ آئوٽ پُٽ هوندو آهي. انهن ۾ منطقي قضين جي صداقت جا قدر برقي وولٽيج جي سطحن جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهڙيءَ طرح، سرڪٽ جي ان پُٽن تي مناسب وولٽيج لاڳو ڪري ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ جي وولٽيج کي ماپي، مختلف منطقي عملن جي نقل (سميوليشن) ڪئي ويندي آهي.{{sfn|Daintith|Wright|2008|loc=Logic Gate}}

===قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات===
{{Main|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات}}

'''قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) منطق، [[لسانيات]] ۽ [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]] جي گڏيل ذيلي شاخ آهي. [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) ٻوليءَ جي معنائن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته رسمي معنيات علامتي منطق ۽ رياضيات جا رسمي اوزار استعمال ڪندي [[قدرتي ٻولي]] جي اظهارَن جي معنائن بابت درست ۽ منظم نظريا پيش ڪري ٿي.

رسمي معنيات عام طور معنٰي کي [[صدق جون شرطون]] (ٽرٿ ڪنڊيشنر) سان وابسته ڪري سمجهي ٿي؛ يعني اها جاچ ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙين حالتن ۾ ڪو جملو سچو يا ڪوڙو ٿيندو. هن شعبي جي بنيادي اصولن مان هڪ [[ترڪيبي اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) آهي، جنهن موجب ڪنهن پيچيده اظهار جي معنٰي ان جي جزن جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي پاڻ ۾ ڳانڍاپي جي طريقي سان طئي ٿيندي آهي. مثال طور، فعل واري فقري &quot;هلڻ ۽ ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنٰي انفرادي اظهارَن &quot;هلڻ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.

رسمي معنيات جا ڪيترائي نظريا [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. ان جو مطلب آهي ته اهي [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) استعمال ڪري هڪ نمونو (ماڊل) تيار ڪندا آهن ۽ پوءِ ان نموني جي عنصرن جي حوالي سان ٻوليءَ جي اظهارَن جي معنائن جي تشريح ڪندا آهن. مثال طور، اصطلاح &quot;هلڻ&quot; کي نموني ۾ موجود انهن سڀني فردن جي مجموعي طور سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي هلڻ جي خاصيت رکن ٿا.

هن شعبي جا شروعاتي ۽ اثرائتا مفڪر [[رچرڊ مونٽيگ]] ۽ [[باربرا پارٽي]] هئا، جن پنهنجي تجزين جو بنيادي مرڪز انگريزي ٻوليءَ کي بڻايو.{{sfnm|1a1=Janssen|1a2=Zimmermann|1y=2021|1pp=3–4|2a1=Partee|2y=2016|3a1=King|3y=2009|3pp=557–558|4a1=Aloni|4a2=Dekker|4y=2016|4pp=22–23}}

===منطق جو علمُ المعرفت===
{{Main|منطق جو علمُ المعرفت}}

'''منطق جو علمُ المعرفت''' (ايپسٽيمولاجي آف لاجڪ) هن ڳالهه جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو ته انسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوي ٿي ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا ڪا تجويز منطقي طور سچي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Schechter}} هن ۾ اهڙا سوال شامل آهن، جيئن: {{lang|la|modus ponens}} استدلال جو صحيح قاعدو ڇو آهي؟ يا تضاد هميشه ڪوڙا ڇو سمجهيا وڃن ٿا؟{{sfn|Warren|2020|loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic}}

روايتي طور تي غالب نظريو اهو رهيو آهي ته اهڙي قسم جي منطقي ڄاڻ [[قبلي علم]] (''a priori'') سان واسطو رکي ٿي.{{sfn|Schechter}} هن نظرئي موجب، اڪثر اهو دليل ڏنو ويندو آهي ته [[ذهن]] وٽ هڪ خاص صلاحيت هوندي آهي، جيڪا خالص خيالن جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي پرکڻ جي قابل هوندي آهي، ۽ اها ئي صلاحيت منطقي سچائين کي سمجهڻ جو ذريعو پڻ آهي.{{sfn|Gómez-Torrente|2019}}

هڪ ٻيو ويجهو نظريو منطق جي قاعدن کي [[اصطلاحيت]] (ڪنوينشنلزم) يا لساني روايتن جي بنياد تي سمجهي ٿو. هن راءِ موجب، منطق جا قانون تعريف جي لحاظ کان سچا آهن، تنهنڪري اهي بنيادي طور غيرتڪراري آهن؛ اهي رڳو منطقي اصطلاحن جي معنائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Gómez-Torrente|2y=2019|3a1=Warren|3y=2020|3loc=1. What is Conventionalism}}

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[هلري پٽنم]] ۽ [[پينيلوپي ميڊي]]، هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪن ٿا ته منطق کي مڪمل طور قبلي علم ذريعي ڄاڻي سگهجي ٿو. انهن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي سچايون [[تجربي تي ٻڌل علم]] (امپريڪل نالج) سان به لاڳاپيل آهن. هن راءِ کي عام طور ان دعويٰ سان گڏ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي ته منطق جا قانون دنيا جي بناوت ۾ موجود عام ۽ آفاقي قاعدن جو اظهار ڪن ٿا. ان مطابق، انهن قاعدن کي [[بنيادي سائنسون|بنيادي سائنسن]] ۾ موجود عام نمونن ۽ اصولن جي مطالعي ذريعي به سمجهي سگهجي ٿو.

مثال طور، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم ميڪانيات]] جون ڪجهه دريافتون روايتي منطق جي [[ورڇ جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڊسٽريبيوٽوٽي) کي چئلينج ڪن ٿيون، جنهن موجب فارمولو &lt;math&gt;A \land (B \lor C)&lt;/math&gt; هم معنيٰ آهي &lt;math&gt;(A \land B) \lor (A \land C)&lt;/math&gt; سان. هن دعويٰ کي ان ڳالهه جي تجربي تي ٻڌل دليل طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم منطق]] روايتي منطق کان وڌيڪ مناسب منطقي نظام آهي، ۽ ان کي روايتي منطق جي جاءِ وٺڻ گهرجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Chua|1y=2017|1pp=631–636|2a1=Wilce|2y=2021|3a1=Putnam|3y=1969|3pp=216–241}}

==پڻ ڏسو==
{{Portal|فلسفو}}

* {{annotated link|منطق جي اصطلاحن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جو خاڪو}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جي تحقيقي رسالن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي نشانين جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق دانن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي ڳجهارت}}
* {{annotated link|لوگوس}}
* {{annotated link|ویکٽر منطق}}

==حوالا==

===وضاحتي نوٽ===
{{notelist}}
&lt;references group=&quot;lower-alpha&quot;/&gt;
===حوالا===
{{reflist|1=30em}}

===ڪتابيات===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Aloni |first1=Maria |author1-link=ماريا الوني |last2=Dekker |first2=Paul |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics |date=7 July 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-55273-5 |pages=22–23 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Angell |first1=Richard B. |title=Reasoning and Logic |date=1964 |publisher=Ardent Media |page=164 |language=en |oclc=375322 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Informal logic |year=1999a |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |page=435 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Philosophy of logic |year=1999b |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |pages=679–681 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Backmann |first1=Marius |title=Varieties of Justification—How (Not) to Solve the Problem of Induction |journal=Acta Analytica |date=1 June 2019 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=235–255 |doi=10.1007/s12136-018-0371-6 |s2cid=125767384 |language=en |issn=1874-6349 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bagaria |first1=Joan |author-link=جوان باگاريا |title=Set Theory |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/set-theory/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=23 September 2022 |year=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Jonathan |title=Truth, etc.: Six Lectures on Ancient Logic |date=25 January 2007 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-151574-3 |page=274 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Benthem |first1=Johan van |title=Modal Logic: Contemporary View: 1. Modal Notions and Reasoning Patterns: a First Pass |url=https://iep.utm.edu/modal-lo/#H1 |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=11 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berlemann |first1=Lars |last2=Mangold |first2=Stefan |title=Cognitive Radio and Dynamic Spectrum Access |date=10 July 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-0-470-75443-6 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berman |first1=Harold J. |title=Law and Revolution, the Formation of the Western Legal Tradition |date=1 July 2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02085-6 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bimbó |first1=Katalin |author-link=ڪيٽلن بمبو |title=J. Michael Dunn on Information Based Logics |date=2 April 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-29300-4 |pages=8–9 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=1 January 2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |language=en |chapter=argument |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194756/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=24 March 2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |language=en |chapter=rule of inference |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194809/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=The Current State of Informal Logic |journal=Informal Logic |year=1987 |volume=9 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v9i2.2671 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230194638/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |url-status=live |pages=147–151 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=Informal Logic: An Overview |journal=Informal Logic |year=2000 |volume=20 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v20i2.2262 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209195317/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |url-status=live |pages=93–107 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |title=Groundwork in the Theory of Argumentation: Selected Papers of J. Anthony Blair |date=20 October 2011 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-007-2363-4 |page=47 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bobzien |first1=Susanne |author-link=سوزاني بوبزين |title=Ancient Logic: 2. Aristotle |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=3 January 2022 |year=2020 |archive-date=28 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828102117/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Borchert |editor1-first=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 2 |edition=2nd |date=2006a |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |isbn=978-0-02-865782-0 |chapter=Computability Theory |pages=372–390 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 4 |edition=2nd |date=2006b |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Induction |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865784-4 |pages=635–648 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 5 |edition=2nd |date=2006c |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Logic, Non-Classical |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865785-1 |pages=485–492 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bridges |first1=Douglas |last2=Ishihara |first2=Hajime |last3=Rathjen |first3=Michael |last4=Schwichtenberg |first4=Helmut |title=Handbook of Constructive Mathematics |date=30 April 2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-51086-5 |pages=73–74 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Brody |first=Boruch A. |title=Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=2006 |publisher=Thomson Gale/Macmillan Reference US |others=Donald M. Borchert |isbn=978-0-02-865780-6 |edition=2nd |volume=5 |pages=535–536 |oclc=61151356 |quote=The two most important types of logical calculi are propositional (or sentential) calculi and functional (or predicate) calculi. A propositional calculus is a system containing propositional variables and connectives (some also contain propositional constants) but not individual or functional variables or constants. In the extended propositional calculus, quantifiers whose operator variables are propositional variables are added. }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bunnin |first1=Nicholas |last2=Yu |first2=Jiyuan |title=The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy |date=27 January 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9112-8 |page=179 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Burgess |first1=John P. |author-link=جان پي. برجس |title=Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |chapter=1. Classical logic |pages=1–12 |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216143954/https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-691-15633-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bäck |first1=Allan T. |title=Aristotle's Theory of Predication |date=2016 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-32109-0 |page=317 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Calderbank |first1=Robert |last2=Sloane |first2=Neil J. A. |title=Claude Shannon (1916–2001) |journal=Nature |date=April 2001 |volume=410 |issue=6830 |page=768 |doi=10.1038/35071223 |pmid=11298432 |s2cid=4402158 |language=en |issn=1476-4687 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Carnielli |first1=Walter |last2=Pizzi |first2=Claudio |title=Modalities and Multimodalities |date=2008 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-8590-1 |page=3 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Castaño |first1=Arnaldo Pérez |title=Practical Artificial Intelligence: Machine Learning, Bots, and Agent Solutions Using C# |date=23 May 2018 |publisher=Apress |isbn=978-1-4842-3357-3 |page=2 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Chakrabarti |first1=Kisor Kumar |title=Some Comparisons Between Frege's Logic and Navya-Nyaya Logic |journal=Philosophy and Phenomenological Research |date=June 1976 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=554–563 |doi=10.2307/2106873 |jstor=2106873 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chatfield |first1=Tom |title=Critical Thinking: Your Guide to Effective Argument, Successful Analysis and Independent Study |date=2017 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-5264-1877-7 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chua |first1=Eugene |title=Logic, Rationality, and Interaction |chapter=An Empirical Route to Logical 'Conventionalism' |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |date=2017 |volume=10455 |pages=631–636 |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-55665-8_43 |isbn=978-3-662-55664-1 |chapter-url=https://philpapers.org/rec/CHUAER }}
* {{cite book |last1=Clocksin |first1=William F. |last2=Mellish |first2=Christopher S. |title=Programming in Prolog: Using the ISO Standard |date=2003 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-55481-0 |pages=237–257 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 |language=en |chapter=The Relation of Prolog to Logic |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cook |first1=Roy T. |title=Dictionary of Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-3197-1 |language=en |page=124 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Copi |first1=Irving M. |author1-link=ارونگ ڪوپي |last2=Cohen |first2=Carl |last3=Rodych |first3=Victor |title=Introduction to Logic |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-38697-5 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Corkum |first1=Philip |title=Generality and Logical Constancy |journal=Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia |year=2015 |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=753–767 |doi=10.17990/rpf/2015_71_4_0753 |jstor=43744657 |issn=0870-5283 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Craig |first1=Edward |author-link=ايڊورڊ ڪريگ (فلسفي) |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=1996 |publisher=Routledge |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116111145/https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-07310-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cummings |first1=Louise |title=The Routledge Pragmatics Encyclopedia |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-21457-9 |page=1 |language=en |chapter=Abduction }}
* {{cite web |last1=Cunningham |first1=Daniel |title=Set Theory |url=https://iep.utm.edu/set-theo/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=23 September 2022 }}

* {{cite journal |last1=D'Agostino |first1=Marcello |last2=Floridi |first2=Luciano |title=The Enduring Scandal of Deduction: Is Propositional Logic Really Uninformative? |journal=Synthese |year=2009 |volume=167 |issue=2 |pages=271–315 |doi=10.1007/s11229-008-9409-4 |jstor=40271192 |hdl=2299/2995 |hdl-access=free |s2cid=9602882 |language=en |issn=0039-7857 }}
* {{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Computing |isbn=978-0-19-923400-4 |last1=Daintith |first1=John |last2=Wright |first2=Edmund |date=2008 |publisher=OUP }}
* {{cite book |last=van Dalen |first=Dirk |author-link=ڊرڪ وان ڊالن |year=1994 |title=Logic and Structure |publisher=Springer |at=Chapter 1.5 |isbn=978-0-387-57839-2 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dasti |first1=Matthew R. |title=Nyaya |url=https://iep.utm.edu/nyaya/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=12 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Dick |first1=Anthony S. |last2=Müller |first2=Ulrich |title=Advancing Developmental Science: Philosophy, Theory, and Method |date=2017 |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-1-351-70456-4 |page=157 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Douven |first1=Igor |author-link=ايگور ڊاووين |title=Abduction |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |year=2021 |access-date=24 August 2021 |archive-date=7 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907202119/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dowden |first1=Bradley |author-link=بريڊلي ڊائوڊن |title=Fallacies |url=https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=19 March 2021 |archive-date=29 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100429214410/https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |title=Pondering on Problems of Argumentation: Twenty Essays on Theoretical Issues |date=2009 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-9165-0 |page=191 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |last3=Krabbe |first3=Erik C. W. |last4=Snoeck Henkemans |first4=A. Francisca |last5=Verheij |first5=Bart |last6=Wagemans |first6=Jean H. M. |title=Handbook of Argumentation Theory |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-94-007-6883-3 |pages=1–45 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |language=en |chapter=Informal Logic |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231172324/https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |url-status=live |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGarssenKrabbeSnoeck_Henkemans }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Grootendorst |first2=Rob |last3=Johnson |first3=Ralph H. |last4=Plantin |first4=Christian |last5=Willard |first5=Charles A. |title=Fundamentals of Argumentation Theory: A Handbook of Historical Backgrounds and Contemporary Developments |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-68804-1 |page=169 |language=en |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGrootendorstJohnsonPlantin }}
* {{cite book |last1=Emmanuel |first1=Steven M. |title=A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy |date=2015 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-119-14466-3 |pages=320–322 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Enderton |first=Herbert |author-link=هربرٽ اينڊرٽن |year=2001 |title=A Mathematical Introduction to Logic |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-238452-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Engel |first1=S. Morris |title=With Good Reason an Introduction to Informal Fallacies |date=1982 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=1 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301065815/https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-312-08479-0 |publisher=St. Martin's Press }}
* {{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Jonathan St. B. T. |editor1-last=Morrison |editor1-first=Robert |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82417-0 |page=169 |language=en |chapter=8. Deductive Reasoning }}
* {{cite web |last1=Ewald |first1=William |title=The Emergence of First-Order Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-firstorder-emergence/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=12 March 2023 |date=2019 }}

* {{cite web |last1=Falguera |first1=José L. |last2=Martínez-Vidal |first2=Concha |last3=Rosen |first3=Gideon |title=Abstract Objects |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=7 January 2022 |year=2021 |archive-date=22 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122003334/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Falikowski |first1=Anthony |last2=Mills |first2=Susan |title=Experiencing Philosophy |edition=2nd |date=2022 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=978-1-77048-841-0 |page=98 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=Michael David |last2=Gabbay |first2=Dov M. |last3=Vila |first3=Lluis |title=Handbook of Temporal Reasoning in Artificial Intelligence |date=2005 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-053336-0 |page=119 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fitch |first1=G. W. |title=Saul Kripke |date=18 December 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-48917-7 |page=17 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Flotyński |first1=Jakub |title=Knowledge-Based Explorable Extended Reality Environments |date=7 December 2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-59965-2 |page=39 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Font |first1=Josep Maria |last2=Jansana |first2=Ramon |title=A General Algebraic Semantics for Sentential Logics |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-16797-1 |page=8 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Frede |first1=Michael |title=Aristotle |url=https://pages.mtu.edu/~pcharles/SCIHISTORY/aristotle.html |website=Michigan Technological University |access-date=1 November 2022 |archive-date=21 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921073920/https://pages.mtu.edu/~pcharles/SCIHISTORY/aristotle.html |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |last1=Friend |first1=Michele |title=Introducing Philosophy of Mathematics |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-49379-2 |page=101 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Gamut |first=L.T.F. |author-link=ايل. ٽي. ايف. گيمٽ |date=1991 |title=Logic, Language and Meaning Vol 1: Introduction to Logic |publisher=University of Chicago Press |at=5.5 |isbn=978-0-226-28085-1 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Garson |first1=James |title=Modal Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-modal/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2023 }}
* {{cite book |last=Gensler |first=Harry J. |date=2006 |title=The A to Z of Logic |pages=xliii–xliv |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-1-4617-3182-5 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goble |first1=Lou |title=The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic |date=2001 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/GOBTBG-2 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184959/https://philpapers.org/rec/GOBTBG-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-631-20692-7 |pages=1–8 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goodman |first1=Lenn Evan |title=Avicenna |date=1992 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-01929-3 |page=188 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goodman |first1=Lenn Evan |title=Islamic Humanism |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513580-0 |page=155 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Groarke |first1=Louis F. |title=Aristotle: Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=1 January 2022 |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229235433/https://iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Groarke |first1=Leo |title=Informal Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=31 December 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112030519/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Gómez-Torrente |first1=Mario |title=Logical Truth |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-truth/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=22 November 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=2 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002190110/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-truth/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gödel |first1=Kurt |author1-link=Kurt Gödel |editor1-last=Benacerraf |editor1-first=Paul |editor2-last=Putnam |editor2-first=Hilary |title=Philosophy of Mathematics: Selected Readings |date=1984 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29648-9 |pages=447–469 |edition=2nd |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/philosophy-of-mathematics/russells-mathematical-logic/4D82F215FABFE06149D03EF1EF5BE7E4 |chapter=Russell's mathematical logic |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111091740/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/philosophy-of-mathematics/russells-mathematical-logic/4D82F215FABFE06149D03EF1EF5BE7E4 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hájek |first1=Petr |title=Fuzzy Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/Archives/Win2012/entries/logic-fuzzy/ |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |language=en |date=3 September 2006 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hájek |first1=Alan |last2=Lin |first2=Hanti |title=A Tale of Two Epistemologies? |journal=Res Philosophica |year=2017 |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=207–232 |doi=10.11612/resphil.1540 |s2cid=160029122 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HJEATO |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104182746/https://philpapers.org/rec/HJEATO |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Cordelia |last2=O'Donnell |first2=John |title=Discrete Mathematics Using a Computer |date=2000 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-85233-089-7 |page=48 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Houde |first1=R. |last2=Camacho |first2=L. |title=New Catholic Encyclopedia |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/electrical-engineering/induction |chapter=Induction |year=2003 |publisher=Thomson/Gale |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171720/https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/electrical-engineering/induction |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-7876-4004-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Deviant Logic: Some Philosophical Issues |date=1974 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-20500-9 |page=51 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Philosophy of Logics |date=1978 |publisher=London and New York: Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HAAPOL-2 |chapter=1. 'Philosophy of logics' |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207200551/https://philpapers.org/rec/HAAPOL-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-521-29329-7 |pages=1–10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Deviant Logic, Fuzzy Logic: Beyond the Formalism |date=1996 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31133-3 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haaparanta |first1=Leila |author1-link=Leila Haaparanta |title=The Development of Modern Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513731-6 |pages=4–6 |chapter=1. Introduction }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hansen |first1=Hans |title=Fallacies |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fallacies/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=18 March 2021 |year=2020 |archive-date=29 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329182946/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fallacies/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hartmann |first1=Stephan |last2=Sprenger |first2=Jan |title=The Routledge Companion to Epistemology |date=2010 |publisher=London: Routledge |pages=609–620 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO |chapter=Bayesian Epistemology |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516095047/https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-96219-3 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hasse |first1=Dag Nikolaus |title=Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-influence/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |date=2008 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hawthorne |first1=James |title=Inductive Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-inductive/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=6 January 2022 |year=2021 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121081805/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-inductive/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Philosophy of logic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-logic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=21 November 2021 |language=en |archive-date=28 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428101732/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/346240/philosophy-of-logic |url-status=live |date=2019 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Logical systems |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic/Logical-systems |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=4 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184656/https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic/Logical-systems |url-status=live |date=2023 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Information, Deduction, and the A Priori |journal=Noûs |year=1970 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=135–152 |doi=10.2307/2214318 |jstor=2214318 |issn=0029-4624 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |last2=Sandu |first2=Gabriel |editor-last=Jacquette |editor-first=D. |title=Philosophy of Logic |date=2006 |publisher=North Holland |pages=13–39 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JAAWIL |chapter=What is Logic? |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207235525/https://philpapers.org/rec/JAAWIL |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-444-51541-4 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |last2=Spade |first2=Paul Vincent |title=History of logic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-logic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Honderich |first1=Ted |author-link=Ted Honderich |title=The Oxford Companion to Philosophy |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=29 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129082636/https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-19-926479-7 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hurley |first1=Patrick J. |title=Logic: The Essentials |date=2015 |publisher=Wadsworth |isbn=978-1-305-59041-0 |language=en |chapter=4. Categorical Syllogisms |pages=189–237 }}
* {{cite web |last1=IEP Staff |title=Deductive and Inductive Arguments |url=https://iep.utm.edu/ded-ind/ |access-date=6 January 2022 |archive-date=28 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528032124/https://iep.utm.edu/ded-ind/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Iqbal |first1=Mohammad |title=The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam |date=2013 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-8686-7 |pages=99–115 |url=http://www.allamaiqbal.com/works/prose/english/reconstruction/ |language=en |chapter=The Spirit of Muslim Culture }}
* {{cite web |last1=Irvine |first1=Andrew David |title=Bertrand Russell |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/russell/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=29 September 2022 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jacquette |first1=Dale |title=Philosophy of Logic |date=2006 |publisher=North Holland |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JACPOL |chapter=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184932/https://philpapers.org/rec/JACPOL |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-444-51541-4 |pages=1–12 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jago |first1=Mark |title=The Impossible: An Essay on Hyperintensionality |date=2014 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-101915-9 |page=41 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Janssen |first1=Theo M. V. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Thomas Ede |title=Montague Semantics |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/montague-semantics/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=10 March 2023 |date=2021 |pages=3–4 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Ralph H. |title=The Relation Between Formal and Informal Logic |journal=Argumentation |year=1999 |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=265–274 |doi=10.1023/A:1007789101256 |s2cid=141283158 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JOHTRB-2 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184706/https://philpapers.org/rec/JOHTRB-2 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Ralph H. |title=The Rise of Informal Logic: Essays on Argumentation, Critical Thinking, Reasoning and Politics |date=15 July 2014 |publisher=University of Windsor |isbn=978-0-920233-71-9 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Ketland |first1=Jeffrey |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 8 |date=2005 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/second-order-logic |chapter=Second Order Logic |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184921/https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/second-order-logic |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865788-2 |pages=707–708 |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA }}
* {{cite book |last1=King |first1=Jeffrey C. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Language |chapter=Formal Semantics |date=2 September 2009 |pages=557–558 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199552238.003.0023 |isbn=978-0-19-955223-8 }}
* {{cite web |last1=King |first1=Jeffrey C. |title=Structured Propositions |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/propositions-structured/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=25 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025211706/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/propositions-structured/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Klement |first1=Kevin C. |title=Propositional Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/prop-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=23 September 2022 |year=1995b |issn=2161-0002 }}
* {{cite book |last=Kline |first=Morris |title=Mathematical Thought From Ancient to Modern Times |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-19-506135-2 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Kneale |first1=William |author-link=William Kneale |last2=Kneale |first2=Martha |author2-link=Martha Kneale |title=The Development of Logic |date=1962 |publisher=Clarendon Press |language=en |isbn=978-0-19-824773-9 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Knuuttila |first1=Simo |title=Reforging the Great Chain of Being: Studies of the History of Modal Theories |date=1980 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-90-277-1125-0 |page=71 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Korb |first1=Kevin |title=Bayesian Informal Logic and Fallacy |journal=Informal Logic |year=2004 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=41–70 |doi=10.22329/il.v24i1.2132 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/KORBIL |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=10 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211110075255/https://philpapers.org/rec/KORBIL |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Koslowski |first1=Barbara |title=International Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-72569-7 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski |chapter=Abductive Reasoning and Explanation |doi=10.4324/9781315725697 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108225144/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski |url-status=live |pages=366–382 }}
* {{cite book |first1=Boris |last1=Kulik |first2=Alexander |last2=Fridman |title=N-ary Relations for Logical Analysis of Data and Knowledge |date=30 November 2017 |publisher=IGI Global |isbn=978-1-5225-2783-1 |page=74 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Kusch |first1=Martin |title=Psychologism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/psychologism/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=30 November 2021 |year=2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229220156/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/psychologism/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Lagerlund |first1=Henrik |title=Review of The Aftermath of Syllogism: Aristotelian Logical Argument from Avicenna to Hegel |url=https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/the-aftermath-of-syllogism-aristotelian-logical-argument-from-avicenna-to-hegel/ |website=Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews |access-date=19 July 2023 |language=en |date=27 September 2018 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lear |first1=Jonathan |title=Aristotle and Logical Theory |date=1980 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-31178-6 |page=34 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Leary |first1=Christopher C. |last2=Kristiansen |first2=Lars |title=A Friendly Introduction to Mathematical Logic |date=2015 |publisher=Suny |isbn=978-1-942341-07-9 |page=195 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lepore |first1=Ernest |last2=Cumming |first2=Sam |title=Meaning and Argument: An Introduction to Logic Through Language |date=14 September 2012 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-118-45521-0 |page=5 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Li |first1=Wei |title=Mathematical Logic: Foundations for Information Science |date=26 February 2010 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-3-7643-9977-1 |page=ix |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Linsky |first1=Bernard |title=The Evolution of Principia Mathematica: Bertrand Russell's Manuscripts and Notes |edition=2nd |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49733-6 |page=4 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Liu |first1=Shiyong |last2=Guo |first2=Kaizhong |title=Error Logic: Paving Pathways for Intelligent Error Identification and Management |date=7 March 2023 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-031-00820-7 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Łukasiewicz |first=Jan |author-link=يان ووڪاشيوچ |title=Aristotle's Syllogistic from the Standpoint of Modern Formal Logic |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1957 |edition=2nd |page=7 |oclc=656161566 }}
* {{cite web |last1=MacFarlane |first1=John |title=Logical Constants |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-constants/#SynTer |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=21 November 2021 |year=2017 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317180221/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-constants/#SynTer |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Mackie |first1=J. L. |author-link=جي. ايل. ميڪي |title=Fallacies |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/fallacies |website=encyclopedia.com |access-date=19 March 2021 |year=1967 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415101134/https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/fallacies |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Magnus |first1=P. D. |title=Forall X: An Introduction to Formal Logic |date=2005 |publisher=Victoria, BC, Canada: State University of New York Oer Services |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/MAGFXI |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207200544/https://philpapers.org/rec/MAGFXI |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-64176-026-3 |pages=8–9 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Makridis |first1=Odysseus |title=Symbolic Logic |date=2022 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-67396-3 |pages=1–2 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Maltby |first1=John |last2=Day |first2=Liz |last3=Macaskill |first3=Ann |title=Personality, Individual Differences and Intelligence |date=2007 |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-13-129760-9 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Marenbon |first1=John |title=Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/boethius/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2021 }}
* {{cite web |last1=McKeon |first1=Matthew |title=Logical Consequence |url=https://iep.utm.edu/logcon/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=20 November 2021 |archive-date=12 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112071437/https://iep.utm.edu/logcon/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Michaelson |first1=Eliot |last2=Reimer |first2=Marga |title=Reference |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reference/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184705/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reference/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Mills |first1=Ethan |title=Three Pillars of Skepticism in Classical India: Nagarjuna, Jayarasi, and Sri Harsa |date=2018 |publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4985-5570-8 |page=121 |language=en |quote=... for Nyāya all inference is ultimately rooted in perception ... Naiyāyikas typically accept four means of knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. }}
* {{cite book |last1=Monk |first1=J. Donald |title=Mathematical Logic |date=1976 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4684-9452-5 |pages=1–9 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |language=en |chapter=Introduction |doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=9 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109131251/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Kevin |last2=Cromby |first2=John |title=How Best to 'Go On'? Prospects for a 'Modern Synthesis' in the Sciences of Mind |date=8 August 2016 |publisher=Frontiers Media SA |isbn=978-2-88919-906-8 |page=60 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Terence |last2=Carling |first2=Christine |title=Understanding Language: Towards a Post-Chomskyan Linguistics |date=1982 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-16895-8 |page=53 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Moschovakis |first1=Joan |author1-link=جوان موشووڪيس |title=Intuitionistic Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-intuitionistic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Introduction |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Nolt |first1=John |title=Free Logic: 1. The Basics |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-free/#1 |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=10 September 2022 |year=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Nunes |first1=Terezinha |author1-link=تريزينا نونيس |editor1-last=Seel |editor1-first=Norbert M. |title=Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning |date=2011 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4419-1427-9 |language=en |pages=2066–2069 |chapter=Logical Reasoning and Learning }}
* {{cite book |last1=O'Regan |first1=Gerard |title=Introduction to the History of Computing: A Computing History Primer |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-33138-6 |page=49 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Oaksford |first1=Mike |last2=Chater |first2=Nick |title=Bayesian Rationality: The Probabilistic Approach to Human Reasoning |date=2007 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-852449-6 |page=47 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Olkowski |first1=Dorothea |last2=Pirovolakis |first2=Eftichis |title=Deleuze and Guattari's Philosophy of Freedom: Freedom's Refrains |date=31 January 2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-66352-9 |pages=65–66 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Olsson |first1=Erik J. |title=Introduction to Formal Philosophy |date=2018 |publisher=Springer |pages=431–442 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/OLSBE |chapter=Bayesian Epistemology |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516095057/https://philpapers.org/rec/OLSBE |url-status=live |isbn=978-3-030-08454-7 }}
* {{cite web |author=Online Etymology Staff |title=Logic |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/logic?ref=etymonline_crossreference |website=etymonline.com |access-date=29 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229134626/https://www.etymonline.com/word/logic?ref=etymonline_crossreference |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Partee |first1=Barbara H. |author1-link=باربرا ايڇ پارٽي |editor1-last=Aloni |editor1-first=Maria |editor1-link=ماريا الوني |editor2-last=Dekker |editor2-first=Paul |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-02839-5 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Paulson |first1=Lawrence C. |title=Computational Logic: Its Origins and Applications |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |date=February 2018 |volume=474 |issue=2210 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1098/rspa.2017.0872 |pmid=29507522 |pmc=5832843 |arxiv=1712.04375 |bibcode=2018RSPSA.47470872P |s2cid=3805901 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pedemonte |first1=Bettina |title=Strategic vs Definitory Rules: Their Role in Abductive Argumentation and their Relationship with Deductive Proof |journal=Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education |date=25 June 2018 |volume=14 |issue=9 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.29333/ejmste/92562 |s2cid=126245285 |url=https://www.ejmste.com/article/strategic-vs-definitory-rules-their-role-in-abductive-argumentation-and-their-relationship-with-5539 |language=english |issn=1305-8215 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207195246/https://www.ejmste.com/article/strategic-vs-definitory-rules-their-role-in-abductive-argumentation-and-their-relationship-with-5539 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pickel |first1=Bryan |title=Structured Propositions and Trivial Composition |journal=Synthese |date=1 July 2020 |volume=197 |issue=7 |pages=2991–3006 |doi=10.1007/s11229-018-1853-1 |s2cid=49729020 |language=en |issn=1573-0964 |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.11820/3427c028-f2cb-4216-a199-9679a49ce71c |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Pietroski |first1=Paul |title=Logical Form: 1. Patterns of Reason |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-form/#pat |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=2 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002190116/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-form/#pat |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Planty-Bonjour |first1=Guy |title=The Categories of Dialectical Materialism: Contemporary Soviet Ontology |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-010-3517-0 |page=62 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Possin |first1=Kevin |title=Conductive Arguments: Why is This Still a Thing? |journal=Informal Logic |year=2016 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=563–593 |doi=10.22329/il.v36i4.4527 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/POSCAW-4 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171723/https://philpapers.org/rec/POSCAW-4 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Priest |first1=Graham |last2=Tanaka |first2=Koji |last3=Weber |first3=Zach |title=Paraconsistent Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-paraconsistent/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=14 December 2021 |year=2018 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Pépin |first1=Jean |title=Encyclopedia of Religion |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/logos |chapter=Logos |year=2004 |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229134626/https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/logos |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865733-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Putnam |first=H. |author-link=هلري پٽنم |title=Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science |chapter=Is Logic Empirical? |year=1969 |volume=5 |pages=216–241 |doi=10.1007/978-94-010-3381-7_5 |isbn=978-94-010-3383-1 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Quine |first1=Willard Van Orman |author-link=ولارڊ وان اورمن ڪوائن |title=Mathematical Logic |date=1981 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-55451-1 |page=1 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Rathjen |first1=Michael |last2=Sieg |first2=Wilfried |title=Proof Theory |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/proof-theory/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rautenberg |first1=Wolfgang |title=A Concise Introduction to Mathematical Logic |date=1 July 2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4419-1221-3 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Rendsvig |first1=Rasmus |last2=Symons |first2=John |title=Epistemic Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-epistemic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Restall |first1=Greg |last2=Standefer |first2=Shawn |title=Logical Methods |date=2023 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-54484-9 |page=91 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Richardson |first1=Alan W. |title=Carnap's Construction of the World: The Aufbau and the Emergence of Logical Empiricism |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-43008-1 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rini |first1=Adriane |author1-link=ايڊريان ريني |title=Aristotle's Modal Proofs: Prior Analytics A8-22 in Predicate Logic |date=13 December 2010 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-007-0050-5 |page=26 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ritola |first1=Juho |title=Walton's Informal Logic: A Pragmatic Approach |journal=Informal Logic |date=1 December 2008 |volume=28 |issue=4 |page=335 |doi=10.22329/il.v28i4.2856 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rocci |first1=Andrea |title=Modality in Argumentation: A Semantic Investigation of the Role of Modalities in the Structure of Arguments with an Application to Italian Modal Expressions |date=8 March 2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-024-1063-1 |page=26 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rošker |first1=Jana S. |author1-link=يانا ايس روشڪر |title=Classical Chinese Logic: Philosophy Compass |journal=Philosophy Compass |date=May 2015 |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=301–309 |doi=10.1111/phc3.12226 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Runco |first1=Mark A. |last2=Pritzker |first2=Steven R. |title=Encyclopedia of Creativity |date=1999 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-227075-8 |page=155 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rush |first1=Penelope |title=The Metaphysics of Logic |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/RUSTMO-4 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184954/https://philpapers.org/rec/RUSTMO-4 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-03964-3 |pages=1–10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Sadegh-Zadeh |first1=Kazem |title=Handbook of Analytic Philosophy of Medicine |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-017-9579-1 |page=983 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sagüillo |first1=José M. |title=Hintikka on Information and Deduction |journal=Teorema: Revista Internacional de Filosofía |year=2014 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=75–88 |jstor=43047609 |issn=0210-1602 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Sarukkai |first1=Sundar |last2=Chakraborty |first2=Mihir Kumar |title=Handbook of Logical Thought in India |date=2022 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-81-322-2577-5 |pages=117–118 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Schagrin |first1=Morton L. |title=Metalogic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/metalogic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Schechter |first1=Joshua |title=Epistemology of Logic – Bibliography |url=https://philpapers.org/browse/epistemology-of-logic |website=PhilPapers |access-date=11 September 2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Schlesinger |first1=I. M. |last2=Keren-Portnoy |first2=Tamar |last3=Parush |first3=Tamar |title=The Structure of Arguments |date=1 January 2001 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-90-272-2359-3 |page=220 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Schreiner |first1=Wolfgang |title=Thinking Programs: Logical Modeling and Reasoning About Languages, Data, Computations, and Executions |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-80507-4 |page=22 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Scott |first1=John |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon |title=A Dictionary of Sociology |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095410661 |language=en |chapter=analytic induction |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108173225/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095410661 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Shapiro |first1=Stewart |last2=Kouri Kissel |first2=Teresa |title=Classical Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-classical/#Sema |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Shermer |first1=Michael |title=Conspiracy: Why the Rational Believe the Irrational |date=25 October 2022 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-1-4214-4445-1 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Sider |first=Theodore |author-link=ٿيوڊور سائيڊر |year=2010 |title=Logic for Philosophy |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-957558-9 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Siegel |first1=Harvey |last2=Biro |first2=John |title=Epistemic Normativity, Argumentation, and Fallacies |journal=Argumentation |year=1997 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=277–292 |doi=10.1023/A:1007799325361 |s2cid=126269789 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/SIEENA |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228035651/https://philpapers.org/rec/SIEENA |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Simpson |first1=R. L. |title=Essentials of Symbolic Logic |edition=3rd |date=2008 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=978-1-77048-495-5 |page=14 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Smith |first1=Robin |title=Aristotle's Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Spade |first1=Paul Vincent |last2=Panaccio |first2=Claude |title=William of Ockham |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ockham/#SummLogi |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2019 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Spriggs |first1=John |title=GSN – The Goal Structuring Notation: A Structured Approach to Presenting Arguments |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4471-2312-5 |pages=20–22 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Stairs |first1=Allen |title=A Thinker's Guide to the Philosophy of Religion |year=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-21981-5 |page=343 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Sternberg |first1=Robert J. |title=Thought |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/thought |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=14 October 2021 |language=en |archive-date=13 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211013145532/https://www.britannica.com/topic/thought |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Stolyar |first1=Abram Aronovich |title=Introduction to Elementary Mathematical Logic |date=1 January 1984 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=978-0-486-64561-2 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Stone |first1=Mark A. |title=Denying the Antecedent: Its Effective Use in Argumentation |journal=Informal Logic |year=2012 |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=327–356 |doi=10.22329/il.v32i3.3681 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/STODTA |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228123240/https://philpapers.org/rec/STODTA |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Stump |first1=David J. |title=Fallacy, Logical |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/fallacy-logical |website=encyclopedia.com |access-date=20 March 2021 |archive-date=15 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215112403/https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/fallacy-logical |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Talbott |first1=William |title=Bayesian Epistemology |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-bayesian/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=6 March 2021 |year=2016 |archive-date=1 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401034856/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-bayesian/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Tarski |first1=Alfred |author-link=الفريڊ تارسڪي |title=Introduction to Logic and to the Methodology of the Deductive Sciences |date=1994 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-802139-1 |page=40 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Tondl |first1=L. |title=Problems of Semantics: A Contribution to the Analysis of the Language Science |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-009-8364-9 |page=111 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Velleman |first1=Daniel J. |title=How to Prove It: A Structured Approach |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-67599-4 |pages=8, 103 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Vickers |first1=John M. |title=Inductive Reasoning |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0171.xml |website=Oxford Bibliographies |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=18 January 2023 |language=en |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Vidyabhusana |first1=Satis Chandra |title=A History of Indian Logic: Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern Schools |date=1988 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publisher |isbn=978-81-208-0565-1 |page=221 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Vleet |first1=Van Jacob E. |title=Informal Logical Fallacies: A Brief Guide |date=2010 |publisher=Upa |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/VLEILF |chapter=Introduction |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228035654/https://philpapers.org/rec/VLEILF |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-7618-5432-6 |pages=ix–x }}
* {{cite web |last1=Väänänen |first1=Jouko |title=Second-order and Higher-order Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-higher-order/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=23 November 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030222316/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-higher-order/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Walton |first1=Douglas N. |author-link=ڊگلس اين والٽن |title=Informal Fallacies: Towards a Theory of Argument Criticisms |date=1987 |publisher=John Benjamins |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WALIFT |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302001111/https://philpapers.org/rec/WALIFT |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-55619-010-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Warren |first1=Jared |title=Shadows of Syntax: Revitalizing Logical and Mathematical Conventionalism |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-008615-2 |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/shadows-of-syntax-9780190086152 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Washell |first1=Richard F. |title=Logic, Language, and Albert the Great |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |date=1973 |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=445–450 |doi=10.2307/2708963 |jstor=2708963 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WASLLA-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wasilewska |first1=Anita |title=Logics for Computer Science: Classical and Non-Classical |date=2018 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-92591-2 |pages=145–146 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Weber |first1=Zach |title=Paraconsistent Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/para-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=12 December 2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Weddle |first1=Perry |title=Across the Lines of Disciplines |chapter=Chapter 36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction |date=2011 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |isbn=978-3-11-086771-8 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110867718.383/html |language=en |doi=10.1515/9783110867718.383 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231172343/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110867718.383/html |url-status=live |pages=383–388 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Westerståhl |first1=Dag |title=Aristotelian Syllogisms and Generalized Quantifiers |journal=Studia Logica |year=1989 |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=577–585 |doi=10.1007/BF00370209 |s2cid=32089424 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WESASA |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104182746/https://philpapers.org/rec/WESASA |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wilbanks |first1=Jan J. |title=Defining Deduction, Induction, and Validity |journal=Argumentation |date=1 March 2010 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=107–124 |doi=10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |s2cid=144481717 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |language=en |issn=1572-8374 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171721/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite web |last1=Wilce |first1=Alexander |title=Quantum Logic and Probability Theory: 2.1 Realist Quantum Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qt-quantlog/#RealQuanLogi |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wile |first1=Bruce |last2=Goss |first2=John |last3=Roesner |first3=Wolfgang |title=Comprehensive Functional Verification: The Complete Industry Cycle |date=2005 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-047664-3 |page=447 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Willman |first1=Marshall D. |title=Logic and Language in Early Chinese Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-logic-language/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |at=Introduction |date=2022 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wolf |first1=Robert G. |title=Are Relevant Logics Deviant? |journal=Philosophia |year=1978 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=327–340 |doi=10.1007/BF02378819 |s2cid=143697796 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WOLARL |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216143955/https://philpapers.org/rec/WOLARL |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Zegarelli |first=Mark |title=Logic For Dummies |page=30 |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-118-05307-2 }}
{{refend}}

==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|date=5 November 2023|En-Logic-article.ogg}}
{{Sister project links|منطق}}
{{Library resources box}}

{{منطق}}
{{فلسفي جا موضوع}}
{{Authority control}}

[[زمرو:رسمي سائنسون]]
[[زمرو:منطق| ]]
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>ihorjz49jpp1zmm88w1aw4qc43tz3ur</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399250</id>
      <parentid>399249</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T15:58:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399250</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="178233" sha1="k6zvj6089o8m6aw9srjc4aqtgyn4jl6" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.

هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; 

ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; 

دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==تاريخ==
{{Main|منطق جي تاريخ}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=330
| image1= Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg
| alt1= ارسطو جو مجسمو
| image2= Avicenne - Avicenna - Ibn_Sina (980-1037) CIPB2067.jpg
| alt2= ابن سينا جو پورٽريٽ
| image3= Guillaume Occam.jpg
| alt3= وليم آف اوڪهم جو پورٽريٽ
| image4= Wismar Marienkirche Bronzebüste Gottlob Frege (01-1).JPG
| alt4= گوٽلوب فريگي جو مجسمو
| footer= مٿيون قطار: [[ارسطو]]، جنهن مغربي منطق جي بنيادي روايت قائم ڪئي؛{{sfn|Groarke}} ۽ [[ابن سينا]]، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ تي پنهنجو منطقي نظام متعارف ڪرايو.{{sfn|Lagerlund|2018}} هيٺيون قطار: [[وليم آف اوڪهم]]، وچئين دور جي علمي فڪر جي اهم شخصيت؛{{sfn|Spade|Panaccio|2019}} ۽ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]]، جديد علامتي منطق جي بانيَن مان هڪ.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900|3a=Klement|3y=1995a}}
}}

قديم دور ۾ منطق ڪيترين ئي تهذيبن ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان الڳ نموني ترقي ڪئي. شروعاتي اهم مفڪرن مان هڪ [[ارسطو]] هو، جنهن پنهنجي ڪتابن ''[[اورگينون]]'' ۽ ''[[پرائر اينالٽڪس]]'' ۾ '''اصطلاحي منطق''' (ٽرم لاجڪ) کي منظم صورت ڏني.{{sfnm|1a1=Kline|1y=1972|1loc=&quot;A major achievement of Aristotle was the founding of the science of logic&quot;, p. 53|2a1=Łukasiewicz|2y=1957|2p=7|3a1=Liu|3a2=Guo|3y=2023|3p=15}} هن [[شرطي قياس]] (ھيپوٿيٽيڪل سلاجزم){{sfn|Lear|1980|p=34}} ۽ [[زماني موڊل منطق]] (ٽيمپورل موڊل لاجڪ) جي به بنياد وڌي.{{sfnm|1a1=Knuuttila|1y=1980|1p=71|2a1=Fisher|2a2=Gabbay|2a3=Vila|2y=2005|2p=119}} ارسطو [[استقرائي منطق]] (انڊڪٽو لاجڪ){{sfn|Berman|2009|p=133}} ۽ نون منطقي تصورن، جهڙوڪ [[اصطلاح]]، [[محموليت]] (پريڊيڪبلز)، قياس ۽ تجويزن تي پڻ اهم بحث ڪيو. ارسطوي منطق کي قديم ۽ وچئين دور ۾، يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر ٻنهي ۾ وڏي اهميت حاصل رهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} ۽ اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي شروعات تائين اهو غالب منطقي نظام رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} اڄ جي دور ۾ جيتوڻيڪ ان جي جاءِ جديد منطق ورتي آهي، پر ان جا ڪيترائي بنيادي خيال اڃا به جديد منطقي نظامن ۾ موجود آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|loc=1. Introduction}}

[[ابن سينا]] (ايويسينا) ابن سيناوي منطق جو باني هو، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] جي ميدان ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ ورتي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hasse|1y=2008|2a1=Lagerlund|2y=2018}} سندس خيالن جو اثر [[البرٽس ميگنس]] ۽ [[وليم آف اوڪهم]] جهڙن يورپي مفڪرن تي به پيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Washell|1y=1973|1pp=445–450|2a1=Kneale|2a2=Kneale|2y=1962|2pp=229, 266}} ابن سينا شرطي قياس{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} ۽ [[تجويزي منطق]] (پروپوزيشنل ڪلڪيولس){{sfn|Goodman|1992|p=188}} تي اهم تحريرون لکيون. هن زماني ۽ امڪان کي گڏائيندڙ هڪ نئون قياسي نظريو تيار ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[زماني منطق]] ۽ [[موڊل منطق]] جا عنصر شامل هئا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Spade|loc=Arabic Logic}} هن استقرائي منطق جا به طريقا بيان ڪيا، جهڙوڪ موافقت، اختلاف ۽ گڏيل تبديلي جا طريقا، جيڪي [[سائنسي طريقو|سائنسي طريقي]] لاءِ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا.{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} [[فخر الدين رازي]] پڻ هڪ اثرائتو مسلمان منطق دان هو. هن ارسطوي قياس تي تنقيد ڪئي ۽ استقرائي منطق جو اهڙو ابتدائي نظام پيش ڪيو، جنهن بعد ۾ [[جان اسٽوارٽ مل]] جي استقرائي منطق جي اڳواٽ نشاندهي ڪئي.{{sfn|Iqbal|2013|pp=99–115|loc=The Spirit of Muslim Culture}}

وچئين دور ۾ ارسطو جي منطقي ڪتابن جا ڪيترائي ترجما ۽ تشريحون تيار ڪيون ويون. [[بوئٿيوس]] جا ڪم خاص طور تي گهڻو اثرائتا رهيا. هن نه رڳو ارسطو جي تصنيفن کي لاطيني ۾ ترجمو ڪيو، پر منطق بابت درسي ڪتاب پڻ لکيا.{{sfnm|1a1=Marenbon|1y=2021|1loc=Introduction; 3. The Logical Text-Books|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade}} بعد ۾ ابن سينا ۽ [[ابن رشد]] (ايوريس) جهڙن اسلامي فلسفين جي تحريرن مان پڻ فائدو ورتو ويو، جنهن سان وچئين دور جي عيسائي عالمن کي قديم يوناني فڪر تائين وڌيڪ رسائي ملي. سنه 1323ع ۾ [[وليم آف اوڪھم]] جو مشهور ڪتاب ''[[سمّا لاجيڪائي]] (سمري آف لاجڪ)'' شايع ٿيو، جيڪو منطق جو جامع رسالو آهي ۽ جنهن ۾ منطقي تجويزن، انهن جي قسمن ۽ سندن صدق جي شرطن بابت منظم بحث ڪيو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|2a1=Hasse|2y=2008|3a1=Spade|3a2=Panaccio|3y=2019}}

چيني فلسفي ۾ [[نالن جو مذهب]] (اسڪول آف نيمز) ۽ [[موهزم]] (Mohism) خاص اهميت رکندا هئا. نالن جي مذهب ٻوليءَ جي استعمال ۽ منطقي تضادن تي ڌيان ڏنو. مثال طور [[گونگسن لانگ]] مشهور ''اڇي گهوڙي جو تضاد'' (وائيٽ ھارس پيراڊوڪس) پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ دليل ڏنو ويو ته &quot;اڇو گهوڙو، گهوڙو ناهي.&quot; موهزم پڻ منطق ۾ ٻوليءَ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪيو ۽ ان کي اخلاقيات سان ڳنڍڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Willman|1y=2022|2a1=Rošker|2y=2015|2pp=301–309}}

هندستان ۾ منطق جو مطالعو بنيادي طور [[نيايه]]، [[ٻڌ مت]] ۽ [[جين مت]] جي فڪري روايتن ۾ ٿيو. ان کي الڳ علمي شعبي طور نه، پر علمُ المعرفت، مناظري ۽ استدلال جي بحثن جي حصي طور سمجهيو ويندو هو.{{sfn|Sarukkai|Chakraborty|2022|pp=117–118}} نيايه فلسفي ۾ استدلال کي علم حاصل ڪرڻ جو هڪ ذريعو (''[[پرمان]]'') سمجهيو ويو، جيڪو مشاهدي کان پوءِ شين جي سببن بابت نتيجا ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو.{{sfnm|1a1=Dasti|1loc=Lead section; 1b. Inference|2a1=Mills|2y=2018|2p=121}} ٻڌ ۽ جين منطق ۾ به استدلال کي ٻين ذريعن مان حاصل ٿيل علم کي وڌائڻ جو وسيلو سمجهيو ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Emmanuel|1y=2015|1pp=320–322|2a1=Vidyabhusana|2y=1988|2p=221}} نيايه جي پوئين دور جي [[نويا نيايه]] روايت جا ڪيئي خيال جديد منطق سان ملندڙ جلندڙ آهن، جهڙوڪ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جو ''معنيٰ ۽ مرجع'' (سينس اينڊ ريفرنس) وارو فرق ۽ انگ جي تعريف.{{sfn|Chakrabarti|1976|pp=554–563}}

ارسطو جي قياسي منطق اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي وچ تائين غالب رهي، پر رياضيات جي بنيادن بابت وڌندڙ دلچسپي جديد علامتي منطق جي ترقي جو سبب بڻي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Haaparanta|2y=2009|2pp=3–5|2loc=1. Introduction}} گهڻا محقق [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جي ''[[بيگرفس شرفٽ]]'' (Begriffsschrift) کي جديد منطق جي شروعات سمجهن ٿا. [[گوٽفريڊ وِلهم لائبنٽس]] جي [[عالمي رسمي ٻولي]] (ڪئريڪٽرسٽڪا يونيورسلس) جو تصور ان جو اڳواٽ اشارو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. ٻين اهم اڳواڻن ۾ [[جارج بول]] شامل آهي، جنهن [[بولي الجبرا]] (بوليئن آلجبرا) کي منطقي رياضيائي نظام طور پيش ڪيو، ۽ [[چارلس سينڊرس پيرس]]، جنهن [[لاڳاپن جي منطق]] (لاجڪ آگ رليٽوز) کي ترقي ڏني. بعد ۾ [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] انهن خيالن کي پنهنجي مشهور ڪتاب '' پرنسپيا ميٿميٽيڪا'' ۾ منظم ڪيو.

جديد منطق نوان تصور متعارف ڪرايا، جهڙوڪ [[تابع]] (فنڪشن)، مقدارساز (ڪونٽيفائر) ۽ لاڳاپائي محمول (رليشنل پريڊيڪيٽس). جديد علامتي منطق جي نمايان خاصيت رسمي ٻوليءَ جو استعمال آهي، جنهن ذريعي منطقي اصولن کي نهايت درست نموني بيان ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان لحاظ کان اهو اڳين منطق دانن کان مختلف آهي، جيڪي بنيادي طور قدرتي ٻوليءَ تي ڀاڙيندا هئا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900}} خاص طور تي [[اول-درجي منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) جي ترقي جديد منطق ۾ بنيادي حيثيت اختيار ڪئي.{{sfn|Ewald|2019}} ان جي تجزياتي وسعت رياضيات کي رسمي صورت ڏيڻ، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] جي ترقي ۽ [[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) جي قيام لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪيو، ۽ اهو جديد [[رياضياتي منطق]] جو مرڪزي نظام بڻجي ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Schreiner|2y=2021|2p=22}}

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (ڪوانٽيفڪيشن) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}

==تحقيق جا شعبا==

منطق جو مطالعو مختلف علمي شعبن ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪيترن ئي حالتن ۾ ان جي رسمي طريقن کي انهن موضوعن تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي پاڻ منطق جي دائري کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[اخلاقيات]] يا [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Logic and other disciplines|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10}}

ٻين حالتن ۾ خود منطق ئي ڪنهن ٻئي علمي شعبي ۾ تحقيق جو موضوع بڻجي ٿي. اهو مختلف طريقن سان ٿي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، منطق جي بنيادي تصورن سان لاڳاپيل فلسفياتي مفروضن جو جائزو وٺڻ، منطقي نظامن کي رياضيائي بناوتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جو تجزيو ڪرڻ، يا رسمي منطقي نظامن جي تجريدي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ۽ ڀيٽ ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Features and problems of logic|2a1=Gödel|2y=1984|2pp=447–469|2loc=Russell's mathematical logic|3a1=Monk|3y=1976|3pp=1–9|3loc=Introduction}}

===منطق جو فلسفو ۽ فلسفياتي منطق===
{{Main|منطق جو فلسفو|فلسفياتي منطق}}

'''منطق جو فلسفو''' (فلاسافي آف لاجڪ) فلسفي جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطق جي دائري، ماهيت ۽ بنيادي نوعيت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} ان ۾ انهن ڪيترن ئي مفروضن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيڪي منطق ۾ ضمني طور قبول ڪيا ويندا آهن، جيئن ان جي بنيادي تصورن جي تعريف يا انهن سان لاڳاپيل [[مابعدالطبيعات|مابعدالطبيعي]] مفروضا.{{sfn|Jacquette|2006|loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|pp=1–12}}

هي شعبي منطقي نظامن جي درجابندي ۽ انهن سان وابسته [[وجوديات|وجودياتي]] وابستگين (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪمٽمينٽ) جو پڻ مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=§Problems of ontology}}

'''فلسفياتي منطق''' (فلاسافيڪل لاجڪ) منطق جي فلسفي جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطقي طريقن کي فلسفي جي مسئلن تي لاڳو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Burgess|2y=2009|2loc=1. Classical logic}}
اهو استعمال گهڻو ڪري [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي]] يا [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظامن]] جي صورت ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Goble|1y=2001|1loc=Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32}}

===مابعد منطق===
{{Main|مابعد منطق}}

'''مابعد منطق''' (ميٽالاجڪ) اهو علمي شعبو آهي، جيڪو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.

مثال طور، جڏهن ڪو نئون رسمي منطقي نظام تيار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ته مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو معلوم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته ان نظام ۾ ڪهڙا فارمولا ثابت ڪري سگهجن ٿا. اهي اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته ڇا اهڙو [[الگورٿم]] تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو هر فارمولي لاءِ ثبوت ڳولي سگهي، ۽ ڇا ان نظام ۾ هر قابلِ ثبوت فارمولو لازمي طور [[منطقي صداقت]] (Tautology) آهي.

اهي مختلف منطقي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ تقابلي مطالعو پڻ ڪندا آهن ته جيئن انهن جون منفرد خاصيتون واضح ٿي سگهن.

مابعد منطق جو هڪ بنيادي موضوع [[نحو]] (سنٽيڪس) ۽ [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) جي وچ ۾ تعلق آهي. رسمي منطقي نظام جا نحوي ضابطا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدمات مان نتيجا ڪيئن اخذ ڪيا وڃن، يعني ثبوت ڪيئن ترتيب ڏنا وڃن. جڏهن⁠ته معنيات اهو طئي ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙا جملا سچا آهن ۽ ڪهڙا ڪوڙا. انهيءَ بنياد تي دليل جي صحت جو تعين ڪيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صحيح دليل ۾ اهو ناممڪن هوندو آهي ته مقدمات سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو هجي.

نحو ۽ معنيات جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي بابت اهم سوالن ۾ اهو شامل آهي ته ڇا هر صحيح دليل قابلِ ثبوت آهي، ۽ ڇا هر قابلِ ثبوت دليل لازمي طور صحيح به هوندو آهي.

مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته منطقي نظام [[مڪمليت]] (ڪمپليٽنيس)، [[صحت (منطق)|صحت]] (سائونڊنيس) ۽ [[هم آهنگي (منطق)|هم آهنگي]] (ڪنسسٽنسي) جون خاصيتون رکن ٿا يا نه. ان کان علاوه، اهي اهو به ڏسندا آهن ته اهي نظام [[فيصلي پذيري]] (ڊسائيڊبلٽي) رکن ٿا يا نه، ۽ انهن جي [[اظهاري قوت]] ڪيتري آهي.

انهن موضوعن جي تحقيق دوران مابعد منطق گهڻو ڪري تجريدي رياضيائي استدلال تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جنهن جو مقصد انهن مسئلن بابت صحيح، عام ۽ جامع نتيجا حاصل ڪرڻ هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1pp=xliii–xliv|2a1=Sider|2y=2010|2pp=4–6|3a1=Schagrin}}

===رياضيائي منطق===
{{Main|رياضيائي منطق}}

[[File:Russell1907-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=برٽرينڊ رسل جو تصوير|[[برٽرينڊ رسل]] رياضيائي منطق جي ترقي ۾ ڪيترائي اهم علمي حصا ورتا.{{sfn|Irvine|2022}}]]

اصطلاح '''رياضيائي منطق''' (ميٿميٽيڪل لاجڪ) ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[رسمي منطق]] جي مترادف طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر وڌيڪ محدود معنيٰ ۾ اهو رياضيات جي اندر منطق جي مطالعي ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. ان جون اهم شاخون [[ماڊل نظريو]]، [[ثبوت جو نظريو]]، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) ۽ [[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Li|1y=2010|1p=ix|2a1=Rautenberg|2y=2010|2p=15|3a1=Quine|3y=1981|3p=1|4a1=Stolyar|4y=1984|4p=2}}

رياضيائي منطق جي تحقيق جو وڏو حصو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي رياضيائي خاصيتن جي مطالعي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. ان سان گڏ اهو پڻ ڏٺو ويندو آهي ته منطق کي رياضيائي استدلال جي تجزيي يا [[رياضيات جا بنياد|رياضيات جي منطقي بنيادن]] جي قيام لاءِ ڪيئن استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfn|Stolyar|1984|pp=3–6}}

ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ رياضيائي منطق جو هڪ اهم مقصد [[منطق پرستي]] (لاجڪئزم) واري پروگرام کي اڳتي وڌائڻ هو، جنهن جي شروعات [[گاٽلوب فريگي]]، [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] جهڙن فلسفي-منطق دانن ڪئي هئي. هن پروگرام موجب سڀئي رياضيائي نظريا اصل ۾ منطقي [[منطقي صداقت|صداقتون]] (Tautologies) آهن، ۽ ان کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ رياضيات کي منطق تائين محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي. پر هن پروگرام کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جون گهڻيون ڪوششون ناڪام ويون. مثال طور، فريگي جو منصوبو سندس ڪتاب '' گرُنڊگيزيٽسي:Grundgesetze'' (بنيادي قانون) ۾ [[رسل جو تضاد|رسل جي تضاد]] سبب متاثر ٿيو، جڏهن⁠ته [[هلبرٽ جو پروگرام]] [[گوڊل جا نامڪمليت جا نظريا|گوڊل جي نامڪمليت جي نظرين]] سبب ناڪام ثابت ٿيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|1loc=Gödel's incompleteness theorems|2a1=Linsky|2y=2011|2p=4|3a1=Richardson|3y=1998|3p=15}}

[[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) جي شروعات [[جارج ڪينٽر]] لامحدوديت جي مطالعي دوران ڪئي. هي شعبي رياضيائي منطق جي ڪيترن ئي اهم ۽ پيچيده مسئلن جو سرچشمو بڻيو، جن ۾ [[ڪينٽر جو نظريو]]، [[اختيار جو اصول]] (اگزيوم آف چوائس)، [[مسلسل مفروضي]] (ڪنٽينيوئم ھيپوٿيسز) جي آزاديءَ جو سوال، ۽ [[وڏي ڪارڊينل]] (لارج ڪارڊينل) اصولن بابت جديد بحث شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Bagaria|1y=2021|2a1=Cunningham}}

[[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) رياضيائي منطق جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا حسابي مسئلن کي حل ڪرڻ لاءِ مؤثر طريقن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان جو هڪ بنيادي مقصد اهو معلوم ڪرڻ آهي ته ڪنهن خاص مسئلي کي [[الگورٿم]] ذريعي حل ڪرڻ ممڪن آهي يا نه. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صحيح عددن بابت ڪو خاص دعويٰ ڏني وڃي، ته هي شعبي اهو جاچيندو آهي ته ڇا اهڙو الگورٿم تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو اهو طئي ڪري سگهي ته اها دعويٰ صحيح آهي يا غلط. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ [[ٽيورنگ مشين]] (Turing machine) سميت مختلف نظرياتي ماڊلن ۽ اوزارن کي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006a|1loc=Computability Theory|2a1=Leary|2a2=Kristiansen|2y=2015|2p=195}}

===حسابياتي منطق===
{{Main|حسابياتي منطق|ڪمپيوٽر سائنس ۾ منطق}}

[[File:TransistorANDgate.png|thumb|ٽرانزسٽرن جي مدد سان تيار ڪيل هڪ AND گيٽ جو خاڪو. [[منطقي عطف]] (AND) [[بولين منطق]] جي بنيادي عملن مان هڪ آهي، جنهن کي برقي طور مختلف طريقن سان، مثال طور ٻن [[ٽرانزسٽر]]ن ذريعي، عمل ۾ آڻي سگهجي ٿو.]]

'''حسابياتي منطق''' (ڪمپيوٽيشنل لاجڪ) منطق ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ڪمپيوٽرن جي ذريعي رياضيائي استدلال ۽ رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عملي صورت ڏيڻ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان ۾، مثال طور، [[خودڪار نظريي ثابت ڪندڙ]] (آٽوميٽڪ ٿيورم پروور) شامل آهن، جيڪي [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] استعمال ڪندي، بغير انساني مداخلت جي، مقدمات مان گهربل نتيجي تائين مرحليوار ثبوت تيار ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Paulson|1y=2018|1pp=1–14|2a1=Castaño|2y=2018|2p=2|3a1=Wile|3a2=Goss|3a3=Roesner|3y=2005|3p=447}}

[[منطقي پروگرامنگ]] (لاجڪ پروگرامنگ) جون ٻوليون خاص طور اهڙي نموني تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن، جو حقيقتن کي منطقي فارمولن جي صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ۽ انهن مان استدلال ذريعي نوان نتيجا اخذ ڪري سگهجن. مثال طور، [[پرولاگ]] (Prolog) محمولي منطق تي ٻڌل هڪ منطقي پروگرامنگ ٻولي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Clocksin|1a2=Mellish|1y=2003|1pp=237–238, 252–255, 257|1loc=The Relation of Prolog to Logic|2a1=Daintith|2a2=Wright|2y=2008|2loc=Logic Programming Languages}}

ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽنگ سان لاڳاپيل مسئلن جي حل لاءِ پڻ منطقي تصورن کي استعمال ڪندا آهن. هن ميدان ۾ [[ڪلاڊ شينن]] جو ڪم انتهائي اثرائتو رهيو، جنهن ڏيکاريو ته [[بولين منطق]] کي ڪمپيوٽرن جي برقي سرڪٽن کي سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=O'Regan|1y=2016|1p=49|2a1=Calderbank|2a2=Sloane|2y=2001|2p=768}}

اهو ڪم [[منطقي دروازو|منطقي دروازن]] (لاجڪ گيٽ) ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي اهڙا برقي سرڪٽ هوندا آهن، جن ۾ هڪ يا وڌيڪ ان پُٽ ۽ عام طور هڪ آئوٽ پُٽ هوندو آهي. انهن ۾ منطقي قضين جي صداقت جا قدر برقي وولٽيج جي سطحن جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهڙيءَ طرح، سرڪٽ جي ان پُٽن تي مناسب وولٽيج لاڳو ڪري ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ جي وولٽيج کي ماپي، مختلف منطقي عملن جي نقل (سميوليشن) ڪئي ويندي آهي.{{sfn|Daintith|Wright|2008|loc=Logic Gate}}

===قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات===
{{Main|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات}}

'''قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) منطق، [[لسانيات]] ۽ [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]] جي گڏيل ذيلي شاخ آهي. [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) ٻوليءَ جي معنائن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته رسمي معنيات علامتي منطق ۽ رياضيات جا رسمي اوزار استعمال ڪندي [[قدرتي ٻولي]] جي اظهارَن جي معنائن بابت درست ۽ منظم نظريا پيش ڪري ٿي.

رسمي معنيات عام طور معنٰي کي [[صدق جون شرطون]] (ٽرٿ ڪنڊيشنر) سان وابسته ڪري سمجهي ٿي؛ يعني اها جاچ ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙين حالتن ۾ ڪو جملو سچو يا ڪوڙو ٿيندو. هن شعبي جي بنيادي اصولن مان هڪ [[ترڪيبي اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) آهي، جنهن موجب ڪنهن پيچيده اظهار جي معنٰي ان جي جزن جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي پاڻ ۾ ڳانڍاپي جي طريقي سان طئي ٿيندي آهي. مثال طور، فعل واري فقري &quot;هلڻ ۽ ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنٰي انفرادي اظهارَن &quot;هلڻ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.

رسمي معنيات جا ڪيترائي نظريا [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. ان جو مطلب آهي ته اهي [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) استعمال ڪري هڪ نمونو (ماڊل) تيار ڪندا آهن ۽ پوءِ ان نموني جي عنصرن جي حوالي سان ٻوليءَ جي اظهارَن جي معنائن جي تشريح ڪندا آهن. مثال طور، اصطلاح &quot;هلڻ&quot; کي نموني ۾ موجود انهن سڀني فردن جي مجموعي طور سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي هلڻ جي خاصيت رکن ٿا.

هن شعبي جا شروعاتي ۽ اثرائتا مفڪر [[رچرڊ مونٽيگ]] ۽ [[باربرا پارٽي]] هئا، جن پنهنجي تجزين جو بنيادي مرڪز انگريزي ٻوليءَ کي بڻايو.{{sfnm|1a1=Janssen|1a2=Zimmermann|1y=2021|1pp=3–4|2a1=Partee|2y=2016|3a1=King|3y=2009|3pp=557–558|4a1=Aloni|4a2=Dekker|4y=2016|4pp=22–23}}

===منطق جو علمُ المعرفت===
{{Main|منطق جو علمُ المعرفت}}

'''منطق جو علمُ المعرفت''' (ايپسٽيمولاجي آف لاجڪ) هن ڳالهه جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو ته انسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوي ٿي ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا ڪا تجويز منطقي طور سچي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Schechter}} هن ۾ اهڙا سوال شامل آهن، جيئن: {{lang|la|modus ponens}} استدلال جو صحيح قاعدو ڇو آهي؟ يا تضاد هميشه ڪوڙا ڇو سمجهيا وڃن ٿا؟{{sfn|Warren|2020|loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic}}

روايتي طور تي غالب نظريو اهو رهيو آهي ته اهڙي قسم جي منطقي ڄاڻ [[قبلي علم]] (''a priori'') سان واسطو رکي ٿي.{{sfn|Schechter}} هن نظرئي موجب، اڪثر اهو دليل ڏنو ويندو آهي ته [[ذهن]] وٽ هڪ خاص صلاحيت هوندي آهي، جيڪا خالص خيالن جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي پرکڻ جي قابل هوندي آهي، ۽ اها ئي صلاحيت منطقي سچائين کي سمجهڻ جو ذريعو پڻ آهي.{{sfn|Gómez-Torrente|2019}}

هڪ ٻيو ويجهو نظريو منطق جي قاعدن کي [[اصطلاحيت]] (ڪنوينشنلزم) يا لساني روايتن جي بنياد تي سمجهي ٿو. هن راءِ موجب، منطق جا قانون تعريف جي لحاظ کان سچا آهن، تنهنڪري اهي بنيادي طور غيرتڪراري آهن؛ اهي رڳو منطقي اصطلاحن جي معنائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Gómez-Torrente|2y=2019|3a1=Warren|3y=2020|3loc=1. What is Conventionalism}}

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[هلري پٽنم]] ۽ [[پينيلوپي ميڊي]]، هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪن ٿا ته منطق کي مڪمل طور قبلي علم ذريعي ڄاڻي سگهجي ٿو. انهن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي سچايون [[تجربي تي ٻڌل علم]] (امپريڪل نالج) سان به لاڳاپيل آهن. هن راءِ کي عام طور ان دعويٰ سان گڏ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي ته منطق جا قانون دنيا جي بناوت ۾ موجود عام ۽ آفاقي قاعدن جو اظهار ڪن ٿا. ان مطابق، انهن قاعدن کي [[بنيادي سائنسون|بنيادي سائنسن]] ۾ موجود عام نمونن ۽ اصولن جي مطالعي ذريعي به سمجهي سگهجي ٿو.

مثال طور، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم ميڪانيات]] جون ڪجهه دريافتون روايتي منطق جي [[ورڇ جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڊسٽريبيوٽوٽي) کي چئلينج ڪن ٿيون، جنهن موجب فارمولو &lt;math&gt;A \land (B \lor C)&lt;/math&gt; هم معنيٰ آهي &lt;math&gt;(A \land B) \lor (A \land C)&lt;/math&gt; سان. هن دعويٰ کي ان ڳالهه جي تجربي تي ٻڌل دليل طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم منطق]] روايتي منطق کان وڌيڪ مناسب منطقي نظام آهي، ۽ ان کي روايتي منطق جي جاءِ وٺڻ گهرجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Chua|1y=2017|1pp=631–636|2a1=Wilce|2y=2021|3a1=Putnam|3y=1969|3pp=216–241}}

==پڻ ڏسو==
{{Portal|فلسفو}}

* {{annotated link|منطق جي اصطلاحن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جو خاڪو}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جي تحقيقي رسالن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي نشانين جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق دانن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي ڳجهارت}}
* {{annotated link|لوگوس}}
* {{annotated link|ویکٽر منطق}}

==حوالا==

===وضاحتي نوٽ===
{{notelist}}
&lt;references group=&quot;lower-alpha&quot;/&gt;
===حوالا===
{{reflist|1=30em}}

===ڪتابيات===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Aloni |first1=Maria |author1-link=ماريا الوني |last2=Dekker |first2=Paul |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics |date=7 July 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-55273-5 |pages=22–23 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Angell |first1=Richard B. |title=Reasoning and Logic |date=1964 |publisher=Ardent Media |page=164 |language=en |oclc=375322 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Informal logic |year=1999a |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |page=435 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Philosophy of logic |year=1999b |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |pages=679–681 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Backmann |first1=Marius |title=Varieties of Justification—How (Not) to Solve the Problem of Induction |journal=Acta Analytica |date=1 June 2019 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=235–255 |doi=10.1007/s12136-018-0371-6 |s2cid=125767384 |language=en |issn=1874-6349 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bagaria |first1=Joan |author-link=جوان باگاريا |title=Set Theory |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/set-theory/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=23 September 2022 |year=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Jonathan |title=Truth, etc.: Six Lectures on Ancient Logic |date=25 January 2007 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-151574-3 |page=274 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Benthem |first1=Johan van |title=Modal Logic: Contemporary View: 1. Modal Notions and Reasoning Patterns: a First Pass |url=https://iep.utm.edu/modal-lo/#H1 |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=11 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berlemann |first1=Lars |last2=Mangold |first2=Stefan |title=Cognitive Radio and Dynamic Spectrum Access |date=10 July 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-0-470-75443-6 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berman |first1=Harold J. |title=Law and Revolution, the Formation of the Western Legal Tradition |date=1 July 2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02085-6 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bimbó |first1=Katalin |author-link=ڪيٽلن بمبو |title=J. Michael Dunn on Information Based Logics |date=2 April 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-29300-4 |pages=8–9 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=1 January 2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |language=en |chapter=argument |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194756/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=24 March 2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |language=en |chapter=rule of inference |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194809/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=The Current State of Informal Logic |journal=Informal Logic |year=1987 |volume=9 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v9i2.2671 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230194638/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |url-status=live |pages=147–151 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=Informal Logic: An Overview |journal=Informal Logic |year=2000 |volume=20 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v20i2.2262 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209195317/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |url-status=live |pages=93–107 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |title=Groundwork in the Theory of Argumentation: Selected Papers of J. Anthony Blair |date=20 October 2011 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-007-2363-4 |page=47 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bobzien |first1=Susanne |author-link=سوزاني بوبزين |title=Ancient Logic: 2. Aristotle |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=3 January 2022 |year=2020 |archive-date=28 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828102117/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Borchert |editor1-first=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 2 |edition=2nd |date=2006a |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |isbn=978-0-02-865782-0 |chapter=Computability Theory |pages=372–390 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 4 |edition=2nd |date=2006b |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Induction |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865784-4 |pages=635–648 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 5 |edition=2nd |date=2006c |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Logic, Non-Classical |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865785-1 |pages=485–492 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bridges |first1=Douglas |last2=Ishihara |first2=Hajime |last3=Rathjen |first3=Michael |last4=Schwichtenberg |first4=Helmut |title=Handbook of Constructive Mathematics |date=30 April 2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-51086-5 |pages=73–74 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Brody |first=Boruch A. |title=Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=2006 |publisher=Thomson Gale/Macmillan Reference US |others=Donald M. Borchert |isbn=978-0-02-865780-6 |edition=2nd |volume=5 |pages=535–536 |oclc=61151356 |quote=The two most important types of logical calculi are propositional (or sentential) calculi and functional (or predicate) calculi. A propositional calculus is a system containing propositional variables and connectives (some also contain propositional constants) but not individual or functional variables or constants. In the extended propositional calculus, quantifiers whose operator variables are propositional variables are added. }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bunnin |first1=Nicholas |last2=Yu |first2=Jiyuan |title=The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy |date=27 January 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9112-8 |page=179 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Burgess |first1=John P. |author-link=جان پي. برجس |title=Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |chapter=1. Classical logic |pages=1–12 |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216143954/https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-691-15633-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bäck |first1=Allan T. |title=Aristotle's Theory of Predication |date=2016 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-32109-0 |page=317 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Calderbank |first1=Robert |last2=Sloane |first2=Neil J. A. |title=Claude Shannon (1916–2001) |journal=Nature |date=April 2001 |volume=410 |issue=6830 |page=768 |doi=10.1038/35071223 |pmid=11298432 |s2cid=4402158 |language=en |issn=1476-4687 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Carnielli |first1=Walter |last2=Pizzi |first2=Claudio |title=Modalities and Multimodalities |date=2008 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-8590-1 |page=3 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Castaño |first1=Arnaldo Pérez |title=Practical Artificial Intelligence: Machine Learning, Bots, and Agent Solutions Using C# |date=23 May 2018 |publisher=Apress |isbn=978-1-4842-3357-3 |page=2 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Chakrabarti |first1=Kisor Kumar |title=Some Comparisons Between Frege's Logic and Navya-Nyaya Logic |journal=Philosophy and Phenomenological Research |date=June 1976 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=554–563 |doi=10.2307/2106873 |jstor=2106873 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chatfield |first1=Tom |title=Critical Thinking: Your Guide to Effective Argument, Successful Analysis and Independent Study |date=2017 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-5264-1877-7 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chua |first1=Eugene |title=Logic, Rationality, and Interaction |chapter=An Empirical Route to Logical 'Conventionalism' |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |date=2017 |volume=10455 |pages=631–636 |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-55665-8_43 |isbn=978-3-662-55664-1 |chapter-url=https://philpapers.org/rec/CHUAER }}
* {{cite book |last1=Clocksin |first1=William F. |last2=Mellish |first2=Christopher S. |title=Programming in Prolog: Using the ISO Standard |date=2003 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-55481-0 |pages=237–257 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 |language=en |chapter=The Relation of Prolog to Logic |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cook |first1=Roy T. |title=Dictionary of Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-3197-1 |language=en |page=124 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Copi |first1=Irving M. |author1-link=ارونگ ڪوپي |last2=Cohen |first2=Carl |last3=Rodych |first3=Victor |title=Introduction to Logic |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-38697-5 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Corkum |first1=Philip |title=Generality and Logical Constancy |journal=Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia |year=2015 |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=753–767 |doi=10.17990/rpf/2015_71_4_0753 |jstor=43744657 |issn=0870-5283 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Craig |first1=Edward |author-link=ايڊورڊ ڪريگ (فلسفي) |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=1996 |publisher=Routledge |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116111145/https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-07310-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cummings |first1=Louise |title=The Routledge Pragmatics Encyclopedia |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-21457-9 |page=1 |language=en |chapter=Abduction }}
* {{cite web |last1=Cunningham |first1=Daniel |title=Set Theory |url=https://iep.utm.edu/set-theo/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=23 September 2022 }}

* {{cite journal |last1=D'Agostino |first1=Marcello |last2=Floridi |first2=Luciano |title=The Enduring Scandal of Deduction: Is Propositional Logic Really Uninformative? |journal=Synthese |year=2009 |volume=167 |issue=2 |pages=271–315 |doi=10.1007/s11229-008-9409-4 |jstor=40271192 |hdl=2299/2995 |hdl-access=free |s2cid=9602882 |language=en |issn=0039-7857 }}
* {{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Computing |isbn=978-0-19-923400-4 |last1=Daintith |first1=John |last2=Wright |first2=Edmund |date=2008 |publisher=OUP }}
* {{cite book |last=van Dalen |first=Dirk |author-link=ڊرڪ وان ڊالن |year=1994 |title=Logic and Structure |publisher=Springer |at=Chapter 1.5 |isbn=978-0-387-57839-2 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dasti |first1=Matthew R. |title=Nyaya |url=https://iep.utm.edu/nyaya/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=12 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Dick |first1=Anthony S. |last2=Müller |first2=Ulrich |title=Advancing Developmental Science: Philosophy, Theory, and Method |date=2017 |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-1-351-70456-4 |page=157 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Douven |first1=Igor |author-link=ايگور ڊاووين |title=Abduction |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |year=2021 |access-date=24 August 2021 |archive-date=7 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907202119/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dowden |first1=Bradley |author-link=بريڊلي ڊائوڊن |title=Fallacies |url=https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=19 March 2021 |archive-date=29 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100429214410/https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |title=Pondering on Problems of Argumentation: Twenty Essays on Theoretical Issues |date=2009 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-9165-0 |page=191 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |last3=Krabbe |first3=Erik C. W. |last4=Snoeck Henkemans |first4=A. Francisca |last5=Verheij |first5=Bart |last6=Wagemans |first6=Jean H. M. |title=Handbook of Argumentation Theory |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-94-007-6883-3 |pages=1–45 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |language=en |chapter=Informal Logic |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231172324/https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |url-status=live |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGarssenKrabbeSnoeck_Henkemans }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Grootendorst |first2=Rob |last3=Johnson |first3=Ralph H. |last4=Plantin |first4=Christian |last5=Willard |first5=Charles A. |title=Fundamentals of Argumentation Theory: A Handbook of Historical Backgrounds and Contemporary Developments |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-68804-1 |page=169 |language=en |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGrootendorstJohnsonPlantin }}
* {{cite book |last1=Emmanuel |first1=Steven M. |title=A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy |date=2015 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-119-14466-3 |pages=320–322 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Enderton |first=Herbert |author-link=هربرٽ اينڊرٽن |year=2001 |title=A Mathematical Introduction to Logic |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-238452-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Engel |first1=S. Morris |title=With Good Reason an Introduction to Informal Fallacies |date=1982 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=1 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301065815/https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-312-08479-0 |publisher=St. Martin's Press }}
* {{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Jonathan St. B. T. |editor1-last=Morrison |editor1-first=Robert |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82417-0 |page=169 |language=en |chapter=8. Deductive Reasoning }}
* {{cite web |last1=Ewald |first1=William |title=The Emergence of First-Order Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-firstorder-emergence/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=12 March 2023 |date=2019 }}

* {{cite web |last1=Falguera |first1=José L. |last2=Martínez-Vidal |first2=Concha |last3=Rosen |first3=Gideon |title=Abstract Objects |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=7 January 2022 |year=2021 |archive-date=22 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122003334/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Falikowski |first1=Anthony |last2=Mills |first2=Susan |title=Experiencing Philosophy |edition=2nd |date=2022 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=978-1-77048-841-0 |page=98 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=Michael David |last2=Gabbay |first2=Dov M. |last3=Vila |first3=Lluis |title=Handbook of Temporal Reasoning in Artificial Intelligence |date=2005 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-053336-0 |page=119 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fitch |first1=G. W. |title=Saul Kripke |date=18 December 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-48917-7 |page=17 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Flotyński |first1=Jakub |title=Knowledge-Based Explorable Extended Reality Environments |date=7 December 2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-59965-2 |page=39 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Font |first1=Josep Maria |last2=Jansana |first2=Ramon |title=A General Algebraic Semantics for Sentential Logics |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-16797-1 |page=8 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Frede |first1=Michael |title=Aristotle |url=https://pages.mtu.edu/~pcharles/SCIHISTORY/aristotle.html |website=Michigan Technological University |access-date=1 November 2022 |archive-date=21 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921073920/https://pages.mtu.edu/~pcharles/SCIHISTORY/aristotle.html |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |last1=Friend |first1=Michele |title=Introducing Philosophy of Mathematics |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-49379-2 |page=101 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Gamut |first=L.T.F. |author-link=ايل. ٽي. ايف. گيمٽ |date=1991 |title=Logic, Language and Meaning Vol 1: Introduction to Logic |publisher=University of Chicago Press |at=5.5 |isbn=978-0-226-28085-1 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Garson |first1=James |title=Modal Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-modal/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2023 }}
* {{cite book |last=Gensler |first=Harry J. |date=2006 |title=The A to Z of Logic |pages=xliii–xliv |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-1-4617-3182-5 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goble |first1=Lou |title=The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic |date=2001 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/GOBTBG-2 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184959/https://philpapers.org/rec/GOBTBG-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-631-20692-7 |pages=1–8 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goodman |first1=Lenn Evan |title=Avicenna |date=1992 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-01929-3 |page=188 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goodman |first1=Lenn Evan |title=Islamic Humanism |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513580-0 |page=155 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Groarke |first1=Louis F. |title=Aristotle: Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=1 January 2022 |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229235433/https://iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Groarke |first1=Leo |title=Informal Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=31 December 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112030519/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Gómez-Torrente |first1=Mario |title=Logical Truth |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-truth/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=22 November 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=2 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002190110/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-truth/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gödel |first1=Kurt |author1-link=Kurt Gödel |editor1-last=Benacerraf |editor1-first=Paul |editor2-last=Putnam |editor2-first=Hilary |title=Philosophy of Mathematics: Selected Readings |date=1984 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29648-9 |pages=447–469 |edition=2nd |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/philosophy-of-mathematics/russells-mathematical-logic/4D82F215FABFE06149D03EF1EF5BE7E4 |chapter=Russell's mathematical logic |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111091740/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/philosophy-of-mathematics/russells-mathematical-logic/4D82F215FABFE06149D03EF1EF5BE7E4 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hájek |first1=Petr |title=Fuzzy Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/Archives/Win2012/entries/logic-fuzzy/ |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |language=en |date=3 September 2006 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hájek |first1=Alan |last2=Lin |first2=Hanti |title=A Tale of Two Epistemologies? |journal=Res Philosophica |year=2017 |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=207–232 |doi=10.11612/resphil.1540 |s2cid=160029122 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HJEATO |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104182746/https://philpapers.org/rec/HJEATO |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Cordelia |last2=O'Donnell |first2=John |title=Discrete Mathematics Using a Computer |date=2000 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-85233-089-7 |page=48 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Houde |first1=R. |last2=Camacho |first2=L. |title=New Catholic Encyclopedia |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/electrical-engineering/induction |chapter=Induction |year=2003 |publisher=Thomson/Gale |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171720/https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/electrical-engineering/induction |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-7876-4004-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Deviant Logic: Some Philosophical Issues |date=1974 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-20500-9 |page=51 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Philosophy of Logics |date=1978 |publisher=London and New York: Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HAAPOL-2 |chapter=1. 'Philosophy of logics' |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207200551/https://philpapers.org/rec/HAAPOL-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-521-29329-7 |pages=1–10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Deviant Logic, Fuzzy Logic: Beyond the Formalism |date=1996 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31133-3 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haaparanta |first1=Leila |author1-link=Leila Haaparanta |title=The Development of Modern Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513731-6 |pages=4–6 |chapter=1. Introduction }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hansen |first1=Hans |title=Fallacies |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fallacies/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=18 March 2021 |year=2020 |archive-date=29 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329182946/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fallacies/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hartmann |first1=Stephan |last2=Sprenger |first2=Jan |title=The Routledge Companion to Epistemology |date=2010 |publisher=London: Routledge |pages=609–620 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO |chapter=Bayesian Epistemology |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516095047/https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-96219-3 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hasse |first1=Dag Nikolaus |title=Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-influence/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |date=2008 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hawthorne |first1=James |title=Inductive Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-inductive/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=6 January 2022 |year=2021 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121081805/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-inductive/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Philosophy of logic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-logic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=21 November 2021 |language=en |archive-date=28 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428101732/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/346240/philosophy-of-logic |url-status=live |date=2019 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Logical systems |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic/Logical-systems |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=4 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184656/https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic/Logical-systems |url-status=live |date=2023 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Information, Deduction, and the A Priori |journal=Noûs |year=1970 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=135–152 |doi=10.2307/2214318 |jstor=2214318 |issn=0029-4624 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |last2=Sandu |first2=Gabriel |editor-last=Jacquette |editor-first=D. |title=Philosophy of Logic |date=2006 |publisher=North Holland |pages=13–39 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JAAWIL |chapter=What is Logic? |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207235525/https://philpapers.org/rec/JAAWIL |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-444-51541-4 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |last2=Spade |first2=Paul Vincent |title=History of logic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-logic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Honderich |first1=Ted |author-link=Ted Honderich |title=The Oxford Companion to Philosophy |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=29 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129082636/https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-19-926479-7 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hurley |first1=Patrick J. |title=Logic: The Essentials |date=2015 |publisher=Wadsworth |isbn=978-1-305-59041-0 |language=en |chapter=4. Categorical Syllogisms |pages=189–237 }}
* {{cite web |last1=IEP Staff |title=Deductive and Inductive Arguments |url=https://iep.utm.edu/ded-ind/ |access-date=6 January 2022 |archive-date=28 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528032124/https://iep.utm.edu/ded-ind/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Iqbal |first1=Mohammad |title=The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam |date=2013 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-8686-7 |pages=99–115 |url=http://www.allamaiqbal.com/works/prose/english/reconstruction/ |language=en |chapter=The Spirit of Muslim Culture }}
* {{cite web |last1=Irvine |first1=Andrew David |title=Bertrand Russell |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/russell/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=29 September 2022 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jacquette |first1=Dale |title=Philosophy of Logic |date=2006 |publisher=North Holland |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JACPOL |chapter=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184932/https://philpapers.org/rec/JACPOL |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-444-51541-4 |pages=1–12 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jago |first1=Mark |title=The Impossible: An Essay on Hyperintensionality |date=2014 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-101915-9 |page=41 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Janssen |first1=Theo M. V. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Thomas Ede |title=Montague Semantics |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/montague-semantics/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=10 March 2023 |date=2021 |pages=3–4 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Ralph H. |title=The Relation Between Formal and Informal Logic |journal=Argumentation |year=1999 |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=265–274 |doi=10.1023/A:1007789101256 |s2cid=141283158 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JOHTRB-2 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184706/https://philpapers.org/rec/JOHTRB-2 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Ralph H. |title=The Rise of Informal Logic: Essays on Argumentation, Critical Thinking, Reasoning and Politics |date=15 July 2014 |publisher=University of Windsor |isbn=978-0-920233-71-9 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Ketland |first1=Jeffrey |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 8 |date=2005 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/second-order-logic |chapter=Second Order Logic |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184921/https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/second-order-logic |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865788-2 |pages=707–708 |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA }}
* {{cite book |last1=King |first1=Jeffrey C. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Language |chapter=Formal Semantics |date=2 September 2009 |pages=557–558 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199552238.003.0023 |isbn=978-0-19-955223-8 }}
* {{cite web |last1=King |first1=Jeffrey C. |title=Structured Propositions |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/propositions-structured/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=25 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025211706/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/propositions-structured/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Klement |first1=Kevin C. |title=Propositional Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/prop-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=23 September 2022 |year=1995b |issn=2161-0002 }}
* {{cite book |last=Kline |first=Morris |title=Mathematical Thought From Ancient to Modern Times |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-19-506135-2 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Kneale |first1=William |author-link=William Kneale |last2=Kneale |first2=Martha |author2-link=Martha Kneale |title=The Development of Logic |date=1962 |publisher=Clarendon Press |language=en |isbn=978-0-19-824773-9 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Knuuttila |first1=Simo |title=Reforging the Great Chain of Being: Studies of the History of Modal Theories |date=1980 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-90-277-1125-0 |page=71 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Korb |first1=Kevin |title=Bayesian Informal Logic and Fallacy |journal=Informal Logic |year=2004 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=41–70 |doi=10.22329/il.v24i1.2132 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/KORBIL |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=10 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211110075255/https://philpapers.org/rec/KORBIL |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Koslowski |first1=Barbara |title=International Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-72569-7 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski |chapter=Abductive Reasoning and Explanation |doi=10.4324/9781315725697 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108225144/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski |url-status=live |pages=366–382 }}
* {{cite book |first1=Boris |last1=Kulik |first2=Alexander |last2=Fridman |title=N-ary Relations for Logical Analysis of Data and Knowledge |date=30 November 2017 |publisher=IGI Global |isbn=978-1-5225-2783-1 |page=74 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Kusch |first1=Martin |title=Psychologism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/psychologism/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=30 November 2021 |year=2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229220156/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/psychologism/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Lagerlund |first1=Henrik |title=Review of The Aftermath of Syllogism: Aristotelian Logical Argument from Avicenna to Hegel |url=https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/the-aftermath-of-syllogism-aristotelian-logical-argument-from-avicenna-to-hegel/ |website=Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews |access-date=19 July 2023 |language=en |date=27 September 2018 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lear |first1=Jonathan |title=Aristotle and Logical Theory |date=1980 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-31178-6 |page=34 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Leary |first1=Christopher C. |last2=Kristiansen |first2=Lars |title=A Friendly Introduction to Mathematical Logic |date=2015 |publisher=Suny |isbn=978-1-942341-07-9 |page=195 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lepore |first1=Ernest |last2=Cumming |first2=Sam |title=Meaning and Argument: An Introduction to Logic Through Language |date=14 September 2012 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-118-45521-0 |page=5 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Li |first1=Wei |title=Mathematical Logic: Foundations for Information Science |date=26 February 2010 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-3-7643-9977-1 |page=ix |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Linsky |first1=Bernard |title=The Evolution of Principia Mathematica: Bertrand Russell's Manuscripts and Notes |edition=2nd |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49733-6 |page=4 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Liu |first1=Shiyong |last2=Guo |first2=Kaizhong |title=Error Logic: Paving Pathways for Intelligent Error Identification and Management |date=7 March 2023 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-031-00820-7 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Łukasiewicz |first=Jan |author-link=يان ووڪاشيوچ |title=Aristotle's Syllogistic from the Standpoint of Modern Formal Logic |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1957 |edition=2nd |page=7 |oclc=656161566 }}
* {{cite web |last1=MacFarlane |first1=John |title=Logical Constants |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-constants/#SynTer |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=21 November 2021 |year=2017 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317180221/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-constants/#SynTer |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Mackie |first1=J. L. |author-link=جي. ايل. ميڪي |title=Fallacies |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/fallacies |website=encyclopedia.com |access-date=19 March 2021 |year=1967 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415101134/https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/fallacies |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Magnus |first1=P. D. |title=Forall X: An Introduction to Formal Logic |date=2005 |publisher=Victoria, BC, Canada: State University of New York Oer Services |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/MAGFXI |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207200544/https://philpapers.org/rec/MAGFXI |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-64176-026-3 |pages=8–9 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Makridis |first1=Odysseus |title=Symbolic Logic |date=2022 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-67396-3 |pages=1–2 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Maltby |first1=John |last2=Day |first2=Liz |last3=Macaskill |first3=Ann |title=Personality, Individual Differences and Intelligence |date=2007 |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-13-129760-9 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Marenbon |first1=John |title=Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/boethius/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2021 }}
* {{cite web |last1=McKeon |first1=Matthew |title=Logical Consequence |url=https://iep.utm.edu/logcon/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=20 November 2021 |archive-date=12 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112071437/https://iep.utm.edu/logcon/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Michaelson |first1=Eliot |last2=Reimer |first2=Marga |title=Reference |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reference/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184705/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reference/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Mills |first1=Ethan |title=Three Pillars of Skepticism in Classical India: Nagarjuna, Jayarasi, and Sri Harsa |date=2018 |publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4985-5570-8 |page=121 |language=en |quote=... for Nyāya all inference is ultimately rooted in perception ... Naiyāyikas typically accept four means of knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. }}
* {{cite book |last1=Monk |first1=J. Donald |title=Mathematical Logic |date=1976 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4684-9452-5 |pages=1–9 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |language=en |chapter=Introduction |doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=9 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109131251/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Kevin |last2=Cromby |first2=John |title=How Best to 'Go On'? Prospects for a 'Modern Synthesis' in the Sciences of Mind |date=8 August 2016 |publisher=Frontiers Media SA |isbn=978-2-88919-906-8 |page=60 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Terence |last2=Carling |first2=Christine |title=Understanding Language: Towards a Post-Chomskyan Linguistics |date=1982 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-16895-8 |page=53 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Moschovakis |first1=Joan |author1-link=جوان موشووڪيس |title=Intuitionistic Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-intuitionistic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Introduction |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Nolt |first1=John |title=Free Logic: 1. The Basics |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-free/#1 |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=10 September 2022 |year=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Nunes |first1=Terezinha |author1-link=تريزينا نونيس |editor1-last=Seel |editor1-first=Norbert M. |title=Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning |date=2011 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4419-1427-9 |language=en |pages=2066–2069 |chapter=Logical Reasoning and Learning }}
* {{cite book |last1=O'Regan |first1=Gerard |title=Introduction to the History of Computing: A Computing History Primer |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-33138-6 |page=49 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Oaksford |first1=Mike |last2=Chater |first2=Nick |title=Bayesian Rationality: The Probabilistic Approach to Human Reasoning |date=2007 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-852449-6 |page=47 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Olkowski |first1=Dorothea |last2=Pirovolakis |first2=Eftichis |title=Deleuze and Guattari's Philosophy of Freedom: Freedom's Refrains |date=31 January 2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-66352-9 |pages=65–66 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Olsson |first1=Erik J. |title=Introduction to Formal Philosophy |date=2018 |publisher=Springer |pages=431–442 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/OLSBE |chapter=Bayesian Epistemology |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516095057/https://philpapers.org/rec/OLSBE |url-status=live |isbn=978-3-030-08454-7 }}
* {{cite web |author=Online Etymology Staff |title=Logic |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/logic?ref=etymonline_crossreference |website=etymonline.com |access-date=29 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229134626/https://www.etymonline.com/word/logic?ref=etymonline_crossreference |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Partee |first1=Barbara H. |author1-link=باربرا ايڇ پارٽي |editor1-last=Aloni |editor1-first=Maria |editor1-link=ماريا الوني |editor2-last=Dekker |editor2-first=Paul |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-02839-5 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Paulson |first1=Lawrence C. |title=Computational Logic: Its Origins and Applications |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |date=February 2018 |volume=474 |issue=2210 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1098/rspa.2017.0872 |pmid=29507522 |pmc=5832843 |arxiv=1712.04375 |bibcode=2018RSPSA.47470872P |s2cid=3805901 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pedemonte |first1=Bettina |title=Strategic vs Definitory Rules: Their Role in Abductive Argumentation and their Relationship with Deductive Proof |journal=Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education |date=25 June 2018 |volume=14 |issue=9 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.29333/ejmste/92562 |s2cid=126245285 |url=https://www.ejmste.com/article/strategic-vs-definitory-rules-their-role-in-abductive-argumentation-and-their-relationship-with-5539 |language=english |issn=1305-8215 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207195246/https://www.ejmste.com/article/strategic-vs-definitory-rules-their-role-in-abductive-argumentation-and-their-relationship-with-5539 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pickel |first1=Bryan |title=Structured Propositions and Trivial Composition |journal=Synthese |date=1 July 2020 |volume=197 |issue=7 |pages=2991–3006 |doi=10.1007/s11229-018-1853-1 |s2cid=49729020 |language=en |issn=1573-0964 |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.11820/3427c028-f2cb-4216-a199-9679a49ce71c |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Pietroski |first1=Paul |title=Logical Form: 1. Patterns of Reason |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-form/#pat |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=2 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002190116/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-form/#pat |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Planty-Bonjour |first1=Guy |title=The Categories of Dialectical Materialism: Contemporary Soviet Ontology |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-010-3517-0 |page=62 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Possin |first1=Kevin |title=Conductive Arguments: Why is This Still a Thing? |journal=Informal Logic |year=2016 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=563–593 |doi=10.22329/il.v36i4.4527 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/POSCAW-4 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171723/https://philpapers.org/rec/POSCAW-4 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Priest |first1=Graham |last2=Tanaka |first2=Koji |last3=Weber |first3=Zach |title=Paraconsistent Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-paraconsistent/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=14 December 2021 |year=2018 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Pépin |first1=Jean |title=Encyclopedia of Religion |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/logos |chapter=Logos |year=2004 |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229134626/https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/logos |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865733-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Putnam |first=H. |author-link=هلري پٽنم |title=Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science |chapter=Is Logic Empirical? |year=1969 |volume=5 |pages=216–241 |doi=10.1007/978-94-010-3381-7_5 |isbn=978-94-010-3383-1 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Quine |first1=Willard Van Orman |author-link=ولارڊ وان اورمن ڪوائن |title=Mathematical Logic |date=1981 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-55451-1 |page=1 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Rathjen |first1=Michael |last2=Sieg |first2=Wilfried |title=Proof Theory |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/proof-theory/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rautenberg |first1=Wolfgang |title=A Concise Introduction to Mathematical Logic |date=1 July 2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4419-1221-3 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Rendsvig |first1=Rasmus |last2=Symons |first2=John |title=Epistemic Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-epistemic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Restall |first1=Greg |last2=Standefer |first2=Shawn |title=Logical Methods |date=2023 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-54484-9 |page=91 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Richardson |first1=Alan W. |title=Carnap's Construction of the World: The Aufbau and the Emergence of Logical Empiricism |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-43008-1 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rini |first1=Adriane |author1-link=ايڊريان ريني |title=Aristotle's Modal Proofs: Prior Analytics A8-22 in Predicate Logic |date=13 December 2010 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-007-0050-5 |page=26 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ritola |first1=Juho |title=Walton's Informal Logic: A Pragmatic Approach |journal=Informal Logic |date=1 December 2008 |volume=28 |issue=4 |page=335 |doi=10.22329/il.v28i4.2856 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rocci |first1=Andrea |title=Modality in Argumentation: A Semantic Investigation of the Role of Modalities in the Structure of Arguments with an Application to Italian Modal Expressions |date=8 March 2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-024-1063-1 |page=26 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rošker |first1=Jana S. |author1-link=يانا ايس روشڪر |title=Classical Chinese Logic: Philosophy Compass |journal=Philosophy Compass |date=May 2015 |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=301–309 |doi=10.1111/phc3.12226 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Runco |first1=Mark A. |last2=Pritzker |first2=Steven R. |title=Encyclopedia of Creativity |date=1999 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-227075-8 |page=155 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rush |first1=Penelope |title=The Metaphysics of Logic |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/RUSTMO-4 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184954/https://philpapers.org/rec/RUSTMO-4 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-03964-3 |pages=1–10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Sadegh-Zadeh |first1=Kazem |title=Handbook of Analytic Philosophy of Medicine |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-017-9579-1 |page=983 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sagüillo |first1=José M. |title=Hintikka on Information and Deduction |journal=Teorema: Revista Internacional de Filosofía |year=2014 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=75–88 |jstor=43047609 |issn=0210-1602 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Sarukkai |first1=Sundar |last2=Chakraborty |first2=Mihir Kumar |title=Handbook of Logical Thought in India |date=2022 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-81-322-2577-5 |pages=117–118 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Schagrin |first1=Morton L. |title=Metalogic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/metalogic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Schechter |first1=Joshua |title=Epistemology of Logic – Bibliography |url=https://philpapers.org/browse/epistemology-of-logic |website=PhilPapers |access-date=11 September 2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Schlesinger |first1=I. M. |last2=Keren-Portnoy |first2=Tamar |last3=Parush |first3=Tamar |title=The Structure of Arguments |date=1 January 2001 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-90-272-2359-3 |page=220 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Schreiner |first1=Wolfgang |title=Thinking Programs: Logical Modeling and Reasoning About Languages, Data, Computations, and Executions |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-80507-4 |page=22 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Scott |first1=John |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon |title=A Dictionary of Sociology |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095410661 |language=en |chapter=analytic induction |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108173225/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095410661 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Shapiro |first1=Stewart |last2=Kouri Kissel |first2=Teresa |title=Classical Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-classical/#Sema |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Shermer |first1=Michael |title=Conspiracy: Why the Rational Believe the Irrational |date=25 October 2022 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-1-4214-4445-1 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Sider |first=Theodore |author-link=ٿيوڊور سائيڊر |year=2010 |title=Logic for Philosophy |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-957558-9 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Siegel |first1=Harvey |last2=Biro |first2=John |title=Epistemic Normativity, Argumentation, and Fallacies |journal=Argumentation |year=1997 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=277–292 |doi=10.1023/A:1007799325361 |s2cid=126269789 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/SIEENA |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228035651/https://philpapers.org/rec/SIEENA |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Simpson |first1=R. L. |title=Essentials of Symbolic Logic |edition=3rd |date=2008 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=978-1-77048-495-5 |page=14 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Smith |first1=Robin |title=Aristotle's Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Spade |first1=Paul Vincent |last2=Panaccio |first2=Claude |title=William of Ockham |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ockham/#SummLogi |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2019 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Spriggs |first1=John |title=GSN – The Goal Structuring Notation: A Structured Approach to Presenting Arguments |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4471-2312-5 |pages=20–22 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Stairs |first1=Allen |title=A Thinker's Guide to the Philosophy of Religion |year=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-21981-5 |page=343 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Sternberg |first1=Robert J. |title=Thought |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/thought |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=14 October 2021 |language=en |archive-date=13 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211013145532/https://www.britannica.com/topic/thought |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Stolyar |first1=Abram Aronovich |title=Introduction to Elementary Mathematical Logic |date=1 January 1984 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=978-0-486-64561-2 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Stone |first1=Mark A. |title=Denying the Antecedent: Its Effective Use in Argumentation |journal=Informal Logic |year=2012 |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=327–356 |doi=10.22329/il.v32i3.3681 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/STODTA |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228123240/https://philpapers.org/rec/STODTA |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Stump |first1=David J. |title=Fallacy, Logical |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/fallacy-logical |website=encyclopedia.com |access-date=20 March 2021 |archive-date=15 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215112403/https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/fallacy-logical |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Talbott |first1=William |title=Bayesian Epistemology |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-bayesian/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=6 March 2021 |year=2016 |archive-date=1 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401034856/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-bayesian/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Tarski |first1=Alfred |author-link=الفريڊ تارسڪي |title=Introduction to Logic and to the Methodology of the Deductive Sciences |date=1994 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-802139-1 |page=40 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Tondl |first1=L. |title=Problems of Semantics: A Contribution to the Analysis of the Language Science |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-009-8364-9 |page=111 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Velleman |first1=Daniel J. |title=How to Prove It: A Structured Approach |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-67599-4 |pages=8, 103 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Vickers |first1=John M. |title=Inductive Reasoning |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0171.xml |website=Oxford Bibliographies |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=18 January 2023 |language=en |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Vidyabhusana |first1=Satis Chandra |title=A History of Indian Logic: Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern Schools |date=1988 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publisher |isbn=978-81-208-0565-1 |page=221 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Vleet |first1=Van Jacob E. |title=Informal Logical Fallacies: A Brief Guide |date=2010 |publisher=Upa |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/VLEILF |chapter=Introduction |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228035654/https://philpapers.org/rec/VLEILF |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-7618-5432-6 |pages=ix–x }}
* {{cite web |last1=Väänänen |first1=Jouko |title=Second-order and Higher-order Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-higher-order/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=23 November 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030222316/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-higher-order/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Walton |first1=Douglas N. |author-link=ڊگلس اين والٽن |title=Informal Fallacies: Towards a Theory of Argument Criticisms |date=1987 |publisher=John Benjamins |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WALIFT |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302001111/https://philpapers.org/rec/WALIFT |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-55619-010-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Warren |first1=Jared |title=Shadows of Syntax: Revitalizing Logical and Mathematical Conventionalism |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-008615-2 |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/shadows-of-syntax-9780190086152 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Washell |first1=Richard F. |title=Logic, Language, and Albert the Great |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |date=1973 |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=445–450 |doi=10.2307/2708963 |jstor=2708963 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WASLLA-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wasilewska |first1=Anita |title=Logics for Computer Science: Classical and Non-Classical |date=2018 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-92591-2 |pages=145–146 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Weber |first1=Zach |title=Paraconsistent Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/para-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=12 December 2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Weddle |first1=Perry |title=Across the Lines of Disciplines |chapter=Chapter 36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction |date=2011 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |isbn=978-3-11-086771-8 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110867718.383/html |language=en |doi=10.1515/9783110867718.383 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231172343/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110867718.383/html |url-status=live |pages=383–388 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Westerståhl |first1=Dag |title=Aristotelian Syllogisms and Generalized Quantifiers |journal=Studia Logica |year=1989 |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=577–585 |doi=10.1007/BF00370209 |s2cid=32089424 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WESASA |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104182746/https://philpapers.org/rec/WESASA |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wilbanks |first1=Jan J. |title=Defining Deduction, Induction, and Validity |journal=Argumentation |date=1 March 2010 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=107–124 |doi=10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |s2cid=144481717 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |language=en |issn=1572-8374 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171721/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite web |last1=Wilce |first1=Alexander |title=Quantum Logic and Probability Theory: 2.1 Realist Quantum Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qt-quantlog/#RealQuanLogi |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wile |first1=Bruce |last2=Goss |first2=John |last3=Roesner |first3=Wolfgang |title=Comprehensive Functional Verification: The Complete Industry Cycle |date=2005 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-047664-3 |page=447 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Willman |first1=Marshall D. |title=Logic and Language in Early Chinese Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-logic-language/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |at=Introduction |date=2022 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wolf |first1=Robert G. |title=Are Relevant Logics Deviant? |journal=Philosophia |year=1978 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=327–340 |doi=10.1007/BF02378819 |s2cid=143697796 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WOLARL |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216143955/https://philpapers.org/rec/WOLARL |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Zegarelli |first=Mark |title=Logic For Dummies |page=30 |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-118-05307-2 }}
{{refend}}

==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|date=5 November 2023|En-Logic-article.ogg}}
{{Sister project links|منطق}}
{{Library resources box}}

{{منطق}}
{{فلسفي جا موضوع}}
{{Authority control}}

[[زمرو:رسمي سائنسون]]
[[زمرو:منطق| ]]
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>k6zvj6089o8m6aw9srjc4aqtgyn4jl6</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399251</id>
      <parentid>399250</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T16:01:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399251</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="178233" sha1="fsnewwl8p8j3g3r2918b0mjb3zx0p4j" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|درست استدلال جي مطالعي جو علم}}


[[File:Modus ponendo ponens.png|thumb|درست استدلال جي هڪ صورت، {{لاتيني ٻولي|modus ponens}}، جنهن جو مطالعو منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.]]

'''منطق''' درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي جو علم آهي. ان ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن. صوري منطق اهڙن استدلالن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[قياسي استدلال]] جي لحاظ کان صحيح هجن يا [[منطقي سچائي]] تي ٻڌل هجن. اهو جاچي ٿو ته نتيجو دليل جي بناوت جي بنياد تي مقدمات مان ڪيئن نڪري ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه جي ته دليل جو موضوع يا مواد ڇا آهي. ان جي ابتڙ، غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ [[دليل بازي جو نظريو|دليل بازي جي نظرئي]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي. غير صوري منطق قدرتي ٻولين ۾ پيش ڪيل دليلن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو، جڏهن ته صوري منطق [[صوري ٻولي]] استعمال ڪري ٿو.

جڏهن &quot;منطق&quot; لفظ ڳڻپ واري اسم طور استعمال ٿئي ٿو، تڏهن ان مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي [[صوري نظام]] هوندو آهي، جيڪو پنهنجي [[ثبوتي نظام]] کي بيان ڪري ٿو. منطق جو فلسفي، [[رياضي]]، [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] ۽ [[لسانيات]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علمن ۾ بنيادي ڪردار آهي.

منطق [[دليل]]ن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جيڪي [[مقدمو|مقدمات]] جي هڪ مجموعي تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جن مان هڪ [[نتيجو]] نڪري ٿو. مثال طور، &quot;اڄ آچر آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;جيڪڏهن آچر آهي ته مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي&quot; مان نتيجو نڪري ٿو ته &quot;مون کي ڪم تي وڃڻ جي ضرورت ناهي.&quot;

مقدمات ۽ نتيجا [[قضيو|قضين]] يا دعوائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن ٿا. قضين جي هڪ اهم خاصيت انهن جي اندروني بناوت آهي. مثال طور، پيچيده قضيا سادن قضين مان ٺهندا آهن، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]]، جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;) يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; (&lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;) سان ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. سادن قضين جا به پنهنجا جزا هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ &quot;آچر&quot; يا &quot;ڪم&quot;. عام طور ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي ان جي سڀني جزن جي معنائن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي، پر [[منطقي سچائي|منطقي طور سچا]] قضيا صرف پنهنجي منطقي بناوت جي ڪري سچا هوندا آهن، انهن جي جزن جي مخصوص معنائن کان سواءِ.

دليل صحيح يا غلط ٿي سگهي ٿو. دليل تڏهن صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ان جا مقدمات نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن. [[قياسي استدلال|قياسي دليل]] سڀ کان وڌيڪ مضبوط هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن انهن جا مقدمات سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو. اها خاصيت [[وسعت ڏيندڙ استدلال]] ۾ موجود نه هوندي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مقدمات کان اڳتي وڌي نئين معلومات فراهم ڪندا آهن.

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ گهڻا دليل وسعت ڏيندڙ هوندا آهن. اهي عام طور ٻن قسمن جا هوندا آهن: [[استقرائي استدلال]] ۽ [[اغترافي استدلال]]. استقرائي دليل ڪيترن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي عام نتيجا اخذ ڪندا آهن، جهڙوڪ ڪيترن ئي ڪارن ڪانوَن کي ڏسي اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن. اغترافي دليل بهترين وضاحت تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جيئن ڪو ڊاڪٽر مريض جي علامتن مان اهڙي بيماري جو اندازو لڳائي، جيڪا انهن علامتن جي بهترين وضاحت ڪري.

جيڪي دليل درست استدلال جي معيار تي پورو نه لهندا آهن، اهي اڪثر [[مغالطو|مغالطن]] تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. منطقي نظام اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي دليلن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

منطق جو مطالعو [[قديم تاريخ]] کان ٿيندو اچي ٿو. ان جي شروعاتي روايتن ۾ [[ارسطويي منطق]]، [[اسٽوا منطق]]، [[نيايا]] ۽ [[موهزم]] شامل آهن. ارسطويي منطق [[قياس (منطق)|قياس]] تي ٻڌل استدلال تي زور ڏيندي هئي ۽ صدين تائين مغربي دنيا ۾ غالب رهي، تان جو اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جهڙن رياضي دانن جي ڪم سان جديد صوري منطق وجود ۾ آئي.

اڄ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ نظام [[روايتي منطق]] آهي، جنهن ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] شامل آهن. قضياتي منطق مڪمل قضين جي وچ ۾ منطقي لاڳاپن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته پهرين درجي جي منطق قضين جي اندروني جزن، جهڙوڪ [[محمول]] ۽ [[مقدار ڏيکاريندڙ]] کي پڻ نظر ۾ رکي ٿي.

جديد منطق جون واڌايل صورتون روايتي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي انهن کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[معرفت شناسي]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪن ٿيون، جيئن ممڪن يا ضروري، واجب يا جائز، ۽ يقين يا علم بابت استدلال ڪري سگهجي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[غير روايتي منطق]] روايتي منطق جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪري متبادل منطقي نظام پيش ڪري ٿي.

هن علم جا ڄاڻو دليلن ذريعي پنهنجي ڳالهه ڪندا آهن. سڀ کان پهرين ارسطو، منطق کي اهميت ڏني .سنڌ جي مڪتبن ۾ منطق هڪ مضمون طور شاگردن کي پڙهايو ويندو هو&lt;ref&gt;.ڪتاب:ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛پبلشر:سنڌ لئنگئيج اٿارٽي&lt;/ref&gt; 

ول ڊيورنٽ لکي ٿو تہ:فلاسافيءَ جي دعوت ۾ منطق هڪ نهايت معمولي شروعاتي طعام آهي پر ان سان سموري اشتها پوري ٿي ويندي آهي. منطق تي اسين شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان کي خبر هوندي آهي ته اسان جا دليل گهڻي ڀاڱي اسان جون اهي خواهشون هونديون آهن جن کي اسين عقل جو لباس پارائيندا آهيون. اسان پنهنجي پر ۾ غيرجانبدار خيالن جون عمارتون تعمير ڪندا آهيون، پر اصل ۾ اسان انهن واقعن ۽ اصولن جي چونڊ ڪري رهيا هوندا آهيون جيڪي اسان جي ذاتي يا قومي خواهشن سان مطابقت رکنديون آهن. اسان منطق تي شڪ ڪندا آهيون جو اسان پڪيءَ عمر مان سبق سکي چڪا هوندا آهيون ته زندگي دليلن کان وسيع، پرڀور ۽ اونهي آهي. منطق هڪ هنڌ ڄمي بيٺل حقيقتن جو مرڪب آهي جڏهن ته زندگي متحرڪ ۽ تبديل ٿيندڙ ۽ سڀني قانونن کي حيرت ۾ وجهندڙ آهي. ڪيتريون شيون آهن جن کي عقل اڳ مڃڻ کان انڪار ڪيو هو پر پوءِ انهن کي مڃڻ لاءِ مجبور ٿيو هو. شايد اسان جوانيءَ ۾ ئي دليلن جا سڀ اصول ياد ڪري ڇڏيندا آهيون پر پوءِ خبر پوندي آهي ته حقيقت جي سڃاڻ ۽ زندگيءَ جي حڪمت، دليلن جي ٺهيل ان ماپي سان ماپي نٿي سگهجي. اسان لاءِ خوشي ان ۾ آهي ته زندگيءَ جي حقيقتن جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ اسان منطق کي في الحال پاسيرو رکون ڇاڪاڻ جو منطق سان فلاسافي بي جان ۽ بي چسي ٿي پوندي آهي ۽ انهن مسئلن تي ڌيان ڏيون جيڪي جيتوڻيڪ گهٽ بنيادي آهن پر اسان جي زندگيءَ لاءِ نهايت اهم آهن. پر اسين ائين ڪري نٿا سگهون ڇاڪاڻ ته اسان کي سچ جي ڳولها آهي ۽ اسان ڪهڙي واٽ سان سچ کي ڳولهي سگهون ٿا ٻي ڳالهه ته اسين جيڪڏهن سچ تائين پهچي به وڃون ته اسان سچ کي ڪيئن سڃاڻي سگهنداسين ۽ اسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوندي ته هيءَ اها ئي شيءِ آهي جنهن جي اسان کي ڳولها هئي. ڳولها جو ٻيو ڪوبه طريقو پڪ غير منطقي ٿيندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ول ڊيورنٽ&quot;&gt; ڪتاب جو نالو: فلسفي جون راحتون ؛ليکڪ: وِل ڊيورانٽ ؛سنڌيڪار: آغا سليم
ايڊيشن؛ 2016 ڇپائيندڙ: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ ڄام شورو&lt;/ref&gt; 

دليلن کي پرکڻ ۽ واپرائڻ ۽ صحيح [[استدلال]] ڪرڻ جو علم آهي. لفظ منطق عربي ٻوليءَ مان اڌاريل آهي ۽ [[فارسي]] توڙي [[اردو]] ۾ به ساڳيو لفظ استعمال ٿئي ٿو. [[انگريزي]]ءَ ۾ اِن علم کي لاجِڪ چوندا آهن. منطق جا ڪيترائي قسم آهن.

==تاريخ==
{{Main|منطق جي تاريخ}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=330
| image1= Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg
| alt1= ارسطو جو مجسمو
| image2= Avicenne - Avicenna - Ibn_Sina (980-1037) CIPB2067.jpg
| alt2= ابن سينا جو پورٽريٽ
| image3= Guillaume Occam.jpg
| alt3= وليم آف اوڪهم جو پورٽريٽ
| image4= Wismar Marienkirche Bronzebüste Gottlob Frege (01-1).JPG
| alt4= گوٽلوب فريگي جو مجسمو
| footer= مٿيون قطار: [[ارسطو]]، جنهن مغربي منطق جي بنيادي روايت قائم ڪئي؛{{sfn|Groarke}} ۽ [[ابن سينا]]، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ تي پنهنجو منطقي نظام متعارف ڪرايو.{{sfn|Lagerlund|2018}} هيٺيون قطار: [[وليم آف اوڪهم]]، وچئين دور جي علمي فڪر جي اهم شخصيت؛{{sfn|Spade|Panaccio|2019}} ۽ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]]، جديد علامتي منطق جي بانيَن مان هڪ.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900|3a=Klement|3y=1995a}}
}}

قديم دور ۾ منطق ڪيترين ئي تهذيبن ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان الڳ نموني ترقي ڪئي. شروعاتي اهم مفڪرن مان هڪ [[ارسطو]] هو، جنهن پنهنجي ڪتابن ''[[اورگينون]]'' ۽ ''[[پرائر اينالٽڪس]]'' ۾ '''اصطلاحي منطق''' (ٽرم لاجڪ) کي منظم صورت ڏني.{{sfnm|1a1=Kline|1y=1972|1loc=&quot;A major achievement of Aristotle was the founding of the science of logic&quot;, p. 53|2a1=Łukasiewicz|2y=1957|2p=7|3a1=Liu|3a2=Guo|3y=2023|3p=15}} هن [[شرطي قياس]] (ھيپوٿيٽيڪل سلاجزم){{sfn|Lear|1980|p=34}} ۽ [[زماني موڊل منطق]] (ٽيمپورل موڊل لاجڪ) جي به بنياد وڌي.{{sfnm|1a1=Knuuttila|1y=1980|1p=71|2a1=Fisher|2a2=Gabbay|2a3=Vila|2y=2005|2p=119}} ارسطو [[استقرائي منطق]] (انڊڪٽو لاجڪ){{sfn|Berman|2009|p=133}} ۽ نون منطقي تصورن، جهڙوڪ [[اصطلاح]]، [[محموليت]] (پريڊيڪبلز)، قياس ۽ تجويزن تي پڻ اهم بحث ڪيو. ارسطوي منطق کي قديم ۽ وچئين دور ۾، يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر ٻنهي ۾ وڏي اهميت حاصل رهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} ۽ اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي شروعات تائين اهو غالب منطقي نظام رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Frede|2a1=Groarke}} اڄ جي دور ۾ جيتوڻيڪ ان جي جاءِ جديد منطق ورتي آهي، پر ان جا ڪيترائي بنيادي خيال اڃا به جديد منطقي نظامن ۾ موجود آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|loc=1. Introduction}}

[[ابن سينا]] (ايويسينا) ابن سيناوي منطق جو باني هو، جنهن [[اسلامي فلسفي ۾ منطق]] جي ميدان ۾ ارسطوي منطق جي جاءِ ورتي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hasse|1y=2008|2a1=Lagerlund|2y=2018}} سندس خيالن جو اثر [[البرٽس ميگنس]] ۽ [[وليم آف اوڪهم]] جهڙن يورپي مفڪرن تي به پيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Washell|1y=1973|1pp=445–450|2a1=Kneale|2a2=Kneale|2y=1962|2pp=229, 266}} ابن سينا شرطي قياس{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} ۽ [[تجويزي منطق]] (پروپوزيشنل ڪلڪيولس){{sfn|Goodman|1992|p=188}} تي اهم تحريرون لکيون. هن زماني ۽ امڪان کي گڏائيندڙ هڪ نئون قياسي نظريو تيار ڪيو، جنهن ۾ [[زماني منطق]] ۽ [[موڊل منطق]] جا عنصر شامل هئا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Spade|loc=Arabic Logic}} هن استقرائي منطق جا به طريقا بيان ڪيا، جهڙوڪ موافقت، اختلاف ۽ گڏيل تبديلي جا طريقا، جيڪي [[سائنسي طريقو|سائنسي طريقي]] لاءِ بنيادي اهميت رکن ٿا.{{sfn|Goodman|2003|p=155}} [[فخر الدين رازي]] پڻ هڪ اثرائتو مسلمان منطق دان هو. هن ارسطوي قياس تي تنقيد ڪئي ۽ استقرائي منطق جو اهڙو ابتدائي نظام پيش ڪيو، جنهن بعد ۾ [[جان اسٽوارٽ مل]] جي استقرائي منطق جي اڳواٽ نشاندهي ڪئي.{{sfn|Iqbal|2013|pp=99–115|loc=The Spirit of Muslim Culture}}

وچئين دور ۾ ارسطو جي منطقي ڪتابن جا ڪيترائي ترجما ۽ تشريحون تيار ڪيون ويون. [[بوئٿيوس]] جا ڪم خاص طور تي گهڻو اثرائتا رهيا. هن نه رڳو ارسطو جي تصنيفن کي لاطيني ۾ ترجمو ڪيو، پر منطق بابت درسي ڪتاب پڻ لکيا.{{sfnm|1a1=Marenbon|1y=2021|1loc=Introduction; 3. The Logical Text-Books|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade}} بعد ۾ ابن سينا ۽ [[ابن رشد]] (ايوريس) جهڙن اسلامي فلسفين جي تحريرن مان پڻ فائدو ورتو ويو، جنهن سان وچئين دور جي عيسائي عالمن کي قديم يوناني فڪر تائين وڌيڪ رسائي ملي. سنه 1323ع ۾ [[وليم آف اوڪھم]] جو مشهور ڪتاب ''[[سمّا لاجيڪائي]] (سمري آف لاجڪ)'' شايع ٿيو، جيڪو منطق جو جامع رسالو آهي ۽ جنهن ۾ منطقي تجويزن، انهن جي قسمن ۽ سندن صدق جي شرطن بابت منظم بحث ڪيو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|2a1=Hasse|2y=2008|3a1=Spade|3a2=Panaccio|3y=2019}}

چيني فلسفي ۾ [[نالن جو مڪتب]] (اسڪول آف نيمز) ۽ [[موهزم]] (Mohism) خاص اهميت رکندا هئا. نالن جي مڪتب ٻوليءَ جي استعمال ۽ منطقي تضادن تي ڌيان ڏنو. مثال طور [[گونگسن لانگ]] مشهور ''اڇي گهوڙي جو تضاد'' (وائيٽ ھارس پيراڊوڪس) پيش ڪيو، جنهن ۾ دليل ڏنو ويو ته &quot;اڇو گهوڙو، گهوڙو ناهي.&quot; موهزم پڻ منطق ۾ ٻوليءَ جي اهميت کي تسليم ڪيو ۽ ان کي اخلاقيات سان ڳنڍڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Willman|1y=2022|2a1=Rošker|2y=2015|2pp=301–309}}

هندستان ۾ منطق جو مطالعو بنيادي طور [[نيايه]]، [[ٻڌ مت]] ۽ [[جين مت]] جي فڪري روايتن ۾ ٿيو. ان کي الڳ علمي شعبي طور نه، پر علمُ المعرفت، مناظري ۽ استدلال جي بحثن جي حصي طور سمجهيو ويندو هو.{{sfn|Sarukkai|Chakraborty|2022|pp=117–118}} نيايه فلسفي ۾ استدلال کي علم حاصل ڪرڻ جو هڪ ذريعو (''[[پرمان]]'') سمجهيو ويو، جيڪو مشاهدي کان پوءِ شين جي سببن بابت نتيجا ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو هو.{{sfnm|1a1=Dasti|1loc=Lead section; 1b. Inference|2a1=Mills|2y=2018|2p=121}} ٻڌ ۽ جين منطق ۾ به استدلال کي ٻين ذريعن مان حاصل ٿيل علم کي وڌائڻ جو وسيلو سمجهيو ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Emmanuel|1y=2015|1pp=320–322|2a1=Vidyabhusana|2y=1988|2p=221}} نيايه جي پوئين دور جي [[نويا نيايه]] روايت جا ڪيئي خيال جديد منطق سان ملندڙ جلندڙ آهن، جهڙوڪ [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جو ''معنيٰ ۽ مرجع'' (سينس اينڊ ريفرنس) وارو فرق ۽ انگ جي تعريف.{{sfn|Chakrabarti|1976|pp=554–563}}

ارسطو جي قياسي منطق اولهه ۾ اوڻويهين صديءَ جي وچ تائين غالب رهي، پر رياضيات جي بنيادن بابت وڌندڙ دلچسپي جديد علامتي منطق جي ترقي جو سبب بڻي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Haaparanta|2y=2009|2pp=3–5|2loc=1. Introduction}} گهڻا محقق [[گوٽلوب فريگي]] جي ''[[بيگرفس شرفٽ]]'' (Begriffsschrift) کي جديد منطق جي شروعات سمجهن ٿا. [[گوٽفريڊ وِلهم لائبنٽس]] جي [[عالمي رسمي ٻولي]] (ڪئريڪٽرسٽڪا يونيورسلس) جو تصور ان جو اڳواٽ اشارو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو. ٻين اهم اڳواڻن ۾ [[جارج بول]] شامل آهي، جنهن [[بولي الجبرا]] (بوليئن آلجبرا) کي منطقي رياضيائي نظام طور پيش ڪيو، ۽ [[چارلس سينڊرس پيرس]]، جنهن [[لاڳاپن جي منطق]] (لاجڪ آگ رليٽوز) کي ترقي ڏني. بعد ۾ [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] انهن خيالن کي پنهنجي مشهور ڪتاب '' پرنسپيا ميٿميٽيڪا'' ۾ منظم ڪيو.

جديد منطق نوان تصور متعارف ڪرايا، جهڙوڪ [[تابع]] (فنڪشن)، مقدارساز (ڪونٽيفائر) ۽ لاڳاپائي محمول (رليشنل پريڊيڪيٽس). جديد علامتي منطق جي نمايان خاصيت رسمي ٻوليءَ جو استعمال آهي، جنهن ذريعي منطقي اصولن کي نهايت درست نموني بيان ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان لحاظ کان اهو اڳين منطق دانن کان مختلف آهي، جيڪي بنيادي طور قدرتي ٻوليءَ تي ڀاڙيندا هئا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haaparanta|1y=2009|1pp=4–6|1loc=1. Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Spade|2loc=Modern logic, Logic since 1900}} خاص طور تي [[اول-درجي منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) جي ترقي جديد منطق ۾ بنيادي حيثيت اختيار ڪئي.{{sfn|Ewald|2019}} ان جي تجزياتي وسعت رياضيات کي رسمي صورت ڏيڻ، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] جي ترقي ۽ [[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) جي قيام لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪيو، ۽ اهو جديد [[رياضياتي منطق]] جو مرڪزي نظام بڻجي ويو.{{sfnm|1a1=Ewald|1y=2019|2a1=Schreiner|2y=2021|2p=22}}

==وصف==

لفظ '''منطق''' يوناني لفظ ''لوگوس'' (''logos'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جا مختلف ترجما ڪيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[عقل]]، [[گفتگو]] يا [[ٻولي]].{{sfnm|1a1=Pépin|1loc=Logos|1y=2004|2a1=Online Etymology Staff}} منطق کي روايتي طور [[فڪر جا قانون|فڪر جي قانونن]] يا درست [[استدلال]] جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي،{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic}} ۽ عام طور ان کي [[استنتاج]]ن يا [[دليل]]ن جي حوالي سان سمجهيو ويندو آهي. استدلال، استنتاج ڪڍڻ جي ذهني سرگرمي آهي، جڏهن ته دليل ان استنتاج جي ظاهري اظهار کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10|3a1=Schlesinger|3a2=Keren-Portnoy|3a3=Parush|3y=2001|3p=220}}

دليل، مقدمَن جي هڪ مجموعي ۽ انهن مان نڪرندڙ نتيجي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. منطق جو بنيادي سوال اهو هوندو آهي ته ڇا دليل درست آهي، يعني ڇا ان جا مقدمَا نتيجي جي مناسب حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b|3a1=McKeon}} هيءَ عام وضاحت منطق جي وسيع مفهوم تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿي، جنهن ۾ [[صوري منطق]] ۽ [[غير صوري منطق]] ٻئي شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٻنهي جو مقصد دليلن جي درستگيءَ جو جائزو وٺڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–95|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} تنهن هوندي به، صوري منطق روايتي طور غالب شعبو رهيو آهي، ۽ ڪجهه منطق دان منطق کي رڳو صوري منطق تائين محدود سمجهن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Barnes|2y=2007|2p=274|3a1=Planty-Bonjour|3y=2012|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA62 62]|4a1=Rini|4y=2010|4p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&amp;pg=PA26 26]}}

===صوري منطق===

{{Further|صوري نظام}}

'''صوري منطق'''، جنهن کي '''علامتي منطق''' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، [[رياضياتي منطق]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿئي ٿو. اهو استدلال جي مطالعي لاءِ هڪ صوري طريقو اختيار ڪري ٿو، جنهن ۾ حقيقي جملا ۽ اظهار تجريدي [[علامت (صوري)|علامتن]] سان بدلائي دليلن جي [[منطقي صورت]] جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح صوري منطق دليل جي موضوع يا حقيقي مواد بدران ان جي تجريدي بناوت تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، تنهنڪري ان کي موضوع کان غيرجانبدار سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=MacFarlane|1y=2017|2a1=Corkum|2y=2015|2pp=753–767|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=2000|3pp=93–95|4a1=Magnus|4y=2005|4loc=1.6 Formal languages|4pp=12–14}}

صوري منطق خاص طور [[منطقي صحت|قياسي طور صحيح]] دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. اهڙي دليل ۾ جيڪڏهن سڀ مقدمَا سچا هجن ته نتيجو لازمي طور سچو هوندو؛ يعني اهو ممڪن نه هوندو ته مقدمَا سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} صحيح دليلن ۾ مقدمَن کان نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري بناوت هڪ مقرر نموني جي پيروي ڪندي آهي، جنهن کي [[استنتاج جو قاعدو]] چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=13}}

مثال طور، ''[[موڊس پونينس]]'' هڪ اهڙو استنتاجي قاعدو آهي، جنهن موجب هي صورت صحيح سمجهي وڃي ٿي:

# ''p''
# جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''
# تنهنڪري ''q''

هيءَ صورت ان ڳالهه کان آزاد آهي ته ''p'' ۽ ''q'' ڪهڙن مخصوص جملن جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Magnus|2005|loc=Proofs, p. 102}} ان لحاظ کان صوري منطق کي صحيح استنتاجن جو علم به چيو وڃي ٿو. هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، منطق [[منطقي سچائي]]ن جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Makridis|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|3a1=Runco|3a2=Pritzker|3y=1999|3p=155}}

ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي طور سچو هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي لفظن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي. اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۽ غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي سڀني [[تعبير (منطق)|تعبيرن]] هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي، جهڙوڪ: &quot;يا ته مينهن پيو وسي، يا مينهن نٿو وسي.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10}} صوري منطق جون اهي ٻئي وصفون هڪجهڙيون نه آهن، پر ويجهي لاڳاپي ۾ آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''p'' مان ''q'' جو استنتاج صحيح هجي، ته &quot;جيڪڏهن ''p''، ته ''q''&quot; منطقي سچائي هوندي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

[[File:First-order logic.png|thumb|upright=1.6|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي جملي کي [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]] ۾ بدلائڻ جو مثال. هتي “c” ڪارمين، “M” ميڪسيڪي، ۽ “T” استاد جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿا، جڏهن ته “∧” جي معنيٰ “۽” آهي.]]

صوري منطق دليلن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ، تجزيو ڪرڻ ۽ واضح ڪرڻ لاءِ [[صوري ٻولي]]ون استعمال ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=logic, informal|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–268}} اهڙين ٻولين جو لفظي ذخيرو محدود ۽ [[نحو|نحوي ضابطا]] انتهائي درست هوندا آهن. اهي ضابطا ٻڌائيندا آهن ته علامتن کي ڪيئن گڏ ڪري [[صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو|صحيح ٺهيل فارمولا]] ٺاهيا وڃن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal languages and systems|2a1=Simpson|2y=2008|2p=14}}

صوري ٻولين جي سادگي ۽ درستگي سبب صوري منطق استنتاج جا واضح قاعدا ترتيب ڏئي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا نه.{{sfn|Craig|1996|loc=Formal languages and systems}} ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صوري منطق صوري ٻوليءَ تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، تنهنڪري قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو سڌو جائزو نٿو وٺي سگهجي. انهن کي پهرين [[منطقي ترجمو|صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ترجمو]] ڪرڻو پوندو آهي، پوءِ انهن جي صحت پرکي ويندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=22–23|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=1.4 Deductive validity|2pp=8–9|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3p=267}}

لفظ &quot;منطق&quot; ڳڻپ واري اسم طور پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ &quot;هڪ منطق&quot; مان مراد هڪ مخصوص منطقي صوري نظام آهي. مختلف منطقي نظام انهن استنتاجي قاعدن ۽ صوري ٻولين ۾ هڪ ٻئي کان مختلف هوندا آهن، جن کي اهي صحيح تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=16–17|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12}}

اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان ڪيترائي نوان صوري نظام پيش ڪيا ويا آهن، پر ان ڳالهه تي اختلاف موجود آهي ته ڪنهن صوري نظام کي منطق قرار ڏيڻ لاءِ ڪهڙيون شرطون ضروري آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–2, 4|2a1=Jacquette|2y=2006|2loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|2pp=1–12}} مثال طور، ڪجهه عالمن موجب رڳو [[منطقي مڪملتا|منطقي طور مڪمل]] نظام، جهڙوڪ [[پهرين درجي جي منطق]]، صحيح معنيٰ ۾ منطق سڏجڻ جا حقدار آهن. انهيءَ سبب ڪجهه نظريه دان [[اعليٰ درجي جي منطق]] کي سخت معنيٰ ۾ منطق تسليم نٿا ڪن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=5–7, 9|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3pp=229–230}}

===غير صوري منطق===

{{Main|غير صوري منطق}}

منطق کي وسيع معنيٰ ۾ سمجهڻ سان ان ۾ صوري ۽ غير صوري منطق ٻئي شامل ٿين ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic}} غير صوري منطق دليلن جي درستگي پرکڻ لاءِ غير صوري معيار ۽ طريقا استعمال ڪري ٿو، ۽ ان جو بنيادي ڌيان روزمره جي گفتگو تي هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Johnson|2014|pp=228–229}}

هن شعبي جي ترقي ان مشڪل مان ٿي، جيڪا صوري منطق جي اصولن کي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ وقت سامهون آئي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=lead section; 1. History|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Johnson|3y=1999|3pp=265–274}} ان ڪري غير صوري منطق اهڙن مسئلن کي به ڏسي ٿو، جن کي صوري منطق اڪيلو مناسب نموني حل نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267}} ٻنهي شعبن جو مقصد صحيح دليلن کي مغالطن کان الڳ ڪرڻ لاءِ معيار مهيا ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–97|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}}

غير صوري منطق جون ڪيتريون وصفون پيش ڪيون ويون آهن، پر ان جي صحيح حد بابت مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=1999|1pp=265–270|2a1=van Eemeren|2a2=Garssen|2a3=Krabbe|2a4=Snoeck Henkemans|2a5=Verheij|2a6=Wagemans|2y=2021|2pp=1–45|2loc=Informal Logic}} سڀ کان سڌي وصف موجب &quot;صوري&quot; ۽ &quot;غير صوري&quot; جا لفظ دليل جي اظهار لاءِ استعمال ٿيل ٻوليءَ ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا. هن نظرئي موجب غير صوري منطق قدرتي يا غير صوري ٻوليءَ ۾ ڏنل دليلن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Informal logic|2y=1999a|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=logic, informal}}

صوري منطق اهڙن دليلن کي رڳو انهن جي صوري ترجمي وسيلي پرکي سگهي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق انهن کي سندن اصل ٻوليءَ ۾ ئي جانچي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1a2=Johnson|1y=2000|1pp=93–107|2a1=Groarke|2y=2021|2loc=lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Grootendorst|3a3=Johnson|3a4=Plantin|3a5=Willard|3y=2013|3p=169}}

مثال طور:

:&quot;پکي اڏامن ٿا. ٽويٽي هڪ پکي آهي. تنهنڪري ٽويٽي اڏامي ٿو.&quot;

هي قدرتي ٻوليءَ ۾ دليل آهي ۽ غير صوري منطق ان جو جائزو وٺي ٿي. ان جو صوري ترجمو هي ٿيندو:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \mathrm{Bird}(x) \to \mathrm{Flies}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Bird}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Flies}(\mathrm{Tweety})&lt;/math&gt;

هن ترجمي جو مطالعو صوري منطق ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Oaksford|Chater|2007|p=47}}

قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي دليلن جي مطالعي ۾ ڪيترين مشڪلاتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ روزمره جا لفظ ۽ جملا اڪثر ٻٽي معنيٰ رکندڙ، غير واضح ۽ پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=1. A new model of argument|2pp=2–3, 6–8|3a1=Engel|3y=1982|3loc=2. The medium of language|3pp=59–92}}

هڪ ٻي وسيع وصف موجب غير صوري منطق دليل بازي جي معيارن، اصولن ۽ طريقيڪارن جو معياري مطالعو آهي. هن معنيٰ ۾ اهو [[عقليت]]، [[تنقيدي سوچ]] ۽ دليل بازي جي نفسيات بابت سوالن کي به شامل ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Blair|Johnson|1987|pp=147–151}}

ڪجهه عالمن غير صوري منطق کي غير قياسي دليلن جي مطالعي سان سڃاتو آهي. هن لحاظ کان اهو صوري منطق ۾ پڙهيل قياسي استدلال کان مختلف آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falikowski|1a2=Mills|1y=2022|1p=98|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=Blair|3y=2011|3p=47}} غير قياسي دليل نتيجي کي ممڪن يا امڪاني بڻائين ٿا، پر ان جي سچائيءَ جي ضمانت نٿا ڏين. مثال طور، &quot;مون هن وقت تائين جيڪي سڀ ڪانوَ ڏٺا آهن، اهي ڪارا آهن&quot; مان &quot;سڀ ڪانوَ ڪارا آهن&quot; جو نتيجو ڪڍڻ هڪ [[استقرائي استدلال|استقرائي دليل]] آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vickers|1y=2022|2a1=Nunes|2y=2011|2pp=2066–2069|2loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}}

هڪ وڌيڪ وصف موجب غير صوري منطق [[غير صوري مغالطو|غير صوري مغالطن]] جو مطالعو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1y=2014|1p=181|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2p=267|3a1=Blair|3a2=Johnson|3y=1987|3pp=147–151}} غير صوري مغالطا اهڙا غلط دليل آهن، جن ۾ غلطي دليل جي مواد يا [[پسمنظر (ٻولي)|پسمنظر]] ۾ موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

مثال طور، [[ڪوڙو ٻه واٽو]] اهڙو مغالطو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ممڪن اختيارن کي نظرانداز ڪري فقط ٻه رستا پيش ڪيا وڃن. هن دليل ۾ اها غلطي ڏسي سگهجي ٿي:

:&quot;يا ته تون اسان سان گڏ آهين يا اسان جي خلاف؛ تون اسان سان گڏ نه آهين؛ تنهنڪري تون اسان جي خلاف آهين.&quot;{{sfnm|1a1=Maltby|1a2=Day|1a3=Macaskill|1y=2007|2a1=Dowden|1p=564}}

ڪجهه نظريه دانن موجب صوري منطق دليلن جي عام بناوت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق دليلن جي مخصوص مثالن جو جائزو وٺي ٿو. هڪ ٻي راءِ موجب صوري منطق درست استنتاج ۾ رڳو منطقي مستقلن جي ڪردار کي ڏسي ٿو، جڏهن ته غير صوري منطق غير منطقي ۽ موضوعاتي [[تصور]]ن جي معنائن کي به اهميت ڏئي ٿو. ٻين طريقن ۾ صوري اوزارن جي استعمال يا عدم استعمال ۽ دليلن جي جائزي ۾ [[معرفت شناسي]] جي ڪردار تي زور ڏنو ويو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Craig|1y=1996|1loc=Formal and informal logic|2a1=Johnson|2y=1999|2pp=265–270}}

==بنيادي تصور==

===مقدما، نتيجا ۽ سچائي===

====مقدمو ۽ نتيجو====

{{Main|مقدمو|منطقي نتيجو}}

'''مقدمو''' ۽ '''نتيجو''' استنتاج يا دليل جا بنيادي جزا آهن، تنهنڪري منطق ۾ انهن کي مرڪزي اهميت حاصل آهي. صحيح استنتاج يا درست دليل ۾ نتيجو مقدمَن مان نڪرندو آهي، يا ٻين لفظن ۾، مقدمَا نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}} مثال طور، &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; ۽ &quot;مريخ هڪ سيارو آهي&quot; وارا مقدمَا، &quot;مريخ هڪ ڳاڙهو سيارو آهي&quot; واري نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا.

منطق جي اڪثر شاخن ۾ اهو قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمَا ۽ نتيجا اهڙيون شيون هجن، جيڪي سچا يا ڪوڙا ٿي سگهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic}}{{efn|پر منطق جون ڪي شاخون، جهڙوڪ [[امري منطق]]، هن اصول کان مختلف آهن.{{sfn|Haack|1974|p=51}}}} يعني انهن وٽ [[سچائيءَ جي قيمت]] هوندي آهي، جيڪا يا ته سچ يا ڪوڙ هوندي آهي. جديد فلسفي ۾ عام طور تي انهن کي يا ته ''[[قضيو]]'' يا ''[[جملو]]'' سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

قضيا، جملن جي معنوي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن ۽ عام طور تي انهن کي [[تجريدي شئي]] سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Falguera|1a2=Martínez-Vidal|1a3=Rosen|1y=2021|2a1=Tondl|2y=2012|2p=111}} مثال طور، انگريزي جملو &quot;the tree is green&quot; ۽ جرمن جملو &quot;der Baum ist grün&quot; لفظن ۾ مختلف آهن، پر ٻنهي مان ساڳيو ئي قضيو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو.{{sfn|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT65 65–66]}}

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين طور سمجهڻ واري نظريي تي تنقيد پڻ ڪئي وئي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو تجريدي شين جي وجود کي فرض ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[فطرت پرستي (فلسفو)|فطرت پرست]] فلسفي عام طور تي اهڙين تجريدي شين جي وجود کي قبول نٿا ڪن. ان کان علاوه، اهو به سوال اٿاريو ويو آهي ته مختلف قضين جي سڃاڻپ جا معيار ڪيئن مقرر ڪيا وڃن.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

انهن اعتراضن کان بچڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فلسفي مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي قضين بدران جملن طور سمجهن ٿا، يعني اهڙين ٺوس لساني شين طور، جهڙوڪ ڪتاب جي صفحي تي لکيل لفظ يا نشان. پر هن نظرئي سان به نيون مشڪلاتون پيدا ٿين ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جملا گهڻو ڪري پسمنظر تي دارومدار رکندڙ ۽ گهڻ معنوي هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ دليل جي صحت رڳو ان جي جزن تي نه، پر ان جي استعمال واري پسمنظر ۽ تعبير تي پڻ منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Pietroski|2y=2021}}

هڪ ٻيو طريقو اهو آهي ته مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن کي نفسياتي اصطلاحن ۾، يعني خيالن يا فيصلن جي صورت ۾ سمجهيو وڃي. هن موقف کي [[نفسياتيت]] (سائڪالوجزم) چيو وڃي ٿو. ويهين صدي جي شروعات ۾ هن موضوع تي گهڻي بحث ٿي، پر اڄڪلهه هي نظريو وڏي پيماني تي قبول ٿيل ناهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Kusch|2y=2020|3a1=Rush|3y=2014|3pp=1–10, 189–190}}

====اندروني بناوت====

مقدمَن ۽ نتيجن جي هڪ اندروني بناوت پڻ هوندي آهي. قضين يا جملن جي حيثيت سان اهي يا ته سادا هوندا آهن يا مرڪب.{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مرڪب قضيو ٻين قضين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[منطقي رابطي]] (Logical connectives) جهڙوڪ &quot;۽&quot; يا &quot;جيڪڏهن... ته&quot; جي ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن. ان جي ابتڙ، سادي قضيي ۾ اهڙا قضيوي جزا نه هوندا آهن، پر ان کي به اندروني بناوت وارو سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو ننڍن جزن، جهڙوڪ [[واحد اصطلاح]] ۽ [[محمول]]، مان ٺهيل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfnm|1a1=King|1y=2019|2a1=Pickel|2y=2020|2pp=2991–3006}}

مثال طور، سادو قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot; واحد اصطلاح &quot;مريخ&quot; تي محمول &quot;ڳاڙهو&quot; لاڳو ڪرڻ سان ٺهي ٿو. جڏهن ته مرڪب قضيو &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي ۽ زهره اڇي آهي&quot; ٻن سادن قضين مان ٺهيل آهي، جيڪي &quot;۽&quot; واري منطقي رابطي سان ڳنڍيل آهن.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}

ڪنهن قضيي جي سچائي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ جزوي طور ان جي اندروني جزن تي دارومدار رکي ٿي. جيڪڏهن مرڪب قضيو [[سچائي-تابع]] (truth-functional) منطقي رابطن ذريعي ٺهيل هجي، ته ان جي سچائي رڳو ان جي جزوي قضين جي سچائيءَ تي منحصر هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Honderich|2005|loc=philosophical logic}}{{sfn|Pickel|2020|pp=2991–3006}}

پر سادن قضين ۽ انهن جي جزن جي معاملي ۾ هي تعلق وڌيڪ پيچيده هوندو آهي. انهن جزن جون پنهنجون معنائون هونديون آهن، جيئن ڪنهن خاص شيءِ يا شين جي ڪنهن جماعت ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|1loc=philosophical logic|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Philosophy of logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}} اهڙي سادي قضيي جي سچائي ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿي ته اهي جزا حقيقي دنيا سان ڪهڙو تعلق رکن ٿا، يعني جن شين ڏانهن اهي اشارو ڪن ٿا، انهن جي حقيقت ڇا آهي. هن موضوع جو مطالعو [[حواله جي نظريي]] (Theories of Reference) ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Michaelson|Reimer|2019}}
====منطقي سچائي====

{{Main|منطقي سچائي}}

ڪجهه مرڪب قضيا اهڙا هوندا آهن، جيڪي پنهنجي جزن جي غير منطقي معنائن کان آزاد طور سچا هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017}} مثال طور، [[روايتي منطق]] ۾ هي مرڪب قضيو:

: &quot;يا ته مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي، يا مريخ ڳاڙهو ناهي.&quot;

پنهنجي جزن، جهڙوڪ &quot;مريخ ڳاڙهو آهي&quot;، جي سچائي يا ڪوڙائي کان سواءِ به هميشه سچو هوندو آهي. اهڙي قسم جي سچائي کي '''منطقي سچائي''' چيو ويندو آهي. ڪو قضيو تڏهن منطقي سچائي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جي سچائي رڳو ان ۾ استعمال ٿيل منطقي اصطلاحن ۽ بناوت تي دارومدار رکي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=MacFarlane|2y=2017|3a1=Honderich|3y=2005|3loc=philosophical logic}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو پنهنجي غير منطقي اصطلاحن جي هر ممڪن تعبير هيٺ سچو رهندو آهي. [[موڊل منطق]] جي ڪجهه نظامن ۾ ان جو اهو به مطلب ورتو ويندو آهي ته اهڙو قضيو سڀني [[ممڪن دنيا|ممڪن دنيائن]] ۾ سچو هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gómez-Torrente|1y=2019|2a1=Jago|2y=2014|2p=41}} ڪجهه نظريه دان منطق کي منطقي سچائين جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=16}}

====سچائي جدول====

[[سچائي جدول]] (ٽرٿ ٽيبل) منطقي رابطن جي ڪم ڪرڻ جو طريقو، يا اهو ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن ته مرڪب قضين جي سچائي انهن جي جزن تي ڪيئن دارومدار رکي ٿي. هر جدول ۾ هر داخلا متغير (انپٽ ويريئبل) لاءِ هڪ الڳ ڪالم هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته هر قطار انهن متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جي ممڪن حالتن مان هڪ حالت جي نمائندگي ڪندي آهي. انگريزي منطق جي ڪتابن ۾ عام طور &quot;T&quot; ۽ &quot;F&quot; يا &quot;1&quot; ۽ &quot;0&quot; کي ترتيبوار &quot;سچ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪوڙ&quot; لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–38|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164|3a1=Hall|3a2=O'Donnell|3y=2000|3p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yP4MJ36C4ZgC&amp;pg=PA48 48]}}

پهريان ڪالم داخلا متغيرن جي سچائيءَ جا سڀ ممڪن ميلاپ ڏيکارين ٿا، جڏهن ته ٻين ڪالمن ۾ انهن مان ٺهيل مرڪب اظهار جي سچائي ڏيکاري ويندي آهي.

مثال طور، اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \land q&lt;/math&gt; ۾ &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; منطقي رابطو &quot;۽&quot; استعمال ٿيل آهي. هي اهڙي جملي جي نمائندگي ڪري سگهي ٿو جيئن:

: &quot;ڪالهه آچر هو ۽ موسم سٺي هئي.&quot;

هي اظهار صرف ان صورت ۾ سچو هوندو، جڏهن ٻنهي جزن &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;ڪالهه آچر هو&quot;) ۽ &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;موسم سٺي هئي&quot;) جي سچائي ثابت هجي. جيڪڏهن انهن مان ڪو هڪ به ڪوڙو هجي، ته سڄو اظهار ڪوڙو ٿيندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Magnus|1y=2005|1loc=3. Truth tables|1pp=35–45|2a1=Angell|2y=1964|2p=164}}

ٻيا اهم منطقي رابطا هي آهن:

* &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; — [[نفي]] (نه)
* &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; — [[منطقي انفصال]] (يا)
* &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; — [[مادي شرط]] (جيڪڏهن... ته)
* &lt;math&gt;\uparrow&lt;/math&gt; — [[شيفر اسٽروڪ]]

جيڪڏهن شرطي اظهار &lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته ان جو [[عڪس (منطق)|عڪس]] (&lt;math&gt;q \to p&lt;/math&gt;)، [[معڪوس (منطق)|معڪوس]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot p \to \lnot q&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ [[مخالف نقيض]] (&lt;math&gt;\lnot q \to \lnot p&lt;/math&gt;) پڻ سچائي جدولن ذريعي ڏيکاري سگهجن ٿا. سچائي جدول وڌيڪ پيچيده اظهارن لاءِ به ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪيترائي منطقي رابطا استعمال ٿيل هجن.{{sfn|Tarski|1994|p=40}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:1em; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ مختلف منطقي اظهارن جي سچائي جدول
|-
! ''p''
! ''q''
! ''p'' ∧ ''q''
! ''p'' ∨ ''q''
! ''p'' → ''q''
! ''¬p'' → ''¬q''
|-
| سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ || سچ
|-
| سچ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ
|-
| ڪوڙ || سچ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ || ڪوڙ
|-
| ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || ڪوڙ || سچ || سچ
|}

===دليل ۽ استدلال===
{{Main|دليل|استدلال}}

منطق کي عام طور دليلن يا استدلالن جي درستيءَ جي مطالعي طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} '''دليل''' (آرگيومينٽ) مان مراد مقدمَن ۽ نتيجي جو اهڙو مجموعو آهي،{{sfnm|1a1=Blackburn|1y=2008|1loc=argument|2a1=Stairs|2y=2017|2p=343}} جڏهن ته '''استدلال''' (انفرنس) انهن مقدمَن مان نتيجو اخذ ڪرڻ جي ذهني عمل کي چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}} بهرحال، منطق ۾ اهي ٻئي اصطلاح گهڻو ڪري هڪ ٻئي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[File:Argument_terminology.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|alt=منطق ۾ دليل جي اصطلاحن جو خاڪو|منطق ۾ [[دليل]] سان لاڳاپيل اصطلاحن جو خاڪو]]

دليل صحيح يا غلط ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته ڇا ان جا مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪن ٿا يا نه، جڏهن ته مقدما ۽ نتيجا حقيقت سان مطابقت جي لحاظ کان سچا يا ڪوڙا هوندا آهن. [[رسمي منطق]] ۾ '''مضبوط دليل''' اهو هوندو آهي، جيڪو نه رڳو صحيح هجي پر جنهن جا سڀئي مقدما به سچا هجن.{{sfn|Copi|Cohen|Rodych|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38bADwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA30 30]}}

ڪڏهن دليلن کي سادن ۽ مرڪب دليلن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. مرڪب دليل ڪيترن سادن دليلن جي زنجير تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ هڪ دليل جو نتيجو ايندڙ دليل جو مقدمو بڻجي ويندو آهي. اهڙي مرڪب دليل جي ڪاميابي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته ان زنجير جي هر ڪڙي صحيح هجي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

دليل ۽ استدلال يا ته صحيح هوندا آهن يا غلط. جيڪڏهن اهي صحيح هجن ته سندن مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ڪندا آهن، ۽ جيڪڏهن غلط هجن ته اها حمايت موجود نه هوندي. حمايت جون مختلف صورتون استدلال جي مختلف قسمن سان لاڳاپيل هونديون آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

حمايت جي سڀ کان مضبوط صورت [[قياسي استدلال]] سان واسطو رکي ٿي، پر اهي دليل جيڪي قياسي طور صحيح نه هجن، سي به سٺا دليل ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪڏهن سندن مقدما نتيجي لاءِ غير قياسي حمايت فراهم ڪن. اهڙن دليلن کي '''توسيعي استدلال''' (Ampliative reasoning) يا '''استقرائي استدلال''' به چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}} قياسي دليلن جو تعلق عام طور رسمي منطق سان هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته توسيعي دليل غير رسمي منطق سان لاڳاپيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=1.1 Formal and Informal Logic|2a1=Weddle|2y=2011|2loc=36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction|2pp=383–388|3a1=van Eemeren|3a2=Garssen|3y=2009|3p=191}}

====قياسي استدلال====

[[قياسي استدلال]] ۾ صحيح دليل اهو هوندو آهي، جنهن جا مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي لازمي بڻائين.{{sfnm|1a1=McKeon|2a1=Craig|2y=1996|2loc=Formal and informal logic}} مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر پاڻي  ۽ خشڪي وارا جانور (ايمفيبيئن) آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي پاڻي ۽ خشڪي وارو جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل قياسي طور صحيح آهي.

قياسي درستيءَ لاءِ اهو ضروري ناهي ته مقدما يا نتيجو حقيقت ۾ به سچا هجن. مثال طور:

# سڀ ڏيڏر کير پياريندڙ جانور آهن.
# ڪا به ٻلي کير پياريندڙ جانور ناهي.
# تنهن ڪري ڪا به ٻلي ڏيڏر ناهي.

هي دليل به قياسي لحاظ کان صحيح آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو منطقي طور مقدمَن مان لازمي نڪري ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ پهريون مقدمو حقيقت ۾ غلط آهي.{{sfn|Evans|2005|loc=8. Deductive Reasoning, [https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&amp;pg=PA169 p. 169]}}

[[الفريڊ تارسڪي]] جي اثرائتي راءِ موجب قياسي دليلن جون ٽي بنيادي خاصيتون آهن:

* اهي رسمي  هوندا آهن؛ يعني سندن درستي صرف دليل جي منطقي بناوت تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.
* اهي قبلي (a priori) هوندا آهن؛ يعني انهن جي درستي ڄاڻڻ لاءِ حسي تجربي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي.
* اهي منطقي ضرورت (لاجيڪل نيسيسٽي) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن، يعني ٻين حالتن کان آزاد هوندا آهن.{{sfn|McKeon}}

رسميت واري خاصيت سبب قياسي استدلال کي عام طور [[قاعدو استدلال|قاعدنِ استدلال]] سان ڳنڍيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} اهي قاعدا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدما ۽ نتيجو ڪهڙي منطقي صورت ۾ هجن ته دليل صحيح شمار ٿئي. جيڪي دليل انهن قاعدن تي پورو نه لهن، سي قياسي طور غلط سمجهيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–14|2a1=Blackburn|2y=2016|2loc=rule of inference}}

قياسي استدلال جو مشهور قاعدو '''مودس پونينس''' ({{lang|la|Modus Ponens}}) آهي:

* ''p''
* جيڪڏهن ''p'' ته ''q''
* تنهن ڪري ''q''

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن معلوم هجي ته مينهن پيو آهي (&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) ۽ مينهن کان پوءِ رستا آلا ٿيندا آهن (&lt;math&gt;p \to q&lt;/math&gt;)، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته رستا آلا آهن (&lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;).{{sfn|Dick|Müller|2017|p=157}}

قياسي استدلال جي هڪ اهم خاصيت اها آهي ته اهو '''سچائي محفوظ رکندڙ''' هوندو آهي؛ يعني اهو ناممڪن آهي ته مقدما سچا هجن پر نتيجو ڪوڙو نڪري.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=13|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

انهيءَ بنياد تي ڪڏهن چيو ويندو آهي ته قياسي استدلال نئين معلومات پيدا نٿو ڪري، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ موجود هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=D'Agostino|2a2=Floridi|2y=2009|2pp=271–315}} بهرحال، ڪجهه فلسفين هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪيو آهي. انهن موجب نتيجو شايد ڪا نئين ''سطحي معلومات''  پيش ڪري، جيتوڻيڪ اها ''اونھي معلومات'' جي لحاظ کان اڳ ئي مقدمَن ۾ شامل هجي. رياضي جا ثبوت هن ڳالهه جو نمايان مثال آهن، جتي پوشيده معلومات کي واضح صورت ۾ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=Sagüillo|2y=2014|2pp=75–88|3a1=Hintikka|3y=1970|3pp=135–152}}

====توسيعي استدلال====

توسيعي استدلال (Ampliative reasoning) ۾ نتيجو اهڙي معلومات تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جيڪا مقدمَن ۾ سڌيءَ طرح موجود نه هوندي. ان لحاظ کان اهڙا دليل وڌيڪ معلوماتي سمجهيا ويندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نئين ڄاڻ تائين پهچائيندا آهن. پر ان جي بدلي ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي سچائي کي يقيني نه بڻائيندا، بلڪه صرف ان کي وڌيڪ امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1pp=13–16|2a1=Backmann|2y=2019|2pp=235–255|3a1=IEP Staff}}

ان جو مطلب اهو آهي ته اهڙي دليل جو نتيجو ڪوڙو به ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي مقدما سچا هجن. هيءَ خاصيت [[غير يڪسان منطق]] (نان-مونوٽڪ لاجڪ) ۽ [[ردپذير استدلال]] (ڊفيزبل ريزننگ) سان ويجهي لاڳاپيل آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نئين معلومات ملڻ تي اڳوڻو نتيجو واپس وٺڻو پئجي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Rocci|1y=2017|1p=26|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=13, 16|3a1=Douven|3y=2021}}

روزمره جي گفتگو ۽ سائنس ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ گهڻا دليل توسيعي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن. اهڙا دليل لازمي طور غلط ناهن هوندا، پر انهن جي درستيءَ جا معيار قياسي دليلن کان مختلف هوندا آهن. انهن جي حمايت درجن ۾ هوندي آهي؛ مضبوط توسيعي دليل نتيجي کي گهڻو امڪاني بڻائيندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪمزور دليل گهٽ يقين ڏياريندا آهن. ان ڪري ڪڏهن صحيح ۽ غلط جي وچ ۾ واضح حد قائم ڪرڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Douven|2y=2021|3a1=Hawthorne|3y=2021}}

توسيعي دليلن جي درجابندي بابت اصطلاحن ۾ مڪمل اتفاق موجود ناهي. ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[جيمس هاٿورن]]، سڀني غير قياسي دليلن لاءِ &quot;استقراء&quot; (انڊڪشن) جو اصطلاح استعمال ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=IEP Staff|2a1=Hawthorne|2y=2021|3a1=Wilbanks|3y=2010|3pp=107–124}} جڏهن ته محدود معنيٰ ۾ استقراء کي توسيعي استدلال جي هڪ قسم طور ڏٺو ويندو آهي، جنهن سان گڏ [[ابڊڪٽي استدلال]] (ابڊڪٽو ريزننگ) به شامل هوندو آهي.{{sfn|Douven|2021}} ڪجهه فلسفي، جهڙوڪ [[لئو گورڪي]]، [[ترجيحي دليل]] (ڪنڊڪٽو آرگيومينٽ) کي به هڪ الڳ قسم تسليم ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|1y=2021|1loc=4.1 AV Criteria|2a1=Possin|2y=2016|2pp=563–593}}

استقراء کي اڪثر شمارياتي تعميم (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل جنرلائيزيشن) طور بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Scott|1a2=Marshall|1y=2009|1loc=Analytic induction|2a1=Houde|2a2=Camacho|2loc=Induction|2y=2003}} مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڏٺل سڀئي هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا هجن، ته ان مان نتيجو ڪڍيو وڃي ته &quot;سڀ هاٿي سرمائي رنگ جا آهن&quot;.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}} اهڙي ئي استدلال جي هڪ ٻي صورت ۾ عام قانون بدران ڪنهن خاص مثال بابت نتيجو ڪڍيو ويندو آهي، جيئن ڪنهن اڻ ڏٺل هاٿي بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍڻ ته اهو به سرمائي رنگ جو هوندو.{{sfn|Borchert|2006b|loc=Induction}}

ابدڪٽي استدلال (ايبڊڪٽو انفرنس) شمارياتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل به ٿي سگهي ٿو ۽ نه به. ان ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت ان ڪري ڪندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نتيجو انهن مقدمَن جي بهترين وضاحت (Best explanation) پيش ڪندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}} انهيءَ ڪري ان کي &quot;بهترين وضاحت ڏانهن استدلال&quot; (انفرنس ٽو دي بيسٽ ايڪسپلينيشن) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صبح جو سوير باورچيخاني ۾ مانيءَ جا ٽڪرا پيل ڏٺا وڃن، ته اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته گهر جي ڪنهن فرد رات جو دير سان ڪجهه کاڌو ۽ ميز صاف نه ڪئي. هي نتيجو ان حالت جي سڀ کان مناسب وضاحت سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.{{sfn|Douven|2021}}

البت، صرف اها ڳالهه ڪافي ناهي ته نتيجو مقدمَن جي وضاحت ڪري. مثال طور، اهو چوڻ ته رات جو ڪو چور گهر ۾ گهڙيو، بک لڳڻ سبب ڪجهه کاڌائين ۽ پوءِ هليو ويو، پڻ انهن نشانين جي وضاحت ڪري سگهي ٿو، پر اهو بهترين يا سڀ کان وڌيڪ امڪاني وضاحت نه هئڻ سبب قابل قبول نتيجو نه سمجهيو ويندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Douven|1y=2021|2a1=Koslowski|2y=2017|2loc=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/locs/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski Abductive reasoning and explanation]}}{{sfn|Cummings|2010|loc=Abduction, p. 1}}
===مغالطا===
{{Main|مغالطو}}

هر دليل صحيح استدلال جي معيارن تي پورو نٿو لهي. جيڪي دليل انهن معيارن تي پورو نٿا لهن، تن کي عام طور [[مغالطو|مغالطا]] چيو ويندو آهي. مغالطي جي بنيادي خصوصيت اها ناهي ته ان جو نتيجو لازمي طور ڪوڙو هجي، پر اها آهي ته نتيجي تائين پهچڻ واري استدلال ۾ ڪا منطقي خامي موجود هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Chatfield|2y=2017|2p=194}} مثال طور، دليل &quot;اڄ سج نڪتل آهي، تنهن ڪري مکڙين کي اٺ ٽنگون هونديون آهن&quot; مغالطو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو نتيجو حقيقت ۾ سچو آهي.

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[جان اسٽورٽ مل]]، مغالطي جي وڌيڪ محدود تعريف پيش ڪن ٿا. سندن خيال موجب، مغالطي لاءِ ضروري آهي ته اهو ظاهري طور صحيح به لڳي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1p=7|2a1=Hansen|2y=2020}} هن تصور موجب، حقيقي مغالطن کي انهن سادن استدلالي غلطين کان الڳ ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي صرف بي ڌياني يا لاپرواهي سبب ٿينديون آهن. اهو پڻ بيان ڪري ٿو ته ماڻهو مغالطن جو شڪار ڇو ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن ۾ اهڙي ظاهري ڪشش هوندي آهي، جيڪا ماڻهن کي انهن کي قبول ڪرڻ يا استعمال ڪرڻ تي آماده ڪري ٿي.{{sfn|Hansen|2020}} تنهن هوندي به، &quot;ظاهر ۾ صحيح لڳڻ&quot; واري شرط تي اختلاف موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها ڳالهه [[نفسيات]] سان لاڳاپيل آهي، نه ڪي منطق سان، ۽ مختلف ماڻهن لاءِ ظاهر جو تاثر به مختلف ٿي سگهي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hansen|1y=2020|2a1=Walton|2y=1987|2loc=3. Logic of propositions|2p=63}}

[[File:Young America's dilemma - Dalrymple. LCCN2010651418.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=1901ع جو هڪ پوسٽر|1901ع جو پوسٽر، جيڪو [[ڪوڙو ٻٽو انتخاب]] (فالس ڊليما) جي مثال طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو؛ هي [[غير رسمي مغالطو]] آهي، جنهن ۾ اهڙا متبادل نظرانداز ڪيا ويندا آهن جيڪي حقيقت ۾ موجود هوندا آهن.]]

مغالطن کي عام طور ٻن بنيادي قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي: [[رسمي مغالطو|رسمي مغالطا]] ۽ [[غير رسمي مغالطو|غير رسمي مغالطا]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vleet|1y=2010|1loc=Introduction|1pp=ix–x|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Stump}}

رسمي مغالطن ۾ غلطي دليل جي '''صورت''' (فارم) ۾ هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[مقدم جي نفي]] (ڊنائنگ دي اينٽيسيڊنٽس) رسمي مغالطي جو هڪ قسم آهي، جيئن هن دليل ۾:

* جيڪڏهن اسلم ڪنوارو آهي، ته هو مرد آهي.
* اسلم ڪنوارو ناهي.
* تنهن ڪري اسلم مرد ناهي.

هي دليل منطقي صورت جي ڪري غلط آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sternberg|2a1=Stone|2y=2012|2pp=327–356}}

اڪثر مغالطا غير رسمي مغالطن جي زمري ۾ اچن ٿا، جن جا ڪيترائي قسم علمي ادب ۾ بيان ڪيا ويا آهن. انهن ۾ غلطي عام طور دليل جي '''مواد''' يا '''پسمنظر''' ۾ هوندي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Walton|1y=1987|1loc=1. A new model of argument|1pp=2–4|2a1=Dowden|3a1=Hansen|3y=2020}}

غير رسمي مغالطن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ٽن قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ابھام جا مغالطا]]
* [[مفروضي جا مغالطا]]
* [[لاڳاپي جا مغالطا]]

ابھام جي مغالطن ۾ قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي گهڻ معنائپ يا اڻچٽائي غلطي جو سبب بڻجي ٿي. مثال طور: &quot;پن هلڪا آهن؛ جيڪا شيءِ هلڪي آهي، اها اوندهه نه ٿي سگهي؛ تنهن ڪري پن اوندهه نه ٿا ٿي سگهن.&quot; هتي &quot;هلڪو&quot; لفظ ٻن مختلف معنائن ۾ استعمال ٿيو آهي، جنهن ڪري مغالطو پيدا ٿئي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Engel|1y=1982|1loc=2. The medium of language|1pp=59–92|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967|3a1=Stump}}
مفروضي جي مغالطن ۾ دليل جو ڪو مقدمو غلط يا بي بنياد هوندو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ دليل جي منطقي بناوت ٻي صورت ۾ صحيح ٿي سگهي ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Engel|2y=1982|2loc=4. Fallacies of presumption|2pp=143–212}}
لاڳاپي جي مغالطن ۾ مقدما نتيجي جي حمايت نٿا ڪن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي نتيجي سان منطقي طور لاڳاپيل ئي ناهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Stump|2a1=Mackie|2y=1967}}

===تعريفي ۽ حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا===

گهڻن منطقي ماهرن جو بنيادي ڌيان انهن معيارن جي مطالعي تي هوندو آهي، جن جي بنياد تي ڪنهن دليل کي صحيح يا غلط قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو. جڏهن اهي معيار ڀڃيا وڃن، تڏهن [[مغالطو]] پيدا ٿئي ٿو. رسمي منطق ۾ انهن معيارن کي '''استدلال جا قاعدا''' (رولز آف انفرنس) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

استدلال جا قاعدا '''تعريفي قاعدا''' (ڊيفينيٽري رولز) هوندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي طئي ڪندا آهن ته ڪهڙو استدلال صحيح آهي يا ڪهڙا استدلال جائز آهن. انهن جي مقابلي ۾ '''حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا''' (اسٽريٽجڪ رولز) هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهو ٻڌائيندا آهن ته ڏنل مقدمن مان ڪنهن خاص نتيجي تائين پهچڻ لاءِ استدلال جا ڪهڙا قدم کڻڻ گهرجن.

هي فرق رڳو منطق تائين محدود ناهي، پر راندين ۾ به لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. مثال طور، [[شطرنج]] ۾ تعريفي قاعدا اهو مقرر ڪن ٿا ته [[شطرنج جو بشپ|بشپ]] صرف ترڇي رخ ۾ هلائي سگهجي ٿو. ان جي ابتڙ، حڪمتِ عملي وارا قاعدا بيان ڪن ٿا ته جائز هلن کي ڪهڙي نموني استعمال ڪري راند کٽي سگهجي ٿي، جهڙوڪ تختي جي وچئين حصي تي ڪنٽرول قائم رکڻ يا پنهنجي [[شطرنج جو بادشاهه|بادشاهه]] جي حفاظت ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Sandu|1y=2006|1p=20|2a1=Pedemonte|2y=2018|2pp=1–17|3a1=Hintikka|3y=2023}}

ڪجهه مفڪرن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي ماهرن کي حڪمتِ عملي وارن قاعدن تي وڌيڪ ڌيان ڏيڻ گهرجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي مؤثر ۽ عملي استدلال ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا.{{sfn|Hintikka|Sandu|2006|p=20}}

===رسمي نظام===
{{Main|رسمي نظام}}

منطق جو '''رسمي نظام''' (فارمل سسٽم) هڪ [[رسمي ٻولي]]، [[مسلمو|مسلمن]] (Axioms) ۽ [[ثبوت]] جي نظام (پروف سسٽم) تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جنهن جي مدد سان انهن مسلمن مان استدلال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Kulik|1a2=Fridman|1y=2017|1p=74|2a1=Cook|2y=2009|2p=124}} منطق ۾ '''مسلمو''' اهڙو بيان هوندو آهي، جيڪو بغير ثبوت جي قبول ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ ٻين بيانن يا نتيجن کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ بنياد طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Flotyński|1y=2020|1p=39|2a1=Berlemann|2a2=Mangold|2y=2009|2p=194}} ڪجهه مفڪر رسمي نظام ۾ [[منطق جي معنيٰ شناسي|معنيٰ شناسي]] (سمينٽڪس) کي پڻ شامل ڪن ٿا، جيڪا بيان ڪري ٿي ته رسمي ٻوليءَ جا اظهار حقيقي شين يا حقيقتن سان ڪيئن لاڳاپيل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1p=xliii|2a1=Font|2a2=Jansana|2y=2017|2p=8}} اوڻيهين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي منطق جا ڪيترائي نوان رسمي نظام تجويز ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32|3a1=Jacquette|3y=2006|3loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|3pp=1–12}}

رسمي ٻولي هڪ '''الفابيٽ''' ۽ نحوي قاعدن (سنٽيڪٽڪ رولز) تي مشتمل هوندي آهي. الفابيٽ انهن بنيادي نشانين جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جيڪي [[رياضياتي اظهار]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿين ٿيون، جڏهن⁠ته نحوي قاعدا طئي ڪندا آهن ته اهي نشانيون ڪهڙي ترتيب سان گڏجي '''صحيح ٺهيل فارمولو''' (ويل-فارمڊ فارمولا) ٺاهين.{{sfnm|1a1=Moore|1a2=Carling|1y=1982|1p=53|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Sentential Logic|2pp=12–13}} مثال طور، [[قضياتي منطق]] ۾ &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو آهي، پر &lt;math&gt;\land Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح فارمولو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ منطقي رابطي &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; جي ٻنهي پاسن تي اظهار موجود هجڻ لازمي آهي.{{sfn|Lepore|Cumming|2012|p=5}}

'''ثبوت جو نظام''' (پروف سسٽم) اهڙن قاعدن جو مجموعو هوندو آهي، جن جي ذريعي رسمي ثبوت تيار ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهو مسلمن مان نتيجا ڪڍڻ جو هڪ طريقو مهيا ڪري ٿو. انهن قاعدن جو بنياد فارمولي جي نحوي بناوت تي هوندو آهي، نه ڪي ان جي خاص معنيٰ تي. مثال طور، [[اشتراڪ جي تعارف]] (ڪنجنڪشن انٽروڊڪشن) جو قاعدو ٻڌائي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هجن، ته &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو. اهڙا قاعدا لڳاتار لاڳو ڪري مقدمن مان نتيجا ميخانياتي طريقي سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا. ثبوت جي نظامن جا مختلف قسم آهن، جن ۾ [[قدرتي استنباط]] (نيچرل ڊڊڪشن) ۽ [[سيڪوئنٽ حساب]] (سيڪئينٽ ڪيليولس) شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Wasilewska|1y=2018|1pp=145–146|2a1=Rathjen|2a2=Sieg|2y=2022}}

'''معنيٰ شناسي''' (سمينٽڪس) اهڙو نظام آهي، جيڪو رسمي ٻوليءَ جي اظهار کي انهن جي معنائن يا حوالن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي. منطق جي ڪيترن ئي نظامن ۾ اهي معنا [[سچائي جي قيمت]] (ٽرٿ ويليو) هوندي آهي. مثال طور، [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي قضياتي منطق ۾ فارمولو &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; تڏهن ئي &quot;سچو&quot; هوندو، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻئي سچا هجن. معنائي نقطهٔ نظر کان، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن مقدمي جي سچائي هر حالت ۾ نتيجي جي سچائي جو سبب بڻجي، ته چيو ويندو آهي ته مقدمو نتيجي کي لازم ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1pp=34–42|2a1=Shapiro|2a2=Kouri Kissel|2y=2022|3a1=Bimbó|3y=2016|3pp=8–9}}

منطق جو ڪو نظام '''صحتمند''' (سائونڊ) تڏهن هوندو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام اهڙو نتيجو پيدا نه ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم نه هجي. ٻين لفظن ۾، ان جو ثبوتي نظام ڪوڙو نتيجو پيدا نٿو ڪري. ان جي ابتڙ، نظام '''مڪمل'''  تڏهن سڏبو آهي، جڏهن ان جو ثبوتي نظام هر اهڙو نتيجو ثابت ڪري سگهي، جيڪو معنائي لحاظ کان مقدمن مان لازم هجي. اهڙيءَ طرح، صحتمندي ۽ مڪمليت گڏجي اهڙي رسمي نظام کي ظاهر ڪن ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ثبوتي ۽ معنائي اعتبار سان صحيح هجڻ جا معيار هڪٻئي سان مڪمل هم آهنگ هجن.{{sfnm|1a1=Restall|1a2=Standefer|1y=2023|1p=91|2a1=Enderton|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2.5|2pp=131–146|3a1=van Dalen|3y=1994|3loc=Chapter 1.5}}

==منطقي نظام==
{{Main|منطقي نظام}}

منطق جا نظام (سسٽم آف لاجڪ) اهڙا نظرياتي ڍانچا آهن، جيڪي استدلال ۽ دليلن جي درستي يا نادرستي کي جانچڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} ٻن هزار سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين [[ارسطوي منطق]] کي مغربي دنيا ۾ منطق جو معياري نظام سمجهيو ويندو رهيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Smith|2y=2022|3a1=Groarke}} پر جديد دور ۾ هن شعبي جي ترقيءَ سبب ڪيترائي نوان منطقي نظام وجود ۾ آيا.{{sfn|Haack|1996|loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'}}

جديد رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عام طور ٽن مکيه قسمن ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي:

* [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]]
* [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]
* [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظام]]{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1978|1loc=Philosophy of logics|1pp=1–10|2a1=Haack|2y=1996|2loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|3a1=Wolf|3y=1978|3pp=327–340}}

===ارسطوي منطق===
{{Main|ارسطوي منطق}}

[[ارسطوي منطق]] مختلف موضوعن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[مابعدالطبيعات]] سان لاڳاپيل وجودياتي درجابندي (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪيٽيگريز) ۽ سائنسي وضاحت جا مسئلا پڻ شامل آهن. بهرحال، محدود معنيٰ ۾ ارسطوي منطق کي [[حدي منطق]] (ٽرم لاجڪ) يا [[قياسيات]] (سلوجسٽڪز) سان هم معنيٰ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}}

'''قياس''' (سلاجزم) اهڙي دليل کي چيو ويندو آهي، جيڪو ٽن بيانن تي مشتمل هجي: ٻه مقدما ۽ هڪ نتيجو. هر بيان جا ٽي بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن: [[فاعل (گرامر)|موضوع]]، محمول، ۽ [[رابطو (لسانيات)|رابطو]] (ڪاپولا)، جيڪو موضوع کي محمول سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke|3a1=Bobzien|3y=2020}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط داناءُ آهي&quot; واري بيان ۾ &quot;سقراط&quot; موضوع، &quot;داناءُ&quot; محمول ۽ &quot;آهي&quot; رابطو آهي.{{sfn|Groarke}}

موضوع ۽ محمول کي گڏيل طور '''حدون''' (ٽرمز) چيو ويندو آهي. ارسطوي منطق ۾ اهڙا مرڪب بيان شامل نه آهن، جيڪي ٻن يا وڌيڪ سادن بيانن کي منطقي رابطن وسيلي ملائي ٺاهيا وڃن. انهيءَ لحاظ کان اهو [[قضياتي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي، جتي ٻن بيانن کي &quot;۽&quot; جهڙي منطقي رابطي سان ملائي نئون مرڪب بيان ٺاهي سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=2.2 Connectives}}

[[File:Square of opposition, set diagrams.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=مخالفت جي چورس شڪل|[[مخالفت جو چوڪ]] (اسڪوائر آف اپوزيشن) ارسطوي منطق جي چئن بنيادي [[درجي بندي وارا قضيا|درجي بندي وارن قضين]] جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي ڏيکارڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، اهو ڏيکاري ٿو ته &quot;سڀ S، P آهن&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه S، P ناهن&quot; هڪ ٻئي جا متضاد قضيا آهن، يعني انهن مان هڪ لازمي سچو ۽ ٻيو لازمي ڪوڙو هوندو.]]
ارسطوي منطق ۾ موضوع چار قسمن جو ٿي سگهي ٿو: '''ڪلي'''، '''جزوي'''، '''غير معين''' يا '''شخصي'''. مثال طور، &quot;سڀ انسان&quot; ڪلي موضوع آهي، جيئن &quot;سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن&quot;. ساڳئي بيان کي &quot;ڪجهه انسان&quot;، &quot;هڪ انسان&quot; يا &quot;سقراط&quot; جهڙن موضوعن سان به بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Bobzien|2y=2020|3a1=Hintikka|3a2=Spade|3loc=Aristotle}}
ارسطوي منطق ۾ محمول صرف شين جي سادن [[خاصيت]]ن کي ظاهر ڪندو آهي، جڏهن⁠ته شين جي وچ ۾ [[تعلق (فلسفو)|لاڳاپن]] کي ظاهر ڪندڙ محمول ان ۾ شامل ناهن.{{sfn|Westerståhl|1989|pp=577–585}} محمول کي موضوع سان ٻن طريقن سان ڳنڍي سگهجي ٿو: يا ته ان جي تصديق ڪئي وڃي يا ان جي نفي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}} مثال طور، &quot;سقراط ٻلي ناهي&quot; ۾ &quot;ٻلي&quot; واري محمول جي موضوع &quot;سقراط&quot; کان نفي ڪئي وئي آهي.
مختلف قسمن جي موضوعن ۽ محمولن کي گڏائي ڪيترائي بيان ۽ قياس ٺاهي سگهجن ٿا. قياس جي خاصيت اها آهي ته ان جا مقدما ۽ نتيجو هڪ گڏيل حد (ٽرم) ذريعي پاڻ ۾ ڳنڍيل هوندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}} اهڙي قياس ۾ ٽي حدون هونديون آهن، جن کي '''وڏي حد''' (ميجر ٽرم)، '''ننڍي حد''' (مائنر ٽرم) ۽ '''وچولي حد''' (مڊل ٽرم) چيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Groarke|2a1=Hurley|2y=2015|2loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms|3a1=Copi|3a2=Cohen|3a3=Rodych|3y=2019|3loc=6. Categorical Syllogisms}}
ارسطوي منطق جو بنيادي مقصد ممڪن سڀني قياسن کي انهن جي بناوت جي بنياد تي صحيح ۽ غلط دليلن ۾ ورهائڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2022|2a1=Groarke}}{{sfn|Hurley|2015|loc=4. Categorical Syllogisms}}
مثال طور، هي قياس صحيح آهي:

* سڀ انسان فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط انسان آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط فناپذير آهي.

جڏهن⁠ته هي قياس غلط آهي:

* سڀ ٻليون فناپذير آهن.
* سقراط فناپذير آهي.
* تنهن ڪري سقراط ٻلي آهي.{{sfn|Spriggs|2012|pp=20–22}}

===ڪلاسيڪي منطق===
{{Main|ڪلاسيڪي منطق}}

[[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] روايتي يا [[ارسطوي منطق]] کان مختلف آهي. ان ۾ [[قضياتي منطق]] ۽ [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) شامل آهن. ان کي &quot;ڪلاسيڪي&quot; ان ڪري چيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو انهن بنيادي منطقي اصولن تي ٻڌل آهي، جن کي اڪثر منطق جا ماهر قبول ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Nature and varieties of logic, §Alternative logics|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Bäck|3y=2016|3p=317}}

انهن بنيادي اصولن ۾ [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]]، [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]]، [[انفجار جو اصول]]، ۽ [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (بائويلنس) شامل آهن.{{sfn|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022}}

ڪلاسيڪي منطق شروعات ۾ رياضيءَ جي دليلن جي تجزيي لاءِ تيار ڪئي وئي هئي، پر پوءِ ان کي ٻين شعبن ۾ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو. رياضيءَ تي ان جي مرڪزي ڌيان سبب ان ۾ اهڙا منطقي اصطلاح شامل نه هئا، جيڪي فلسفي جي ٻين اهم موضوعن لاءِ ضروري آهن. مثال طور، اها ضرورت ۽ امڪان جي فرق، اخلاقي فرض ۽ اجازت، يا ماضي، حال ۽ مستقبل جي لاڳاپن کي بيان نٿي ڪري.{{sfn|Burgess|2009|loc=1. Classical logic}}

اهڙن موضوعن کي [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي منطقي نظام]]ن ذريعي حل ڪيو ويندو آهي. اهي نظام ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي بنيادي اصولن کي برقرار رکندي نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا، جنهن سان ساڳي منطقي طريقي کي [[اخلاقيات]]، [[علميات]] ۽ ٻين فلسفياتي شعبن تي به لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical|3a1=Goble|3y=2001|3loc=Introduction}}

====قضياتي منطق====
{{Main|قضياتي منطق}}

[[قضياتي منطق]] اهڙن رسمي منطقي نظامن تي مشتمل آهي، جن ۾ [[ايٽمي قضيو|بنيادي قضين]] (ايٽامڪ پروپوزيشن) کي [[منطقي رابطو|منطقي رابطن]] ذريعي گڏائي نوان منطقي فارمولا ٺاهيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; ٻه بنيادي قضيا هجن، ته انهن جي [[منطقي عطف]] کي &lt;math&gt;P \land Q&lt;/math&gt; جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
حدي يا محمولي منطق جي برعڪس، جنهن ۾ حدون (ٽرمز) ۽ محمول بنيادي جزا هوندا آهن، قضياتي منطق ۾ مڪمل قضيا بنيادي اڪائيون هوندا آهن، جن وٽ سچ يا ڪوڙ هجڻ جي قيمت موجود هوندي آهي.{{sfn|Brody|2006|pp=535–536}}
انهيءَ ڪري قضياتي منطق رڳو انهن منطقي لاڳاپن کي ظاهر ڪري سگهي ٿو، جيڪي سادن قضين مان مرڪب قضيا ٺاهڻ جي طريقي تي دارومدار رکن ٿا، پر اهو ڪنهن قضيي جي اندروني بناوت مان پيدا ٿيندڙ استدلال کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهي.{{sfn|Klement|1995b}}

====پهرين درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|پهرين درجي جو منطق}}

[[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] (فرسٽ-آرڊر لاجڪ) ۾ اهي سڀئي منطقي رابطا شامل آهن، جيڪي قضياتي منطق ۾ موجود آهن، پر ان سان گڏ اهو قضين جي اندروني بناوت کي پڻ ظاهر ڪري ٿو. اهو [[مفرد حد]]ن (سنگيولر ٽرمز)، [[محمول (منطق)|محمول]]ن، ۽ [[مقدار ڪندڙ]]ن (ڪونٽيفائر) جي ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي &quot;ڪجهه&quot; ۽ &quot;سڀ&quot; جهڙن مفهومن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Shapiro|1a2=Kouri Kissel|1y=2022|2a1=Honderich|2y=2005|2loc=philosophical logic|3a1=Michaelson|3a2=Reimer|3y=2019}}

مثال طور، &quot;هيءُ ڪانءُ ڪارو آهي&quot; واري قضيي کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪاري هجڻ واري خاصيت لاءِ &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; محمول ۽ ڪانءُ لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; مفرد حد استعمال ڪري &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

جيڪڏهن چوڻو هجي ته &quot;ڪجهه شيون ڪاريون آهن&quot;، ته وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ۽ متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; کي گڏائي &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; لکيو ويندو آهي.

پهرين درجي جي منطق ۾ استدلال جا اهڙا قاعدا پڻ موجود آهن، جيڪي ٻڌائين ٿا ته اهڙن اظهارن مان صحيح نتيجا ڪيئن ڪڍجن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;B(r)&lt;/math&gt; مان صحيح طور &lt;math&gt;\exists x B(x)&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Nolt|1y=2021|2a1=Magnus|2y=2005|2loc=4 Quantified logic}}

===توسيعي منطق===
{{Main|توسيعي منطق}}

توسيعي منطقي نظام اهي منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي بنيادي اصولن کي قبول ڪن ٿا، پر ان جي دائري کي وسيع ڪرڻ لاءِ نوان منطقي نشان ۽ ضابطا شامل ڪن ٿا. انهن جو مقصد ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]] جهڙن شعبن تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunnin|1a2=Yu|1y=2009|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA179 179]|2a1=Garson|2y=2023|2loc=Introduction}}

====موڊل منطق====
{{Main|موڊل منطق}}

[[موڊل منطق]] (Modal logic) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي هڪ توسيع آهي. ان جي بنيادي صورت، جنهن کي ڪڏهن &quot;اليٿڪ موڊل منطق&quot; (Alethic modal logic) به چيو ويندو آهي، ٻن نون نشانين جو اضافو ڪري ٿي: &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ممڪن'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جڏهن⁠ته &lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt; ڪنهن ڳالهه جي ''ضروري'' هجڻ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Sadegh-Zadeh|2y=2015|2p=983}}

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن &lt;math&gt;B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب &quot;سقراط بينڪر آهي&quot; هجي، ته &lt;math&gt;\Diamond B(s)&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب ٿيندو &quot;ممڪن آهي ته سقراط بينڪر هجي&quot;.{{sfn|Fitch|2014|p=17}}

انهن نشانين کي رسمي منطقي نظام ۾ شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ موڊل منطق نوان [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] متعارف ڪرائي ٿي، جيڪي انهن جي استعمال کي منظم ڪن ٿا. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري آهي، ته اها ممڪن به هوندي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; مان &lt;math&gt;\Diamond A&lt;/math&gt; نتيجو نڪري ٿو. هڪ ٻيو اصول چوي ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ڳالهه ضروري هجي، ته ان جي نفي ناممڪن هوندي، ۽ ان جي ابتڙ پڻ درست آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;\Box A&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;\lnot \Diamond \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; هڪجهڙا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Garson|1y=2023|2a1=Carnielli|2a2=Pizzi|2y=2008|2p=3|3a1=Benthem}}

موڊل منطق جون ٻيون صورتون ساڳين نشانين کي برقرار رکنديون آهن، پر انهن کي مختلف معنائن سان استعمال ڪن ٿيون. مثال طور، [[واجباتي منطق]] (Deontic logic) اخلاقيات ۾ فرض ۽ اجازت جهڙن تصورن کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي، يعني اهو بيان ڪري ٿي ته ڪنهن عمل جو ڪرڻ لازمي آهي يا جائز.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[زمانياتي منطق]] (Temporal logic) وقتي لاڳاپن کي بيان ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ ڪنهن واقعي جو ماضيءَ ۾ ٿيڻ يا ڪنهن حالت جو هميشه برقرار رهڻ.{{sfn|Garson|2023}}

[[علمياتي موڊل منطق]] (Epistemic modal logic) علميات ۾ ڄاڻ ۽ عقيدي جي وچ ۾ فرق کي رسمي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.{{sfn|Rendsvig|Symons|2021}}

====اعليٰ درجي جو منطق====
{{Main|اعليٰ درجي جو منطق}}

[[اعليٰ درجي جو منطق]] (ھائر-آرڊر لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کي موڊل نشانين ذريعي نه، پر مقدار ڪرڻ (ڪوانٽيفڪيشن) جي نون طريقن ذريعي وسيع ڪري ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Ketland|3y=2005|3loc=Second Order Logic}}

مقدار ڪندڙ &quot;سڀ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڪجهه&quot; جهڙن لفظن جي نمائندگي ڪندا آهن. ڪلاسيڪي [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي لاڳو ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، &lt;math&gt;\exists x (Apple(x) \land Sweet(x))&lt;/math&gt; جو مطلب آهي: &quot;ڪجهه صوف مٺا آهن&quot;، جتي &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ فردي متغير &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.

اعليٰ درجي جي منطق ۾ مقدار ڪندڙ صرف فردن تي نه، پر [[محمول (منطق)|محمولن]] تي به لاڳو ٿي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ان جي اظھاري قوت وڌي وڃي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ڪرڻو هجي ته مريم ۽ جان ۾ ڪا گڏيل خاصيت موجود آهي، ته هي فارمولو استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

&lt;math&gt;\exists Q (Q(Mary) \land Q(John))&lt;/math&gt;

هتي وجودي مقدار ڪندڙ &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; محمولي متغير &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; تي لاڳو ٿيل آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Väänänen|2y=2021|3a1=Daintith|3a2=Wright|3y=2008|3loc=Predicate calculus}}

هي اضافي اظھاري قوت خاص طور رياضي ۾ ڪارائتي ثابت ٿئي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها رياضيائي نظرين کي وڌيڪ مختصر ۽ جامع صورت ۾ بيان ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿي.{{sfn|Audi|loc=Philosophy of logic|1999b}}

تنهن هوندي به، اعليٰ درجي جي منطق سان مابعد منطقي خاصيتن ۽ وجودياتي مفروضن بابت ڪجهه مسئلا به وابسته آهن، جنهن سبب [[پهرين درجي جو منطق]] اڃا تائين وڌيڪ عام استعمال ۾ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Audi|1loc=Philosophy of logic|1y=1999b|2a1=Ketland|2y=2005|2loc=Second Order Logic}}

===انحرافي منطق===
{{Main|انحرافي منطق}}

[[انحرافي منطق]] (ڊيويئنٽ لاجڪ) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي [[ڪلاسيڪي منطق]] جي ڪجهه بنيادي اصولن کي رد ڪن ٿا. انهيءَ سبب انهن کي عام طور ڪلاسيڪي منطق جي واڌ يا توسيع نه، پر ان جا متبادل نظام سمجهيو ويندو آهي. مختلف انحرافي منطقي نظام هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڳالهه ۾ مختلف هوندا آهن ته اهي ڪهڙا ڪلاسيڪي اصول رد ڪن ٿا يا انهن جي جاءِ تي ڪهڙا متبادل اصول پيش ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Haack|1y=1996|1loc=1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'|2a1=Wolf|2y=1978|2pp=327–340}}

[[وجدانياتي منطق]] (انٽيوئيشنسٽڪ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق جو هڪ محدود روپ آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}} اهو ساڳيا منطقي نشان استعمال ڪري ٿو، پر ڪجهه [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] قبول نٿو ڪري. مثال طور، ڪلاسيڪي منطق ۾ [[دُهري نفي جي خاتمي جو اصول]] موجب جيڪڏهن ڪنهن جملي جي نفي جي به نفي ڪئي وڃي، ته اصل جملو صحيح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ يعني &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; کي &lt;math&gt;\lnot \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; مان اخذ ڪري سگهجي ٿو. وجدانياتي منطق ۾ هي قاعدو قبول ٿيل نه آهي.

اهڙيءَ طرح [[ثالث ممتنع جو قانون]] پڻ وجدانياتي منطق جو حصو نه آهي. هن قانون موجب هر قضيي بابت يا ته اهو صحيح هوندو يا ان جي نفي صحيح هوندي؛ يعني هر اظهار &lt;math&gt;A \lor \lnot A&lt;/math&gt; صحيح هوندو.{{sfnm|1a1=Moschovakis|1y=2022|2a1=Borchert|2y=2006c|2loc=Logic, Non-Classical}}

وجدانياتي منطق ۾ انهن اصولن کي ان خيال جي بنياد تي رد ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪنهن به دعويٰ جي صداقت صرف ان جي ثبوت يا تعمير ذريعي قائم ٿئي ٿي. انهيءَ سبب اهو [[تعميري رياضيات]] (ڪنسٽرڪٽو ميٿميٽڪس) ۾ خاص اهميت رکي ٿو، جتي ڪنهن وجودي دعويٰ کي صحيح ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ ان جو واضح مثال يا تعمير پيش ڪرڻ ضروري سمجهيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Bridges|2a2=Ishihara|2a3=Rathjen|2a4=Schwichtenberg|2y=2023|2pp=73–74|3a1=Friend|3y=2014|3p=101}}

[[گهڻ-قدرِي منطق]] (ملٽي-ويليوڊ لاجڪ) ڪلاسيڪي منطق کان ان لحاظ کان مختلف آهي، جو اها [[دوهرائي صداقت جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف بائويلنس) رد ڪري ٿي، جنهن موجب هر قضيو يا ته سچو هوندو يا ڪوڙو. مثال طور، [[يان ووڪاشيوِچ]] ۽ [[اسٽيفن ڪول ڪليني]] اهڙا [[ٽن-قدرِي منطق]] (Ternary logic) تجويز ڪيا، جن ۾ ٽيون صداقتي قدر به شامل آهي، جيڪو اهڙي حالت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪنهن بيان جي صداقت غير متعين هجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Sider|1y=2010|1loc=Chapter 3.4|2a1=Gamut|2y=1991|2loc=5.5|3a1=Zegarelli|3y=2010}} اهڙا منطقي نظام [[لسانيات]] ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندا آهن.

[[فزي منطق]] (فزي لاجڪ) به گهڻ-قدرِي منطق جي هڪ صورت آهي، جنهن ۾ صداقت جا صرف ٻه يا ٽي قدر نه، پر صفر کان هڪ تائين حقيقي انگن جي صورت ۾ بيشمار درجا موجود هوندا آهن.{{sfn|Hájek|2006}}

[[غير انفجاري منطق]] (Paraconsistent logic) اهڙا منطقي نظام آهن، جيڪي تضادن سان به ڪم ڪري سگهن ٿا. اهي اهڙي طرح ترتيب ڏنا ويندا آهن، جو [[انفجار جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف اڪسپلوژن) لاڳو نه ٿئي؛ يعني ڪنهن تضاد مان هر ممڪن نتيجو اخذ نٿو ڪري سگهجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006c|1loc=Logic, Non-Classical|2a1=Priest|2a2=Tanaka|2a3=Weber|2y=2018|3a1=Weber}}

انهن منطقي نظامن جي حمايت اڪثر [[ڊائليٿيزم]] جي نظريي جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي، جنهن موجب ڪجهه تضاد واقعي صحيح ٿي سگهن ٿا، يا حقيقت پاڻ به ڪنهن حد تائين متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿي. [[گراهم پريسٽ]] هن موقف جو اهم جديد حامي شمار ٿئي ٿو، جڏهن⁠ته اهڙا خيال [[جارج ولهيلم فريڊرش هيگل]] سان پڻ منسوب ڪيا ويا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Priest|1a2=Tanaka|1a3=Weber|1y=2018|2a1=Weber|3a1=Haack|3y=1996|3loc=Introduction}}

==تحقيق جا شعبا==

منطق جو مطالعو مختلف علمي شعبن ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي. ڪيترن ئي حالتن ۾ ان جي رسمي طريقن کي انهن موضوعن تي لاڳو ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي پاڻ منطق جي دائري کان ٻاهر هوندا آهن، جهڙوڪ [[اخلاقيات]] يا [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]].{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=§Logic and other disciplines|2a1=Haack|2y=1978|2loc=Philosophy of logics|2pp=1–10}}

ٻين حالتن ۾ خود منطق ئي ڪنهن ٻئي علمي شعبي ۾ تحقيق جو موضوع بڻجي ٿي. اهو مختلف طريقن سان ٿي سگهي ٿو. مثال طور، منطق جي بنيادي تصورن سان لاڳاپيل فلسفياتي مفروضن جو جائزو وٺڻ، منطقي نظامن کي رياضيائي بناوتن جي روشنيءَ ۾ سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جو تجزيو ڪرڻ، يا رسمي منطقي نظامن جي تجريدي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ۽ ڀيٽ ڪرڻ.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Features and problems of logic|2a1=Gödel|2y=1984|2pp=447–469|2loc=Russell's mathematical logic|3a1=Monk|3y=1976|3pp=1–9|3loc=Introduction}}

===منطق جو فلسفو ۽ فلسفياتي منطق===
{{Main|منطق جو فلسفو|فلسفياتي منطق}}

'''منطق جو فلسفو''' (فلاسافي آف لاجڪ) فلسفي جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطق جي دائري، ماهيت ۽ بنيادي نوعيت جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1y=2019|1loc=lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic|2a1=Audi|2loc=Philosophy of logic|2y=1999b}} ان ۾ انهن ڪيترن ئي مفروضن جو جائزو ورتو ويندو آهي، جيڪي منطق ۾ ضمني طور قبول ڪيا ويندا آهن، جيئن ان جي بنيادي تصورن جي تعريف يا انهن سان لاڳاپيل [[مابعدالطبيعات|مابعدالطبيعي]] مفروضا.{{sfn|Jacquette|2006|loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|pp=1–12}}

هي شعبي منطقي نظامن جي درجابندي ۽ انهن سان وابسته [[وجوديات|وجودياتي]] وابستگين (اونٽولاجيڪل ڪمٽمينٽ) جو پڻ مطالعو ڪري ٿو.{{sfn|Hintikka|2019|loc=§Problems of ontology}}

'''فلسفياتي منطق''' (فلاسافيڪل لاجڪ) منطق جي فلسفي جي هڪ ذيلي شاخ آهي، جيڪا منطقي طريقن کي فلسفي جي مسئلن تي لاڳو ڪري ٿي، جهڙوڪ [[مابعدالطبيعات]]، [[اخلاقيات]] ۽ [[علميات]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jacquette|1y=2006|1loc=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today|1pp=1–12|2a1=Burgess|2y=2009|2loc=1. Classical logic}}
اهو استعمال گهڻو ڪري [[توسيعي منطق|توسيعي]] يا [[انحرافي منطق|انحرافي منطقي نظامن]] جي صورت ۾ ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Goble|1y=2001|1loc=Introduction|2a1=Hintikka|2a2=Sandu|2y=2006|2pp=31–32}}

===مابعد منطق===
{{Main|مابعد منطق}}

'''مابعد منطق''' (ميٽالاجڪ) اهو علمي شعبو آهي، جيڪو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي خاصيتن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو.

مثال طور، جڏهن ڪو نئون رسمي منطقي نظام تيار ڪيو وڃي ٿو، ته مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو معلوم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندا آهن ته ان نظام ۾ ڪهڙا فارمولا ثابت ڪري سگهجن ٿا. اهي اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته ڇا اهڙو [[الگورٿم]] تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو هر فارمولي لاءِ ثبوت ڳولي سگهي، ۽ ڇا ان نظام ۾ هر قابلِ ثبوت فارمولو لازمي طور [[منطقي صداقت]] (Tautology) آهي.

اهي مختلف منطقي نظامن جو پاڻ ۾ تقابلي مطالعو پڻ ڪندا آهن ته جيئن انهن جون منفرد خاصيتون واضح ٿي سگهن.

مابعد منطق جو هڪ بنيادي موضوع [[نحو]] (سنٽيڪس) ۽ [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) جي وچ ۾ تعلق آهي. رسمي منطقي نظام جا نحوي ضابطا اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته مقدمات مان نتيجا ڪيئن اخذ ڪيا وڃن، يعني ثبوت ڪيئن ترتيب ڏنا وڃن. جڏهن⁠ته معنيات اهو طئي ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙا جملا سچا آهن ۽ ڪهڙا ڪوڙا. انهيءَ بنياد تي دليل جي صحت جو تعين ڪيو ويندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ صحيح دليل ۾ اهو ناممڪن هوندو آهي ته مقدمات سچا هجن ۽ نتيجو ڪوڙو هجي.

نحو ۽ معنيات جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپي بابت اهم سوالن ۾ اهو شامل آهي ته ڇا هر صحيح دليل قابلِ ثبوت آهي، ۽ ڇا هر قابلِ ثبوت دليل لازمي طور صحيح به هوندو آهي.

مابعد منطق جا ماهر اهو پڻ جاچيندا آهن ته منطقي نظام [[مڪمليت]] (ڪمپليٽنيس)، [[صحت (منطق)|صحت]] (سائونڊنيس) ۽ [[هم آهنگي (منطق)|هم آهنگي]] (ڪنسسٽنسي) جون خاصيتون رکن ٿا يا نه. ان کان علاوه، اهي اهو به ڏسندا آهن ته اهي نظام [[فيصلي پذيري]] (ڊسائيڊبلٽي) رکن ٿا يا نه، ۽ انهن جي [[اظهاري قوت]] ڪيتري آهي.

انهن موضوعن جي تحقيق دوران مابعد منطق گهڻو ڪري تجريدي رياضيائي استدلال تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جنهن جو مقصد انهن مسئلن بابت صحيح، عام ۽ جامع نتيجا حاصل ڪرڻ هوندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Gensler|1y=2006|1pp=xliii–xliv|2a1=Sider|2y=2010|2pp=4–6|3a1=Schagrin}}

===رياضيائي منطق===
{{Main|رياضيائي منطق}}

[[File:Russell1907-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=برٽرينڊ رسل جو تصوير|[[برٽرينڊ رسل]] رياضيائي منطق جي ترقي ۾ ڪيترائي اهم علمي حصا ورتا.{{sfn|Irvine|2022}}]]

اصطلاح '''رياضيائي منطق''' (ميٿميٽيڪل لاجڪ) ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[رسمي منطق]] جي مترادف طور استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر وڌيڪ محدود معنيٰ ۾ اهو رياضيات جي اندر منطق جي مطالعي ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. ان جون اهم شاخون [[ماڊل نظريو]]، [[ثبوت جو نظريو]]، [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) ۽ [[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Li|1y=2010|1p=ix|2a1=Rautenberg|2y=2010|2p=15|3a1=Quine|3y=1981|3p=1|4a1=Stolyar|4y=1984|4p=2}}

رياضيائي منطق جي تحقيق جو وڏو حصو رسمي منطقي نظامن جي رياضيائي خاصيتن جي مطالعي تي مشتمل هوندو آهي. ان سان گڏ اهو پڻ ڏٺو ويندو آهي ته منطق کي رياضيائي استدلال جي تجزيي يا [[رياضيات جا بنياد|رياضيات جي منطقي بنيادن]] جي قيام لاءِ ڪيئن استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfn|Stolyar|1984|pp=3–6}}

ويهين صديءَ جي شروعات ۾ رياضيائي منطق جو هڪ اهم مقصد [[منطق پرستي]] (لاجڪئزم) واري پروگرام کي اڳتي وڌائڻ هو، جنهن جي شروعات [[گاٽلوب فريگي]]، [[الفريڊ نارٿ وائيٽ هيڊ]] ۽ [[برٽرينڊ رسل]] جهڙن فلسفي-منطق دانن ڪئي هئي. هن پروگرام موجب سڀئي رياضيائي نظريا اصل ۾ منطقي [[منطقي صداقت|صداقتون]] (Tautologies) آهن، ۽ ان کي ثابت ڪرڻ لاءِ رياضيات کي منطق تائين محدود ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي. پر هن پروگرام کي عملي جامو پارائڻ جون گهڻيون ڪوششون ناڪام ويون. مثال طور، فريگي جو منصوبو سندس ڪتاب '' گرُنڊگيزيٽسي:Grundgesetze'' (بنيادي قانون) ۾ [[رسل جو تضاد|رسل جي تضاد]] سبب متاثر ٿيو، جڏهن⁠ته [[هلبرٽ جو پروگرام]] [[گوڊل جا نامڪمليت جا نظريا|گوڊل جي نامڪمليت جي نظرين]] سبب ناڪام ثابت ٿيو.{{sfnm|1a1=Hintikka|1a2=Spade|1loc=Gödel's incompleteness theorems|2a1=Linsky|2y=2011|2p=4|3a1=Richardson|3y=1998|3p=15}}

[[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) جي شروعات [[جارج ڪينٽر]] لامحدوديت جي مطالعي دوران ڪئي. هي شعبي رياضيائي منطق جي ڪيترن ئي اهم ۽ پيچيده مسئلن جو سرچشمو بڻيو، جن ۾ [[ڪينٽر جو نظريو]]، [[اختيار جو اصول]] (اگزيوم آف چوائس)، [[مسلسل مفروضي]] (ڪنٽينيوئم ھيپوٿيسز) جي آزاديءَ جو سوال، ۽ [[وڏي ڪارڊينل]] (لارج ڪارڊينل) اصولن بابت جديد بحث شامل آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Bagaria|1y=2021|2a1=Cunningham}}

[[حساب پذيري جو نظريو]] (ڪمپيوٽبلٽي ٿيوري) رياضيائي منطق جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا حسابي مسئلن کي حل ڪرڻ لاءِ مؤثر طريقن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان جو هڪ بنيادي مقصد اهو معلوم ڪرڻ آهي ته ڪنهن خاص مسئلي کي [[الگورٿم]] ذريعي حل ڪرڻ ممڪن آهي يا نه. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن صحيح عددن بابت ڪو خاص دعويٰ ڏني وڃي، ته هي شعبي اهو جاچيندو آهي ته ڇا اهڙو الگورٿم تيار ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو اهو طئي ڪري سگهي ته اها دعويٰ صحيح آهي يا غلط. انهيءَ مقصد لاءِ [[ٽيورنگ مشين]] (Turing machine) سميت مختلف نظرياتي ماڊلن ۽ اوزارن کي استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Borchert|1y=2006a|1loc=Computability Theory|2a1=Leary|2a2=Kristiansen|2y=2015|2p=195}}

===حسابياتي منطق===
{{Main|حسابياتي منطق|ڪمپيوٽر سائنس ۾ منطق}}

[[File:TransistorANDgate.png|thumb|ٽرانزسٽرن جي مدد سان تيار ڪيل هڪ AND گيٽ جو خاڪو. [[منطقي عطف]] (AND) [[بولين منطق]] جي بنيادي عملن مان هڪ آهي، جنهن کي برقي طور مختلف طريقن سان، مثال طور ٻن [[ٽرانزسٽر]]ن ذريعي، عمل ۾ آڻي سگهجي ٿو.]]

'''حسابياتي منطق''' (ڪمپيوٽيشنل لاجڪ) منطق ۽ [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]] جي اها شاخ آهي، جيڪا ڪمپيوٽرن جي ذريعي رياضيائي استدلال ۽ رسمي منطقي نظامن کي عملي صورت ڏيڻ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي. ان ۾، مثال طور، [[خودڪار نظريي ثابت ڪندڙ]] (آٽوميٽڪ ٿيورم پروور) شامل آهن، جيڪي [[استدلال جا قاعدا]] استعمال ڪندي، بغير انساني مداخلت جي، مقدمات مان گهربل نتيجي تائين مرحليوار ثبوت تيار ڪندا آهن.{{sfnm|1a1=Paulson|1y=2018|1pp=1–14|2a1=Castaño|2y=2018|2p=2|3a1=Wile|3a2=Goss|3a3=Roesner|3y=2005|3p=447}}

[[منطقي پروگرامنگ]] (لاجڪ پروگرامنگ) جون ٻوليون خاص طور اهڙي نموني تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن، جو حقيقتن کي منطقي فارمولن جي صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ۽ انهن مان استدلال ذريعي نوان نتيجا اخذ ڪري سگهجن. مثال طور، [[پرولاگ]] (Prolog) محمولي منطق تي ٻڌل هڪ منطقي پروگرامنگ ٻولي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Clocksin|1a2=Mellish|1y=2003|1pp=237–238, 252–255, 257|1loc=The Relation of Prolog to Logic|2a1=Daintith|2a2=Wright|2y=2008|2loc=Logic Programming Languages}}

ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا ماهر ڪمپيوٽنگ سان لاڳاپيل مسئلن جي حل لاءِ پڻ منطقي تصورن کي استعمال ڪندا آهن. هن ميدان ۾ [[ڪلاڊ شينن]] جو ڪم انتهائي اثرائتو رهيو، جنهن ڏيکاريو ته [[بولين منطق]] کي ڪمپيوٽرن جي برقي سرڪٽن کي سمجهڻ ۽ انهن جي جوڙجڪ ۾ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو.{{sfnm|1a1=O'Regan|1y=2016|1p=49|2a1=Calderbank|2a2=Sloane|2y=2001|2p=768}}

اهو ڪم [[منطقي دروازو|منطقي دروازن]] (لاجڪ گيٽ) ذريعي ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي اهڙا برقي سرڪٽ هوندا آهن، جن ۾ هڪ يا وڌيڪ ان پُٽ ۽ عام طور هڪ آئوٽ پُٽ هوندو آهي. انهن ۾ منطقي قضين جي صداقت جا قدر برقي وولٽيج جي سطحن جي صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهڙيءَ طرح، سرڪٽ جي ان پُٽن تي مناسب وولٽيج لاڳو ڪري ۽ آئوٽ پُٽ جي وولٽيج کي ماپي، مختلف منطقي عملن جي نقل (سميوليشن) ڪئي ويندي آهي.{{sfn|Daintith|Wright|2008|loc=Logic Gate}}

===قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات===
{{Main|قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات}}

'''قدرتي ٻوليءَ جي رسمي معنيات''' (فارمل سمينٽڪس) منطق، [[لسانيات]] ۽ [[ٻوليءَ جو فلسفو]] جي گڏيل ذيلي شاخ آهي. [[معنيات]] (سمينٽڪس) ٻوليءَ جي معنائن جو مطالعو ڪري ٿي، جڏهن ته رسمي معنيات علامتي منطق ۽ رياضيات جا رسمي اوزار استعمال ڪندي [[قدرتي ٻولي]] جي اظهارَن جي معنائن بابت درست ۽ منظم نظريا پيش ڪري ٿي.

رسمي معنيات عام طور معنٰي کي [[صدق جون شرطون]] (ٽرٿ ڪنڊيشنر) سان وابسته ڪري سمجهي ٿي؛ يعني اها جاچ ڪري ٿي ته ڪهڙين حالتن ۾ ڪو جملو سچو يا ڪوڙو ٿيندو. هن شعبي جي بنيادي اصولن مان هڪ [[ترڪيبي اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڪمپوزيشنلٽي) آهي، جنهن موجب ڪنهن پيچيده اظهار جي معنٰي ان جي جزن جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي پاڻ ۾ ڳانڍاپي جي طريقي سان طئي ٿيندي آهي. مثال طور، فعل واري فقري &quot;هلڻ ۽ ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنٰي انفرادي اظهارَن &quot;هلڻ&quot; ۽ &quot;ڳائڻ&quot; جي معنائن ۽ انهن جي گڏيل جوڙجڪ تي دارومدار رکي ٿي.

رسمي معنيات جا ڪيترائي نظريا [[ماڊل نظريو]] (ماڊل ٿيوري) تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن. ان جو مطلب آهي ته اهي [[مجموعن جو نظريو]] (سيٽ ٿيوري) استعمال ڪري هڪ نمونو (ماڊل) تيار ڪندا آهن ۽ پوءِ ان نموني جي عنصرن جي حوالي سان ٻوليءَ جي اظهارَن جي معنائن جي تشريح ڪندا آهن. مثال طور، اصطلاح &quot;هلڻ&quot; کي نموني ۾ موجود انهن سڀني فردن جي مجموعي طور سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، جيڪي هلڻ جي خاصيت رکن ٿا.

هن شعبي جا شروعاتي ۽ اثرائتا مفڪر [[رچرڊ مونٽيگ]] ۽ [[باربرا پارٽي]] هئا، جن پنهنجي تجزين جو بنيادي مرڪز انگريزي ٻوليءَ کي بڻايو.{{sfnm|1a1=Janssen|1a2=Zimmermann|1y=2021|1pp=3–4|2a1=Partee|2y=2016|3a1=King|3y=2009|3pp=557–558|4a1=Aloni|4a2=Dekker|4y=2016|4pp=22–23}}

===منطق جو علمُ المعرفت===
{{Main|منطق جو علمُ المعرفت}}

'''منطق جو علمُ المعرفت''' (ايپسٽيمولاجي آف لاجڪ) هن ڳالهه جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو ته انسان کي ڪيئن خبر پوي ٿي ته ڪو دليل صحيح آهي يا ڪا تجويز منطقي طور سچي آهي.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Schechter}} هن ۾ اهڙا سوال شامل آهن، جيئن: {{lang|la|modus ponens}} استدلال جو صحيح قاعدو ڇو آهي؟ يا تضاد هميشه ڪوڙا ڇو سمجهيا وڃن ٿا؟{{sfn|Warren|2020|loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic}}

روايتي طور تي غالب نظريو اهو رهيو آهي ته اهڙي قسم جي منطقي ڄاڻ [[قبلي علم]] (''a priori'') سان واسطو رکي ٿي.{{sfn|Schechter}} هن نظرئي موجب، اڪثر اهو دليل ڏنو ويندو آهي ته [[ذهن]] وٽ هڪ خاص صلاحيت هوندي آهي، جيڪا خالص خيالن جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي پرکڻ جي قابل هوندي آهي، ۽ اها ئي صلاحيت منطقي سچائين کي سمجهڻ جو ذريعو پڻ آهي.{{sfn|Gómez-Torrente|2019}}

هڪ ٻيو ويجهو نظريو منطق جي قاعدن کي [[اصطلاحيت]] (ڪنوينشنلزم) يا لساني روايتن جي بنياد تي سمجهي ٿو. هن راءِ موجب، منطق جا قانون تعريف جي لحاظ کان سچا آهن، تنهنڪري اهي بنيادي طور غيرتڪراري آهن؛ اهي رڳو منطقي اصطلاحن جي معنائن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.{{sfnm|1a1=Warren|1y=2020|1loc=6. The Epistemology of Logic|2a1=Gómez-Torrente|2y=2019|3a1=Warren|3y=2020|3loc=1. What is Conventionalism}}

ڪجهه مفڪر، جهڙوڪ [[هلري پٽنم]] ۽ [[پينيلوپي ميڊي]]، هن خيال سان اختلاف ڪن ٿا ته منطق کي مڪمل طور قبلي علم ذريعي ڄاڻي سگهجي ٿو. انهن جو خيال آهي ته منطقي سچايون [[تجربي تي ٻڌل علم]] (امپريڪل نالج) سان به لاڳاپيل آهن. هن راءِ کي عام طور ان دعويٰ سان گڏ پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي ته منطق جا قانون دنيا جي بناوت ۾ موجود عام ۽ آفاقي قاعدن جو اظهار ڪن ٿا. ان مطابق، انهن قاعدن کي [[بنيادي سائنسون|بنيادي سائنسن]] ۾ موجود عام نمونن ۽ اصولن جي مطالعي ذريعي به سمجهي سگهجي ٿو.

مثال طور، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم ميڪانيات]] جون ڪجهه دريافتون روايتي منطق جي [[ورڇ جو اصول]] (پرنسپل آف ڊسٽريبيوٽوٽي) کي چئلينج ڪن ٿيون، جنهن موجب فارمولو &lt;math&gt;A \land (B \lor C)&lt;/math&gt; هم معنيٰ آهي &lt;math&gt;(A \land B) \lor (A \land C)&lt;/math&gt; سان. هن دعويٰ کي ان ڳالهه جي تجربي تي ٻڌل دليل طور پيش ڪيو ويو آهي ته [[ڪوانٽم منطق]] روايتي منطق کان وڌيڪ مناسب منطقي نظام آهي، ۽ ان کي روايتي منطق جي جاءِ وٺڻ گهرجي.{{sfnm|1a1=Chua|1y=2017|1pp=631–636|2a1=Wilce|2y=2021|3a1=Putnam|3y=1969|3pp=216–241}}

==پڻ ڏسو==
{{Portal|فلسفو}}

* {{annotated link|منطق جي اصطلاحن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جو خاڪو}}
* {{annotated link|منطق جي تحقيقي رسالن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي نشانين جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطق دانن جي فهرست}}
* {{annotated link|منطقي ڳجهارت}}
* {{annotated link|لوگوس}}
* {{annotated link|ویکٽر منطق}}

==حوالا==

===وضاحتي نوٽ===
{{notelist}}
&lt;references group=&quot;lower-alpha&quot;/&gt;
===حوالا===
{{reflist|1=30em}}

===ڪتابيات===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Aloni |first1=Maria |author1-link=ماريا الوني |last2=Dekker |first2=Paul |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics |date=7 July 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-55273-5 |pages=22–23 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Angell |first1=Richard B. |title=Reasoning and Logic |date=1964 |publisher=Ardent Media |page=164 |language=en |oclc=375322 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Informal logic |year=1999a |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |page=435 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |author-link=رابرٽ آڊي |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |chapter=Philosophy of logic |year=1999b |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132344/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTCD-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-64379-6 |pages=679–681 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Backmann |first1=Marius |title=Varieties of Justification—How (Not) to Solve the Problem of Induction |journal=Acta Analytica |date=1 June 2019 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=235–255 |doi=10.1007/s12136-018-0371-6 |s2cid=125767384 |language=en |issn=1874-6349 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bagaria |first1=Joan |author-link=جوان باگاريا |title=Set Theory |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/set-theory/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=23 September 2022 |year=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Jonathan |title=Truth, etc.: Six Lectures on Ancient Logic |date=25 January 2007 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-151574-3 |page=274 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Benthem |first1=Johan van |title=Modal Logic: Contemporary View: 1. Modal Notions and Reasoning Patterns: a First Pass |url=https://iep.utm.edu/modal-lo/#H1 |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=11 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berlemann |first1=Lars |last2=Mangold |first2=Stefan |title=Cognitive Radio and Dynamic Spectrum Access |date=10 July 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-0-470-75443-6 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berman |first1=Harold J. |title=Law and Revolution, the Formation of the Western Legal Tradition |date=1 July 2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02085-6 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bimbó |first1=Katalin |author-link=ڪيٽلن بمبو |title=J. Michael Dunn on Information Based Logics |date=2 April 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-29300-4 |pages=8–9 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=1 January 2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |language=en |chapter=argument |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194756/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095423356 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |author-link=سائمن بليڪبرن |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=24 March 2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |language=en |chapter=rule of inference |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108194809/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100432990 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=The Current State of Informal Logic |journal=Informal Logic |year=1987 |volume=9 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v9i2.2671 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230194638/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLATCS |url-status=live |pages=147–151 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author1-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |last2=Johnson |first2=Ralph H. |title=Informal Logic: An Overview |journal=Informal Logic |year=2000 |volume=20 |issue=2 |doi=10.22329/il.v20i2.2262 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209195317/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3 |url-status=live |pages=93–107 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blair |first1=J. Anthony |author-link=جي. اينٿوني بليئر |title=Groundwork in the Theory of Argumentation: Selected Papers of J. Anthony Blair |date=20 October 2011 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-007-2363-4 |page=47 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bobzien |first1=Susanne |author-link=سوزاني بوبزين |title=Ancient Logic: 2. Aristotle |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=3 January 2022 |year=2020 |archive-date=28 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828102117/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#Ari |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Borchert |editor1-first=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 2 |edition=2nd |date=2006a |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |isbn=978-0-02-865782-0 |chapter=Computability Theory |pages=372–390 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 4 |edition=2nd |date=2006b |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Induction |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865784-4 |pages=635–648 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Borchert |first1=Donald |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 5 |edition=2nd |date=2006c |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |chapter=Logic, Non-Classical |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112065913/https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865785-1 |pages=485–492 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bridges |first1=Douglas |last2=Ishihara |first2=Hajime |last3=Rathjen |first3=Michael |last4=Schwichtenberg |first4=Helmut |title=Handbook of Constructive Mathematics |date=30 April 2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-51086-5 |pages=73–74 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Brody |first=Boruch A. |title=Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=2006 |publisher=Thomson Gale/Macmillan Reference US |others=Donald M. Borchert |isbn=978-0-02-865780-6 |edition=2nd |volume=5 |pages=535–536 |oclc=61151356 |quote=The two most important types of logical calculi are propositional (or sentential) calculi and functional (or predicate) calculi. A propositional calculus is a system containing propositional variables and connectives (some also contain propositional constants) but not individual or functional variables or constants. In the extended propositional calculus, quantifiers whose operator variables are propositional variables are added. }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bunnin |first1=Nicholas |last2=Yu |first2=Jiyuan |title=The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy |date=27 January 2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9112-8 |page=179 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Burgess |first1=John P. |author-link=جان پي. برجس |title=Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |chapter=1. Classical logic |pages=1–12 |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216143954/https://philpapers.org/rec/BURPL-3 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-691-15633-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bäck |first1=Allan T. |title=Aristotle's Theory of Predication |date=2016 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-32109-0 |page=317 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Calderbank |first1=Robert |last2=Sloane |first2=Neil J. A. |title=Claude Shannon (1916–2001) |journal=Nature |date=April 2001 |volume=410 |issue=6830 |page=768 |doi=10.1038/35071223 |pmid=11298432 |s2cid=4402158 |language=en |issn=1476-4687 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Carnielli |first1=Walter |last2=Pizzi |first2=Claudio |title=Modalities and Multimodalities |date=2008 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-8590-1 |page=3 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Castaño |first1=Arnaldo Pérez |title=Practical Artificial Intelligence: Machine Learning, Bots, and Agent Solutions Using C# |date=23 May 2018 |publisher=Apress |isbn=978-1-4842-3357-3 |page=2 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Chakrabarti |first1=Kisor Kumar |title=Some Comparisons Between Frege's Logic and Navya-Nyaya Logic |journal=Philosophy and Phenomenological Research |date=June 1976 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=554–563 |doi=10.2307/2106873 |jstor=2106873 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chatfield |first1=Tom |title=Critical Thinking: Your Guide to Effective Argument, Successful Analysis and Independent Study |date=2017 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-5264-1877-7 |page=194 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chua |first1=Eugene |title=Logic, Rationality, and Interaction |chapter=An Empirical Route to Logical 'Conventionalism' |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |date=2017 |volume=10455 |pages=631–636 |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-55665-8_43 |isbn=978-3-662-55664-1 |chapter-url=https://philpapers.org/rec/CHUAER }}
* {{cite book |last1=Clocksin |first1=William F. |last2=Mellish |first2=Christopher S. |title=Programming in Prolog: Using the ISO Standard |date=2003 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-55481-0 |pages=237–257 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 |language=en |chapter=The Relation of Prolog to Logic |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-55481-0_10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cook |first1=Roy T. |title=Dictionary of Philosophical Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-3197-1 |language=en |page=124 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Copi |first1=Irving M. |author1-link=ارونگ ڪوپي |last2=Cohen |first2=Carl |last3=Rodych |first3=Victor |title=Introduction to Logic |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-38697-5 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Corkum |first1=Philip |title=Generality and Logical Constancy |journal=Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia |year=2015 |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=753–767 |doi=10.17990/rpf/2015_71_4_0753 |jstor=43744657 |issn=0870-5283 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Craig |first1=Edward |author-link=ايڊورڊ ڪريگ (فلسفي) |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=1996 |publisher=Routledge |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116111145/https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-07310-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cummings |first1=Louise |title=The Routledge Pragmatics Encyclopedia |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-21457-9 |page=1 |language=en |chapter=Abduction }}
* {{cite web |last1=Cunningham |first1=Daniel |title=Set Theory |url=https://iep.utm.edu/set-theo/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=23 September 2022 }}

* {{cite journal |last1=D'Agostino |first1=Marcello |last2=Floridi |first2=Luciano |title=The Enduring Scandal of Deduction: Is Propositional Logic Really Uninformative? |journal=Synthese |year=2009 |volume=167 |issue=2 |pages=271–315 |doi=10.1007/s11229-008-9409-4 |jstor=40271192 |hdl=2299/2995 |hdl-access=free |s2cid=9602882 |language=en |issn=0039-7857 }}
* {{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Computing |isbn=978-0-19-923400-4 |last1=Daintith |first1=John |last2=Wright |first2=Edmund |date=2008 |publisher=OUP }}
* {{cite book |last=van Dalen |first=Dirk |author-link=ڊرڪ وان ڊالن |year=1994 |title=Logic and Structure |publisher=Springer |at=Chapter 1.5 |isbn=978-0-387-57839-2 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dasti |first1=Matthew R. |title=Nyaya |url=https://iep.utm.edu/nyaya/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=12 March 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Dick |first1=Anthony S. |last2=Müller |first2=Ulrich |title=Advancing Developmental Science: Philosophy, Theory, and Method |date=2017 |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-1-351-70456-4 |page=157 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Douven |first1=Igor |author-link=ايگور ڊاووين |title=Abduction |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |year=2021 |access-date=24 August 2021 |archive-date=7 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907202119/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Dowden |first1=Bradley |author-link=بريڊلي ڊائوڊن |title=Fallacies |url=https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=19 March 2021 |archive-date=29 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100429214410/https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |title=Pondering on Problems of Argumentation: Twenty Essays on Theoretical Issues |date=2009 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-9165-0 |page=191 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |last3=Krabbe |first3=Erik C. W. |last4=Snoeck Henkemans |first4=A. Francisca |last5=Verheij |first5=Bart |last6=Wagemans |first6=Jean H. M. |title=Handbook of Argumentation Theory |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-94-007-6883-3 |pages=1–45 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |language=en |chapter=Informal Logic |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231172324/https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6883-3_7-1 |url-status=live |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGarssenKrabbeSnoeck_Henkemans }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |last2=Grootendorst |first2=Rob |last3=Johnson |first3=Ralph H. |last4=Plantin |first4=Christian |last5=Willard |first5=Charles A. |title=Fundamentals of Argumentation Theory: A Handbook of Historical Backgrounds and Contemporary Developments |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-68804-1 |page=169 |language=en |ref=CITEREFvan_EemerenGrootendorstJohnsonPlantin }}
* {{cite book |last1=Emmanuel |first1=Steven M. |title=A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy |date=2015 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-119-14466-3 |pages=320–322 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Enderton |first=Herbert |author-link=هربرٽ اينڊرٽن |year=2001 |title=A Mathematical Introduction to Logic |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-238452-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Engel |first1=S. Morris |title=With Good Reason an Introduction to Informal Fallacies |date=1982 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=1 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301065815/https://philpapers.org/rec/ENGWGR |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-312-08479-0 |publisher=St. Martin's Press }}
* {{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Jonathan St. B. T. |editor1-last=Morrison |editor1-first=Robert |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82417-0 |page=169 |language=en |chapter=8. Deductive Reasoning }}
* {{cite web |last1=Ewald |first1=William |title=The Emergence of First-Order Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-firstorder-emergence/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=12 March 2023 |date=2019 }}

* {{cite web |last1=Falguera |first1=José L. |last2=Martínez-Vidal |first2=Concha |last3=Rosen |first3=Gideon |title=Abstract Objects |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=7 January 2022 |year=2021 |archive-date=22 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122003334/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Falikowski |first1=Anthony |last2=Mills |first2=Susan |title=Experiencing Philosophy |edition=2nd |date=2022 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=978-1-77048-841-0 |page=98 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=Michael David |last2=Gabbay |first2=Dov M. |last3=Vila |first3=Lluis |title=Handbook of Temporal Reasoning in Artificial Intelligence |date=2005 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-053336-0 |page=119 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Fitch |first1=G. W. |title=Saul Kripke |date=18 December 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-48917-7 |page=17 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Flotyński |first1=Jakub |title=Knowledge-Based Explorable Extended Reality Environments |date=7 December 2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-59965-2 |page=39 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Font |first1=Josep Maria |last2=Jansana |first2=Ramon |title=A General Algebraic Semantics for Sentential Logics |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-16797-1 |page=8 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Frede |first1=Michael |title=Aristotle |url=https://pages.mtu.edu/~pcharles/SCIHISTORY/aristotle.html |website=Michigan Technological University |access-date=1 November 2022 |archive-date=21 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921073920/https://pages.mtu.edu/~pcharles/SCIHISTORY/aristotle.html |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |last1=Friend |first1=Michele |title=Introducing Philosophy of Mathematics |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-49379-2 |page=101 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Gamut |first=L.T.F. |author-link=ايل. ٽي. ايف. گيمٽ |date=1991 |title=Logic, Language and Meaning Vol 1: Introduction to Logic |publisher=University of Chicago Press |at=5.5 |isbn=978-0-226-28085-1 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Garson |first1=James |title=Modal Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-modal/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2023 }}
* {{cite book |last=Gensler |first=Harry J. |date=2006 |title=The A to Z of Logic |pages=xliii–xliv |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-1-4617-3182-5 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goble |first1=Lou |title=The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic |date=2001 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/GOBTBG-2 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184959/https://philpapers.org/rec/GOBTBG-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-631-20692-7 |pages=1–8 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goodman |first1=Lenn Evan |title=Avicenna |date=1992 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-01929-3 |page=188 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goodman |first1=Lenn Evan |title=Islamic Humanism |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513580-0 |page=155 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Groarke |first1=Louis F. |title=Aristotle: Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=1 January 2022 |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229235433/https://iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Groarke |first1=Leo |title=Informal Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=31 December 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112030519/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Gómez-Torrente |first1=Mario |title=Logical Truth |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-truth/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=22 November 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=2 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002190110/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-truth/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gödel |first1=Kurt |author1-link=Kurt Gödel |editor1-last=Benacerraf |editor1-first=Paul |editor2-last=Putnam |editor2-first=Hilary |title=Philosophy of Mathematics: Selected Readings |date=1984 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29648-9 |pages=447–469 |edition=2nd |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/philosophy-of-mathematics/russells-mathematical-logic/4D82F215FABFE06149D03EF1EF5BE7E4 |chapter=Russell's mathematical logic |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111091740/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/philosophy-of-mathematics/russells-mathematical-logic/4D82F215FABFE06149D03EF1EF5BE7E4 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hájek |first1=Petr |title=Fuzzy Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/Archives/Win2012/entries/logic-fuzzy/ |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |language=en |date=3 September 2006 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hájek |first1=Alan |last2=Lin |first2=Hanti |title=A Tale of Two Epistemologies? |journal=Res Philosophica |year=2017 |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=207–232 |doi=10.11612/resphil.1540 |s2cid=160029122 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HJEATO |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104182746/https://philpapers.org/rec/HJEATO |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Cordelia |last2=O'Donnell |first2=John |title=Discrete Mathematics Using a Computer |date=2000 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-85233-089-7 |page=48 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Houde |first1=R. |last2=Camacho |first2=L. |title=New Catholic Encyclopedia |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/electrical-engineering/induction |chapter=Induction |year=2003 |publisher=Thomson/Gale |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171720/https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/electrical-engineering/induction |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-7876-4004-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Deviant Logic: Some Philosophical Issues |date=1974 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-20500-9 |page=51 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Philosophy of Logics |date=1978 |publisher=London and New York: Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HAAPOL-2 |chapter=1. 'Philosophy of logics' |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207200551/https://philpapers.org/rec/HAAPOL-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-521-29329-7 |pages=1–10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haack |first1=Susan |author-link=Susan Haack |title=Deviant Logic, Fuzzy Logic: Beyond the Formalism |date=1996 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31133-3 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haaparanta |first1=Leila |author1-link=Leila Haaparanta |title=The Development of Modern Logic |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513731-6 |pages=4–6 |chapter=1. Introduction }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hansen |first1=Hans |title=Fallacies |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fallacies/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=18 March 2021 |year=2020 |archive-date=29 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329182946/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fallacies/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hartmann |first1=Stephan |last2=Sprenger |first2=Jan |title=The Routledge Companion to Epistemology |date=2010 |publisher=London: Routledge |pages=609–620 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO |chapter=Bayesian Epistemology |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516095047/https://philpapers.org/rec/BOVSIO |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-415-96219-3 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hasse |first1=Dag Nikolaus |title=Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-influence/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |date=2008 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hawthorne |first1=James |title=Inductive Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-inductive/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=6 January 2022 |year=2021 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121081805/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-inductive/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Philosophy of logic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-logic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=21 November 2021 |language=en |archive-date=28 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428101732/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/346240/philosophy-of-logic |url-status=live |date=2019 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Logical systems |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic/Logical-systems |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=4 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184656/https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic/Logical-systems |url-status=live |date=2023 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |title=Information, Deduction, and the A Priori |journal=Noûs |year=1970 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=135–152 |doi=10.2307/2214318 |jstor=2214318 |issn=0029-4624 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |last2=Sandu |first2=Gabriel |editor-last=Jacquette |editor-first=D. |title=Philosophy of Logic |date=2006 |publisher=North Holland |pages=13–39 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JAAWIL |chapter=What is Logic? |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207235525/https://philpapers.org/rec/JAAWIL |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-444-51541-4 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Hintikka |first1=Jaakko J. |author-link=Jaakko Hintikka |last2=Spade |first2=Paul Vincent |title=History of logic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-logic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Honderich |first1=Ted |author-link=Ted Honderich |title=The Oxford Companion to Philosophy |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=29 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129082636/https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-19-926479-7 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hurley |first1=Patrick J. |title=Logic: The Essentials |date=2015 |publisher=Wadsworth |isbn=978-1-305-59041-0 |language=en |chapter=4. Categorical Syllogisms |pages=189–237 }}
* {{cite web |last1=IEP Staff |title=Deductive and Inductive Arguments |url=https://iep.utm.edu/ded-ind/ |access-date=6 January 2022 |archive-date=28 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528032124/https://iep.utm.edu/ded-ind/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Iqbal |first1=Mohammad |title=The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam |date=2013 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-8686-7 |pages=99–115 |url=http://www.allamaiqbal.com/works/prose/english/reconstruction/ |language=en |chapter=The Spirit of Muslim Culture }}
* {{cite web |last1=Irvine |first1=Andrew David |title=Bertrand Russell |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/russell/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=29 September 2022 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jacquette |first1=Dale |title=Philosophy of Logic |date=2006 |publisher=North Holland |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JACPOL |chapter=Introduction: Philosophy of logic today |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184932/https://philpapers.org/rec/JACPOL |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-444-51541-4 |pages=1–12 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jago |first1=Mark |title=The Impossible: An Essay on Hyperintensionality |date=2014 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-101915-9 |page=41 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Janssen |first1=Theo M. V. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Thomas Ede |title=Montague Semantics |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/montague-semantics/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=10 March 2023 |date=2021 |pages=3–4 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Ralph H. |title=The Relation Between Formal and Informal Logic |journal=Argumentation |year=1999 |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=265–274 |doi=10.1023/A:1007789101256 |s2cid=141283158 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/JOHTRB-2 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184706/https://philpapers.org/rec/JOHTRB-2 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Ralph H. |title=The Rise of Informal Logic: Essays on Argumentation, Critical Thinking, Reasoning and Politics |date=15 July 2014 |publisher=University of Windsor |isbn=978-0-920233-71-9 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Ketland |first1=Jeffrey |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 8 |date=2005 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/second-order-logic |chapter=Second Order Logic |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184921/https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/second-order-logic |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865788-2 |pages=707–708 |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA }}
* {{cite book |last1=King |first1=Jeffrey C. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Language |chapter=Formal Semantics |date=2 September 2009 |pages=557–558 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199552238.003.0023 |isbn=978-0-19-955223-8 }}
* {{cite web |last1=King |first1=Jeffrey C. |title=Structured Propositions |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/propositions-structured/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=25 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025211706/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/propositions-structured/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Klement |first1=Kevin C. |title=Propositional Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/prop-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=23 September 2022 |year=1995b |issn=2161-0002 }}
* {{cite book |last=Kline |first=Morris |title=Mathematical Thought From Ancient to Modern Times |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-19-506135-2 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Kneale |first1=William |author-link=William Kneale |last2=Kneale |first2=Martha |author2-link=Martha Kneale |title=The Development of Logic |date=1962 |publisher=Clarendon Press |language=en |isbn=978-0-19-824773-9 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Knuuttila |first1=Simo |title=Reforging the Great Chain of Being: Studies of the History of Modal Theories |date=1980 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-90-277-1125-0 |page=71 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Korb |first1=Kevin |title=Bayesian Informal Logic and Fallacy |journal=Informal Logic |year=2004 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=41–70 |doi=10.22329/il.v24i1.2132 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/KORBIL |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=10 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211110075255/https://philpapers.org/rec/KORBIL |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Koslowski |first1=Barbara |title=International Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-72569-7 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski |chapter=Abductive Reasoning and Explanation |doi=10.4324/9781315725697 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108225144/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski |url-status=live |pages=366–382 }}
* {{cite book |first1=Boris |last1=Kulik |first2=Alexander |last2=Fridman |title=N-ary Relations for Logical Analysis of Data and Knowledge |date=30 November 2017 |publisher=IGI Global |isbn=978-1-5225-2783-1 |page=74 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Kusch |first1=Martin |title=Psychologism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/psychologism/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=30 November 2021 |year=2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229220156/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/psychologism/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Lagerlund |first1=Henrik |title=Review of The Aftermath of Syllogism: Aristotelian Logical Argument from Avicenna to Hegel |url=https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/the-aftermath-of-syllogism-aristotelian-logical-argument-from-avicenna-to-hegel/ |website=Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews |access-date=19 July 2023 |language=en |date=27 September 2018 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lear |first1=Jonathan |title=Aristotle and Logical Theory |date=1980 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-31178-6 |page=34 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Leary |first1=Christopher C. |last2=Kristiansen |first2=Lars |title=A Friendly Introduction to Mathematical Logic |date=2015 |publisher=Suny |isbn=978-1-942341-07-9 |page=195 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lepore |first1=Ernest |last2=Cumming |first2=Sam |title=Meaning and Argument: An Introduction to Logic Through Language |date=14 September 2012 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-118-45521-0 |page=5 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Li |first1=Wei |title=Mathematical Logic: Foundations for Information Science |date=26 February 2010 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-3-7643-9977-1 |page=ix |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Linsky |first1=Bernard |title=The Evolution of Principia Mathematica: Bertrand Russell's Manuscripts and Notes |edition=2nd |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49733-6 |page=4 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Liu |first1=Shiyong |last2=Guo |first2=Kaizhong |title=Error Logic: Paving Pathways for Intelligent Error Identification and Management |date=7 March 2023 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-031-00820-7 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Łukasiewicz |first=Jan |author-link=يان ووڪاشيوچ |title=Aristotle's Syllogistic from the Standpoint of Modern Formal Logic |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1957 |edition=2nd |page=7 |oclc=656161566 }}
* {{cite web |last1=MacFarlane |first1=John |title=Logical Constants |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-constants/#SynTer |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=21 November 2021 |year=2017 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317180221/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-constants/#SynTer |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Mackie |first1=J. L. |author-link=جي. ايل. ميڪي |title=Fallacies |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/fallacies |website=encyclopedia.com |access-date=19 March 2021 |year=1967 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415101134/https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/fallacies |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Magnus |first1=P. D. |title=Forall X: An Introduction to Formal Logic |date=2005 |publisher=Victoria, BC, Canada: State University of New York Oer Services |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/MAGFXI |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207200544/https://philpapers.org/rec/MAGFXI |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-64176-026-3 |pages=8–9 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Makridis |first1=Odysseus |title=Symbolic Logic |date=2022 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-67396-3 |pages=1–2 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Maltby |first1=John |last2=Day |first2=Liz |last3=Macaskill |first3=Ann |title=Personality, Individual Differences and Intelligence |date=2007 |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-13-129760-9 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Marenbon |first1=John |title=Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/boethius/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2021 }}
* {{cite web |last1=McKeon |first1=Matthew |title=Logical Consequence |url=https://iep.utm.edu/logcon/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=20 November 2021 |archive-date=12 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112071437/https://iep.utm.edu/logcon/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Michaelson |first1=Eliot |last2=Reimer |first2=Marga |title=Reference |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reference/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2019 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184705/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reference/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Mills |first1=Ethan |title=Three Pillars of Skepticism in Classical India: Nagarjuna, Jayarasi, and Sri Harsa |date=2018 |publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4985-5570-8 |page=121 |language=en |quote=... for Nyāya all inference is ultimately rooted in perception ... Naiyāyikas typically accept four means of knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. }}
* {{cite book |last1=Monk |first1=J. Donald |title=Mathematical Logic |date=1976 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4684-9452-5 |pages=1–9 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |language=en |chapter=Introduction |doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=9 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109131251/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4684-9452-5_1 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Kevin |last2=Cromby |first2=John |title=How Best to 'Go On'? Prospects for a 'Modern Synthesis' in the Sciences of Mind |date=8 August 2016 |publisher=Frontiers Media SA |isbn=978-2-88919-906-8 |page=60 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Terence |last2=Carling |first2=Christine |title=Understanding Language: Towards a Post-Chomskyan Linguistics |date=1982 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-16895-8 |page=53 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Moschovakis |first1=Joan |author1-link=جوان موشووڪيس |title=Intuitionistic Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-intuitionistic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Introduction |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Nolt |first1=John |title=Free Logic: 1. The Basics |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-free/#1 |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=10 September 2022 |year=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Nunes |first1=Terezinha |author1-link=تريزينا نونيس |editor1-last=Seel |editor1-first=Norbert M. |title=Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning |date=2011 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4419-1427-9 |language=en |pages=2066–2069 |chapter=Logical Reasoning and Learning }}
* {{cite book |last1=O'Regan |first1=Gerard |title=Introduction to the History of Computing: A Computing History Primer |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-33138-6 |page=49 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Oaksford |first1=Mike |last2=Chater |first2=Nick |title=Bayesian Rationality: The Probabilistic Approach to Human Reasoning |date=2007 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-852449-6 |page=47 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Olkowski |first1=Dorothea |last2=Pirovolakis |first2=Eftichis |title=Deleuze and Guattari's Philosophy of Freedom: Freedom's Refrains |date=31 January 2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-66352-9 |pages=65–66 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Olsson |first1=Erik J. |title=Introduction to Formal Philosophy |date=2018 |publisher=Springer |pages=431–442 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/OLSBE |chapter=Bayesian Epistemology |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516095057/https://philpapers.org/rec/OLSBE |url-status=live |isbn=978-3-030-08454-7 }}
* {{cite web |author=Online Etymology Staff |title=Logic |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/logic?ref=etymonline_crossreference |website=etymonline.com |access-date=29 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229134626/https://www.etymonline.com/word/logic?ref=etymonline_crossreference |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Partee |first1=Barbara H. |author1-link=باربرا ايڇ پارٽي |editor1-last=Aloni |editor1-first=Maria |editor1-link=ماريا الوني |editor2-last=Dekker |editor2-first=Paul |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-02839-5 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Paulson |first1=Lawrence C. |title=Computational Logic: Its Origins and Applications |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |date=February 2018 |volume=474 |issue=2210 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1098/rspa.2017.0872 |pmid=29507522 |pmc=5832843 |arxiv=1712.04375 |bibcode=2018RSPSA.47470872P |s2cid=3805901 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pedemonte |first1=Bettina |title=Strategic vs Definitory Rules: Their Role in Abductive Argumentation and their Relationship with Deductive Proof |journal=Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education |date=25 June 2018 |volume=14 |issue=9 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.29333/ejmste/92562 |s2cid=126245285 |url=https://www.ejmste.com/article/strategic-vs-definitory-rules-their-role-in-abductive-argumentation-and-their-relationship-with-5539 |language=english |issn=1305-8215 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207195246/https://www.ejmste.com/article/strategic-vs-definitory-rules-their-role-in-abductive-argumentation-and-their-relationship-with-5539 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pickel |first1=Bryan |title=Structured Propositions and Trivial Composition |journal=Synthese |date=1 July 2020 |volume=197 |issue=7 |pages=2991–3006 |doi=10.1007/s11229-018-1853-1 |s2cid=49729020 |language=en |issn=1573-0964 |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.11820/3427c028-f2cb-4216-a199-9679a49ce71c |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Pietroski |first1=Paul |title=Logical Form: 1. Patterns of Reason |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-form/#pat |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 December 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=2 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002190116/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-form/#pat |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Planty-Bonjour |first1=Guy |title=The Categories of Dialectical Materialism: Contemporary Soviet Ontology |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-010-3517-0 |page=62 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Possin |first1=Kevin |title=Conductive Arguments: Why is This Still a Thing? |journal=Informal Logic |year=2016 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=563–593 |doi=10.22329/il.v36i4.4527 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/POSCAW-4 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171723/https://philpapers.org/rec/POSCAW-4 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Priest |first1=Graham |last2=Tanaka |first2=Koji |last3=Weber |first3=Zach |title=Paraconsistent Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-paraconsistent/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=14 December 2021 |year=2018 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Pépin |first1=Jean |title=Encyclopedia of Religion |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/logos |chapter=Logos |year=2004 |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229134626/https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/logos |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-02-865733-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Putnam |first=H. |author-link=هلري پٽنم |title=Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science |chapter=Is Logic Empirical? |year=1969 |volume=5 |pages=216–241 |doi=10.1007/978-94-010-3381-7_5 |isbn=978-94-010-3383-1 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Quine |first1=Willard Van Orman |author-link=ولارڊ وان اورمن ڪوائن |title=Mathematical Logic |date=1981 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-55451-1 |page=1 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Rathjen |first1=Michael |last2=Sieg |first2=Wilfried |title=Proof Theory |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/proof-theory/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=4 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rautenberg |first1=Wolfgang |title=A Concise Introduction to Mathematical Logic |date=1 July 2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4419-1221-3 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Rendsvig |first1=Rasmus |last2=Symons |first2=John |title=Epistemic Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-epistemic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Restall |first1=Greg |last2=Standefer |first2=Shawn |title=Logical Methods |date=2023 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-54484-9 |page=91 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Richardson |first1=Alan W. |title=Carnap's Construction of the World: The Aufbau and the Emergence of Logical Empiricism |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-43008-1 |page=15 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rini |first1=Adriane |author1-link=ايڊريان ريني |title=Aristotle's Modal Proofs: Prior Analytics A8-22 in Predicate Logic |date=13 December 2010 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-007-0050-5 |page=26 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ritola |first1=Juho |title=Walton's Informal Logic: A Pragmatic Approach |journal=Informal Logic |date=1 December 2008 |volume=28 |issue=4 |page=335 |doi=10.22329/il.v28i4.2856 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rocci |first1=Andrea |title=Modality in Argumentation: A Semantic Investigation of the Role of Modalities in the Structure of Arguments with an Application to Italian Modal Expressions |date=8 March 2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-024-1063-1 |page=26 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rošker |first1=Jana S. |author1-link=يانا ايس روشڪر |title=Classical Chinese Logic: Philosophy Compass |journal=Philosophy Compass |date=May 2015 |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=301–309 |doi=10.1111/phc3.12226 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Runco |first1=Mark A. |last2=Pritzker |first2=Steven R. |title=Encyclopedia of Creativity |date=1999 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-227075-8 |page=155 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rush |first1=Penelope |title=The Metaphysics of Logic |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/RUSTMO-4 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207184954/https://philpapers.org/rec/RUSTMO-4 |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-107-03964-3 |pages=1–10 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Sadegh-Zadeh |first1=Kazem |title=Handbook of Analytic Philosophy of Medicine |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-017-9579-1 |page=983 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sagüillo |first1=José M. |title=Hintikka on Information and Deduction |journal=Teorema: Revista Internacional de Filosofía |year=2014 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=75–88 |jstor=43047609 |issn=0210-1602 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Sarukkai |first1=Sundar |last2=Chakraborty |first2=Mihir Kumar |title=Handbook of Logical Thought in India |date=2022 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-81-322-2577-5 |pages=117–118 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Schagrin |first1=Morton L. |title=Metalogic |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/metalogic |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Schechter |first1=Joshua |title=Epistemology of Logic – Bibliography |url=https://philpapers.org/browse/epistemology-of-logic |website=PhilPapers |access-date=11 September 2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Schlesinger |first1=I. M. |last2=Keren-Portnoy |first2=Tamar |last3=Parush |first3=Tamar |title=The Structure of Arguments |date=1 January 2001 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-90-272-2359-3 |page=220 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Schreiner |first1=Wolfgang |title=Thinking Programs: Logical Modeling and Reasoning About Languages, Data, Computations, and Executions |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-80507-4 |page=22 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Scott |first1=John |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon |title=A Dictionary of Sociology |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095410661 |language=en |chapter=analytic induction |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108173225/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095410661 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Shapiro |first1=Stewart |last2=Kouri Kissel |first2=Teresa |title=Classical Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-classical/#Sema |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 July 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Shermer |first1=Michael |title=Conspiracy: Why the Rational Believe the Irrational |date=25 October 2022 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-1-4214-4445-1 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Sider |first=Theodore |author-link=ٿيوڊور سائيڊر |year=2010 |title=Logic for Philosophy |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-957558-9 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Siegel |first1=Harvey |last2=Biro |first2=John |title=Epistemic Normativity, Argumentation, and Fallacies |journal=Argumentation |year=1997 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=277–292 |doi=10.1023/A:1007799325361 |s2cid=126269789 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/SIEENA |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228035651/https://philpapers.org/rec/SIEENA |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Simpson |first1=R. L. |title=Essentials of Symbolic Logic |edition=3rd |date=2008 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=978-1-77048-495-5 |page=14 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Smith |first1=Robin |title=Aristotle's Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2022 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Spade |first1=Paul Vincent |last2=Panaccio |first2=Claude |title=William of Ockham |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ockham/#SummLogi |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2019 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Spriggs |first1=John |title=GSN – The Goal Structuring Notation: A Structured Approach to Presenting Arguments |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-1-4471-2312-5 |pages=20–22 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Stairs |first1=Allen |title=A Thinker's Guide to the Philosophy of Religion |year=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-21981-5 |page=343 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Sternberg |first1=Robert J. |title=Thought |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/thought |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=14 October 2021 |language=en |archive-date=13 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211013145532/https://www.britannica.com/topic/thought |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Stolyar |first1=Abram Aronovich |title=Introduction to Elementary Mathematical Logic |date=1 January 1984 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=978-0-486-64561-2 |language=en }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Stone |first1=Mark A. |title=Denying the Antecedent: Its Effective Use in Argumentation |journal=Informal Logic |year=2012 |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=327–356 |doi=10.22329/il.v32i3.3681 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/STODTA |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228123240/https://philpapers.org/rec/STODTA |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |last1=Stump |first1=David J. |title=Fallacy, Logical |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/fallacy-logical |website=encyclopedia.com |access-date=20 March 2021 |archive-date=15 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215112403/https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/fallacy-logical |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Talbott |first1=William |title=Bayesian Epistemology |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-bayesian/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=6 March 2021 |year=2016 |archive-date=1 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401034856/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-bayesian/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Tarski |first1=Alfred |author-link=الفريڊ تارسڪي |title=Introduction to Logic and to the Methodology of the Deductive Sciences |date=1994 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-802139-1 |page=40 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Tondl |first1=L. |title=Problems of Semantics: A Contribution to the Analysis of the Language Science |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-94-009-8364-9 |page=111 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Velleman |first1=Daniel J. |title=How to Prove It: A Structured Approach |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-67599-4 |pages=8, 103 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Vickers |first1=John M. |title=Inductive Reasoning |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0171.xml |website=Oxford Bibliographies |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=18 January 2023 |language=en |date=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Vidyabhusana |first1=Satis Chandra |title=A History of Indian Logic: Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern Schools |date=1988 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publisher |isbn=978-81-208-0565-1 |page=221 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Vleet |first1=Van Jacob E. |title=Informal Logical Fallacies: A Brief Guide |date=2010 |publisher=Upa |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/VLEILF |chapter=Introduction |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228035654/https://philpapers.org/rec/VLEILF |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-7618-5432-6 |pages=ix–x }}
* {{cite web |last1=Väänänen |first1=Jouko |title=Second-order and Higher-order Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-higher-order/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=23 November 2021 |year=2021 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030222316/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-higher-order/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Walton |first1=Douglas N. |author-link=ڊگلس اين والٽن |title=Informal Fallacies: Towards a Theory of Argument Criticisms |date=1987 |publisher=John Benjamins |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WALIFT |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302001111/https://philpapers.org/rec/WALIFT |url-status=live |isbn=978-1-55619-010-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Warren |first1=Jared |title=Shadows of Syntax: Revitalizing Logical and Mathematical Conventionalism |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-008615-2 |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/shadows-of-syntax-9780190086152 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Washell |first1=Richard F. |title=Logic, Language, and Albert the Great |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |date=1973 |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=445–450 |doi=10.2307/2708963 |jstor=2708963 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WASLLA-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wasilewska |first1=Anita |title=Logics for Computer Science: Classical and Non-Classical |date=2018 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-92591-2 |pages=145–146 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Weber |first1=Zach |title=Paraconsistent Logic |url=https://iep.utm.edu/para-log/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=12 December 2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Weddle |first1=Perry |title=Across the Lines of Disciplines |chapter=Chapter 36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction |date=2011 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |isbn=978-3-11-086771-8 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110867718.383/html |language=en |doi=10.1515/9783110867718.383 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231172343/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110867718.383/html |url-status=live |pages=383–388 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Westerståhl |first1=Dag |title=Aristotelian Syllogisms and Generalized Quantifiers |journal=Studia Logica |year=1989 |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=577–585 |doi=10.1007/BF00370209 |s2cid=32089424 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WESASA |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104182746/https://philpapers.org/rec/WESASA |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wilbanks |first1=Jan J. |title=Defining Deduction, Induction, and Validity |journal=Argumentation |date=1 March 2010 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=107–124 |doi=10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |s2cid=144481717 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |language=en |issn=1572-8374 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108171721/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10503-009-9131-5 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite web |last1=Wilce |first1=Alexander |title=Quantum Logic and Probability Theory: 2.1 Realist Quantum Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qt-quantlog/#RealQuanLogi |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |date=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wile |first1=Bruce |last2=Goss |first2=John |last3=Roesner |first3=Wolfgang |title=Comprehensive Functional Verification: The Complete Industry Cycle |date=2005 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-047664-3 |page=447 |language=en }}
* {{cite web |last1=Willman |first1=Marshall D. |title=Logic and Language in Early Chinese Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-logic-language/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2023 |at=Introduction |date=2022 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wolf |first1=Robert G. |title=Are Relevant Logics Deviant? |journal=Philosophia |year=1978 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=327–340 |doi=10.1007/BF02378819 |s2cid=143697796 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WOLARL |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216143955/https://philpapers.org/rec/WOLARL |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Zegarelli |first=Mark |title=Logic For Dummies |page=30 |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-1-118-05307-2 }}
{{refend}}

==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|date=5 November 2023|En-Logic-article.ogg}}
{{Sister project links|منطق}}
{{Library resources box}}

{{منطق}}
{{فلسفي جا موضوع}}
{{Authority control}}

[[زمرو:رسمي سائنسون]]
[[زمرو:منطق| ]]
[[زمرو:منطق]]
[[زمرو:رسمي سائنس]]
[[زمرو:سائنس جا شعبا]]
[[زمرو:فلسفي جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>fsnewwl8p8j3g3r2918b0mjb3zx0p4j</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>عثماني سلطنت</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>11466</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399273</id>
      <parentid>337783</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T19:44:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Redaktor GLAM</username>
        <id>19451</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Better quality version of image</comment>
      <origin>399273</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="92434" sha1="kav7hq6mfgwu2mpd57wbgubbt9hen82" xml:space="preserve">{{چونڊ مضمون}}
{{فرق سڃاڻ|عثماني خلافت}}
{{Infobox former country
| common_name = Sublime Ottoman State
| native_name = دولت عاليهٔ عثمانيه
| conventional_long_name = سلطنت عثمانيه
| continent = افرو-ايشيا
| status = سلطنت
| event_start = قيام
| year_start = 1299
| date_start = 27 جولاء
| event_end = [[جمهوريه ترڪي]]&lt;ref group=dn&gt;The [[Treaty of Sèvres]] (10 August 1920) afforded a small existence to the Ottoman Empire. On 1 November 1922, the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]] (GNAT) abolished the sultanate and declared that all the deeds of the Ottoman regime in Istanbul were null and void as of 16 March 1920, the date of the [[occupation of Constantinople]] under the terms of the Treaty of Sevres. The international recognition of the GNAT and the [[Government of the Grand National Assembly|Government of Ankara]] was achieved through the signing of the [[Treaty of Lausanne]] on 24 July 1923. The Grand National Assembly of Turkey promulgated the &quot;[[Republic of Turkey|Republic]]&quot; on 29 October 1923, which was the end of the Ottoman Empire in history.&lt;/ref&gt;
| year_end = 1923
| date_end = 29 آڪٽوبر
| event1 = وقفو
| date_event1 = 1402–1414
| event2 = [[عثماني سلطنت جو پهريون آئيني دور]]
| date_event2 = 1876–1878
| event3 = [[عثماني سلطنت جو ٻيون آئيني دور]]
| date_event3 = 1908–1922
| event4 = سلطنت جو خاتمو
 &lt;ref group=dn&gt;[[Mehmed VI]], the last Sultan, was expelled from Constantinople on 17 November 1922.&lt;/ref&gt;
| date_event4 = 1 نومبر 1922
| p1 = بازنطيني سلطنت
| flag_p1 = 
| p2 = سلاجقه روم
| flag_p2 = 
| p3 = سلطنت طرابزون
| flag_p3 = 
| p4 = بادشاهت موريا
| flag_p4 = 
| p5 = بادشاهت اپيروس
| flag_p5 = 
| p6 = بادشاهت دوبروجا
| flag_p6 = 
| p7 = بيليڪ ڪارامان
| flag_p7 = Karamanid Dynasty flag.svg
| p8 = مملڪت بوسنيا
| flag_p8 = 
| p9 = بلغاري سلطنت
| flag_p9 = Coat of arms of the Second Bulgarian Empire.svg
| p10 = سربيائي سلطنت
| flag_p10 = Flag of the Serbian Empire, reconstruction.svg
| p11 = لزهي ليگ
| flag_p11 = Coa Kastrioti Family.svg
| p12 = سلطنت هنگري
| flag_p12 = Coat of Arms of Hungary Historic Design.png
| p13 = مملڪت ڪروشيا
| flag_p13 = Coa Croatia Country History (Fojnica Armorial).svg
| border_p13 = no
| p14 = مملوڪ سلطنت (مصر)
| flag_p14 = Mameluke Flag.svg
| p15 = مالٽا جا سورما{{!}}طرابلس جا فلاحي
| flag_p15 = Flag of the Order of St. John (various).svg
| p16 = حفصه خاندان (تونس)
| flag_p16 = Tunis hafsid flag.png
| p17 = زياني خاندان (الجزائر)
| flag_p17 = Dz tlem2.gif
| s1 = عبوري حڪومت ترڪي
| flag_s1 = Ottoman flag alternative 2.svg
| s2 = جمهوريه يونان پهريون
| flag_s2 = Flag of Greece (1828-1978).svg
| s3 = خديويت مصر
| flag_s3 = Flag of Muhammad Ali.svg
| s4 = بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگوينا اتحاد
| flag_s4 = Flag of Bosnia (1878-1908).svg
| s5 = امارت درعيه
| flag_s5 = Flag of the First Saudi State.svg
| s6 = عبوري حڪومت البانيا
| flag_s6 = Flag of Albanian Provisional Government 1912-1914.gif
| s7 = مملڪت رومانيه
| flag_s7 = Flag of Romania.svg
| s8 = فرمانروائي بلغاريه
| flag_s8 = Flag of Bulgaria.svg
| s9 = برطانوي قبرص
| flag_s9 = Cyprus Blue Ensign-1922.svg
| s10 = فرانسيسي الجزائر
| flag_s10 = Flag of France.svg
| s11 = فرانسيسي تونس
| flag_s11 = Flag of French Tunisia.svg
| s12 = مشيخه ڪويت
| flag_s12 = Flag of Kuwait.svg
| s13 = مقبوضه دشمن علائقو انتظامیہ
| flag_s13 = 
| s14 = اطالوي شمالي افريقا
| flag_s14 = Flag of Italy (1861-1946).svg
| s15 = مملڪت متوڪليه يمن
| flag_s15 = Flag of the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen.svg
| s16 = مملڪت حجاز
| flag_s16 = Flag of Hejaz 1920.svg
| s17 = جنوب مغربي قفقاز عبوري قومي حڪومت
| flag_s17 = Flag of the South West Caucasian Republic.svg
| s18 = مملڪت حجاز
| flag_s18 = Flag of Hejaz 1914.svg
| s19 = مملڪت عراق (انتظاميه)
| flag_s19 = Flag of Iraq (1924–1959).svg
| image_coat = Osmanli-nisani.svg
| image_flag = Flag of the Ottoman Empire (Thicker Crescent).svg
| flag = Flags of the Ottoman Empire
| symbol = Coat of arms of the Ottoman Empire
| image_map = Ottoman Empire 16-17th century.jpg
| image_map_caption = عظيم ترين حد (سرخ) مع تابع رياستون (هلڪو سرخ) 1590 جي ڏهائي
| national_motto = ''Devlet-i Ebed-müddet''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;دولت ابد مدت&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&quot;ابدي رياست&quot;
| national_anthem = عثماني شاهي ترانو
| capital = سوگوت&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1299–1335)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br/&gt;بورصه&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN,33810/ottoman-capital-bursa.html ''Ottoman Capital Bursa'']. Official website of Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Turkey. Retrieved 26 June 2013.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1335–1413)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br/&gt;ادرنه&lt;ref&gt;&quot;It served as the capital of the Ottoman Empire from 1413 until 1453 and flourished as an administrative, commercial, and cultural centre.&quot; [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/179207/Edirne &quot;Edirne&quot;] ''[[انسائيڪلوپيڊيا بريطانيڪا]]''. Retrieved 27 June 2013&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref group=dn&gt;The old name of Edirne was Adrianople. After the capture of the city by Ottomans, it was renamed Edirne.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1413–1453)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br/&gt;[[قسطنطنيه]]&lt;ref group=dn&gt;The official name of Istanbul was ''[[Kostantiniyye]]'' (قسطنطينيه) under the Ottoman Empire. The name Constantinople continue to be used by Westerners until 1930. Istanbul became its official name after the city's name was officially changed by the Turkish government on 28 March 1930.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;br/&gt;(1458–1922)&lt;/small&gt;
| common_languages = [[ترڪ ٻولي|عثماني ترڪ]] (سرڪاري)
| government_type = [[مطلق بادشاهت]]&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1299–1876)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1878–1908)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1918–1922)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br/&gt;[[آئيني بادشاهت]]&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1876–1878)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1908–1918)&lt;/small&gt;
| title_leader = سلطان
| leader1 = عثمان پهريون&lt;small&gt;(پهريون)&lt;/small&gt;
| year_leader1 = 1299–1326
| leader2 = محمد ڇهون&lt;small&gt;(آخر)&lt;/small&gt;
| year_leader2 = 1918–1922
| title_deputy = وزير اعلي
| deputy1 = علا الدين پاشا &lt;small&gt;(پهريون)&lt;/small&gt;
| year_deputy1 = 1320–1331
| deputy2 = احمد توفيق پاشا &lt;small&gt;(آخر)&lt;/small&gt;
| year_deputy2 = 1920–1922
| legislature = جنرل اسيمبلي
| house1 = سينيٽ
| type_house1 = 
| house2 = ايوان نائبين
| type_house2 = 
| stat_year1 = 1683
| ref_area1 = &lt;ref name=autogenerated1&gt;{{cite journal |url=http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol12/number2/pdf/jwsr-v12n2-tah.pdf |title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires |work=Journal of World-Systems Research |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=219–229 |year=2006 |first1=Peter |last2=Hall |first2=Thomas D. |first3=Jonathan M. |last3=Adams |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=11 February 2013 |archive-date=22 February 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070222011511/http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol12/number2/pdf/jwsr-v12n2-tah.pdf |dead-url=yes }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070222011511/http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol12/number2/pdf/jwsr-v12n2-tah.pdf |date=22 February 2007 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| stat_area1 = 52,00,000
| stat_year2 = 1914
| stat_area2 = 1800000
| ref_area2 = &lt;ref&gt;Dündar, Orhan; Dündar, Erhan, 1.Dünya Savaşı, Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayınları, 1999, ISBN 975-11-1643-0&lt;/ref&gt;
| stat_year3 = 1856
| stat_pop3 = 3,p53,50,000
| stat_year4 = 1906
| stat_pop4 = 20884000
| stat_year5 = 1912
| stat_pop5 = 24000000
| ref_pop5 = &lt;ref name=autogenerated2&gt;{{cite book|last=Erickson|first=Edward J.|title=Defeat in detail: the Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912–1913|pages=59}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| stat_year6 = 1914
| stat_pop6 = 18520000
| stat_year7 = 1919
| stat_pop7 = 1,46,29,000
| religion = [[اسلام]]
| currency = سلطاني, قرش، ليرا
| today = {{Collapsible list|title=موجوده ملڪ|{{flag|ابخازيا}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|البانيه}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|الجزائر}} &lt;br/&gt;{{flag|آرمينيا}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|آذربائيجان}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|بحرين}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|بوسنيا و هرزيگووينا}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|بلغاريه}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|ڪروشيا}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|قبرص}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|مصر}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|اريتريا}} &lt;br/&gt;{{flag|جارجيا}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|يونان}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|هنگري}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|ايران}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|عراق}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|اسرائيل}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|اردن}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|ڪوسووو}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|ڪويت}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|لبنان}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|ليبيا}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|مقدونيه}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|مالدووا}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|مونٽينيگرو}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|نگورنو ڪاراباخ}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|ترڪ جمهوريه شمالي قبرص}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|سلطنت عمان}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|فلسطين}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|قطر}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|رومانيه}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|روس}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|سعودي عرب}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|سربيا}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|سلوواڪيه}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|سلووينيا}} &lt;br/&gt;{{flag|صوماليه}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|جنوبي اوسيشيا}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|سوڊان}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|شام}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|تونس}} &lt;br/&gt;{{flag|ٽرينسنيسٽريا}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|ترڪي}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|گڏيل عرب امارات}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|يوڪرين}} &lt;br/&gt; {{flag|يمن}}
}}
| footnotes = 
}}
{{سلطنت عثمانيه جي تاريخ}}
'''سلطنت عثمانيه''' (ترڪ ٻولي: دولت عاليه؛ 1299 - 1922ع)، عثماني ترڪن جي تحت هڪ مسلم سلطنت هئي. پنهنجي عروج جي زماني ۾ (16 کان 17 صدي تائين)، هي سلطنت ٽن کنڊن تي ڦهليل هئي ۽ ڏکن  ۽ اوڀر يورپ، [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ اتر آفريڪا جا اڪثر حصا  هن جي حڪومت هيٺ هئا. هن سلطنت جون سرحدون اولهه ۾ جبل الطارق، اوڀر ۾ ڪئسپين سمنڊ ۽ [[فارس جي نار]]، اتر ۾ [[آسٽريا|آسٽروي سلطنت]] جي سرحدن ۽ ڏکڻ ۾ [[سوڊان]]، يمن ۽ صوماليا تائين ڦهليل هيون. مالدووا، ٽرانسلوانيا ۽ ولاچيا جي علائقن کان سواء هن جا 29 صوبا هيا.

== تاريخ ==

===   اسرڻ کان عروج تائين (1299ء-1453ء) ===
سلاجقه روم جي سلطنت جي خاتمي کان بعد اناطوليه ۾ طوائف الملوڪي ڦهلجي وئي ۽ مختلف سردار پنهنجون پنهنجون خود مختيار رياستون ٺاهي ڪري ويهي رهيا جن کي غازي امارتون چيو ويندو هو. ط
[[1300ء]] تائين زوال جي طرف وڌندڙ بازنطيني سلطنت اناطوليه ۾ واقع پنهنجا گهڻا صوبا انهن غازي امارتن جي هٿان وڃائي ويٺي. انهن امارتن مان هڪ اولهه اناطوليه ۾ اسڪي شهر جي علائقي ۾ واقع هئي جنهن جو سردار عثمان پهريون هيو. چيو ويندو آهي ته جڏهن [[ارطغرل]] هجرت ڪري اناطوليه پهتو ته ان ٻن لشڪرن کي هڪ ٻئي سان وڙهيل ڏٺو جن مان هڪ تعداد ۾ گھڻو ۽ ٻيو گھٽ هيو پنهنجي فطري همدردانه طبيعت جي ڪري ارطغرل ننڍي  لشڪر جو ساٿ ڏنو ۽ 400 شهسوارن سان گڏ ميدان جنگ ۾ لهي پيو. ۽ ناڪامي جي ويجهو پهچڻ وارو لشڪر هن اچانڪ امداد سان جنگ جو پاسو پلٽائڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿي ويو. ارطغرل  جنهن فوج جي مدد ڪئي اها دراصل سلاجقه روم جو لشڪر هيو جيڪو عيسائين سان وڙهيل هيو ۽ هن فتح جي لاء ارطغرل جي خدمتن جي پيش نظر انهن کي اسڪي شهر جي ويجھو هڪ جاگير عطا ڪئي. [[1281ء]] ۾ ارطغرل جي وفات کان بعد هن جاگير جي سربراهي عثمان پهريون جي هٿ ۾ آئي جنهن [[1299ء]] ۾ سلجوقي سلطنت کان خودمختياري جو اعلان ڪري عثماني سلطنت جو بنياد وڌو. 
عثمان پهرين هن ننڍڙي سلطنت جون سرحدون بازنطيني سلطنت جي سرحدن تائين ڦهلائي ڇڏيون ۽ فتح کان بعد گادي جو هنڌ بروصه منتقل ڪري ڇڏيو. عثمان پهرين ترڪن ۾ انتهائي قدر جي نگاهه سان ڏٺو ويندو آهي. درحقيقت هو تمام  اعلٰي وصفن جو مالڪ هيو. ڏينهن جو مجاهد ۽ رات جو عابد سان گڏوگڏ انتهائي شريف النفس، سادگي پسند، مهمان نواز، فياض ۽ رحم دل انسان به هيو. ان جو دور حڪومت سلطنت عثمانيه جي بنيادن کي مضبوط ڪرڻ جو سبب بڻيو. هي عثمان پهرين جون وڌل مضبوط بنيادون ئي هيون جو انهن جي وفات کان بعد هڪ صدي جي اندر عثماني سلطنت اوڀر روم سمنڊ ۽ بلقان تائين پکڙجي وئي. 
سلطنت جي فتحن جو هي عظيم سلسلو عثمان جي جانشينن جاري رکيو پر [[1402ء]] ۾ [[تيمور لنگ]]  اناطوليه تي حملو ڪري ڇڏيو ۽ عثماني سلطان بايزید يلدرم شڪست کائڻ کان پوء گرفتار ٿي ويو پر هي عثمانين جي بهادري هئي جو انهن پنهنجي ختم ٿيندڙ سلطنت کي نه صرف بحال ڪيو بلڪه چند ئي عشرن ۾ فتح قسطنطنيه جهڙي تاريخ جي عظيم ترين فتح حاصل ڪئي. ان سان عثمانين جو وقار دنيا ڀر ۾ بلند ٿيو. 
سلطنت عثمانيه جي ٻيهر بحالي جو سهرو بايزید يلدرم جي پٽ محمد پهرين جي سر وڃي ٿو جيڪو پنهنجي اعلٰي اخلاق ۽ وصفن جي ڪري ترڪن ۾ &quot;محمد چلبي&quot; جي نالي سان سڃاتو ويندو هو. 
فتح قسطنطنيه ترڪن خصوصاً عثمانين جي تاريخ جو سنهرو ترين باب آهي. 29 [[مئي]] [[1453ء]] ۾ 21 سالن جي نوجوان سلطان محمد ثاني جي قيادت هيٺ هن لشڪر ناقابل يقين ڪارناما سرانجام ڏيندي هن عظيم شهر کي فتح ڪيو ۽ انکي پنهنجي گادي جو هنڌ بڻايو. اهڙي طرح محمد قيصرِ روم ٿي ويو ۽ هي لقب ان جي انهن ارادن کي ظاهر ڪندو هيو ته عثماني جلد روم تي به قبضو ڪري وٺندا ۽ انهن مقصدن کي حاصل ڪرڻ لاء [[1480ء]] ۾ عثماني فوجون ٻيٽ نما اطاليه تي لٿيون ۽ اوٽرانٽو ۽ اپوليا جي شهرن تي قبضو ڪري ڇڏيو پر [[1481ء]] ۾ محمد فاتح جي وفات سان گڏ ئي فتح اطاليه جي مهم جو خاتمو ٿي ويو.

===   واڌارو (1453ء-1683ء) ===
عثماني تاريخ جو هي دور ٻن مختلف دورن ۾ ورهائي سگھجي ٿو: هڪ [[1566ء]] تائين علائقائي، اقتصادي ۽ ثقافتي واڌ جو دور جنهن بعد عسڪري ۽ سياسي بيهجي وڃڻ جو دور.

===   واڌارو ۽ عروج جو نقطو (1453ء-1566ء) ===
1453ء ۾ فتح قسطنطنيه  ڏکڻ اوڀر يورپ ۽ روم سمنڊ جي اوڀر وارن علائقن ۾ سلطنت عثمانيه جي هڪ عظيم قوت جي طور تي اڀرڻ جو بنياد وڌو ۽ پوء 1566ء تائين [[يورپ]]، وچ اوڀر ۽ اتر آفريڪا ۾ فتحن جي هڪ طويل دور جو آغاز ٿيو. انهن فتحن جو سبب فوج جو معياري نظم و ضبط ۽ جديد عسڪري قوت هئي جنهن ۾ بارود جو استعمال ۽ مضبوط بحريه جو ڪردار تمام اهم هيو. رياست جي معيشت ۾ اهم ترين ڪردار تجارت جو هيو ڇو ته يورپ ۽ ايشيا جي وچ ۾ تجارت جا تمام زميني ۽ سامونڊي رستا عثماني سلطنت مان ٿي گذرندا هيا. هڪ کان بعد ٻين عظيم سلطانن سلطنت جي سرحدن وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو جن ۾ [[سليم پهريون]] جو نالو نمايابن آهي جنهن اوڀر ۽ ڏکڻ طرف توجهه ڏني ۽ صفوي سلطنت جي شاهه اسماعيل صفوي کي جنگ چالدران ۾ شڪست ڏني ۽ مصر ۾ عثماني حڪومت قائم ڪئي. سليم جي جانشين سليمان عاليشان ([[1520ء]] کان [[1566ء]]) اولهه ۾ سلطنت کي وڌاء ڏنو ۽ 1521ء ۾ بلغراد جي فتح کان بعد 1526ء ۾ جنگ موهاڪر جي ذريعي هنگري ۽ ٻين وچ يورپي علائقن ۾ عثمانين جو دٻدٻو ويهاري ڇڏيو. ان کان بعد ان 1529ء ۾ ويانا جو گھيراء ڪيو پر ٿڌي موسم ۽ شهر جي واسين جي زبردست مزاحمت جي ڪري هي گھراء ناڪام ٿي ويو اهڙي طرح عثماني طوفان جون موجون ويانا جي ديوارن سان ٽڪرائي واپس اچي ويون ۽ عثماني سلطنت جون سرحدون وچ يورپ جي هن شهر کان اڳتي ڪڏهن به نه وڌي سگھيون. سليمان جي دورن ۾ ٽرانسلوانيا، ولاچيا ۽ مالدووا سلطنت عثمانيه جو حصو بڻيا. اوڀر ۾ عثمانين ايران کان بغداد ٻيهر حاصل ڪري ورتو ۽ بين النهرين تي قبضو ڪر خليج فارس تائين سامونڊي رسائي حاصل ڪري ورتي.

سليم ۽ سليمان جي دورن ۾ عثماني بحريه دنيا جي عظيم ترين بحري قوت ٿي جنهن روم سمنڊ جا ڪافي علائقا فتح ڪيا. انهن فتحن ۾ اهم ترين ڪردار عثماني امير البحر خير الدين پاشا باربروسا جو رهيو جنهن سليمان جي دور ۾ ڪافي شاندار عسڪری فتحون حاصل ڪيون. جنهن ۾ اسپين جي خلاف تيونس ۽ [[الجزائر]] جون فتحون ۽ سقوط غرناطه کان بعد اتي جي مسلمانن ۽ يهودين جي بحفاظت عثماني سرزمين تائين منتقلی ۽ 1543ء ۾ مقدس رومي سلطنت جي خلاف نيس جي فتح قابل ذڪر آهن. 
16 هين صدي ۾ اولهه يورپي قوتن خصوصاً پرتگيزن جي خليج فارس ۽ بحر هند ۾ وڌندڙ قوت عثماني بحريه جي لاء شديد مشڪلاتون پيدا ڪيون. عثمانين جي طرفان  اڀر ۽ ڏکڻ جا رستا بند ڪري ڇڏڻ جي ڪري یورپي قوتون ايشيا جي لاء نئين رستن جي تلاش ۾ نڪري پيون. ۽ هند ۽ چين جي لاء نوان رستا دريافت ڪيا.

=== بغاوتون ۽ اڀرڻ (1566ع-1683ع) ===
[[فائل:Battle of Preveza (1538).jpg|thumb|خير الدين پاشا باربروسا 1538ع ۾ جنگ پريويزا ۾ يورپ جي گڏيل بحري ٻيڙي کي بدترين شڪست ڏني]]
1566ء ۾ سليمان جي وفات علائقائي فتحن جي خاتمي جو شروعاتي نقتو ثابت ٿي. اولهہ يورپ جي سلطنتن جو بطور بحري قوت اڀرڻ ۽ يورپ کان [[ايشيا]] جي لاء متبادل رستن ۽ &quot;نئين دنيا&quot; ([[آمريڪا]]) جي دريافت عثماني معيشت کي زبردست نقصان پهچايو. اهڙي نازڪ وقت ۾ جڏهن سلطنت عثمانيه کي بيدار مغز حڪمرانن جي ضرورت هئي بدقسمتي سان ان کي نالائق حڪمرانن جي طويل دور کي سهڻو پيو جنهن اندروني ۽ عسڪري محاذ تي مملڪت کي شديد نقصان پهچايو. انهن تمام مشڪلاتن جي باوجود [[1683ع]] ۾ جنگ ويانا تائين سلطنت جي فتحن جو سلسلو جاري رهيو پر هن جنگ کان بعد يورپ ۾ سلطنت جي واڌاري جو مڪمل خاتمو ٿي ويو. اولهہ يورپ جي طرفان  نون تجارتي رستن جي تلاش ۽ دريافت کان علاوہ &quot;نئين دنيا&quot; کان اسپين ۾ وڏي مقدار ۾ چاندي جي آمد عثماني سڪي جي قدر ۾ تيزي سان بي قدري جو سبب بڻي. سليم ثاني جي دور ۾ صدر اعظم محمد پاشا صوقوللي معيشت کي استحڪام بخشڻ جي لاء سوئز نهر ۽ ڊون-وولگا نهر جي اڏاوت جا منصوبا پيش ڪيا پر انهن تي عملدرآمد نہ ٿي سگھيو. 
[[فائل:Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg|thumb|جنگ ليپانٽو 1571ء، عثماني سلطنت جي زوال جي علامت]]
هن ئي دور ۾ ڏکڻ يورپ ۾ اسپين جي فلپ ثاني جي زير قيادت ڪيٿولڪ قوتن روم سمنڊ ۾ عثماني بحريه جي قوت کي نقصان پهچائڻ جي لاء ڳٺ جوڙ ڪري ورتو. 1571ء ۾ جنگ ليپانٽو ۾ شڪست روم سمنڊ ۾ سلطنت جي برتري جي فوري خاتمي جو سبب بڻي. ان لاء ڪافي تاريخدانن جنگ ليپانٽو ۾ شڪست کي عثماني سلطنت جي زوال جو اشارو قرار ڏنو آهي. اهڙي طرح 16 هين صدي جي اختتام تائين فتحن ۽ ڪامیابین جي سنهري دور جو خاتمو ٿي ويو. 
[[فائل:Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg|thumb|[[ويانا جو ٻيو گھيراء]] 1683ء]]
عثمانين جي هڪ مخصوص مقام تي وڃي ڪري فتحن جي بيهجي وڃڻ جون ڪافي وجهون آهن هڪ تہ قديم دور ۾ جاگرافيائي خصوصيتن جي ڪري محدوديت جن جي ڪري بهار جي ابتدائي دور کان خزان جي آخري ڏينهن تائين جي جنگي موسم ۾ عثماني فوج ويانا  کان اڳتي نہ پئي وڃي سگھي. ٻين وجهن ۾ سرحدن ٻنهي طرف ٻن مختلف حريفن (يورپ ۾ آسٽريا ۽ ايشيا ۾ ايران جا صفوي حڪمران) جي خلاف هڪ ئي وقت جنگ ڪرڻ شامل آهن. انکان علاوه فڪري، ذهني ۽ عسڪري بيهڪ عثمانين جي زوال تي مهر لڳي وئي ڇو تہ عسڪري طور تي جديد هٿيارن جو استعمال ئي وسيع پيماني ۽ تيزی سان فتحن جو سبب هيو ۽ مذهبي ۽ دانشور طبقي جي وڌندڙ دقيانوسي خيالن يورپين جي جديد عسڪري طرزن جي مقابلي ۾ عثمانين کي ڪافي پوئتي ڪري ڇڏيو. يني چري، جن کان يورپ جون تمام فوجون ڏڪنديون هيون، آرام پسند ٿي وئي ۽ ملڪ جي ساسي معاملن ۾ مداخلت جي ڪري رياست جي تباهي جو سبب ٿي. 
صفوين کان يريوان ([[1635ء]]) ۽ بغداد ([[1639ء]]) کسڻ واري مراد چوٿين ([[1612ء]] کان [[1640ء]]) هن دور جو واحد حڪمران جنهن سياسي ۽ عسڪري طور تي سلطنت کي مضبوط بڻايو. مراد چوٿون ئي اهو آخري سلطان هيو جنهن بذات خود فوجن جي قيادت ڪئي. 
16 هين صدي جي آخر ۽ 17 هين صدي جي شروع ۾ جلالي بغاوت (1519ء-1610ء) ۽ يني چري بغاوت (1622ء) اناطوليہ ۾ وڏي پيماني تي لاقانونيت ۽ فسادن کي هٿي ڏني ۽ متعدد حڪومتن جي خاتمي جو سبب بڻيو. اهڙي طرح 17 هين صدي عثمانين جي لاء بيهجي وڃڻ ۽ زوال جي صدي رهي. 
[[1530ء]] کان [[1660ء]] تائين جي دور ۾ حرم جي ملڪي معاملن ۾ مداخلت ۽ اثرن کان بہ قطع نظر نٿو ڪري سگهجي جنهن ۾ سڀ کان اهم ڪردار نوجوان سلطان جي مائرن جو رهيو. هن دور جي نمايان عورتن ۾ [[خرم سلطان]]، قصم سلطان ۽ [[تورخان خادج]] ۽ ٻيون شامل آهن.

===   بيهجي وڃڻ ۽ اصلاحتون (1699ء-1827ء) ===
بيهجي وڃڻ جي دور ۾ بلقان جا ڪافي علائقا آسٽريا جي قبضي ۾ اچي ويا. رياست جا متعدد علائقا، جيئن مصر ۽ [[الجزائر]]، مڪمل طور تي خود مختيار ٿي ويا ۽ بالآخر سلطنت [[برطانيه|برطانيا]] ۽ [[فرانس]] جي قبضي ۾ هليا ويا. 17 هين صدي کان 19 هين صدي جي دوران روس ۽ سلطنت عثمانيه جي وچ ۾ ڪيتريون ئي جنگيون به وڙهيون ويون جن کي ترڪ روس جنگيون چيو ويندو آهي. 
عثمانين جي بيهجي وڃڻ جي هن طويل دور کي مورخن ناڪام اصلاحتن جو دور به قرار ڏنو آهي . هن دور جي آخر ۾ رياست ۾ تعليمي ۽ طرزياتي اصلاحتون به ڪيون ويون ۽ استنبول تڪنيڪي جامعه جهڙا اعلٰي تعليم جا ادارا قائم ٿيا. پر قديم سوچ جي حامل مذهبي ۽ عسڪري طبقي سان اصلاحن جي شديد ترين مخالفت ڪئي ايتري قدر جو ڇاپ خانن کي به &quot;شيطاني ايجاد&quot; قرار ڏنو ويو جنهن جي ڪري 1450ء ۾ يورپ ۾ ڇاپ خاني جي ايجاد کان بعد 43 سالن تائين سلطنت عثمانيه ڇاپ خانن کان محروم رهي پر 1493ء ۾ اسپين کان بي دخل ڪيل یهودين استنبول ۾ پهريون ڇاپ خانو قائم ڪيو. 
دور لاله سلطان احمد ٽين جي پرامن دور ۽ گل لاله سان محبت جي ڪري دورِ لاله چورائيندو آهي. [[1712ء]] ۾ روس جي خلاف پرٿ مهم ۾ ڪاميابي ۽ ان کان بعد پاسارووچ معاهدي جي ڪري [[1718ء]] کان [[1730ء]] تائين جو دور پرامن رهيو. هن دور ۾ سلطنت يورپ جي اڳڀرائي جي خلاف مضبوط دفاع جي پيش نظر بلقان جي مختلف شهرن ۾ قلعه بنديون ڪيون. ٻين اصلاحن ۾ محصولات ۾ گھٽتائي؛ عثماني سلطنت جي ٻاهرين ملڪن ۾ تصور کي بهتر بڻايو ۽ نجي ملڪيت ۽ سرمائي ڪاري جي اجازت شامل آهن. 
عثمانين ۾ عسڪري اصلاحن جي شروعات سليم ٽين ([[1789ء]]-[[1807ء]]) جي دور ۾ ٿي جنهن يورپي خطن تي فوجن کي جديد تر بڻائڻ لاء اهم قدم کنيا. حالانڪه انهن قدمن جي مذهبي قيادت ۽ يني چري دستن کلي ڪري مخالفت ڪئي ۽ ان جي نتيجي ۾ يني چري بغاوت به ڪئي. ۽ سليم کي پنهنجي اصلاحن جو خميازو حڪومت ۽ جان ٻنهي کان هٿ ڌوئڻ جي صورت ۾ کڻڻو پيو پر ان جي جانشين محمود ٻين انهن تمام اصلاحن کي نافذ ڪري دم کنيو ۽ [[1826ء]] ۾ يني چري جو مڪمل خاتمو ڪيو ويو.

=== زوال ۽ جدت سازي (1828ء-1908ء) ===
[[فائل:Punch_-_The_Dogs_of_War.png|thumb|هڪ جريدي ۾ شائع  وارو خاڪو جنهن ۾ بلقان رياستن کي روس جي شهه پر سلطنت عثمانيه تي حملو ڪندي ڏيکاريو ويو آهي جڏهن ته برطانيا روس کي خبردار ڪري رهيو آهي. هن جي ٻن هفتن بعد بلقان رياستن سلطنت عثمانيه جي خلاف بغاوت ڪري ڏني هئي]]
عثمانين جي زوال جي دور کي مورخ جديد دور به قرار ڏيندا آهن. هن دور ۾ سلطنت هر محاذ تي شڪست کاڌي ۽ ان جون سرحدون گھٽجنديون ويون تنظيمات (اصلاحن) جي باوجود مرکزي حڪومت جي ناڪامي جي ڪري انتظامي عدم استحڪام پيدا ٿيو. 
19 هين صدي جي دوران سلطنت عثمانيه سميت ڪافي ملڪن ۾ قوم پرستي کي عروج نصيب ٿيو. نسلي قوم پرستي جي لعنت انهن اولهه جي نظرين ۾ سڀ کان اهم هئي جيڪي ان دوران سلطنت عثمانيه ۾ وارد ٿيا. ان دوران ڪيئي انقلابي سياسي جماعتون به وجود ۾ آيون. مملڪت ۾ آئي ڏينهن وڌندڙ بگاڙ جا جتي ٻيا ڪيترائي سبب هيا اتي زوال جي اهم ترين وجهن ۾ قوم پرستي جو ڦهلاء به شامل آهي. هن عرصي ۾ [[1892ء]] ۾ يونان  آزادي حاصل ڪئي ۽ اصلاح به ڊينيوب جي امارتن ۾ قوم پرستي کي نه روڪي سگھيا ۽ 6 ڏهاڪن کان نيم خود مختيار انهن علائقن سربيا، مونٽي نيگرو، بوسنيا، ولاچيا ۽ مالدووا به [[1875ء]] ۾ سلطنت کان آزادي جو اعلان ڪري ڇڏيو ۽ [[1877ء]] جي روس ترڪ جنگ کان بعد سربيا، رومانيا ۽ مونٽي نيگرو کي باقاعده آزادي ملي وئي ۽ بلغاريه کي خود مختياري عطا ڪئي وئي البته بلقان جون ٻيون رياستون بدستور عثماني قبضي ۾ رهيون. زوال جي انهي دور ۾ سربيا جي هڪ يهودي يهودا سولمن الڪلائي  صيهون جي طرف واپسي ۽ اسرائيل جي آزادي جو نظريو پيش ڪيو. 
[[فائل:MahmutII.jpg|thumb|محمود ثاني (ٻيون) 1839ء ۾ تنظيمات جي ذريعي ترڪي ۾ جديد دور جو بنياد رکيو]]
دور تنظيمات ([[1839ء]] تائين [[1876ء]]) ۾ آئيني اصلاحن جو هڪ سلسلو متعارف ڪرايو ويو جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ هڪ نسبتاً جديد فوج، بينڪاري نظام جا اصلاح نافذ ٿيا ۽ جديد ڪارخانا قائم ٿيا. [[1856ء]] ۾ خط همايون جي ذريعي نسل ۽ مذهب کان بالاتر ٿي ڪري تمام عثماني شهرين کي برابري جو درجو ڏيڻ جو اعلان ڪيو ويو. عيسائي اقليتن کي به خصوصي حق عطا ڪيا ويا جيئن [[1863ء]] ۾ آرمينيائي دانشورن جي مرتب ڪيل 150 شقن کي ضابطه قانون جي تحت منظور شدہ ديوان نظام نامئه ملت آرمينيان (Armenian National Constitution) . اصلاحن جي هن دور جي سڀ کان اهم ڳالهه اهو دستور هيو جيڪو قانون اساسي چورائيندو هيو جنهن کي نوجوانان عثمان  تحرير ڪيو ۽ 23 نومبر [[1876ء]] تي نافذ ڪيو ويو. هن جي ذريعي تمام شهرين جي لاء اظهار راء جي آزادي ۽ قانون جي نظر ۾ برابري عطا ڪئي وئي.
سلطنت جو پهريون آئيني دور (عثماني ترڪ ٻولي: ''برنجي مشروطيت دوري'') مختصر رهيو پر ان جي نتيجي ۾ جنهن نظریي فروغ پاتو اهو اولهه جي جامعات ۾ تعليم حاصل ڪرڻ واري نوجوانان عثمان نالي اصلاح پسند گروهه جي مطابق هي هيو ته هڪ آئيني بادشاهت مملڪت جي مسئلن جو خاتمو ڪري سگھي ٿي. [[1876ء]] ۾ فوجي طاقت جي ذريعي سلطان عبدالعزيز ([[1861ء]] تائين [[1876ء]]) مراد پنجون جي حق ۾ دستبردار ٿي ويو. مراد پنجون ذهني معذور هيو ۽ چند مهينن ۾ ئي عهدي تان هٽايو ويو. ان جي ممڪنه جانشين عبد الحميد ٻيون ([[1876ء]] تائين 1909ء) کي ان شرط تي بادشاهت سنڀالڻ جي دعوت ڏني وئي ته هو آئيني بادشاهت کي تسليم ڪندو جنهن تي هن 23 نومبر [[1876ء]] تي عمل به ڪيو. پر پارليمان صرف ٻه سال قائم رهيو ۽ سلطان انکي معطل ڪري ڇڏيو ۽ بعد ۾ پارليمان کي طلب ڪرڻ جي لاء هن تي دٻاء وڌو ويو. پر قانون اساسي جا اثر ڪافي حد تائين گھٽجي ويا. هن عرصي ۾ سلطنت کي ٻاهرين جارحيت ۽ قبضه گيري جي خلاف پنهنجي دفاع جي حوالي کان شديد خطرن  کي منهن ڏيڻو پيو. [[1798ء]] ۾ فرانس مصر تي قبضو ڪري ورتو. [[1877ء]] جي روس ترڪ جنگ ۾ شڪست کان بعد برلن ڪانگريس ۾ حمايت جي صلي ۾ [[1878ء]] میں ايالت قبرص پٽي تي برطانيا جي حوالي ڪرڻو پيو. سلطنت پنهنجي مسئلن کي خود حل ڪرڻ جي قابل نه رهي ۽ مختلف يورپي ملڪن جي مداخلت ۽ اتحاد جي ذريعي ان جا مسئلا حل ٿيڻا پيا مثال طور جنگ ڪريميا جنهن ۾ عثمانين روس جي خلاف برطانيه ۽ فرانس سان اتحاد ڪيو. 
حالانڪه ان عرصي ۾ انکي &quot;يورپ جو مرد بيمار&quot; چيو ويو پر معاشي طور تي سلطنت جي بد حالي جو سبب ان جي ترقي پذير معيشت ۾ نه هيو بلڪه اهو ثقافتي خال هيو جيڪو انکي يورپي قوتن کان الڳ ڪري ڇڏيندو هو. اقتصادي مسئلا دراصل ٻاهرين سامراجيت ۽ اڀرندڙ داخلي قوم پرستي جهڙن مسئلن سان نه نمٽي سگھڻ جي وجهه جي ڪري هيا.

=== تحليل (1908ء-1922ء) ===
[[فائل:Ottoman-Empire-Public-Demo.png|thumb|استنبول جي ضلعي سلطان احمد ۾ هڪ عوامي مظاهرو، 1908ء]]
ٻيون آئيني دور (عثماني ترڪ ٻولي: ''اڪنجي مشروطيت دوري'') سلطنت عثمانيه جي حتمي تحليل جو نتيجو ٿيو. ان دور ۾ اتحاد ۽ ترقي جمعيتي جي سياست ۽ نوجوانان ترڪ (ترڪ ٻولي: ''جون ترڪلر'') جو سبب بڻجڻ واري تحريڪ نمايان ترين آهن. نوجوانان ترڪ جي انقلاب جي شروعات 3 جولاء [[1908ء]] تي ٿي ۽ جلد ئي تحريڪ سلطنت ڀر ۾ پکڙجي وئي ۽ نتيجتاً سلطان کي 1876ء جي آئين جي بحالي جو اعلان ۽ پارليمان کي طلب ڪرڻو پيو. آئيني دور ۾ 1909ء جي جوابي تاخت ۽ واقعو 31 مارچ جي جوابي انقلاب جي دوران رخنو آيو جنهن سان گڏ ئي سلطان عبد الحميد ٻيون جي دور جو خاتمو ڪيو ويو ۽ ان کي جلاوطن ڪيو ويو ۽ ان جي جڳهه ان جي ڀاء  محمد پنجون کي تخت تي ويهاريو ويو. 
نوجوانان ترڪ جي انقلاب جي دوران سلطنت عثمانيه جي داخلي صورتحال جو فائدو کڻندي 1908ء ۾ آسٽريا-هنگري  مقبوضه بوسنيا و ہرزيگووينا جو باضابطه الحاق ڪري ڇڏيو. آسٽريا-هنگري [[1877ء]] جي روس ترڪ جنگ ۽ برلن ڪانگريس (1878ء) کان بعد ان تي قبضو ڪيو هيو. اطاليه ترڪ جنگن جي دوران سربيا، مونٽي نيگرو، يونان ۽ بلغاريه تي مشتمل بلقان ليگ سلطنت عثمانيه جي خلاف اعلان جنگ ڪري ڇڏيو جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ سلطنت عثمانيه کي بلقان جنگ (1912ء-1913ء) کي منهن ڏيڻو پيو ۽ انکي ٻيٽ نما بلقان جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن تان هٿ کڻڻو پيو. ليبيا ۽ ٻيٽ نما بلقان ۾ جنگون اتحاد ۽ ترقي جمعيتي جو پهريون وڏو امتحان هيو. اطاليه ترڪ جنگن ۾ سلطنت کي ليبيا تان به هٿ کڻڻو پيو. هي پهرين جنگ هئي جنهن ۾ دنيا ۾ پهريون دفعو ميدان جنگ ۾ هوائي جهازن جو استعمال به ڪيو ويو. 
19 هين صدي جي آخر ۾ قائم ٿيڻ واريون بلقان رياستون نسلي ۽ قومي بنيادن تي البانيه، مقدونيه ۽ ٿريس (تراقيا) جي عثماني صوبن کان به اضافي علائقن جي حاصلات جون خواهشمند هيون. ابتدائي طور تي مارچ 1912ء ۾ سربيا ۽ بلغاريه ۽ مئي 1912ء ۾ يونان ۽ بلغاريه جي وچ ۾ معاهدا طي ٿيا جن ۾ روس ثالث جو ڪردار ادا ڪيو. 
سرب-بلغاري معاهدي ۾ مقدونيه جي ورهاست جو مطالبو ڪيو ويو هيو جيڪو پهرين بلقان جنگ جو سڀ کان اهم سبب بڻيو. ٻين بلقان جنگ جي شروعات جو اهم سبب اڳوڻن بلقان اتحادين ۾  نئي حاصل ڪيل علائقن جي ورهاست تي پيدا ٿيڻ وارا تنازعا هيا جن سان سلطنت عثمانيه ڀرپور فائدو کنيو ۽ ٿريس ۾ ڪافي علائقا ٻيهر فتح ڪيا ويا. بلقان جنگ جي سياسي نتيجن 1913ء جي تاخت ۽ ٽن پاشائن جي حڪومت جو سبب بڻي.

===  پهرين مهاڀاري جنگ ===
[[فائل:Turkish_trenches_at_Gallipoli.jpg|thumb|مصطفٰي ڪمال اتاترڪ 1915ء ۾ جنگ گيلي پولي جي دوران هڪ خندق ۾]]
پهرين مهاڀاري جنگ ۾ بغداد ريلوي تي جرمن اختيار بين الاقوامي طور تي ڪشيدگي جو هڪ اهم مسئلو هيو. سلطنت عثمانيه پهرين مهاڀاري جنگ جي وچ اوڀر ميدان ۾ حصو ورتو جنهن جو سبب ترڪ جرمن اتحاد هيو. عثمانين جنگ جي ابتدائي دور ۾ ٻه اهم فتحون، جنگ گيلي پولي ۽ ڪوت جو گھيراء، حاصل ڪيون پر ان سان ڪيترائي لوڏا به پهتا جيئن روس جي خلاف تباهه حال قفقاز مهم. 1917ء جي روسي انقلاب  عثمانين کي شڪست جا داغ ڌوئن ۽ وڃايل علائقا حاصل ڪرڻ جو موقعو فراهم ڪيو ۽ عثماني فوجون جنگ جي اختتامي مرحلن ۾ آذربائيجان جي حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿي ويون پر مهاڀاري جنگ جي اختتام تي انهن فتحن تان هٿ کڻڻا پيا.هن تنازعي ۾ پیش اچڻ وارو هڪ متنازع ۽ اهم واقعو صوبي وان ۾ ترڪ اڳواڻن، عثماني فوجن ۽ ڪرد جنگجوئن جي هٿان لکين آرمينيائي باشندن جو مبينه قتل عام ۽ ملڪ بدري ۽ ان جي خلاف آرمينيائي باشندن جي مزاحمت هئي. هڪ مرڪزي آرمينيائي مزاحمتي گروهه مئي [[1915ء]] ۾ آزاد عبوري حڪومت جي قيام جو اعلان ڪري ڇڏيو، ۽ عثمانين انکي اوڀر اناطوليه تي جارحيت ڪرڻ واري روسي فوجن جو ساٿ ڏيڻ جي ڪوشش سمجھيو. 1917ء جي اختتام تائين آرمينيائي انقلابي وفاق جمهوريه آرمينيا قائم ڪري ڇڏي جيڪا آرمينيائي قتل عام کان بچڻ واري باشندن تي مشتمل هئي. واضع رهي ته ترڪ حڪومت آرمينيائي باشندن جي قتل عام تي يقين نه رکندي آهي. وڌيڪ تفصيل لاء ڏسو [[آرمينيائي قتل عام]]
پهرين مهاڀاري جنگ ۾ عثمانين جي شڪست جا ٻه اهم سبب ایڊمنڊ ايلنبائي جي زير ڪمان برطانوي فوجن جي اهم هدفن تي حملا ۽ عرب بغاوت هيا . 
ان ۾ عرب بغاوت سلطنت عثمانيه جي شڪست جو سڀ کان وڏو سبب سمجھي ويندي آهي. عرب بغاوت جي ان مهمن جي شروعات شريف مڪه حسين جي طرف کان برطانيه جي مدد سان جون 1916ء ۾ جنگ مڪه کان ۽ ان جو اختتام دمشق ۾ عثمانين جي اسلحي اڇلائڻ سان گڏ ٿئي ٿو . مديني جي عثماني ڪماندار فخري پاشا مديني جي گھيراء ۾ اڍائي سال کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين زبردست مزاحمت ڪئي.

=== ورهاست ===
[[فائل:Sultanvahideddin.jpg|thumb|عثماني سلطنت جي آخري سلطان محمد ڇهون  جي آمد، 1922ء]]
مهاڀاري جنگ جي نتيجي ۾ سلطنت عثمانيه ۾ ورهاست جو عمل قسطنطنيه تي قبضي جي 13 ڏينهن بعد 30 آڪٽوبر [[1918ء]] تي مدروس معاهدي جي ذريعي شروع ٿيو. ۽ بعد ۾ سيوري معاهدو جي ذريعي وچ اوڀر ۾ عثماني قبضن کي برطانيا ۽ فرانس جي حوالي ڪيو ويو جڏهن ته روم سمنڊ جي ساحلي علائقن کي اٽلي، ترڪ ايجيئن ساحلن کي يونان، ۽ آبنائي باسفورس ۽ مرمره سمنڊ کي بين الاقوامي علائقي جي طور تي اتحادي قوتن جي حوالي ڪيو ويو. ان سان گڏوگڏ اوڀر اناطوليه ۾ جمهوريه آرمينيا کي وسعت ڏيندي ولسونين آرمينيا جي تشڪيل ڏني وئي جيڪو آرمينيائي باشندن جو قديم وطن هيو پر بعد ۾ انهن علائقن ۾ ترڪ ۽ ڪرد به آباد ٿيا. برطانيه وچ اوڀر جي ورهاست جي لاء انتهائي چالاڪي ۽ عياري سان فرانس سان سائيڪوس-پيڪوٽ نالي خفيه معاهدو ڪيو. 
استنبول ۽ ازمير تي قبضو ترڪ قومي تحريڪ جي قيام جو سبب بڻيو ۽ مصطفٰي ڪمال پاشا جي زير قيادت جنگ آزادي جي شروعات ۽ جمهوريه ترڪي جي قيام جو اعلان ڪيو ويو. 
مصطفٰي ڪمال جي زير قیادت ترڪ قومي تحريڪ 23 اپريل 1920ء تي انقره ۾ &quot;قومي مجلس اعلٰي&quot; (ترڪ ٻولي: ''بیوڪ ملت مجلسي'') جي قيام جو اعلان ڪيو، جنهن استنبول ۾ عثماني حڪومت ۽ ترڪي ۾ ٻاهرين قبضي کي تسليم ڪرڻ کان انڪار ڪري ڇڏيو. ترڪ انقلابين عوامي فوج جي ذريعي يونان، اٽلي ۽ فرانس جي فوجن کي اناطوليه مان ڪڍي ٻاهر ڪيو.  سيوري معاهدي جي نتيجي ۾ جيڪي علائقا جمهوريه آرمينيا کي مليا هيا انهن کي به ٻيهر حاصل ڪيو ۽ آبنائي تي قابض برطانوي فوجن جي لاء خطرو بڻجي وئي. بالآخر ترڪ انقلابین آبنائي ۽ استنبول تي قبضو ڪري ورتو ۽ پهرين نومبر 1922ء تي سلطنت عثمانيه جي خاتمي جو اعلان ڪري ڇڏيو. آخري سلطان محمد ڇهون وحيد الدين ([[1861ء]] تائين [[1926ء]]) 17 نومبر 1922ء تي ملڪ ڇڏي ويو ۽ لوزان معاهدي جي تحت 24 جولاء 1923ء تي باضابطه طور تي ترڪ جمهوريه کي تسليم ڪيو ويو. ڪجهه مهينن بعد 3 مارچ 1924ء تي خلافت جي خاتمي جو اعلان ڪيو ويو ۽ سلطان ا۽ ان جي اهل خانه کي ناپسنديده شخصيت قرار ڏئي ڪري جلاوطن ڪيو ويو. 50 سال بعد 1974ء ۾ ترڪ قومی مجلس اعلٰي اڳوڻي شاهي خاندان کي ترڪ شهريت عطا  ڪندي وطن واپسي جي اجازت ڏئي ڇڏي. 
سلطنت عثمانيه جي خاتمي جي نتيجي ۾ جيڪي نوان ملڪ قائم ٿيا انهن جي تعداد هن وقت (متنازع شمالي ترڪ جمهوريه قبرص سان گڏ) 40 ٿئي ٿي.

== حڪومتي نظام ==

=== سلطان ===
عثماني ترڪن ايشيائي ڪوچڪ ۾ داخل ٿيڻ کان بعد هڪ اهڙي سلطنت جو بنياد رکيو جنهن ٽي سو سالن ۾ دنيا جي وسيع ترين ۽ سب کان وڌيڪ طاقتور سلطنت جو روپ اختيار ڪري ورتو ۽ ان ۾ بنيادي ڪردار ترڪ قوم جي شجاعت ۽ تنظيمي صلاحيت هئي جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ سلطنت عثمانيه جهڙي وسيع ۽ پائيدار سلطنت قائم ٿي. جيئن ته عثماني سلطانن سلجوقين جي نظام کي اپنايو هيو ان لاء فرمانروا جي انتخاب اهل خاندان ڪندا هيا ۽ خاندان جو سربراهه ئي بادشاهه هوندو هيو. عملي سياست جي تعلق تائين بادشاهه مرضي جو مالڪ ۽ تمام قوتن جو سرچشمو هيو پران جا تمام اقدام ۽ فعل ان جي خواهش جي مطابق نه هوندا هيا. هو قانون، نظام ۽ رسم ۽ رواج جو پابند هيو ۽ شريعت جي سامهون سر جھڪائي ڇڏيندو هو. اسلامي قانون کي تقريباً تمام معاملن ۾ برتري حاصل هئي ۽ بادشاهه شريعت جي حدن ۾ رهي ڪري پنهنجي حق ۽ طاقت جو استعمال ڪري سگھندو هيو. جيئن ته بادشاهه جي حيثيت مرضي جي مالڪ فرمانروا جي هئي ان ڪري جڏهن ڪمزور سلطان آيا ته سلطنت جا امور وزير انجام ڏيڻ لڳا پر پوء به حڪم سلطان جي طرفان صادر ٿيندا هيا. 
ابتداء ۾ عثماني حڪمران پاڻ کي بيگ ۽ غازي چورائيندا هيا. بايزيد پهريون پهريون عثماني حڪمران هيو جنهن سلطان جو لقب اختيار ڪيو ۽ سليم پهريون فتح مصر کان بعد پهريون عثماني خليفو بڻيو. سلطان سليمان قانوني جي زماني تائين فوج جي اعلٰي ڪمان سلطان جي هٿ ۾ هوندي هئي ۽ خود جنگ ۾ شرڪت ڪندو هيو پر بعد جي حڪمرانن ۾ هي طريقو نه رهيو جنهن سان سلطان جي وقار کي نقصان پهتو.

=== ديوان ===
سلطان جي اعلٰي مجلس شوريٰ جو نالو ديوان هيو ۽ مرڪزي نظام ۾ انکي ڏاڍي اهميت حاصل هئي. ابتدا ۾ سلطان ديوان جي صدارت خود ڪندو هيو پر بعد جي سلطانن ديوان ۾  اچڻ ڇڏي ڏنو سلطان جي اهل راء سان تعلق نه هجڻ سان نظام ۾ ڪمزوري پيدا ٿي وئي. ديوان جا مستقل رڪن هي هيا:
# صدر اعظم
# قاضي عسڪر
# دفتر دار
# نشانچي
[[فائل:Enterance to Divan - Thomas Allom (165186748).jpg|thumb|باب عالي]]
مرڪزی نظام جا هي چار اعلٰي عهديدار سلطنت جا بنيادي ٿنڀا هيا. محمد فاتح پنهنجي آئين ۾ ان ٿنڀن کي واضع ڪيو ۽ سلطنت کي هڪ خيمي سان تشبيهه ڏني جنهن جو صدر دروازو باب عالي چورائيندو هيو ديوان ڄڻ ان جي آخري عدالت هئي. صدر دروازي جو هي نالو ايترو معروف ٿيو جو دنيا ڀر ۾ عثماني درٻار &quot;[[باب عالي]]&quot; جي نالي سان ئي معروف ٿي وئي.

=== صدر اعظم ===
مرڪزي نظامِ حڪومت ۾ سلطان کان بعد ٻي اهم حيثيت صدر اعظم کي حاصل هئي جيڪو ديوان جو هڪ اهم رڪن چورائيندو هيو.
ابتدائي دور ۾ صرف وزير هوندو هيو پر ان جي وڌندڙ تعداد کان بعد انهن مان هڪ وزير اعظم چورائڻ لڳو جيڪو صدر اعظم بڻجي ويو. طاقتور سلطانن جي عهد ۾ صدر اعظم سلطان جي مشير جي حيثيت سان ڪم ڪندو هيو. صدر اعظم جي ماتحت وزيرن ۾ وزير جنگ ۽ داخله، صدر اعظم جي غير موجودگي ۾ انجو قائم مقام هوندو هيو، وزير خارجه، جيڪو رئيس آفندي چورائيندو هيو ۽ مير درٻار شامل ٿيندا هيا.
صدر اعظم جي عهدي تي ڪافي نالا اهڙا شامل آهن جن جون خدمتون عثماني نظام جي لاء ناقابل فراموش آهن جن ۾ ڪوپريلي خاندان قابل ذڪر آهي. هي عهدو [[1368ء]] کان [[1922ء]] تائين يعني 554 سالن تائين هي عهدو سلطنت عثمانيه ۾ موجود رهيو جنهن ۾ 211 (يا 215) صدر اعظم ٿيا جن جي اڪثريت غير ترڪن جي هئي ۽ ان ۾ عرب، البانوي، روسي، چرڪسي، يوناني، ارمني ۽ سلافي قومن جا فرد شامل هيا پر ڪڏهن ڪنهن غير مسلم کي صدر اعظم نه بڻايو ويو. 
صدر اعظم جي تقرري خود سلطان ڪندو هيو.

=== قاضي عسڪر ===
ان جي اصل حيثيت فوجي منصف جي هئي ۽ شيخ الاسلام کان بعد ان جو درجو ايندو هيو. قاضي عسڪر کي سلطان خود مقرر ڪندو هيو. قاضي عسڪر ٻه هيا هڪ يورپي ۽ ٻيو ايشيائي قبضن جي لاء جيڪي بالترتيب قاضي عسڪر روميليا ۽ قاضي عسڪر اناطوليه چورائيندا هيا.

=== دفتر دار ===
دفتر دار دراصل وزير ماليات هيو جيڪو تمام مالي ڪمن جو جوابدهه هيو.

=== نشانچي ===
نشانچي به ماليات جو ذميدار هيو پر ان جي ذمي ٻيا ڪافي سارا ڪم هيا جن ۾ شاهي مهر هڻڻ، زمين جي معاملن جو اندراج، غلطين جي تصحيح ۽ ان جي ترتيب، اڳواڻن ۽ نيم خود مختيار حاڪمن کي فرمان موڪلڻ وغيرہ. نشانچي تمام سرڪاری ڪاغذن جي تياري جو ڪم به ڪندو هيو ۽ ان کان بعد ڪاغذن تي سلطان جي علامت لڳائيندو هيو. 
سلطنت عثمانيه جي قوت ئي هن جي ادارۂ حڪومت جي زبردست نظام تي قائم هئي ۽ ان جي خاص اصولن ۾ اميدوارن جي سٺي انتخاب، تعليم ۽ تربيت جي سخت نگراني، مڪمل نظم ۽ ضبط ۽ پرجوش مقابلو اهم ترين هيا ۽ ان جي بنياد تي ڪو به امیدوار پنهنجي صلاحيتن جي بنياد تي ترقي ڪري اعلٰي ترين عهدن تي پهچي سگھندو هيو. اهڙي طرح شاهي خاندان ئي اهڙو هيو جنهن ۾ نسلي امتياز تسليم ڪيو ويندو هو تمام عهدن جي لاء صلاحيت کي بنياد بڻايو ويندو هيو.

== صوبائي نظام ==
سلطنت عثمانيه ٽن کنڊن تي پکڙيل هئي ۽ انتظامي ڪمن جي لاء سلطنت کي وڏن وڏن حصن ۾ ورهايو ويو هيو جيڪي &quot;ايالت&quot; چورائينا هيا. ايالتون سنجق ۾، سنجق قضا ۾ ۽ قضا کي ڪوئي ۾ ورهايو ويو هيو.
صوبا پهريون ايالت چورائيندا هيا جنکي بعد ۾ ولايت ڪيو ويو جڏهن ته سنجق جي حيثيت ضلعن جي هئي. ولايتن جا حاڪم بيلربي يا پاشا ۽ ضلعن جا حاڪم سنجق به چورائيندا هيا. سنجق جي حاڪم جا ٻه قسم هوندا هيا هڪ شهزادو ۽ غير شهزادو. 
سليمان اعظم جي عهد ۾ سلطنت 21 ولایتن ۽ 250 سنجقن ۾ ورهايل هئي. هر صوبي جي هڪ مجلس شوريٰ هوندي هئي جنهن جو صدر اتان جو والي هوندو هيو. 
قضا ڪنهن وڏي شهر يا ان سان ملحق چند قصبن تي مشتمل هوندي هئي ۽ ان جو حاڪم اعلٰي سوباشي يعني فوج جو افسر هوندو هيو. ڪوئي ۾ ڳوٺ ۽ قصبا سڀ شامل ڪيا ويا هئا. غير فوجي معاملا خصوصاً شرعي ۽ قانوني ڪمن جي ڏيک واٺ قاضي جي ئي سپرد هئي.

== اقتصادي نظام ==
سلطنت جو اقتصادي نظام ان جي جاگرافي تي قائم هيو ڇو ته اوڀر ۽ اولهه جي وچ ۾ تمام تجارتي شاهراهون ٽن کنڊن تي پکڙيل هن سلطنت مان گذرنديون هيون. انهن تجارتي شاهراهن جي ذريعي ئي انکي محصولن جي ذريعي ايتري ادائگي ٿيندي هئي  جو هو پنهنجي وقت دنيا جي وڏي اقتصادي قوتن مان هڪ بڻجي وئي. سلطنت عثمانيه جو مقابلو ڪرڻ جي لاء ئي يورپي قوتن متبادل راهه ڳولهڻ جي لاء بحري مهمون شروع ڪيون ۽ جڏهن 1492ء ۾ [[ڪرسٽوفر ڪولمبس]] آمريڪا دريافت ڪئي ته ان وقت سلطنت عثمانيه پنهنجي عروج تي هئي. وچ يورپ ۽ عثمانين جي وچ ۾ تعلقن ۾ تبديلي جو بنياد به نون بحري راستن جي دريافت هيو ۽ ممڪنه طور تي سلطنت عثمانيه جي زوال جي وجهه به ڇو ته يورپي قوتن وچ اوڀر ۽ روم سمنڊ جي بجاء ٻيا رستا اختيار ڪرڻ شروع ڪري ڇڏيا جيڪي سلطنت جي مالي حالت جي خرابي جو سبب بڻيا. 
سلطنت هيٺ ڏنل قسمن جي ملڪن ۾ ورهايل هئي:
# ايراضي جو اهو وڏو حصو جنهن جو انتظام سڌوسئون حڪومت عثمانيه جي طرف کان هوندو هيو
# اهي علائقا جن جو انتظام خاص ضابطن جي ماتحت هوندو هيو. 
# متعدد باجگذار صوبا
#  ڪجهه لاڳاپيل رياستون
جيڪي علائقا سڌوسئون زير حڪومت هيا اهي سنجقن ۾ ورهايل هئا انهن ۾ هر ضلعي جي محصولن جو هڪ عليحده قانون هيو جنهن جو بنياد انهن معاهدن تي هيو جيڪي فتح جي وقت ڪيا ويا هيا. 
محصولن جي لاء سلطنت عثمانيه ۾ زمين کي هن طرح ورهايو ويو هو:
# جيڪي تلوار جي زور تي فتح ڪيون ويون هون ان جي لاء ڏهون حصو محصول مقرر هيو.
# ٻيون اهي زمينون جيڪي فاتحن ۽ رعايا جي قبضي ۾ هيا، ان جي لاء به ڏهون حصو محصول مقرر هيو
# ٽين اها زمين جن کي بادشاهه جنگي خدمتن جي صلي ۾ عطا ڪيو هو. اهي به ٻن حصن ۾ ورهايل هيون . هڪ جنهن تي شرعي اصولن جي مطابق عملدرآمد هوندو هيو ۽ ٻيا جنهن جو نفاذ قانوندانن جي راء جي مطابق هوندو هيو.
تمام محصولات جو عام نالو خراج هيو ان ۾ جزيو، مال گزاري ۽ محصول پيداوار وغيره شامل هيا. 
رعايا جي فلاح ۽ بهبود ۽ خوشحالي سلطان جو نصب العين هيو ۽ غير مسلم رعايا کان جزيي کان علاوہ ڪوئي ناجائز محصول نه ورتو ويندو هيو.

== فوجي نظام ==
عثماني فوج پنهنجي زماني جي دنيا جي جديد ترين فوج هئي ۽ هو پهرين فوج هئي جنهن بارودي اسلحي جو استعمال شروع ڪيو. ان کان علاوہ هو تلوارون، نيزا، تير ۽ ٻيا روايتي اسلحا به استعمال ڪندا هيا. 
1389ء ۾ جنگ ڪوسوو ۽ 1396ء ۾ جنگ نڪوپولس ۾ فتحن کان بعد عثماني فوجن تيزي سان وچ يورپ کي پنهنجي پيرن هيٺان چيڀاٽيندا هليا ويا ۽ 1526ء ۾ جنگ موهاڪس ۾ فتح جي ذريعي هنگري تي به قابض ٿي ويون ۽  ٻه دفعا 1529ء ۽ [[1683ء]] ۾ ويانا جو گھيراء به ڪيو. انکان 
علاوه هي پهرين فوج هئي جيڪا غير ملڪي ماهرن جي خدمتن حاصل ڪندڙ ۽ انجي افسرن کي تربيت جي لاء اولهه يورپ جي ملڪن ۾ موڪليو ويندو هيو.

=== يني چري ===
{{تفصيلي مضمون|يني چري}}
سلطنت جي طاقت جو دارومدار ان جي فوجي نظام تي هيو. عثمانين جي ٻين سلطان اورخان پهريون جي دور ۾ پهريون دفعو فوج کي منظم شڪل ڏني وئي جيڪا يني چري چورائيندي هئي. يني چري مستقل پيادي فوج هئي جنهن جي حيرت انگيز شجاعت، نظم ۽ ضبط ۽ وفاداري ٽن صدين تائين يورپي قوتن تي پنهنجو داٻو برقرار رکيو سلطنت عثمانيه جون ابتدائي تمام فتحون بلاشبه هن جي زور جو نتيجو هيون.
[[فائل:Yenieri-aturkishjanissary-gentilebellini.jpg|thumb|يني چري جوهڪ سپاهي، معروف مصورجينٽائل بيلني جي نظر ۾]]
[[فائل:Battle_of_Vienna.Sipahis.jpg|thumb|سلطنت عثمانيه جو گھوڙي سوار دستو &quot;سپاهي&quot;]]
يني چري جا ٽي مختلف دستا هيا جن ۾ يايا، سڪبان ۽ آغا بولڪ لري شامل هيا. يني چري جو سڀ کان وڏو عهديدار يني چري آغاسي چورائيندو هو. هڪ عهدو يني چري آفندي سي هوندو هيو جيڪو دراصل ڪاتب هيو ۽ پگھار ڏيڻ ان جي ذمي هئي. امن جي زماني ۾ ديوان جي اجلاس ۾ پهرو ڏيڻ، باهه وسائڻ، اعلٰي عهديدارن جي حفاظت، امن ۽ امان قائم ڪرڻ ۾ مدد ۽ ٻيون ذميداريون يني چري جي حوالي هونديون هيون. يني چري جي لاء پنهنجن افسرن جي اطاعت پهرين شرط ۽ اتحاد ۽ مساوات، ظاهري ڏيکاء ۽ نمائش کان پرهيز ۽ دين داري به ضروري هيون. جنگ جي دوران يني چري سلطان جي ٻنهي طرف هوندا هيا. ابتدا ۾ صرف نو مسلم عيسائي ئي هن ۾ ڀرتي ڪيا ويندا هيا بعد ۾ مسلمان به ڀرتي ڪيا وڃڻ لڳا. 
جنهن وقت تائين سلطان مضبوط هيا يني چري قابو ۾ رهيا پر حڪومت جي واڳ ڪمزور هٿن ۾ ايندي ئي يني چري سرڪش ٿي ويا ۽ بدعنواني حد کان وڌي وئي هي فوج سلطنت جي لاء مستقل خطرو بڻجي وئي [[1826ء]] ۾ محمود ثاني بالآخر هن کي ختم ڪري ڇڏيو. يني چري جي خاتمي کي واقعئه خيريه چيو ويندو آهي.

=== سپاهي ===
مستقل پيادي فوج کان علاوه هڪ مستقل سوار فوج به هئي جيڪا سپاهي چورائيندي هئي. ان جي تربيت به اعلٰي انداز ۾ ڪئي ويندي هئي ذهني قابليت جي لحاظ کان بهتر سپاهين کي حڪومت جي انتظامي شعبي جي لاء منتخب ڪيو ويندو هو. سليمان اعظم کان بعد یني چري جي طرح ان ۾ به بدعنوانيون ٿيڻ لڳيون.

=== مهتران ===
{{تفصيلي مضمون|مهتران}}
عثماني آرمي جو بينڊ جيڪو فوجي مهمن جي دوران ڌنون وڄائي جوانن ۾ جوش ۽ جذبو پيدا ڪندو هيو. مهتران عام طور تي يني چري جو حصو هوندو هيا.

=== نظام جديد ===
{{تفصيلي مضمون|نظام جديد}}
19 هين صدي جي اوائل ۾ فوجن جي جديد خطن تي تربيت جون ڪوششون شروع ڪيون ويون ۽ [[1826ء]] ۾ سلطان محمود ثاني يني چري جو خاتمو ڪري هڪ جديد عثماني فوج جو بنياد رکيو جنهن کي نظام جديد جو نالو ڏنو ويو. 
نظام جديد فوجون مصروف ۽ رديف ۾ ورهايون هيون ۽ انهن جون خصوصيتون هي هيون: 
# فوج جي ملازمت جي مدت ويهه سال هئي.
# سالانه ڀرتي جي تعداد 50 هزار هئي.
# پهرين غير مسلمن کي فوجي خدمت کان مستثنٰي سمجھيو ويندو هيو پر بعد ۾ انهن کي به فوج ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو. 
# فوج جو امير سپهه سالار اعظم هوندو هيو.

=== عثماني بحريه ===
[[فائل:Barbaros_Park_Statue.jpg|thumb|استنبول ۾ آبناء باسفورس سان گڏ واقع ترڪ بحري عجائب گھر جي سامهون باربروسه جو مجسمو]]
[[1308ء]] ۾ مرمره سمنڊ ۾ امرالي ٻيٽ جي فتح عثمانين جي پهرين بحري فتح هئي ۽ 1321ء ۾ ان جا جهاز پهريون دفعو ڏکڻ اوڀر يورپ جي علائقي ٿريس ۾ لنگر انداز ٿيا ۽ بعد ۾ يورپ کنڊ ۾ فتحن ۾ اهم ترين ڪردار ادا ڪيو. عثماني بحريه دنيا جي پهرين بحريه هئي جنهن بحري جهازن تي توپون نصب ڪيون ۽ 1499ء ۾ وڙهيل جنگ زونڪيو تاريخ جي پهرين بحري جنگ هئي جنهن جي دوران بحري جهازن تي لڳل توپون استعمال ڪيون ويون. عثماني بحريه ئي اتر آفريڪا ۾ فتحن جي شروعات ڪئي ۽ 1517ء ۾ [[الجزائر]] ۽ مصر کي سلطنت ۾ شامل ڪيو. 1538ء ۾ جنگ پریويزا ۽ 1560ء ۾ جنگ جربا روم سمنڊ ۾ عثماني بحريه جي عروج جو ثبوت آهن.  انکان علاوه عثماني بحري جهازن 1538ء کان 1566ء جي وچ ۾ هندي وڏي سمنڊ ۾ گوا جي ويجھو پرتگيزي جهازن جو مقابلو به ڪيو. 1553ء ۾ عثماني امير البحر صالح رئيس مراڪش ۽ آبنائي جبل الطارق کان اڳتي جا اتر آفريڪي علائقا فتح ڪيا ۽ عثماني سلطنت جون سرحدون اوقيانوس وڏي سمنڊ تائين پهچائي ڇڏيون. 1566ء ۾ آچي (هاڻوڪي انڊونيشيا جو هڪ صوبو) جي سلطان پرتگيزين جي خلاف عثمانين جي مدد طلب ڪئي ۽ خضر رئيس جي قيادت ۾ هڪ بحري ٻيرو سماترا موڪليو ويو هو. هي ٻيڙو 1569ء ۾ آچي ۾ لنگر انداز ٿيو ۽ اهڙي طرح هي سلطنت جو اوڀاريون ترين علائقو قرار ٿيو جيڪو عثمانين جي زير قيادت هيو. 1585ء ۾ عثماني امير البحر مراد رئيس ڪناري جزيرن ۾ لانزاروت کي فتح ڪيو. [[1617ء]] ۾ عثماني فوجن مديره تي به قبضو ڪيو ا۽ بعد ا۾ آگسٽ [[1625ء]] ۾ مغربي انگلستان جي علائقن سسيڪس، پلائي مائوٿ، ڊيوون، هارٽ لينڊ پوائنٽ ۽ ڪورن وال تي ڇاپا هنيا. [[1627ء]] ۾ عثماني بحريه جي جهازن ٻيٽ شيٽ لينڊ، ٻيٽ فارو، ڊينمارڪ، ناروي ۽ آئس لينڊ تائين ۽ [[1627ء]] کان [[1631ء]] جي دوران آئرستان ۽ سويڊن تائين به ڇاپا هڻڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿيا. 
1827ء ۾ جنگ ناوارينو ۾ [[برطانيا]]، [[فرانس]] ۽ [[روس]] جي گڏيل بحري ٻيڙي جي هٿان شڪست ۽ [[الجزائر]] ۽ يونان جي وڃائڻ بعد عثماني بحريه جي زوال شروع ٿي ويو  اهڙي طرح سلطنت جي سمنڊ پار قبضن تي پڪڙ ڪمزور ٿيندي وئي. سلطان عبد العزيز پهريون (دور حڪومت: 1861ء تائين 1876ء) مضبوط بحريه جي ٺاهڻ جي لاء نئين سري سان ڪوششون ڪيون ۽ وڏي سرمائي خرچ ڪرڻ بعد برطانيه ۽ فرانس کان دنيا جو ٽيون سڀ کان وڏو بحري ٻيڙو ٺاهيو جيڪو 194 بحري جهازن تي مشتمل هيو پر زوال پذير معيشت انهن بحري جهازن جي ٻيڙي کي گھڻو عرصو برقرار نه رکي سگھي. اصلاح پسند مدحت پاشا ۽ [[1876ء]] ۾ پهرين عثماني پارليمان جي حمايت بعد سلطان عبد الحميد ثاني (دور حڪومت: 1876ء تائين 1908ء) جو اعتبار بحريه تان کڄي ويو. ۽ روس خلاف جنگن ۾ ڪو استعمال نه هجڻ جو بهانو بنا ڪري اڪثر بحري جهاز شاخ زرين ۾ بند ڪيا ويا جتي اهي اڳلي 30 سالن تائين سڙندا رهيا. 
1908ء م نوجوانان ترڪ انقلاب بعد اتحاد ۽ ترقی جمعيتي ملڪ جو نظم ۽ ضبط سنڀالڻ بعد بحريه کي ٻيهر منظم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ۽ عوامي چندي سان عثماني بحريه فائونڊيشن بڻائي وئي ۽ عوامي رقم سان ئي وڏن بحري جهازن جي خريداري شروع ڪئي وئي.

=== امير البحر ===
عثماني امير البحر ڪپتان پاشا (يا قپودان پاشا) چورائيندو هيو. سلطنت جي معروف امير البحرن ۾ خير الدين باربروسا، پيري رئيس، حسن پاشا، پيالي پاشا، طرغت پاشا ا۽ سيدي علي عثماني تاريخ سان گڏ يورپ جي بحري تاريخ ۾ به هميشہ ياد رکيو ويندو. بحري فتحن کان علاوه ان جا علمي ڪارناما به نماياں آهن. 
عثماني ترڪن جي بحری طاقت ۾ اضافي سان گڏ امير البحر جي اهميت به ٻه وڌي وئي ۽ باربروسا جي زماني ۾ ڪپتان پاشا ديوان جو باقاعده رڪن بڻجي ويو. عهدي جي اعتبار سان هو امير العساڪر جو مساوي ۽ شيخ الاسلام جي ماتحت سمجھيو ويندو هو.

=== عثماني فضائيه ===
[[فائل:Turkish pilots in 1912.jpg|thumb|200px|ترڪ هوا باز 1912ء جي منڍ ۾]]
عثماني فضائيه جو بنياد جون 1909ء ۾ رکيو ويو اهڙي طرح هي دنيا جي قديم ترين جنگي هوا بازي جي ادارن مان هڪ آهي. هن جو قيام ان وقت عمل ۾ آيو جڏهن سلطنت عثمانيه پنهنجي ٻن ترڪ هوا بازن کي پيرس ۾ منعقد بين الاقوامي هوا بازي ڪانفرنس ۾ شرڪت جي لاء موڪليو. فضائي جنگ جي وڌندڙ اهميت جي پيش نظر عثماني حڪومت پنهنجي عسڪري هوا بازي جي منصوبي کي منظم ڪرڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو. ان مقصد جي لاء 1910ء جي آخر ۾ متعدد افسرن کي تربيت جي لاء يورپ موڪليو ويو جن اتي جنگي هوا بازي جي تربيت حاصل ڪئي. رهائش جي ناقص سهولتن جي ڪري تعليم جو هي منصوبو ختم ٿي ويو ۽ زير تربيت اهلڪار 1911ء جي اوائل ۾ ترڪي واپس اچي ويا. فضائيه جي قيام جي لاء حڪومتي رهنمائي جي خاتمي جي باوجود ان وقت جي عثماني وزير دفاع محمد شوڪت پاشا عسڪري فضائي منصوبي جي خيال کي عملي جامو پهرائڻ جون ڪوششون جاري رکيون ۽ ٻن افسرن کي فرانس تربيت جي لاء موڪليو. انهن هوابازن جي تربيت فيبروري 1921ء ۾ مڪمل ٿي ۽ ان ئي سال وڌيڪ ترڪ افسرن کي فرانس موڪليو ويو. 
سلطنت عثمانيه 3 جولاء 1912ءتي استنبول ۾ فضائي اڪيڊمي جي قيام جي ذريعي پنهنجي هوا بازن ۽ طيارن جي تياري ۽ پنهنجي افسرن جي تربيت جي شروعات ڪئي. 
ترڪ هوا بازن جي ناتجربيڪاري جي ڪري بلقان جنگن جي پهرين مرحلي (1912ء) ۾ متعدد جهازن جو نقصان کڻڻو پيو پر ٻين مرحلي (1913ء) ۾ انهن کي ڪافي ڪاميابيون مليون. 
بلقان جنگن جي خاتمي کان بعد فضائيه کي جديد خطن تي استوار ڪرڻ جي عمل جي شروعات ڪئي وئي نوان طيارا خريد ڪيا ويا. جون 1914ء ۾ استنبول ۾ ئي نئين عسڪري اڪيڊمي &quot;بحري هوا بازي اڪيڊمي&quot; جو قيام عمل ۾ آيو. پر پهرين مهاڀاري جنگ جي شروعات سان گڏ ئي هي عمل رڪجي ويو البته 1915ء ۾ چند جرمن افسر سلطنت ۾ آيا ۽ چند ترڪ افسر تربيت جي لاء جرمني ويا هيا. 
پهرين مهاڀاري جنگ جي دوران عثماني فضائيه ڪافي محاذن تي وڙهي جن ۾ اولهه ۾ گليسيا، اوڀر ۾ قفقاز ۽ ڏکڻ ۾ يمن جي علائقن تائين شامل هيا. عثماني فضائيه کي نئين سري سان منظم ڪرڻ جو کوششون جاري هيون ته 1918ء ۾ پهرين مهاڀاري جنگ جي خاتمي ۽ استنبول تي اتحادين جي قبضي سان گڏ ئي انهن جو خاتمو ٿي ويو.

== عدالتي نظام ==

=== شيخ الاسلام ===
قسطنطنيه جي مفتي جو درجو تمام قاضين وڌيڪ هيو ۽ انکي مفتي اعظم چيو ويندو هو. محمد فاتح انکي شيخ الاسلام جو لقب به عطا ڪيو. تمام قانونن جو تعلق شيخ الاسلام سان هيو ۽ انجي حيثيت عباسي دور جي قاضي القضاۃ جهڙي هئي. ان جو فيصلو حتمي هوندو هيو. شيخ الاسلام جو عهدو وزارت عظمٰي کان بعد سڀ کان وڏو هيو. شيخ الاسلام جي تقرري عام طور تي تمام عمر ڀر جي لاء هوندي هئي. صوبائي افسر صدر اعظم ۽ صدر اعظم سلطان جي سامهون جوابده هيا پر شيخ الاسلام صرف خدا جو جوابده هيو ۽ هو هر ڪم شريعت جي مطابق ڪندو هيو. 
شيخ الاسلام جا اختيار انتهائي وسيع هيا ۽ ان جو اندازو هن ڳالهه مان لڳائي سگھجي ٿو ته سلطان کي لاهڻ متعلق ان جي فتويٰ تمام ضروري هئي ا۽ ان جي بغير سلطان کي لاهڻ ممڪن نه هيو. 
سلطان جي نماز جنازه به هو ئي پڙهائيندو هيو. دور زوال ۾ هن منصب ۾ به ڪافي خاميون پيدا ٿي ويون هيون. 
عثمانين جي پوري دور ۾ 131 شيخ الاسلام ٿيا. 19 استعفٰي ڏني ۽ ٽن کي ڦاهي ڏني وئي. اڪثريت ترڪي نسل جي هئي. 1442ء ۾ هن منصب جي ابتدا ٿي ۽ مراد ٻيون جي عهد جو حضرت ملا شمس الدين فتاري پهريون شيخ الاسلام هيو. آخري شيخ الاسلام مدني محمد نوري آفندي هيو جنهن سلطنت جي خاتمے تي 1922ء ۾ استعفٰي ڏئي ڇڏيو. اهڙي طرح هي عهدو 498 سال برقرار رهيو.

=== قاضي ===
[[فائل:1879-Ottoman Court-from-NYL.png|200px|thumb|هڪ مقدمو، 1877ء]]

تمام قاضي شهر جا منصف هيا ۽ ان جي اختيار جو حلقو ويجھن علائقن تي به هيو. 
قاضين جي اختيار جو حلقو حڪومت جي ادري کان وڌيڪ وسيع هيو. مثلاً ڪريميا ۽ اتر آفريڪا جو رياستون پر انتظامي حيثيت سان مرڪزي حڪومت جي تابع نه هيون پر وابسته حڪومتون هيون پر هي به عثماني نظام عدالت جي ماتحت هيون. 
محمد فاتح قانون نامي ۾ قضا محڪمي کي هڪ ٿنڀ قرار ڏنو هيو مملڪت جي قانون جو بنياد شريعت اسلاميه تي رکييو هيو.

== ثقافت ==
ڇو ته سلطنت عثمانيه ٽن کنڊن تي پکڙيل هڪ وسيع سلطنت هئي ان لاء ان کي واحد ثقافت جي طور تي بیان ڪرڻ مشڪل آهي البته مختلف مرڪزن ۾ ان جا مختلف روپ هيا. 
قسطنطنيه جي شهري نموني دمشق، بغداد، [[مڪو|مڪي]]، مديني، قاهره ۽ تيونس ۽ [[الجزائر]] تي اثر انداز . فنڪارن جو اجتماع قسطنطنيه ۾ هيو پر دستڪاري ۽ صنعت جي غير معمولي ترقي اناطوليه ۾ ٿي جنهن ۾ بروصا ۽ ازنڪ کي اهم مقام حاصل هيو. ڪافي اهم شهرن ۾ ڪارخاني پوري سلطنت کي ڪپڙو ۽ ٿانو فراهم ڪر کان علاوه غير ملڪن کي به شيون موڪليندو هيا. پارچه بافي کان علاوه قالين سازي به سلطنت جي اهم ترين صنعت هئي.

=== عثماني فن تعمير ===
[[فائل:Edirne_7333_Nevit.JPG|thumb|240x240px|سليميه مسجد، معمار سنان پاشا جو تيار ڪيل عظيم شاهڪار]]
سلطنت عثمانيه جو ابتدائي فن تعمير سلجوقي طرز تعمير کان متاثر هيو پر قسطنطنيه جي فتح بعد هي رومي طرز تعمير جي زير اثر اچي ويو پر بعد ۾ ان ۾ وڌيڪ بهتري آندص وئي ۽ بالآخر جديد عثماني طرز تعمير دنيا ڀر ۾ معروف ٿيو. 
عثماني سلطانن فن تعمیر تي خاص توجھ ڏني. يني شهر، بروصه، ادرنہ ۽ قسطنطنيه ۾ مسجدن، مدرسن ۽ محلن جي تعمير ۽ فتح قسطنطنيه کان بعد سلطنت ڀرن ۾ عثماني اڏاتون هن عظيم سلطنت جي شوڪت ۽ عظمت جو آئينو آهن ۽ اڄ به هن جي شاندار ماضي جي يادگار جي طور تي موجود آهن. 
چوڏهين صدي جي عثماني دور جي مسجدن ۾ سلجوقي طرز هر جڳهه نمايان آهي جنهن جا اهم ترين مثال بروصه جون شاندار مسجدون آهن جن ۾ بايزيد جامع ۽ اولو جامع نمايان آهن. 
پندرهين صدي ۾ استنبول جي مسجد ۾ بروصه جي طرز جو نقل ڪيو ويو پر وڏين مسجدن ۾ اياصوفيه جامع جي طرز تعمير جو نقل ڪيو ويو جيڪي بازنطيني گرجا هئي جنهن کي فتح قسطنطنيه کان بعد مسجد ۾ تبديل ڪيو ويو هو. ترڪ معمارن جديد عثماني طرز تعمير جون ڪافي شاندار ۽ بلند عمارتون ٺاهيون جن ۾ فاتح جامع، سليميه جامع، سليمانيه جامع ۽ اورتاڪوئي جامع نمايان آهن. عثماني طرز تعمير انهن عمارتن جي ذريعي اڄ به پنهنجي پوري شان ۽ شوڪت سان موجود آهي ايتري تائين دنيا ڀر ۾ جتي به ترڪ مهاجرن مسجدون تعمير ڪيون هو اهڙي طرز تعمير جو شاهڪار آهن. [[پاڪستان]] جي گادي جي هنڌ [[اسلام آباد]] ۾ واقع فيصل مسجد جا مينار به ترڪ طرز تعمير جا حامل آهن.

[[فائل:Dolmabahce Palace.Turchia.JPG|250px|thumb|دولما باغچه محل، استنبول]]
عثماني طرز تعمير جو تذڪرو سنان پاشا جي بغير اڌورو آهي جنهن پنهنجي طرز ۽ هنر سان ان عهد جي طرز تعمير کي چار چنڊ لڳائي ڇڏيا. سورهين صدي جي عثماني تعميرات ۾ سناني طرز هر جڳهه نمايان آهي ۽ اڄ به شاندار شڪل ۾ موجود آهي. شهزاده مسجد ۽ سليميه مسجد ان عظيم معمار جا فن پارا آهن. سنان قسطنطنيه، ادرنه ۽ ٻين شهرن ۾ ڪافي عظيم مسجدون تعمير ڪيون. 
عثمانين جي تيار ڪيل [[توپ قاپي]] ۽ [[دولما باغچه]] محلن پنهنجي وقت جي تعميرات جا عظيم ترين شاهڪار هيا جن ۾ پهريون ذڪر ڪيل عثماني ۽ بعد ۾ ذڪر ڪيل يورپي طرز تعمير جي زير اثر آهي.

=== عثماني ترڪ ٻولي ===
{{تفصيلي مضمون|عثماني ترڪ ٻولي}}
عثماني ترڪ ٻولي مملڪت جي اهم ترين ٻولي هئي جيڪا عربي ۽ فارسي جي زير اثر هئي. عثمانين جي عدالتي ۽ دفتري معاملات ۾ هي ٻولي استعمال ڪئي ويندي هئي. پر هڪ وسيع سلطنت جي ڪري ان ۾ مختلف مقامن تي مختلف ٻوليون ڳالهايون وينديون هيون ۽ آخري ڏينهن ۾ فرانسيسي ۽ انگريزي به غير مسلمن جي اعلٰي طبقي ۾ وڏي پيماني تي ڳالهايون وينديون هيون. هي به چئي سگھجي ٿو ته فارسي ادبي ۽ [[عربي]] مذهبي ٻولي جي طور تي استعمال ڪئي ويندي هئي.

=== مذهب ===
عثماني سلطنت جو سرڪاري مذهب [[اسلام]] هيو پر غير مسلمن خصوصاً اهل ڪتاب (عيسائين ۽ يهودين) سان ان جو اعلٰي رويو مسلمانن جي فراخ دلي جو واضع ثبوت آهي. 
محمد فاتح قسطنطنيه کي فتح ڪرڻ بعد مقامي عيسائين کي شهر ۾ رهڻ جي اجازت ڏني ۽ انهن جي چند گرجا گھرن کي به بحال رکيو. 1492ء میں سقوط غرناطه کان بعد اسپين مان ڪڍيل مسلمانن کي بخيريت مسلم سرزمین تي پهنچائڻ جي عظيم مهم هلائي وئي ان ۾ ڪيترن ئي يهودين کي به عيسائين جي ظلمن کان بچائي ترڪ سرزمين تي آندو ويو ۽ انهن کي سلطنت عثمانيه ۾ آزادي سان رهڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي. 
اسلامي شريعت مملڪت جو بنیادي قانون هئي ۽ ان جو ماخذ قرآن ۽ حديث هيا ۽ انهن ٻنهي کان رهنمائي نه ملڻ جي صورت ۾ اجماع يا قياس کان ڪم ورتو ويندو هو.

=== علم ۽ ادب ===
عثمان سلطان علم ۽ ادب سان گهرو لڳاء رکندا هيا عالمن ۽ فاضلن جي بيحد تعظيم ۽ تڪريم ڪئي ويندي هئي ۽ ان جي لاء باعزت روزگار فراهم ڪيو ويندو هو. محمد پهريون جي دور م علم ۽ ادب جي ڀرپور سرپرستي ڪئي وئي بلڪه هي چوڻ غلط نه ٿيندو ته دراصل ان جي دور ۾ سلطنت ۾ ادب خصوصاً شاعري کي ترقي ڏني وئي. سلطان محمد فاتح ترڪي ٻولي جو هڪ صاحب ديوان شاعر هيو. مطالعي جو بيحد شوق رکندو هيو ۽ هن پنهنجي دور حڪومت ۾ ٻين علمن و۽ فنن جي ترقي جو ڪم به ڪيو. 
بايزيد کي تصوف، مذهب ۽ شاعري سان دلچسپي هئي جڏهن ته سليم پهريون جي تاريخ ۽ فارسي شاعري کان علاوه مطالعي جو به شوق هيو. فارسي ٻولي ۾ سليم پهريون جا ڪجهه نظم به موجود آهن. مراد ثاني تصوف جي هڪ جتاب جي بڪري شهرت رکندو هو. عثماني حڪمرانن ۾ 21 جا بياض (ڪتاب) ملن ٿا. 
دراصل عثماني ادب ۽ فارسي ادب هڪ ٻي سان هڪجهڙائي رکن ٿا. 
سلطنت عثمانيه ۾ تعليم جا ٻه دور نمايان نظر اچن ٿا:
# '''ديني دور''': شروعات کان دور تنظيمات يعني 1839ء تائين 
# '''وچون دور''': تنظيمات کان جمهوريه جي اعلان تائين
# اصلاحات جو دور: هي ٽيون دور ڇو ته سلطنت عثمانيه جي خاتمي کان بعد شروع ٿيو ان لاء اسان جو موضوع بحث نه آهي. 
محمد فاتح جي دور ۾ تعليم جي سلسلي جي باقاعده شروعات ٿي، هو خود به عالم جو وڏو قدردان هيو. محمد جي جانشينن تعليم کي خوب ڦهلايو ۽ هر سلطان هڪ مسجد ضرور تعمير ڪرائيندو هيو جنهن سان گڏ مدرسو قائم ڪرڻ به لازمي هيو. اهڙي طرح مسجدن سان گڏ مدرسن جي تعداد به وڌندي وئي. مصطفٰي ثالث جي عهد ۾ صرف قسطنطنيه ۾ تقريباً ٽي سو مدرسا هيا. 
دور تنظيمات ا۾ جامعه عثمانيه جو قيام عمل ۾ آيو. تعليم جي ترقي جو اندازو هن ڳالهه مان لڳائي سگھجي ٿو [[1892ء]] ۾ صرف قسطنطنيه ۾ هر قسم جي مدرسن جي تعداد 500 هئي جن ۾ 13 وڏيون [[ڪاليج]]ون هيون.

== عثماني گادي جا هنڌ ==
* [[سغوط]] 1299ء تائين 1326ء
* [[بروصه]] 1326ء تائين 1365ء
* [[ادرنه]] 1365ء تائين 1453ء
* [[قسطنطنيه]] ([[استنبول]]) (1453ء تائين 1922ء)

== عثماني سلطان ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot;
! style=&quot;background-color:#FF8C67&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot; | تصوير
! style=&quot;background-color:#FF8C67&quot; width=&quot;20%&quot; | لقب
! style=&quot;background-color:#FF8C67&quot; width=&quot;15%&quot; | نالو
! style=&quot;background-color:#FF8C67&quot; width=&quot;9%&quot; | دور حڪومت
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:I Osman.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |امير غازي
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[عثمان پهريون|عثمان بن ارطغرل]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1281 - 1324
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:Orhan I.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |غازي بيگ
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[اورخان پهريون|اورخان غازي]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1324 -1362
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:Muradhudavendigar.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |خداوندگار
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[مراد پهريون|خان خداوندگار]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1362 -1389
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:I Bayezit.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |يلدرم
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[بايزيد يلدرم]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1389 -1402
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:Mehmed I.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |سلطان
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[محمد پهريون|محمد چلبي]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1413 - 1421
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:Murat II.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |سلطان
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[مراد ٻيون|مراد خوجه]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1446 - 1451
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:Bellini, Gentile - Sultan Mehmet II.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |فاتح
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[محمد فاتح]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1451 - 1481
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:II Bayezit.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |ولي
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[بايزيد ٻيون|بايزيد ولي]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1481 - 1512
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:Yavuz Sultan I. Selim Han.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |ياووز
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[سليم پهريون|سليم ياووز]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1512 - 1520
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |قانوني
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[سليمان اعظم|سليمان قانوني]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1520 - 1566
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل: II Selim.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |ساري
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[سليم ٻيون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1566 - 1574
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:Sultan Murad III.jpeg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |خليفو
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[مراد ٽيون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1574 - 1595
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:Mehmed III.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |عادل
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[محمد ٽيون|محمد عادلي]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1595 - 1603
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:I Ahmet.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |بخت
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[احمد پهريون|احمد بخت]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1603 - 1617
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:I Mustafa.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |خليفو
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[مصطفي پهريون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1617 -1618
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:Osman 2.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |شهيد
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[عثمان ٻيون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1618 - 1622
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:I Mustafa.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |خليفو
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[مصطفيٰ پهريون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1622 - 1623
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:Murad IV.jpg|100px|مراد چہارم]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |صاحبقران، غازي
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[مراد چوٿون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1623 - 1640
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:Ibrahim Deli.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |شهيد
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[ابراهيم پهريون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1640 - 1648
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:IV Mehmet.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |خليفو
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[محمد چوٿون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1648 - 1687
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:II Suleyman.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |غازي
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[سليمان ٻيون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1687 - 1691
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:Ahmed II by John Young.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |خان غازي
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[احمد ٻيون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1691 - 1695
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:II Mustafa.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |غازي
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[مصطفيٰ ٻيون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1695 - 1703
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:Ahmed III by John Young.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |غازي
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[احمد ٽيون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1703 - 1730
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:Mahmud1.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |غازي
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[محمود پهريون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1730 - 1754
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:Osman III.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |خليفو
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[عثمان ٽيون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1754 - 1757
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:Mustafa3.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |خليفو
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[مصطفيٰ ٽيون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1757 - 1774
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:Abdulhamid I.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |خليفو
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[عبدالحميد پهريون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1774 - 1789
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:Konstantin Kapidagli 002.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |خليفو
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[سليم ٽيون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1789 - 1807
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:Mustafa IV.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |خليفو
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[مصطفيٰ چوٿون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1807 - 1808
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل: MahmutII.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |خليفو
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[محمود ٻيون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1808 - 1839
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:Sultan Abdülmecid - Google Art Project.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |خليفو
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[عبد المجيد پهريون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1839 - 1861
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:Sultan Abdulaziz I.JPG|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |خليفو
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[عبد العزيز پهريون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1861 - 1876
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:1840 1904 5murat.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |خليفو
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[مراد پنجون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1876 - 1876
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:Ahamid.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |خليفو
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[عبدالحميد ٻيون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1876 - 1909
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:MehmedV.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |خليفو
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[محمد پنجون]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1909 - 1918
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[فائل:VI Mehmet Vahidettin.jpg|100px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |خليفو
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[محمد وحيد الدين]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; |1918 - 1922
|}

==   خارجي ڳنڍڻا ==

=== انگريزي ٻولي ۾ ===
* [http://www.turizm.net/turkey/history/ottoman.html سلطنت عثمانيه: هڪ خاڪو بحساب زماني ترتيب]
* [http://www.turkishculture.org/pages.php?SearchID=172 سلطنت عثمانيه:بحري نقشا]
* [http://ottomanfoothill.googlepages.com سلطنت عثمانيه: هڪ لازوال رياست] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091025234456/http://ottomanfoothill.googlepages.com/ |date=2009-10-25 }}
* [http://www.osmanli700.gen.tr/english/engindex.html عثمان ويب سائيٽ]
* [http://www.euratlas.com/big/big1600.htm سلطنت عثمانيه] 1600ء ۾ يورپ جو نقشو جنهن ۾ سلطنت جو تفصيلي نقشو به موجود آهي
* [http://books.google.com/books?vid=LCCN05017306&amp;id=LFbTIBgjbqQC&amp;pg=PA257 ترڪ سلطنت جي تاريخ]
* [http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/OTTOMAN/OTTOMAN1.HTM عالمي تهذيبون: عثماني] — 
هڪ جامع سائيٽ جيڪا عثماني رياست ۽ حڪومت جي باري ۾ وسيع معلومات جو احاطو ڪري ٿي
* [http://www.ottomansouvenir.com/Capitals/Capitals_of_Ottoman_Empire.htm سلطنت عثمانيه جا گادي جا هنڌ] — مختلف عثماني گادي جي هنڌن جو احاطو
* [http://www.theottomans.org عثمانين جي باري ۾ معلومات]

=== ترڪي ٻولي ۾ ===
* [http://www.barbaros.biz/DOWNLOAD.htm DOWNLOAD OTTOMAN PICTURES] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223075746/http://www.barbaros.biz/DOWNLOAD.htm |date=2009-02-23 }}
* [http://ansiklopedi.turkcebilgi.com/Osmanlı_İmparatorluğu Osmanlı Devleti ile ilgili ansiklopedik bilgiler] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090917204512/http://ansiklopedi.turkcebilgi.com/Osmanl%C4%B1_%C4%B0mparatorlu%C4%9Fu |date=2009-09-17 }}
* [http://www.discoverturkey.com/haberler/osmanli-bayrak.html Flags of the Ottoman Empire] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080214144301/http://www.discoverturkey.com/haberler/osmanli-bayrak.html |date=2008-02-14 }}—contains information about Ottoman flags
* [http://www.theottomans.org/turkce/index.asp Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Hakkında bilgi...]

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:تاريخ]]
[[زمرو:اسلام]]
[[زمرو:ترڪي]]
[[زمرو:ترڪي جي حڪومت]]
[[زمرو:پهرين مها ڀاري جنگ]]
&lt;references group=&quot;dn&quot;/&gt;
{{ڪومنز زمرو|Ottoman Empire}}
[[زمرو:اڳوڻيون ​​سلطنتون]]
[[زمرو:يورپ جون اڳوڻيون بادشاھتون]]
[[زمرو:عثماني خلافت]]</text>
      <sha1>kav7hq6mfgwu2mpd57wbgubbt9hen82</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>آگبوٽ</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>17513</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399296</id>
      <parentid>365949</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:33:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dr. Thomas Liptak</username>
        <id>21667</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>photo updated</comment>
      <origin>399296</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8839" sha1="sg9llb0qtoyzmlmm426y5cyro3zmp9m" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Firefighting vessel}}
{{About|the firefighting vessel|a ship deliberately set on fire|Fire ship}}
[[Image:LFB fireboat.JPG|thumb|right|[[London Fire Brigade]] fireboat, [[River Thames]], London]]
[[Image:WLMK Fireboat.JPG|thumb|right|Toronto Fireboat ''WL Mackenzie'']]
[[Image:Fireboat John J. Harvey at Oyster Bay NY Oyster Festival 2018.jpg|thumb|right|Onboard view of Fireboat [[John J. Harvey]] in [[Tauba Auerbach]] [[dazzle camouflage]] performing a water pumping demonstration in [[Oyster Bay, New York]] with artificial [[rainbow]] visible]]
[[Image:Collision of Costa Concordia 21.jpg|thumb|right|Italian fireboat CLASS M]]
[[File:Frankfurt am Main, Osthafen-Festival (2026) - 09 (fireboat).jpg|thumb|right|A fireboat of the fire department of [[Frankfurt]], Germany]]
[[Image:Excellence Fire Boat No.6.JPG|thumb|right|HKFS fireboat ''Excellence'']]
[[Image:SFFDFBPhoenix.jpg|thumb|right|San Francisco fireboat ''Phoenix'']]
[[Image:deluge1.jpg|thumb|right|''Deluge'', retired fire fighting tug]]
[[File:Fireboat Ariake.jpg|thumb|[[Tokyo Fire Department]]'s ''Ariake'' fireboat]]
[[File:Cotter2017.jpg|thumb|ايڊورڊ ايم ڪوٽر آف بفيلو، نيو يارڪ، دنيا جو سڀ کان پراڻو فعال فائربوٽ سمجهيو ویندو آھي.]]
'''آگبوٽ''' (Fireboat) يا فائر فلوٽ هڪ خاص واٽر ڪرافٽ آهي جنهن ۾ پمپ ۽ نوزل ​​ٺاهيل آهن جيڪي ساحل ۽ ٻيڙيءَ جي باهه سان وڙهڻ لاءِ ٺاهيا ويا آهن. پهرين فائر بوٽس، جيڪي 18ھین صدي جي آخر تائين ملن ٿيون، ٽگ بوٽس هئا، جن کي فائر فائيٽنگ سامان سان ريٽروفٽ ڪيو ويو. &lt;ref name=&quot;NpsDuwamish198822&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.nps.gov/history/maritime/nhl/duwamish.htm|title=Duwamish Fireboat: National Historic Landmark Study|author=James Delgado|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090505234053/http://www.nps.gov/history/maritime/nhl/duwamish.htm|archive-date=2009-05-05|publisher=[[National Park Service]]|year=1988|author-link=James Delgado|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; پراڻن ڊيزائنن مان نڪتل ٽگ بوٽن ۽ جديد فائر بوٽس وڌيڪ ويجهڙائيءَ سان سامونڊي جهازن سان ملندڙ جلندڙ ٻئي اڄ به خدمت ۾ ملي سگهن ٿا. ڪي ڊپارٽمنٽ پنهنجي گهڻ مقصدي ڪرافٽ کي ”فائر بوٽ“ جو لقب به ڏيندا ھئا.

اهي گهڻو ڪري ڊاکن ۽ ڪناري واري گودامن تي باهه سان وڙهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن جيئن اهي انهن اڏاوتن جي سهاري هيٺان سڌي طرح باهه تي حملو ڪري سگهن. انهن وٽ، سڌو سنئون Hull هيٺان کان پمپ ڪندي، هڪ مؤثر طور تي لامحدود پاڻي جي فراهمي موجود آهي. فائر بوٽس ساحل تي ٻڌل فائر فائائيندڙن جي مدد لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگھجن ٿا جڏھن ٻيا پاڻي گھٽ سپلاءِ ۾ ھجي يا دستياب نه ھجي، مثال طور، زلزلي سبب پاڻي جي مينن جي ٽٽڻ سبب، جيئن سان فرانسسڪو ۾ 1989ع جي لوما پريتا جي زلزلي سبب ٿيو. 

ڪجهه جديد فائر بوٽس هزارين گيلن پاڻي في منٽ پمپ ڪرڻ جي قابل آهن. هڪ مثال آهي فائر بوٽ #2 لاس اينجلس فائر ڊپارٽمينٽ، وارنر لارنس، جنهن ۾ 38,000 گيلن منٽ في منٽ (2.4 ڪعبي ميٽر في سيڪنڊ) ۽ هوا ۾ 400 فوٽ (122 ميٽر) تائين پمپ ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت آهي. 

فائر بوٽس عام طور تي عام طور تي عوام طرفان، ڪنهن بحري جهاز يا تاريخي ٻيڙين جو استقبال ڪندي انهن جي پاڻي جي حرڪت جي صلاحيتن جي نمائش سان، هر طرف پاڻيء جي وڏي آرڪس اڇلائي،  ڏٺو ويندو آهي. ڪڏهن ڪڏهن فائر بوٽس، فائر فائائيندڙ، ايمرجنسي ميڊيڪل ٽيڪنيشن ۽ هڪ طبيب انهن جي سامان سان گڏ ٻيٽن ۽ ٻين ٻيڙين ڏانهن، استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. 

ڪجھ آئس بريڪرز طور استعمال ٿي سگھن ٿيون، جھڙوڪ شڪاگو جي فائر ڊپارٽمينٽ جي وڪٽر ايل شليگر جيڪو 8 کان 12 انچ برف کي ٽوڙي سگھي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ChicagoOfficialVictorSchlaeger2&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.chicagofireboat.com/BoatGeneralPhotos.asp|title=The Schlaeger|access-date=2009-11-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427145250/https://www.chicagofireboat.com/BoatGeneralPhotos.asp|archive-date=2021-04-27|publisher=[[Chicago Fire Department]]|year=2008|url-status=dead|accessdate=2024-08-10|archivedate=2021-04-27|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427145250/https://www.chicagofireboat.com/BoatGeneralPhotos.asp}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهي شايد مختلف يا مٿاڇري واري پاڻي جي بچاء واري ڪارڪنن کي پڻ کڻندا. خطري ۾ موجود جهازن مان مسافرن کي مختلف قسم جي بچاءُ واري ٻيڙين ۾ پڻ منتقل ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ريسڪيو ٻيڙيون دريائن، ڍنڍن ۽ سمنڊن تي تيل ۽ ڪيميائي تباهي لاءِ پڻ استعمال ٿي سگھن ٿيون. مثال طور، هيلسنڪي، فنلينڊ ۾ هيلسنڪي ريسڪيو ڊپارٽمينٽ وٽ مختلف قسم جون ٻيڙيون آهن مختلف قسم جي فائر فائٽنگ، بچاءُ ۽ تيل جي تباهي جي ڪمن لاءِ.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.hel.fi/pel|title=Pelastuslaitos|work=Helsingin kaupunki}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گڏوگڏ، باهه، بچاء ۽ طبي هنگامي حالتن ۾ هائيڊروڪاپٽر، سخت هل (Hull) واری انفلٽيبل ٻيڙيون، فين بوٽس ۽ حتي هوورڪرافٽ ۽ هيلي ڪاپٽر پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. فائر بوٽن وارا شهر عام طور تي بندرگاهن جي سهولتن سان گڏ پاڻيءَ جي وڏي حصي تي واقع آهن. ننڍڙا فائر ڊپارٽمينٽ جيڪي وسيلن جي فقدان آهن هڪ سخت هل واری انفلٽيبل ٻيڙي استعمال ڪندا يا مقامي بچاءُ واري ايجنسين (اي ايم ايس، ڪوسٽ گارڊ، فوجي) کان ٻيڙيون قرض وٺندا آھن.

== اسٽيم بوٽ ==
اسٽيم بوٽ (Steamboat) هڪ ٻيڙي آهي جيڪا بنيادي طور تي ٻاڦ جي طاقت سان، عام طور تي ڊرائيونگ پروپيلر يا پيڊل ويلز ذریعی هلائي ويندي آهي. اسٽيم بوٽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اڳياڙيءَ جو نالو SS, S.S. يا S/S ('اسڪريو اسٽيمر' لاءِ) يا PS ('پيڊل اسٽيمر' لاءِ) استعمال ڪندا آهن؛ تنهن هوندي، اهي نامزدگي اڪثر ڪري ٻاڦ واري جهازن لاء استعمال ڪيا ويا آهن.

'''آگبوٽ''' (Fire Boat) جي لفظي معنيٰ باهه جي طاقت سان پاڻيءَ تي هلندڙ جهاز آهي، ليڪن دراصل جهاز ٻاڦ جي طاقت تي هلندو هو، يعني ’ٻاڦ جي طاقت کي حرارت واريءَ توانائيءَ ۾ تبديل ڪندڙ ڪَل‘ هو. ان جو طريقو اهو آهي، جو ٻاڦ سِلنڊر کي اندرِ پسٽن ۾ اڳتي ڌڪي ٿي. ٻاڦ جو زور ختم ٿئي ٿو ته سلنڊر پوئتي هٽي ٿو. اهو عمل چڪري کي ڦيرائڻ لاءِ دٻاءُ وجهي ٿو ۽ ڪَلُن جو سڄو مانڊاڻ حرڪت ۾ اچي وڃي ٿو.

ان جو پهريون ڪامياب مثال ’[[جيمس واٽ]]‘ جي 1769ع ۾ ٺهيل ڪَلَ هئي. ٻاڦ جي مدد سان انهيءَ حرڪت ۽ طاقت سان صنعتي انقلاب وجود ورتو. ان کان پوءِ 1787ع ۾ ’جيمس رمزي‘ ٻاڦ تي هلندڙ [[بحري جهاز]] هلائڻ جو ڪامياب مظاهرو ڪيو. 1807ع ۾ ’[[رابرٽ فلٽسن]]‘ ”ڪليرمانٽ“ بحري جهاز ذريعي ائٽلانٽڪ سمنڊ ۾ 29 ڏينهن ۽11 ڪلاڪ لاڳيتو سفر ڪيو. اهڙيءَ طرح ٻاڦ جي طاقت (اسٽيم ٽربائين) تي هلندڙ آگبوٽن جو سلسلو شروع ٿيو، ۽ سِڙهن وارن جهازن جي جاءِ تي آگبوٽن کي ترجيح ڏني وئي.&lt;ref&gt;[http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=آگبوٽ آگبوٽ : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;
==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:سامونڊي]]
[[زمرو:جهازن جا قسم]]</text>
      <sha1>sg9llb0qtoyzmlmm426y5cyro3zmp9m</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>حسن خيل تعلقو</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>30369</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399356</id>
      <parentid>395626</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T07:34:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399356</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8687" sha1="5v918i5frs8md31h9czqknx0hknovyl" xml:space="preserve">{{about|the administrative unit in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas|other uses|Peshawar (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name                    = حسن خيل تعلقو
| native_name             = حسن خېل تحصیل (پشتو)
| native_name_lang        = 
| other_name              = سرحدي علائقو پشاور
| settlement_type         = [[تعلقو]]
| image_skyline           = 
| image_alt               = 
| image_caption           = 
| image_flag              = 
| flag_alt                = 
| image_seal              = 
| seal_alt                = 
| image_shield            = 
| shield_alt              = 
| etymology               = 
| nickname                = 
| motto                   = 
| image_map               = FATA (8).jpg
| map_alt                 = 
| map_caption             = 
| pushpin_map             = 
| pushpin_label_position  = 
| pushpin_map_alt         = 
| pushpin_map_caption     = 
| coordinates             = &lt;!-- {{Coord}} --&gt;
| coor_pinpoint           = 
| coordinates_footnotes   = 
| subdivision_type        = [[ملڪ]]
| subdivision_name        = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| subdivision_type1       = [[صوبو]]
| subdivision_name1       = {{flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}
| subdivision_type2       =[[پاڪستان جون ڊويزنون|ڊويزن]] 
| subdivision_name2       =[[پشاور ڊويزن]] 
| subdivision_type3       =[[ضلعو]] 
| subdivision_name3       =[[پشاور ضلعو]] 
| established_title       = 
| established_date        = 
| founder                 = 
| seat_type               = 
| seat                    = ڪالاخيل
| government_footnotes    = 
| government_type         = 
| governing_body          = 
| leader_party            = 
| leader_title            = 
| leader_name             = 
| leader_title1           = 
| leader_name1            = 
| leader_title2           = 
| leader_name2            = 
| leader_title3           = 
| leader_name3            = 
| leader_title4           = 
| leader_name4            = 
| legislature =
| upper_house =
| lower_house =
| unit_pref               = Metric
&lt;!-- ALL fields with measurements have automatic unit conversion --&gt;
&lt;!-- for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags --&gt;
| area_footnotes          = 
| area_urban_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_rural_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_metro_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_magnitude          = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_note               = 
| area_water_percent      = 
| area_rank               = 
| area_blank1_title       = 
| area_blank2_title       = 
&lt;!-- square kilometers --&gt;
| area_total_km2          =261 
| area_land_km2           = 
| area_water_km2          = 
| area_urban_km2          = 
| area_rural_km2          = 
| area_metro_km2          = 
| area_blank1_km2         = 
| area_blank2_km2         = 
&lt;!-- hectares --&gt;
| area_total_ha           = 
| area_land_ha            = 
| area_water_ha           = 
| area_urban_ha           = 
| area_rural_ha           = 
| area_metro_ha           = 
| area_blank1_ha          = 
| area_blank2_ha          = 
| length_km               = 
| width_km                = 
| dimensions_footnotes    = 
| elevation_footnotes     = 
| elevation_m             = 
| population_as_of        = 2017
| population_footnotes    = &lt;ref name=&quot;DISTRICT WISE CENSUS RESULTS CENSUS 2017&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/DISTRICT_WISE_CENSUS_RESULTS_CENSUS_2017.pdf|title=DISTRICT WISE CENSUS RESULTS CENSUS 2017|publisher=www.pbscensus.gov.pk|access-date=2017-12-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829164748/http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/DISTRICT_WISE_CENSUS_RESULTS_CENSUS_2017.pdf|archive-date=2017-08-29|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_total        = 72,557
| population_density_km2  = 278
| population_note         = 
| population_demonym      = 
| timezone1               = 
| utc_offset1             = 
| timezone1_DST           = 
| utc_offset1_DST         = 
| postal_code_type        = 
| postal_code             = 
| area_code_type          = 
| area_code               = 
| iso_code                = 
| website                 = &lt;!-- {{URL|example.com}} --&gt;
| footnotes               = 
|official_name=تحصیل حسن خیل}}

'''حسن خيل تعلقو''' (اردو، پشتو) ، [[پاڪستان]] جي صوبي [[خيبر پختونخوا]] جي ضلعي [[پشاور ضلعو|پشاور]] جو هڪ [[تعلقو]] آهي. هن علائقي جي اوڀر ۾ [[نوشھرہ ضلعو|نوشهره]] ۽ ڏکڻ ۾ [[ڪوھاٽ ضلعو|ڪوهاٽ]] جا ضلعا واقع آهن. هن تعلقي ۾ مکيه آبادي وارو مرڪز &quot;ڪالا خيل&quot; آهي. 

سال &lt;small&gt;2018&lt;/small&gt;ع کان اڳ، هي انتظامي علائقو ”پشاور سب ڊويزن“ جي نالي سان سڃاتو ويندو هو؛ ان کان اڳ ان کي ”سرحدي علائقو پشاور“ (&lt;small&gt;FR Peshawar&lt;/small&gt;) چيو ويندو هو ۽ اهو پاڪستان جي وفاقي طور تي انتظام هيٺ ايندڙ قبائلي علائقن (&lt;small&gt;FATA&lt;/small&gt;) جو هڪ حصو هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;peshawar&quot; /&gt;
==جاگرافي ۽ موسم==
هي علائقو جبلن تي مشتمل آهي، جتي سمنڊ جي مٿاڇري کان سراسري اوچائي 1,000 ميٽر (3,300 فوٽ) کان وڌيڪ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;peshawar&quot;/&gt;

== آباديات ==
سال &lt;small&gt;1998&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ هتي جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;53,800&lt;/small&gt; هئي. هتي جي مکيه ٻولي ”[[پشتو ٻولي|پشتو]]“ آهي، جيڪا ضلعي جي &lt;small&gt;99.2&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو رهواسين پاران ڳالهائي وڃي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;1998census&quot;&gt;{{Cite book| title = 1998 census report of Tribal Area Adjoining Peshawar District| location = Islamabad| publisher = [[Census in Pakistan|Population Census Organization]], [[Pakistan Bureau of Statistics|Statistics Division]], Government of Pakistan| series = Census publication | volume =  145| date = 2001}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ايف آر پشاور (&lt;small&gt;FR&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Peshawar&lt;/small&gt;) جو مکيه ۽ واحد قبيلو ”آفريدي“ قبيلي جي هڪ شاخ ”آدم خيل“ آهي. آفريدي قبيلي کي اٺ &lt;small&gt;(8)&lt;/small&gt; ذيلي قبيلن ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي، جن جا تفصيل هيٺ ڏنل آهن: 
# آدم خيل
# ملڪ دين خيل
# قنبر خيل
# اڪا خيل
# زخا خيل 
# ڪوڪي خيل 
# قمر خيل ۽ 
# سپاه

==پڻ ڏسو==
[[عڪس:FATA_(8).jpg|thumb|سرحدي علائقو پشاور]]
'''حسن خيل تعلقو''' (Frontier Region Peshawar) [[وفاقي منتظم شده قبائلي علائقا|قبائلي علائقن]] ۾ ھڪ ننڍو علائقو آھي. علائقي جو نالي [[ضلع پشاور|ضلعي پشاور]] جي نالي تي آھي جيڪو ان جي [[اتر]] ۽ اولھ ۾ واقع آھي۔ ھن جي [[اوڀر]] ۾ [[نوشهره ضلعو|ضلعو نوشھرو]]، [[ڏکڻ]] ۾ سرحدي علائقو ڪوھاٽ واقع آھن۔ &lt;ref name=&quot;peshawar&quot;&gt;{{حوالو ويب|url=http://www.fata.gov.pk/subpages/peshawar.php|title=Historical and administrative profile of the FR peshawar|publisher=FATA Secretariat|accessdate=2010-04-05}}&lt;/ref&gt; ھي [[ضلع پشاور|ضلعي پشاور]] جي ڊسٽرڪٽ ڪوآرڊينيشن آفيسر (ڊي سي او) جي طرفان زير انتظام آھي۔ &lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو ويب|url=http://www.fata.gov.pk/subpages/admnsystem.php|title=Administrative System|publisher=FATA Secretariat|accessdate=2010-04-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[پشاور ضلعو]]

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}

==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
* [http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/part12.ch3.html قبائلي علائقن تي آئيني شقون] - باب 3، پاڪستان جي آئين جو حصو ٻارنھن
* [http://www.fata.gov.pk حڪومت قبائلي علائقا] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090720052328/http://www.fata.gov.pk/ |date=2009-07-20 }}
* [http://www.safron.gov.pk پاڪستاني وفاقي وزارت براءِ رياستون ۽ سرحدي علائقا] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318132844/http://www.safron.gov.pk/ |date=2022-03-18 }} 

{{coord|display=title|33|46|37.1|N|71|42|21.8|E|region:PK_type:adm1st_scale:3000000}}

[[زمرو:حسن خیل تعلقو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:1970ع ۾ ٺھيل ملڪ ۽ علائقا]]
[[Category:Afghanistan–Pakistan border]]
[[Category:Frontier Regions]]</text>
      <sha1>5v918i5frs8md31h9czqknx0hknovyl</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>محمد بن قاسم جو سنڌ تي حملو</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>31179</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399353</id>
      <parentid>320670</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T04:47:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Veritasphere</username>
        <id>6683</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399353</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="32855" sha1="nb0dxv0m7hoyeyrp7qtmcdgiiys6i52" xml:space="preserve">20 جون 712 عيسوي 712ع ۾ سنڌ تي عربن آخري حملو ڪيو&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/urdu/pakistan-57839679|title=محمد بن قاسم سندھ فتح کرنے کے بعد گئے تو گئے کہاں؟|work=BBC News اردو|access-date=2023-06-23|language=ur}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=سنڌ%20۾%20عرب%20دور%20حڪومت|title=سنڌ ۾ عرب دور حڪومت : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)|website=www.encyclopediasindhiana.org|language=sd|access-date=2023-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; جنھن ۾ کين مقامي مخبرن جي سھائتا ملي ھئي&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/history/Book7/Book_page6.html|title=Sindhi Adabi Board Online Library (History)|website=www.sindhiadabiboard.org|access-date=2023-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;. سنڌ تي ھن ڀيري واري حملي جو جواز اھو ڏنو ويندو آھي تہ سامونڊري ڌاڙيل (بحري قزاق) پاران سيلون (سري لنڪا) کان ايندڙ عرب جھاز کي ڦريو ھيو، اُھي سامونڊري ڌاڙيل جيڪي سنڌ بلوچستان جي علائقن ۾ ھوندا ھيا تن کي [[باوارج]] (بوراج) سڏيندا ھيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.wichaar.com/news/209/ARTICLE/10337/2008-12-03.html|title=سنڌ تي ٻاهرين قبضي جو داستان؛ تاريخ جي آئيني ۾ قسط 2|website=www.wichaar.com|access-date=2020-06-15}}&lt;/ref&gt; سنڌ تي عربن جو اڳيون ۽ ھي ڪاھ اسلام پکيڙڻ لاءِ نہ پر معاشي ڦرلٽ، مال غنيمت ۽ عرب سامراجيت کي وَڌائڻ جي لاءِ ڪئي وئي ھئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://urdu.nayadaur.tv/naya-daur-magazine/86560/muhammad-bin-qasim-spread-islam-or-terror-in-sindh/|title=محمد بن قاسم نے سندھ میں اسلام پھیلایا یا دہشت؟|last=نقوی|first=صدیق اکبر|date=2022-05-10|website=نیا دور|language=ur|access-date=2023-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.wichaar.com/news/209/ARTICLE/10322/2008-12-02.html|title=سنڌ تي ٻاهرين قبضي جو داستان؛ تاريخ جي آئيني ۾ قسط 1|website=www.wichaar.com|access-date=2020-06-15}}&lt;/ref&gt;

محمد بن قاسم سنڌ تي حملي لاءِ سنڌ جي حدن اندر داخل ٿيو تڏهن سڀ کان پهرين محمد بن قاسم ديبل تي حملو ڪرڻ جي تياري ڪئي&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=صعدي%20بن%20خريمه|title=صعدي بن خريمه : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)|website=www.encyclopediasindhiana.org|language=sd|access-date=2023-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

==جنگ جو ميدان==
راؤڙ / رياتڙو (عرب ۽ ڏاهر جي جنگ جو ميدان) ڪتاب مطابق عربن ۽ سنڌي فوج جي وچ ۾ جنگ اروڙ بدران راؤڙ ۾ لڳي&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://books.sindhsalamat.com:443/book.php?book_id=528|title=راؤڙ / رياتڙو (عرب ۽ ڏاهر جي جنگ جو ميدان) (ٺٽوي ڪاتيار) {{!}} سنڌ سلامت ڪتاب گهر|website=books.sindhsalamat.com|language=en|access-date=2020-06-15}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://thetimenews.tv/ڪتاب-سنڌ-ڪماري-ناول-تي-تبصرو/|title=ڪتاب سنڌ ڪماري (ناول) تي تبصرو|last=Moderator|first=The Time News|date=2022-11-27|website=The Time News|language=en-US|access-date=2023-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;. جيڪو اصل ۾ “رياتڙو” ئي آهي. ان ڪتاب ۾ اهو علائقو ضلعي ٺٽي جي ساڪري واري علائقي يوسي پليجاڻي ۾ ڳوٺ محمد هاشم ڪاتيار جي آس پاس ڄاڻايو ويو آھي.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
 

چچ نامي ۾ ڄاڻايل آهي ته محمد بن قاسم (Muhammad bin Qasim) خدا تعاليٰ جو نالو وٺي حملي ڪرڻ جو حڪم ڏنو. ڪافر پڻ بيهي ويا ۽ ڇتي جنگ لڳي. ترارين جي ٽڪرائجڻ کان هوا ۾ باهه جا شعلا اڏامڻ لڳا. نيزا ۽ حربا هڪٻئي سان ٽڪرائيندا رهيا. نيٺ هٿيار ڀڄي پيا، ۽ جوان هڪٻئي سان ڪشتيءَ ۾ ڳنڍجي ويا. صبح صادق اڀرڻ کان وٺي شام جي گذرڻ تائين ڏاڍا ڪافر قتل ٿيا. راجا ڏاهر، راجڪمارن جي باقي هڪ هزار سوارن سان وڃي بچيو هو ته سج زرد ٿي ويو.

==ڏاهر جي ڪـُـسجڻ جي خبر==
هنن ٻوٽن جي باغبانن ۽ هنن قيمتي ذخيرن جي مصنفن، راوين کان هن طرح روايت ڪئي آهي ته: راجا ڏاهر، خميس جي ڏينهن، ڏهين رمضان المبارڪ، سن ٽيانوي ۾، راوڙ جي قلعي وٽ سج لهڻ وقت قتل ٿيو. ابوالحسن روايت ڪئي ابوالليث هنديءَ کان، جنهن پنهنجي پيءُ کان (ٻڌل) ڳالهه ڪئي ته: جڏهن اسلامي لشڪر حملو ڪيو ۽ گهڻا ڪافر قتل ٿي ويا، تڏهن اوچتو کاٻي طرف کان گوڙ ۽ هـُـل بلند ٿيو. ڏاهر انهن کي پنهنجو لشڪر سمجهي (1) نعرو هنيو ”نسي من نسي من“ يعني ته: ”مان هتي آهيان. مون ڏانهن اچو!“(1)

==زالن جا آواز ظاهر ٿيڻ==
پوءِ انهن (زالن) چيو ته: ”اي راءِ! اسان اوهان جون زالون آهيون، جيڪي عرب لشڪر هٿان [181] گرفتار ٿي قيد ٿيون آهيون.“ راجا ڏاهر (Raja Dahir) چيو: ”اڃا مان زندهه آهيان. توهان کي ڪنهن گرفتار ڪيو آهي؟“ (اهو حال ڏسي،) ڏاهر اسلامي لشڪر تي هاٿي هڪليو. (هوڏانهن) محمد بن قاسم، نفط اندازن کي چيو ته: ”هاڻي هيءَ وقت توهان جو آهي.“ هڪ سـِـڌي هٿ وارو نفط انداز هو، جنهن ٻولائي نفط جو تير راجا ڏاهر جي پالڪيءَ تي هنيو ۽ پالڪيءَ کي باهه لڳي ويئي.

==ڏاهر جو پوئتي ورڻ==
اتي ڏاهر فيلبان کي چيو ته: ”هاٿي موٽاءِ، ڇاڪاڻ ته اڃ لڳي اٿس.“ هوڏانهن پالڪيءَ کي به باهه لڳي چڪي هئي، تنهن ڪري هاٿي فيلبان جي وس ۾ نه آيو ۽ پاڻ کي وڃي پاڻيءَ ۾ سٽيائين. فيلبان گهڻي ڪوشش ڪئي پر ڪجهه به نه ٿي سگهيو، هاٿي ڪين موٽيو، ۽ فيلبان ۽ ڏاهر کي وڃي تار پاڻيءَ ۾ سـَـٽيائين. ڪافرن مان ڪي ساڻس گڏ پاڻيءَ ۾ گهڙي پيا ۽ ڪي پاڻيءَ جي ڪناري تي بيهي رهيا. ايتري ۾ عرب سوار به اچي پهتا، جن کان ڪافر ڀڄي ويا. هاٿي پاڻي پـِـي، موٽي قلعي ۾ وڃڻ گهريو. مسلمان تير اندازن تير کوليا ۽ هوا مان تير مينهن وانگيان وسڻ لڳا. هڪ عرب، جنهن جو هٿ سڌو هو، تنهن تير ڪشي ڏاهر جي دل تي هنيو، جنهن جي لڳڻ کان هو هاٿيءَ جي مٿان پالڪيءَ ۾ منهن ڀر ڪـِـري پيو. هاٿي پاڻيءَ مان نڪري حملو ڪيو. ۽ باقي بچيل ڪافرن کي پيرن هيٺ لتاڙڻ لڳو، جنهن ڪري هو مڙيئي ٽڙي پکڙي ويا. ڏاهر هاٿيءَ تان لهي هڪ عرب سان مقابلو ڪيو. بهادر عرب سندس مٿي تي ترار هڻي، سندس سسي ڪلهن تائين ٻه اڌ ڪري ڇڏي. هوڏانهن اسلامي لشڪر ڪافرن سان [182] جنبي ويو، ۽ کين ماريندا وڃي راوڙ جي قلعي وٽ پهتا. هيڏانهن جيڪي برهمڻ پاڻيءَ ۾ لڪا هئا، تن جڏهن ڏٺو ته جتي ڏاهر کي قتل ڪيو ويو هو، اها جاءِ خالي پيئي آهي، سو پاڻيءَ مان ٻاهر نڪري، ڏاهر کي گپ هيٺان لڪائي ڇڏيائون. ايتري ۾ سفيد هاٿي ڪافرن جي لشڪر ڏانهن منهن ڪيو، ۽ هو اهڙو ته پئي ڀڳا جو سندن ڪو نالو نشان ئي ڪونه رهيو.

ڳالهه ٿا ڪن ته قابل بن هاشم (1) ڏاهر لعنتي ۽ ڪافرن جي مارجڻ واري ڏينهن سورهن زخم کاڌا ۽ حملو ڪندو ۽ هي رجز چوندو رهيو:

اَلاَ فـَـاصبـَـحـَـانـِـي قـَـبــــــلَ وَقعـَـة دَاهـَـرِ
وَ قبل مـَـنـَـايا (2) قـَـــــد غـــــدَونَ بـَـواکـِـرِ
وَ قـَـبلَ غـَـدِ يـَـا لـَـهفَ نـَـفسـِـي عليٰ غـَـدِ
اِذا مـَـا غـَـدَا صـَـحبـِـي و لـَـــــستُ بـِـبـَـاکـِـرِ

دوستو! ڏاهر جي جنگ کان اڳ ڀري ڏيو مونکي جـام،
ڏيــو پيالو مـــــوت کـــان اڳ، جــــو ٿـــــو اڄ ڏسجي تـيار،
دوســتــو ســڀ مــوجــود هــونـــدا مئي جي محفل ۾ سڀان،
پر ڪجو، نــــا ڀـــائــرو! مــــــــــــون لـــئـه سڀاڻي، انتظار.

چون ٿا ته جڏهن (ڏاهر) مئو تڏهن ڪافرن سندس بدن تان هٿيار لاهڻ گهريا پر لاهي نه سگهيا، ۽ اتيئي گپ هيٺ دفن ڪيائونس.

==محمد بن قاسم جو پڙهو ڏيارڻ==
پوءِ محمد بن قاسم نظر ڪئي ته حـُـبيـَـش بن اخي عامـِـر بن عبدالقيس کي ڏٺائين جو سندس سامهون بيٺو هو. چيائينس ته: ”اي اخي عامر بن عبدالقيس جا پٽ! عامرين کي(1) پڙهو [183] ڏيئي چئو ته راجا ڏاهر غائب آهي، متان ڪنهن ڪنڊ مان نڪري حملو ڪري، (تنهن ڪري) هوشيار رهجو.“ حبيش چيو ته: ”امير! منهنجي دل شاهدي ٿي ڏيئي ته ڏاهر ڪسي ويو.“ محمد بن قاسم فڪر ۾ رهيو، ۽ هر هڪ کان ٿي پڇيائين ته: ”ڏاهر جي ڪا خبر اٿيئي، جو هو گم آهي.“ نيٺ هڪ برهمڻ آيو ۽ امان گهري چيائين ته: ”اي امير عادل! مون کي، منهنجن تابعدارن ۽ فرزندن کي امان ڏي ته مان توکي ڏاهر ڏيکاريان، جو ڪـُـسي ويو آهي.“ (انهيءَ تي) اعتماد جوڳا ساٿي ويا ۽ وڃي هن کي گپ جي هيٺان ڪڍيائون: اڃا تائين منجهائنس عطر ۽ مشڪ جي خوشبوءِ پئي آئي. سندس سسي لاهي، هٿيار بدن کان ڌار ڪري، محمد بن قاسم وٽ آندائون. محمد بن قاسم چيو ته: ”اهڙو ڪو ماڻهو آهي جو هن کي سڃاڻي؟“ نيٺ سندس حڪم تي انهن ٻن ٻانهـِـينِ کي آندائون جيڪي پالڪيءَ ۾ ساڻس گڏ هيون، ۽ گرفتار ٿيون هيون. هنن سر سڃاتو، (جنهن تي) انهيءَ برهمڻ جي وڏن، تابعدارن ۽ لاڳاپيدارن مان ٽي سؤ ماڻهو آزاد ڪيائين. محمد بن قاسم ڏاهر جي سسي ڏسي خدا تعاليٰ عـَـزَاسمـة جي تعريف ڪئي، ۽ شڪرانا بجا آڻڻ خاطر ٻه رڪعتون نفل پڙهيائين. جنگ ۾ جيڪي ماڻهو گرفتار ٿيا هئا، تن سڀنيءَ کي خونخوار ترار جو کاڄ بنائڻ جو حڪم ڏنائين. باقي ڪاريگرن ۽ واپارين جي ٽولي کي امان ڏيئي اصلوڪين جاين تي رهايائين.

(روايت:) عـَـمرَو بن مـُـعـِـيرَه ڪـِـلابـِـيءَ کان روايت ڪن ٿا ته: جنهن وقت حـَـجاج جي سامهون لشڪر ٺاهي بيهاريو هئائون، تنهن وقت حجاج بن يوسف صفن اڳيان اچي هر هڪ صف کي ڏڍ ڏيئي رهيو هو. ائين ڪندي اچي عـَـمرَو بن خالد وٽ پهتو. چيائينس: ”اي عـَـمرَو! محمد بن قاسم ۽ (سندس) همراهن جي شاهديءَ سان ٻڌاءِ ته تون ڪافرن سان ڪهڙو ڪم ڪندين؟“ (وڌيڪ) چيائينس: ”توکان ڪو ٺيڪ ڪم به ٿيندو يانه“ (1)؟ [184]  پوءِ راوي چيو ته: ”(عـَـمرَو) جنهن ڏينهن ڏاهر سان سامهون ٿيو،(تنهن ڏينهن) محمد بن قاسم کي شاهد ڪري، هاٿيءَ کي ڌڪ هنيائين، ۽ ڏاهر جو سر پڻ هن ئي ٻه اڌ ڪيو.“ هو (عـَـمرَو) جڏهن عراق موٽي ويو، ۽ ڏاهر جي سسي حجاج جي خدمت ۾ پيش ڪيائين، تڏهن چيائين: ”امير عادل شال باقي رهي! سندس حڪومت سدائين غالب رهي! امير محمد بن قاسم کي مون تي گواهه ڪيو هـو“ (حجاج) چيو ته: ”ظاهر ڪر (ڏسان) ته تو ڇا ڪيو هوندو؟“ اتي عـَـمرَو هيءُ شعر چيو:

اَلخَيلُ تَشهـَـــــدُ  يـُــــــــومَ دَاهـَـــــرَ وَالقـَنـَـا
وَ مـُـحـَـمـَـدُ  بنُ القـَـاسـِـــــمِ بـــنِ مـُـحـَـــمـَـد.
اِني فـَـرجَتُ الجَمعَ غـــــــــــيـــرَ مـَــــــعــــَـرَدِ
حـَـتيٰ عـَـلـَـوتُ  عـَـظـِـيــمـَــهـُـم بِمـُـهــنـَــد.
فـَترَ کقـُـتہ تـَـــــــحــــــتِ العـَـجَاج مـُـجَدَ لا
مـُتَعـَـفـِـرَ الـخَديــــــنِ عـَـَّــــــيرَ مـُــوَسـَـد.
]شاهد آ ابن قاسم، گــــهـــوڙا ۽ نـــيـــزا پڻ
ڏاهر جي جنگ ۾ مـــــــون ڏيکاري بهادري.
بيڌڙڪ ڪافرن کــــي ڪــيو هو مون ڇڙوڇڙ،
سرسي ڪري ڪپي هئي مون راجا سندي سري.
مون ئي دسي انهيءَ کـــــــــي هــــو ليٽايو ڌوڙ ۾،
ويئي هئي منهن مٿي تي انهيءَ جي مٽي وري.

ابو محمد هنديءَ کان روايت ٿا ڪن (جو هن چيو) ته، ابو مسهر عابي(1) کان ٻڌم، جنهن هند وارن کان روايت ڪئي ته: جڏهن ڏاهر جي قتل کان پوءِ ڏاهر جي زال لاڏي (2) گرفتار ٿي، تڏهن محمد بن قاسم انهن (جنگي قيدين) مان لاڏيءَ کي خريد ڪرڻ گهريو. هن حقيقت جو خط حجاج ڏانهن لکي کانئس اجازت گهريائين. حجاج هيءَ حقيقت خليفي وليد جي خدمت ۾ عرض ڪري، لاڏيءَ جي خريد ڪرڻ جي فرمان جي خواهش ڏيکاري. دارالخلافت کان لاڏيءَ جي خريد ڪرڻ جو حڪم جاري ٿيو، جنهن کان پوءِ محمد بن قاسم هن کي خريد ڪري پنهنجي زال بنايو.(1) [185]

==ڏاهر جي زال لاڏيءَ جي خبر ٻڌائڻ ته هوءَ ڪيئن گرفتار ٿي==
ڳالهه ٿا ڪن ته: عـَـقـِـيل بن عـَـمرَو روايت ڪئي ته: جڏهن لاڏي اُم ولد ٿي(2) تڏهن محمد بن قاسم کانئس پڇيو: تون ڪيئن ڏاهر جي پوئلڳن سان گڏ گرفتار ٿينءَ؟ ۽ ڏاهر کان ڪهڙي سبب ڌار ٿينءَ؟ لاڏيءَ جواب ڏنو ته: جڏهن اسلامي لشڪر راجا ڏاهر جي سامهون ٿيو، تڏهن هن هر هڪ زال جي مٿان سخت نگران ڇڏي چيو ته جيڪڏهن اسلامي لشڪر غالب ٿئي ۽ ڪافر شڪست کائين ته هنن زالن کي ڪهي ڇڏجو، متان مسلمانن جي هٿان گرفتار ٿين. پوءِ انهيءَ (نگران) چوبدار، راڻيءَ لاڏيءَ ڏانهن ڏسي پئي چيو ته ”تنهنجي منهن جو بشرو اهڙو کليل آهي جو (معلوم ٿو ٿئي ته) تنهنجي دل عرب جي بادشاهه ڏانهن مائل آهي، ۽ تون ضرور انهيءَ جي راڻيءَ ٿيندينءَ.“ آخر جڏهن اسلام جي لشڪر حملو ڪيو ۽ مشرڪ ڀڄي ويا، تڏهن هر هڪ نگران سندس حوالي ڪيل راڻيءَ کي ڪـُــٺو. ]اهو حال ڏسي[ مون  پاڻ کي اٺ تان هيٺ ڦٽو ڪيو، ۽ وڃي جنگ جي ]ميدان جي[ وچ ۾ پيس. منهنجو نگران منهنجي ڪهڻ جو خيال ڇڏي وٺي ڀڳو. پوءِ مسلمانن اچي مون کي گرفتار ڪيو ۽ امير محمد بن قاسم مون کي خريد ڪري پنهنجي نڪاح ۾ آندو.
(آسماني فتح ۽ ڪافرن جي مغلوب ٿيڻ جي خبر:) سنڌ جا مشائخ خبرون ٿا ڪن ته، جڏهن آسماني مدد ۽ خدائي تائيد عربن جي حال جي موافق ٿي، ۽ ڪافر ڀڄي ويا، تڏهن محمد بن قاسم انهيءَ احوال جي فتح جو خط حجاج بن يوسف ڏانهن لکي موڪليو. [186]

==محمد بن قاسم جو حجاج ڏانهن ڏاهر جي ڪسڻ ۽ حڪومت تي قبضي ڪرڻ جو فتحنامو لکڻ==
”محمد بن قاسم بي انداز خدمتن ۽ گهڻن سلامن کان پوءِ عراق ۽ هند جي امير حجاج بن يوسف جي راءِ اڳيان عرض ٿو ڪري ته: بادشاهه (الله) سـُـبحـَـانـَـة وَ تـَـعـَـاليٰ وَتـَـقـَـدسـَـت اَسمـَـائـَــة ( جو پاڪ ۽ سر بلند آهي ۽ سندس نالا پاڪ آهن) پنهنجي عام فضل ۽ سڳوري لطف سان، ٻنهي طرفن کان دلير جنگي جوانن ۽ دلير بهادرن جي پاڻ کي آبدار ترارين تان قربان ڪرڻ کان پوءِ، اسلامي لشڪر ڪافرن کي، جنهن ۾ مست هاٿي ۽ هٿيارن ۾ ٻڏل ڪافر سوار هئا، شڪست کاڌل ۽ ذليل ڪيو. هنن جا هاٿي، گهوڙا، سامان، ڪپڙا، ٻانها ۽ چوپايو مال سمورا اسان جي قبضي ۾ آيا، جن جو پنجون حصو دارالخلافت  جي خزاني جي حوالي ڪيو ويو. الله تعاليٰ جي ڪرم مان اها اميد آهي ته جيئن هن ڪم جي ابتدا ٺيڪ ٿي آهي، تيئن هند ۽ سنڌ جا سارا ملڪ اسان جي اقتدار ۽ حڪومت هيٺ ايندا ۽ حوالي ٿيندا. اِنشـاءا للهُ العـَـزِيزُ.

==ڏاهر جو سر عراق ڏانهن موڪلڻ==
پوءِ محمد بن قاسم, ڏاهر جو سـِـرُ، صـَـارِم بن اَبـِـي صـَـارِم جي حوالي ڪري، ]ساڻس گڏ[ بني قيس قبيلي مان اَبوقـَـيس مقرر ڪيائين. ]تنهن کان سواءِ[ ذَڪوان بن عـَـلوان البڪري، يزيد بن مـُـجالد(1) هـَـمداني، زياد بن الحـَـوارِي الـعـَـتـِـڪـِـي(2) ۽ ٻيا پڻ هڪٻئي جا ساٿي بنائي روانا ڪيائين [187] (خط ۾) سندن ساراهه کولي بيان ڪيائين، ۽ چيائين ته: ”هي فتح هنن جي قوت، دٻدٻي، امداد ۽ همراهي سان ٿي آهي.“ هند ]يعني سنڌ[ جي جن رئيسن لڙائيءَ ۾ خوشي ڏيکاري هئي، تن جا سر پڻ عراق موڪليا ويا، ۽ خط ۾ ناليوار داخل ڪيا ويا.
 
(1) فارسي ڇاپي جي متن ۾ عبارت هن طرح ڏنل آهي: ”نعره بزد که من منب آئيد، من اينجا ام“ مگر پ: توڙي ن جي عبارتن ۾ ڏاهر جي اصلي لفظن جو اضافو ٿيل آهي. پ: ”نعره بزد، نسي من نسي يعني من اينجا ام“، ن: ”نعره بزد که نسي من نسي من آيند من اينجا ام“. اسان ڏاهر جا پنهنجا لفظ ن مطابق ”نسي من نسي من“ طور ڏنا آهن.(ن-ب)
(1) هن نالي جي پڙهڻي پ مطابق آهي. فارسي ڇاپي ۾ ٻين نسخن مطابق ”قابل بن هاشم“ پڙهڻي اختيار ڪئي وئي آهي. مگر عربن ۾ قايل نالو بنسبت قابل جي، وڌيڪ قياس ويجهو آهي. ڀانئجي ٿو ته اصل ۾ صحيح عبارت شايد ”قايل من بني هاشم“ هجي. والله اعلم.(ن-ب)

(2)  فارسي ڇاپي ۾ ”قبل المنايا“ آهي مگر وزن جي خيال کان ”قبل منايا“ صحيح آهي. (ن-ب)

(1)  اصل عبارت ”عامريان را“ يعني بنو عامر قبيلي وارن کي، ر، م جي پڙهڻي ”ياران را“ (يعني يارن کي) آهي. (ن-ب)
(1)  هتي اصل متن جي عبارت ۾ ڏاڍو مونجهارو آهي. اصل فارسي عبارت هن طرح آهي. ”گفت اي عـَـمرو! من قاسم و ياران را گواه ميکنم تا بکفارچه کار خواهي کرد؟ گفت: از تو عمل درست آيد يا نه؟“ اسان جي خيال ۾ ٻيءَ ”گفت“ کان اڳ ”ديگر“ لفظ هئڻ گهرجي جو شايد ڪاتب کان ڇڏجي ويل ٿو ڏسجي. ديگر نه هجڻ ڪري ائين پيو معلوم ٿئي ته اهو پويون ”گفت“ ڄڻ عمرو جو جواب آهي. حالانڪ ائين نه آهي، اهو به حجاج بن يوسف جو قول آهي. (مترجم)
(1)  پ: تسقر عابي، ن: اي شتعي عابي، ب: شتعي عابي، ر، م تسقر عالي، س: مشتعر عالي، ڪ: مشعفرعابي، ڏنل پڙهڻي فارسي ڇاپي مطابق آهي ۽ محض قياسي آهي. ”عابي“ شايد ”غساني“ جي تصحيف هجي. فلتامل. (ن-ب)
(2)  اصل پڙهڻي هت توڙي اڳتي هر جڳهه تي ”لادي“ آهي، جنهن کي اسان سنڌي نالي جي اصليت جي لحاظ سان هر جاءِ تي ”لاڏي“ ڪري لکيو آهي. (ن-ب)

(1)  هيءَ روايت ضعيف آهي. ڏسو آخر ۾ حاشيه ص [185]. (ن-ب)

(2)  شرعي اصطلاح ۾ ”اُم ولد“ انهيءَ ٻانهيءَ کي چئبو آهي جنهن مان سردار کي ڪو ٻار پيدا ٿئي. هتي  ”اُم ولد ٿي“ مان مراد ته ”محمد بن قاسم جي نڪاح ۾ آئي“. (مترجم)

(1)  پ: ”مخالف“ ٻين جملي نسخن ۾ ”مخالد“ جا پڙهڻي فارسي ڇاپي ۾ به اختيار ڪيل آهي. مگر ”مخالد“ حقيقت ۾ ”مجالد“ جي تصحيف آهي، جنهن ڪري اسان متن ۾ ”مجالد“ لکيو آهي. بشڪريه عبدالعزيز الميمني. (ن - ب)

(2)  اصل ۾ ”العبدي“، جو غالباً صحيح نه آهي. ڏسو آخر ۾ حاشيه ص  [188].(ن-ب)
&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/Catalogue/History/Book1/Book_page29.html#محمد_بن_قاسم_جو_حملو_ڪرڻ_ Sindhi Adabi Board Online Library (History)&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=January 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref&gt;ڪتاب: چچ نامون، سنڌي ادبي بورڊ&lt;/ref&gt;

==عربن جا دنيا جي ملڪن تي ڪيل حملا==
حضرت محمد صلعم جي برقعو مٽڻ سان ئي عربن دنيا تي حملا ڪرڻ شروع ڪري ڏنا هئا. حضرت عمر جي دؤر ( 13 هجري 624ع کان 24ھ 645ع) تائين ايران، سيستان، مصر، شام، اردن، يمن، عراق، افغانستان ۽ مڪران تي قبضو ڪري چڪا هئا. ديبل تي ٻيڙين ذريعي حملو ڪيو ويو، جنگ ۾ '''“مغيره بن ابي العاص”''' قتل ٿي ويو. حضرت عمر سنڌ جي صورتحال ڄاڻڻ کان پوءِ سنڌ تي حملو ڪرڻ کان روڪو ڇو ته جيڪا کيس ڄاڻ ملي انهن مطابق سنڌ ڏکيو محاذ هيو.

حضرت عثمان (24 هجري 645ع کان 35 هجري 655ع) کي به اها ڄاڻ ملي ته سنڌ هڪ ڏکيو محاذ آهي ان ڪري هن سنڌ تي حملي کان روڪيو. هن جي دؤر حڪومت ۾ اسڪندريه، آرمينيا، آذر بائيجان، طرابلس، تيونس، قبرص، مراڪش ۽ بلتستان تائين جا علائقا قبضي هيٺ آندا ويا، اسپين تي به حملو ڪيو ويو.

حضرت علي ابن ابي طالب (Ali ibn Abi Talib) جي خلافت (35 هجري 656ع کان 40 هجري 661ع) عربن ۾ اندروني ڇڪتاڻ جي ڪري يا سندن پاليسي اهڙي هئي جو ڪٿي به ڪاهه نظر نٿي اچي، شاغر بن ذعر” جيڪو مڪران ۾ هيو انهيءَ پٻ جبل جي علائقي تي حملو ڪيو، پر ڪيڪانان وارن سان مقابلو ڪري نه سگهيو ۽ واپس موٽي ويو.

معاويا بن ابو صفيان (Muawiya ibn Sufyan)  جي خلافت جي دور (41 هجري 661ع کان 59 هجري 669ع) ۾ بحر روم ۾ ٻن ٻيٽن '''روڊس''' ۽ '''ارڊاد''' تي قبضو ڪيو ويو. معاويه جي دؤر ۾ سنڌ تي ٻن طرفن کان حملا ڪيا ويا. هڪ ڪابل (Kabul) ۽ قنڌار (Kandahar) واري پاسي کان ۽ ٻيو پراڻي رستي سان. خيبر کان پهريون حملو 44ھ ۾ '''مهلب بن ابي صغر''' ڪيو. ڪيڪانان مان ڦرلٽ ڪري واپس موٽي ويو. ٻيو حملو عبدالله بن سوار عبدي ڪيو، ڪيڪانان مان گهوڙا ۽ ٻي ڦرلٽ ڪري معاويه جي خدمت ۾ پيش ڪيائين. ٻيهر هن حملو ڪيو ۽ سنڌين هن کي '''ڪيڪانان''' ۾ قتل ڪيو. پوءِ سنان بن ابي سنان هزلي مڪران تي ٻيهر قبضو ڪيو. هن جي جاءِ تي '''راشد بن عمروو ازدي''' مقرر ٿيو. هن '''ڪيڪانان''' تي حملو ڪيو ۽ '''ميد''' قبيلي هٿان مارجي ويو. هن کان پوءِ '''سنان بن سلمه''' مقرر ٿيو، هي '''ٻڌا''' جي علائقي ۾ سنڌين هٿان مارجي ويو. جڏهن '''زياد''' جي پٽ '''عباد''' قنڌار تي قبضو ڪيو ته هن '''قنڌار''' کان '''منذر بن جارود''' کي سنڌ تي حملي لاءِ موڪليو, جنهن ڪيڪانان ۾ ڦرلٽ ڪئي. هي پورالي ندي واري علائقي ۾ بيمار ٿي پيو ۽ مري ويو. هن جي جاءِ تي '''حڪم بن منذر''' کي مقرر ڪيو ويو. '''معاويه''' (Muawiyah) جي دؤر ۾ 55ھ ۾ سمرقند ۽ بخارا تي قبضو ڪيو ويو، اتر آفريڪا جا ڪيئي علائقا قبضي هيٺ آندا ويا، قسطنطنيه تي زوردار حملو ڪيو ويو.

'''يزيد ابن معاويا ابي سوفيان''' (Yazid ibn Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan) جي حڪومت جي دؤر (سنه 60 هجري 680ع کان 64 هجري 683ع) ۾ عربَ اندروني ڇڪتاڻ ۾ رهيا. يزيد، '''امام حسين''' (Imam Hussain) ۽ ان جي ساٿين کي شهيد ڪرايو. مديني تي ڪاهه ڪئي وئي، ٽن ڏينهن تائين مديني ۾ قتل عام ڪيو ويو ۽ ڦرلٽ ڪئي وئي. ان کان پوءِ '''حضرت زبير''' تي مڪي ۾ ڪاهه ڪئي وئي، حضرت زبير حرم ۾ پناهه ورتي، يزيدي لشڪر منجيقن سان ڪعبة الله تي حملو ڪيو ۽ ڪعبة الله کي ڪافي نقصان پهتو. يزيد جي وقت ۾ ترڪمانستان تي حملو ڪيو ويو ۽ 5 ڪروڙ رقم ڦرلٽ ڪئي وئي. يزيد جي وقت ۾ اتر آفريڪا تي ڪاهيو ويو. چچ نامي موجب 61ھ ۾ '''منذر بن جارود''' کي سنڌ تي حملو ڪرڻ لاءِ موڪليو ويو.

'''عبدالملڪ بن مروان''' (65 هجري 686ع کان 86 هجري 707ع) جي خلافت جي دور ۾ '''حجاج بن يوسف''' (Al-Hajaj ibn Yusuf) عراق (Iraq) جو گورنر هيو انهيءَ '''ابن زبير''' کي ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ '''ڪعبة الله''' تي ڪاهه ڪرائي وئي. حضرت '''اِبن زبير''' جو لاش ڦاهي تي ٽنگرايو ويو. عبدالملڪ بن مروان (Abd al-Malik bin Marwan) جي ئي دؤر ۾ حجاج بن يوسف '''اسلم ڪلابي''' کي '''مڪران''' تي حملي لاءِ موڪليو، جنهن کي '''عبدالله بن عبدالرحيم''' ۽ '''محمد بن معاويا علافي''' قتل ڪري '''مڪران''' تي قبضو ڪيو.

وليد بن عبدالملڪ جو عرب جي اقتدار تي ويهڻ (86 هجري 705ع کان 96 هجري 713ع) کان پوءِ 86ھ ۾ ترڪمانستان تي قبضو ڪيو ويو، 87ھ ۾ بخارا تي ڪاهيائون ۽ 88ھ ۾ قبضو ڪيائون. 91ھ طارق بن زياد اسپين تي قبضو ڪيو. 91ھ ۾ چين تي حملو ڪيو ويو، خاڪانِ چين عربن سان ٺاهه ڪري حڪومت بچائي. انهيءَ زماني ۾ '''حجاج بن يوسف عبدالله''' بن نبهان ديبل تي ڪاهه لاءِ موڪليو، جيڪو مارجي ويو. '''جيسينا''' (Jay Seena) جو ساڻن مقابلو ٿيو، ان وقت '''بديل''' به خشڪي رستي الڳ ڪاهي آيو، '''بديل'''، جيسينا هٿان مارجي ويو ۽ عرب موٽي ويا.

==راجا ڏاهر عربن هٿان نه پر سنڌيءَ هٿان قتل ٿيو==
10 رمضان 93ھ، جنگ جو چوٿون ڏينهن محمد بن قاسم جنگ جي اصولن جي ڀڇڪڙي ڪندي سنڌي فوج مٿان پٺئين پاسي کان اوچتو حملو ڪرايو هو ۽ محمد بن قاسم جو سپهه سالار شجاع حبشي هيو، جيڪو جنگ ۾ راجا ڏاهر هٿان مارجي ويو هو. عرب جي لشڪر ۾ ڀاڄ پئجي وئي هئي، محمد بن قاسم، '''پيارو پاڻي پياريو بدرآن''' '''پاڻي کارايو، پاڻي کارايو چئي'''، پنهنجن سپهه سالارن کي سڏي رهيو هو. عملي طور عربن کي شڪست اچي چڪي هئي، انهيءَ صورتحال ۾  '''سنڌي فوج''' ۾ موجود ڪنهن غدار وطن '''راجا ڏاهر''' کي تير هڻي، قتل ڪيو ٿو محسوس ٿئي، جنهن جي خبر هڪ '''سنڌي غدار''' اچي '''محمد بن قاسم''' کي ٻڌائي ۽ انعام ورتا ۽ پنهنجي مائٽن لاءِ رعايتون ورتيون. جيڪڏهن جنگ دوران ڪنهن عرب هٿان راجا ڏاهر قتل ٿئي ها ته عرب لشڪر فتح جا نعرا بلند ڪري ها ۽ انهيءَ مهل ئي راجا ڏاهر جو سر ڪپي نيزي تي ٽنگيو وڃي ها.

ٻيو اِهو ته راجا ڏاهر جي قتل جي حوالي سان چچ نامي جون ٽڪراءَ ۾ آهن، جن مان راجا ڏاهر جي ڪنهن به عرب هٿان شهيد ٿيڻ جي پڪي شاهدي نٿي ملي. پنهنجن غداري ڪري '''محمد بن قاسم''' جو ساٿ به ڏنو، '''راجا ڏاهر''' کي قتل ڪري عربن جي شڪست کي فتح ۾ تبديل ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;[http://affairnews.com/2015/06/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A7-%DA%8F%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%B1-%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%86-%D9%87%D9%BF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%86%D9%87-%D9%BE%D8%B1-%D9%87%DA%AA-%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%8C%D9%8A%D8%A1%D9%8E-%D9%87%D9%BF%D8%A7/ راجا ڏاهر عربن هٿان نه پر هڪ سنڌيءَ هٿان قتل ٿيو!؟ | Affair - افيئر&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref&gt;مضمون: راجا ڏاهر عربن هٿان نه پر هڪ سنڌيءَ هٿان قتل ٿيو!؟ ليکڪ: علي نواز ٻُٽُ&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref&gt;تاريخ اسلامي- جلد- 1- 2، (شاهه معين الدين احمد ندوي) چچ نامو (ڊاڪٽر نبي بخش بلوچ) تاريخ سنڌ (اعجاز الحق قدسي&lt;/ref&gt;

== پڻ ڏسو ==

* [[سنڌ تي عربن جا حملا]]
* [[اموي خلافت]]
* [[سنڌ جي تاريخ]]

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:تاريخ]]
[[زمرو:تاريخ اسلام]]
[[زمرو:اسلامي جنگون]]
[[زمرو:سنڌ جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>nb0dxv0m7hoyeyrp7qtmcdgiiys6i52</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399354</id>
      <parentid>399353</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T04:50:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Veritasphere</username>
        <id>6683</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>و</comment>
      <origin>399354</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="32853" sha1="72ybqazpbuhhfk6ldz2mlo3r0p5v6jv" xml:space="preserve">20 جون 712 عيسوي 712ع ۾ سنڌ تي عربن آخري حملو ڪيو&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/urdu/pakistan-57839679|title=محمد بن قاسم سندھ فتح کرنے کے بعد گئے تو گئے کہاں؟|work=BBC News اردو|access-date=2023-06-23|language=ur}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=سنڌ%20۾%20عرب%20دور%20حڪومت|title=سنڌ ۾ عرب دور حڪومت : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)|website=www.encyclopediasindhiana.org|language=sd|access-date=2023-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; جنھن ۾ کين مقامي مخبرن جي سھائتا ملي ھئي&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/catalogue/history/Book7/Book_page6.html|title=Sindhi Adabi Board Online Library (History)|website=www.sindhiadabiboard.org|access-date=2023-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;. سنڌ تي ھن ڀيري واري حملي جو جواز اھو ڏنو ويندو آھي تہ سامونڊري ڌاڙيل (بحري قزاق) پاران سيلون (سري لنڪا) کان ايندڙ عرب جھاز کي ڦريو ھيو، اُھي سامونڊري ڌاڙيل جيڪي سنڌ بلوچستان جي علائقن ۾ ھوندا ھيا تن کي [[باوارج]] (بوراج) سڏيندا ھيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.wichaar.com/news/209/ARTICLE/10337/2008-12-03.html|title=سنڌ تي ٻاهرين قبضي جو داستان؛ تاريخ جي آئيني ۾ قسط 2|website=www.wichaar.com|access-date=2020-06-15}}&lt;/ref&gt; سنڌ تي عربن جو اڳيون ۽ ھي ڪاھ اسلام پکيڙڻ لاءِ نہ پر معاشي ڦرلٽ، مال غنيمت ۽ عرب سامراجيت کي وَڌائڻ جي لاءِ ڪئي وئي ھئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://urdu.nayadaur.tv/naya-daur-magazine/86560/muhammad-bin-qasim-spread-islam-or-terror-in-sindh/|title=محمد بن قاسم نے سندھ میں اسلام پھیلایا یا دہشت؟|last=نقوی|first=صدیق اکبر|date=2022-05-10|website=نیا دور|language=ur|access-date=2023-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.wichaar.com/news/209/ARTICLE/10322/2008-12-02.html|title=سنڌ تي ٻاهرين قبضي جو داستان؛ تاريخ جي آئيني ۾ قسط 1|website=www.wichaar.com|access-date=2020-06-15}}&lt;/ref&gt;

محمد بن قاسم سنڌ تي حملي لاءِ سنڌ جي حدن اندر داخل ٿيو تڏهن سڀ کان پهرين محمد بن قاسم ديبل تي حملو ڪرڻ جي تياري ڪئي&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=صعدي%20بن%20خريمه|title=صعدي بن خريمه : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)|website=www.encyclopediasindhiana.org|language=sd|access-date=2023-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

==جنگ جو ميدان==
راؤڙ / رياتڙو (عرب ۽ ڏاهر جي جنگ جو ميدان) ڪتاب مطابق عربن ۽ سنڌي فوج جي وچ ۾ جنگ اروڙ بدران راؤڙ ۾ لڳي&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://books.sindhsalamat.com:443/book.php?book_id=528|title=راؤڙ / رياتڙو (عرب ۽ ڏاهر جي جنگ جو ميدان) (ٺٽوي ڪاتيار) {{!}} سنڌ سلامت ڪتاب گهر|website=books.sindhsalamat.com|language=en|access-date=2020-06-15}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://thetimenews.tv/ڪتاب-سنڌ-ڪماري-ناول-تي-تبصرو/|title=ڪتاب سنڌ ڪماري (ناول) تي تبصرو|last=Moderator|first=The Time News|date=2022-11-27|website=The Time News|language=en-US|access-date=2023-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;. جيڪو اصل ۾ “رياتڙو” ئي آهي. ان ڪتاب ۾ اهو علائقو ضلعي ٺٽي جي ساڪري واري علائقي يوسي پليجاڻي ۾ ڳوٺ محمد هاشم ڪاتيار جي آس پاس ڄاڻايو ويو آھي.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
 

چچ نامي ۾ ڄاڻايل آهي ته محمد بن قاسم (Muhammad bin Qasim) خدا تعاليٰ جو نالو وٺي حملي ڪرڻ جو حڪم ڏنو. ڪافر پڻ بيهي ويا ۽ ڇتي جنگ لڳي. ترارين جي ٽڪرائجڻ کان هوا ۾ باهه جا شعلا اڏامڻ لڳا. نيزا ۽ حربا هڪٻئي سان ٽڪرائيندا رهيا. نيٺ هٿيار ڀڄي پيا، ۽ جوان هڪٻئي سان ڪشتيءَ ۾ ڳنڍجي ويا. صبح صادق اڀرڻ کان وٺي شام جي گذرڻ تائين ڏاڍا ڪافر قتل ٿيا. راجا ڏاهر، راجڪمارن جي باقي هڪ هزار سوارن سان وڃي بچيو هو ته سج زرد ٿي ويو.

==ڏاهر جي ڪـُـسجڻ جي خبر==
هنن ٻوٽن جي باغبانن ۽ هنن قيمتي ذخيرن جي مصنفن، راوين کان هن طرح روايت ڪئي آهي ته: راجا ڏاهر، خميس جي ڏينهن، ڏهين رمضان المبارڪ، سن ٽيانوي ۾، راوڙ جي قلعي وٽ سج لهڻ وقت قتل ٿيو. ابوالحسن روايت ڪئي ابوالليث هنديءَ کان، جنهن پنهنجي پيءُ کان (ٻڌل) ڳالهه ڪئي ته: جڏهن اسلامي لشڪر حملو ڪيو ۽ گهڻا ڪافر قتل ٿي ويا، تڏهن اوچتو کاٻي طرف کان گوڙ ۽ هـُـل بلند ٿيو. ڏاهر انهن کي پنهنجو لشڪر سمجهي (1) نعرو هنيو ”نسي من نسي من“ يعني ته: ”مان هتي آهيان. مون ڏانهن اچو!“(1)

==زالن جا آواز ظاهر ٿيڻ==
پوءِ انهن (زالن) چيو ته: ”اي راءِ! اسان اوهان جون زالون آهيون، جيڪي عرب لشڪر هٿان [181] گرفتار ٿي قيد ٿيون آهيون.“ راجا ڏاهر (Raja Dahir) چيو: ”اڃا مان زندهه آهيان. توهان کي ڪنهن گرفتار ڪيو آهي؟“ (اهو حال ڏسي،) ڏاهر اسلامي لشڪر تي هاٿي هڪليو. (هوڏانهن) محمد بن قاسم، نفط اندازن کي چيو ته: ”هاڻي هيءَ وقت توهان جو آهي.“ هڪ سـِـڌي هٿ وارو نفط انداز هو، جنهن ٻولائي نفط جو تير راجا ڏاهر جي پالڪيءَ تي هنيو ۽ پالڪيءَ کي باهه لڳي ويئي.

==ڏاهر جو پوئتي ورڻ==
اتي ڏاهر فيلبان کي چيو ته: ”هاٿي موٽاءِ، ڇاڪاڻ ته اڃ لڳي اٿس.“ هوڏانهن پالڪيءَ کي به باهه لڳي چڪي هئي، تنهن ڪري هاٿي فيلبان جي وس ۾ نه آيو ۽ پاڻ کي وڃي پاڻيءَ ۾ سٽيائين. فيلبان گهڻي ڪوشش ڪئي پر ڪجهه به نه ٿي سگهيو، هاٿي ڪين موٽيو، ۽ فيلبان ۽ ڏاهر کي وڃي تار پاڻيءَ ۾ سـَـٽيائين. ڪافرن مان ڪي ساڻس گڏ پاڻيءَ ۾ گهڙي پيا ۽ ڪي پاڻيءَ جي ڪناري تي بيهي رهيا. ايتري ۾ عرب سوار به اچي پهتا، جن کان ڪافر ڀڄي ويا. هاٿي پاڻي پـِـي، موٽي قلعي ۾ وڃڻ گهريو. مسلمان تير اندازن تير کوليا ۽ هوا مان تير مينهن وانگيان وسڻ لڳا. هڪ عرب، جنهن جو هٿ سڌو هو، تنهن تير ڪشي ڏاهر جي دل تي هنيو، جنهن جي لڳڻ کان هو هاٿيءَ جي مٿان پالڪيءَ ۾ منهن ڀر ڪـِـري پيو. هاٿي پاڻيءَ مان نڪري حملو ڪيو. ۽ باقي بچيل ڪافرن کي پيرن هيٺ لتاڙڻ لڳو، جنهن ڪري هو مڙيئي ٽڙي پکڙي ويا. ڏاهر هاٿيءَ تان لهي هڪ عرب سان مقابلو ڪيو. بهادر عرب سندس مٿي تي ترار هڻي، سندس سسي ڪلهن تائين ٻه اڌ ڪري ڇڏي. هوڏانهن اسلامي لشڪر ڪافرن سان [182] جنبي ويو، ۽ کين ماريندا وڃي راوڙ جي قلعي وٽ پهتا. هيڏانهن جيڪي برهمڻ پاڻيءَ ۾ لڪا هئا، تن جڏهن ڏٺو ته جتي ڏاهر کي قتل ڪيو ويو هو، اها جاءِ خالي پيئي آهي، سو پاڻيءَ مان ٻاهر نڪري، ڏاهر کي گپ هيٺان لڪائي ڇڏيائون. ايتري ۾ سفيد هاٿي ڪافرن جي لشڪر ڏانهن منهن ڪيو، ۽ هو اهڙو ته پئي ڀڳا جو سندن ڪو نالو نشان ئي ڪونه رهيو.

ڳالهه ٿا ڪن ته قابل بن هاشم (1) ڏاهر لعنتي ۽ ڪافرن جي مارجڻ واري ڏينهن سورهن زخم کاڌا ۽ حملو ڪندو ۽ هي رجز چوندو رهيو:

اَلاَ فـَـاصبـَـحـَـانـِـي قـَـبــــــلَ وَقعـَـة دَاهـَـرِ
وَ قبل مـَـنـَـايا (2) قـَـــــد غـــــدَونَ بـَـواکـِـرِ
وَ قـَـبلَ غـَـدِ يـَـا لـَـهفَ نـَـفسـِـي عليٰ غـَـدِ
اِذا مـَـا غـَـدَا صـَـحبـِـي و لـَـــــستُ بـِـبـَـاکـِـرِ

دوستو! ڏاهر جي جنگ کان اڳ ڀري ڏيو مونکي جـام،
ڏيــو پيالو مـــــوت کـــان اڳ، جــــو ٿـــــو اڄ ڏسجي تـيار،
دوســتــو ســڀ مــوجــود هــونـــدا مئي جي محفل ۾ سڀان،
پر ڪجو، نــــا ڀـــائــرو! مــــــــــــون لـــئـه سڀاڻي، انتظار.

چون ٿا ته جڏهن (ڏاهر) مئو تڏهن ڪافرن سندس بدن تان هٿيار لاهڻ گهريا پر لاهي نه سگهيا، ۽ اتيئي گپ هيٺ دفن ڪيائونس.

==محمد بن قاسم جو پڙهو ڏيارڻ==
پوءِ محمد بن قاسم نظر ڪئي ته حـُـبيـَـش بن اخي عامـِـر بن عبدالقيس کي ڏٺائين جو سندس سامهون بيٺو هو. چيائينس ته: ”اي اخي عامر بن عبدالقيس جا پٽ! عامرين کي(1) پڙهو [183] ڏيئي چئو ته راجا ڏاهر غائب آهي، متان ڪنهن ڪنڊ مان نڪري حملو ڪري، (تنهن ڪري) هوشيار رهجو.“ حبيش چيو ته: ”امير! منهنجي دل شاهدي ٿي ڏيئي ته ڏاهر ڪسي ويو.“ محمد بن قاسم فڪر ۾ رهيو، ۽ هر هڪ کان ٿي پڇيائين ته: ”ڏاهر جي ڪا خبر اٿيئي، جو هو گم آهي.“ نيٺ هڪ برهمڻ آيو ۽ امان گهري چيائين ته: ”اي امير عادل! مون کي، منهنجن تابعدارن ۽ فرزندن کي امان ڏي ته مان توکي ڏاهر ڏيکاريان، جو ڪـُـسي ويو آهي.“ (انهيءَ تي) اعتماد جوڳا ساٿي ويا ۽ وڃي هن کي گپ جي هيٺان ڪڍيائون: اڃا تائين منجهائنس عطر ۽ مشڪ جي خوشبوءِ پئي آئي. سندس سسي لاهي، هٿيار بدن کان ڌار ڪري، محمد بن قاسم وٽ آندائون. محمد بن قاسم چيو ته: ”اهڙو ڪو ماڻهو آهي جو هن کي سڃاڻي؟“ نيٺ سندس حڪم تي انهن ٻن ٻانهـِـينِ کي آندائون جيڪي پالڪيءَ ۾ ساڻس گڏ هيون، ۽ گرفتار ٿيون هيون. هنن سر سڃاتو، (جنهن تي) انهيءَ برهمڻ جي وڏن، تابعدارن ۽ لاڳاپيدارن مان ٽي سؤ ماڻهو آزاد ڪيائين. محمد بن قاسم ڏاهر جي سسي ڏسي خدا تعاليٰ عـَـزَاسمـة جي تعريف ڪئي، ۽ شڪرانا بجا آڻڻ خاطر ٻه رڪعتون نفل پڙهيائين. جنگ ۾ جيڪي ماڻهو گرفتار ٿيا هئا، تن سڀنيءَ کي خونخوار ترار جو کاڄ بنائڻ جو حڪم ڏنائين. باقي ڪاريگرن ۽ واپارين جي ٽولي کي امان ڏيئي اصلوڪين جاين تي رهايائين.

(روايت:) عـَـمرَو بن مـُـعـِـيرَه ڪـِـلابـِـيءَ کان روايت ڪن ٿا ته: جنهن وقت حـَـجاج جي سامهون لشڪر ٺاهي بيهاريو هئائون، تنهن وقت حجاج بن يوسف صفن اڳيان اچي هر هڪ صف کي ڏڍ ڏيئي رهيو هو. ائين ڪندي اچي عـَـمرَو بن خالد وٽ پهتو. چيائينس: ”اي عـَـمرَو! محمد بن قاسم ۽ (سندس) همراهن جي شاهديءَ سان ٻڌاءِ ته تون ڪافرن سان ڪهڙو ڪم ڪندين؟“ (وڌيڪ) چيائينس: ”توکان ڪو ٺيڪ ڪم به ٿيندو يانه“ (1)؟ [184]  پوءِ راوي چيو ته: ”(عـَـمرَو) جنهن ڏينهن ڏاهر سان سامهون ٿيو،(تنهن ڏينهن) محمد بن قاسم کي شاهد ڪري، هاٿيءَ کي ڌڪ هنيائين، ۽ ڏاهر جو سر پڻ هن ئي ٻه اڌ ڪيو.“ هو (عـَـمرَو) جڏهن عراق موٽي ويو، ۽ ڏاهر جي سسي حجاج جي خدمت ۾ پيش ڪيائين، تڏهن چيائين: ”امير عادل شال باقي رهي! سندس حڪومت سدائين غالب رهي! امير محمد بن قاسم کي مون تي گواهه ڪيو هـو“ (حجاج) چيو ته: ”ظاهر ڪر (ڏسان) ته تو ڇا ڪيو هوندو؟“ اتي عـَـمرَو هيءُ شعر چيو:

اَلخَيلُ تَشهـَـــــدُ  يـُــــــــومَ دَاهـَـــــرَ وَالقـَنـَـا
وَ مـُـحـَـمـَـدُ  بنُ القـَـاسـِـــــمِ بـــنِ مـُـحـَـــمـَـد.
اِني فـَـرجَتُ الجَمعَ غـــــــــــيـــرَ مـَــــــعــــَـرَدِ
حـَـتيٰ عـَـلـَـوتُ  عـَـظـِـيــمـَــهـُـم بِمـُـهــنـَــد.
فـَترَ کقـُـتہ تـَـــــــحــــــتِ العـَـجَاج مـُـجَدَ لا
مـُتَعـَـفـِـرَ الـخَديــــــنِ عـَـَّــــــيرَ مـُــوَسـَـد.
]شاهد آ ابن قاسم، گــــهـــوڙا ۽ نـــيـــزا پڻ
ڏاهر جي جنگ ۾ مـــــــون ڏيکاري بهادري.
بيڌڙڪ ڪافرن کــــي ڪــيو هو مون ڇڙوڇڙ،
سرسي ڪري ڪپي هئي مون راجا سندي سري.
مون ئي دسي انهيءَ کـــــــــي هــــو ليٽايو ڌوڙ ۾،
ويئي هئي منهن مٿي تي انهيءَ جي مٽي وري.

ابو محمد هنديءَ کان روايت ٿا ڪن (جو هن چيو) ته، ابو مسهر عابي(1) کان ٻڌم، جنهن هند وارن کان روايت ڪئي ته: جڏهن ڏاهر جي قتل کان پوءِ ڏاهر جي زال لاڏي (2) گرفتار ٿي، تڏهن محمد بن قاسم انهن (جنگي قيدين) مان لاڏيءَ کي خريد ڪرڻ گهريو. هن حقيقت جو خط حجاج ڏانهن لکي کانئس اجازت گهريائين. حجاج هيءَ حقيقت خليفي وليد جي خدمت ۾ عرض ڪري، لاڏيءَ جي خريد ڪرڻ جي فرمان جي خواهش ڏيکاري. دارالخلافت کان لاڏيءَ جي خريد ڪرڻ جو حڪم جاري ٿيو، جنهن کان پوءِ محمد بن قاسم هن کي خريد ڪري پنهنجي زال بنايو.(1) [185]

==ڏاهر جي زال لاڏيءَ جي خبر ٻڌائڻ ته هوءَ ڪيئن گرفتار ٿي==
ڳالهه ٿا ڪن ته: عـَـقـِـيل بن عـَـمرَو روايت ڪئي ته: جڏهن لاڏي اُم ولد ٿي(2) تڏهن محمد بن قاسم کانئس پڇيو: تون ڪيئن ڏاهر جي پوئلڳن سان گڏ گرفتار ٿينءَ؟ ۽ ڏاهر کان ڪهڙي سبب ڌار ٿينءَ؟ لاڏيءَ جواب ڏنو ته: جڏهن اسلامي لشڪر راجا ڏاهر جي سامهون ٿيو، تڏهن هن هر هڪ زال جي مٿان سخت نگران ڇڏي چيو ته جيڪڏهن اسلامي لشڪر غالب ٿئي ۽ ڪافر شڪست کائين ته هنن زالن کي ڪهي ڇڏجو، متان مسلمانن جي هٿان گرفتار ٿين. پوءِ انهيءَ (نگران) چوبدار، راڻيءَ لاڏيءَ ڏانهن ڏسي پئي چيو ته ”تنهنجي منهن جو بشرو اهڙو کليل آهي جو (معلوم ٿو ٿئي ته) تنهنجي دل عرب جي بادشاهه ڏانهن مائل آهي، ۽ تون ضرور انهيءَ جي راڻيءَ ٿيندينءَ.“ آخر جڏهن اسلام جي لشڪر حملو ڪيو ۽ مشرڪ ڀڄي ويا، تڏهن هر هڪ نگران سندس حوالي ڪيل راڻيءَ کي ڪـُــٺو. ]اهو حال ڏسي[ مون  پاڻ کي اٺ تان هيٺ ڦٽو ڪيو، ۽ وڃي جنگ جي ]ميدان جي[ وچ ۾ پيس. منهنجو نگران منهنجي ڪهڻ جو خيال ڇڏي وٺي ڀڳو. پوءِ مسلمانن اچي مون کي گرفتار ڪيو ۽ امير محمد بن قاسم مون کي خريد ڪري پنهنجي نڪاح ۾ آندو.
(آسماني فتح ۽ ڪافرن جي مغلوب ٿيڻ جي خبر:) سنڌ جا مشائخ خبرون ٿا ڪن ته، جڏهن آسماني مدد ۽ خدائي تائيد عربن جي حال جي موافق ٿي، ۽ ڪافر ڀڄي ويا، تڏهن محمد بن قاسم انهيءَ احوال جي فتح جو خط حجاج بن يوسف ڏانهن لکي موڪليو. [186]

==محمد بن قاسم جو حجاج ڏانهن ڏاهر جي ڪسڻ ۽ حڪومت تي قبضي ڪرڻ جو فتحنامو لکڻ==
”محمد بن قاسم بي انداز خدمتن ۽ گهڻن سلامن کان پوءِ عراق ۽ هند جي امير حجاج بن يوسف جي راءِ اڳيان عرض ٿو ڪري ته: بادشاهه (الله) سـُـبحـَـانـَـة وَ تـَـعـَـاليٰ وَتـَـقـَـدسـَـت اَسمـَـائـَــة ( جو پاڪ ۽ سر بلند آهي ۽ سندس نالا پاڪ آهن) پنهنجي عام فضل ۽ سڳوري لطف سان، ٻنهي طرفن کان دلير جنگي جوانن ۽ دلير بهادرن جي پاڻ کي آبدار ترارين تان قربان ڪرڻ کان پوءِ، اسلامي لشڪر ڪافرن کي، جنهن ۾ مست هاٿي ۽ هٿيارن ۾ ٻڏل ڪافر سوار هئا، شڪست کاڌل ۽ ذليل ڪيو. هنن جا هاٿي، گهوڙا، سامان، ڪپڙا، ٻانها ۽ چوپايو مال سمورا اسان جي قبضي ۾ آيا، جن جو پنجون حصو دارالخلافت  جي خزاني جي حوالي ڪيو ويو. الله تعاليٰ جي ڪرم مان اها اميد آهي ته جيئن هن ڪم جي ابتدا ٺيڪ ٿي آهي، تيئن هند ۽ سنڌ جا سارا ملڪ اسان جي اقتدار ۽ حڪومت هيٺ ايندا ۽ حوالي ٿيندا. اِنشـاءا للهُ العـَـزِيزُ.

==ڏاهر جو سر عراق ڏانهن موڪلڻ==
پوءِ محمد بن قاسم, ڏاهر جو سـِـرُ، صـَـارِم بن اَبـِـي صـَـارِم جي حوالي ڪري، ]ساڻس گڏ[ بني قيس قبيلي مان اَبوقـَـيس مقرر ڪيائين. ]تنهن کان سواءِ[ ذَڪوان بن عـَـلوان البڪري، يزيد بن مـُـجالد(1) هـَـمداني، زياد بن الحـَـوارِي الـعـَـتـِـڪـِـي(2) ۽ ٻيا پڻ هڪٻئي جا ساٿي بنائي روانا ڪيائين [187] (خط ۾) سندن ساراهه کولي بيان ڪيائين، ۽ چيائين ته: ”هي فتح هنن جي قوت، دٻدٻي، امداد ۽ همراهي سان ٿي آهي.“ هند ]يعني سنڌ[ جي جن رئيسن لڙائيءَ ۾ خوشي ڏيکاري هئي، تن جا سر پڻ عراق موڪليا ويا، ۽ خط ۾ ناليوار داخل ڪيا ويا.
 
(1) فارسي ڇاپي جي متن ۾ عبارت هن طرح ڏنل آهي: ”نعره بزد که من منب آئيد، من اينجا ام“ مگر پ: توڙي ن جي عبارتن ۾ ڏاهر جي اصلي لفظن جو اضافو ٿيل آهي. پ: ”نعره بزد، نسي من نسي يعني من اينجا ام“، ن: ”نعره بزد که نسي من نسي من آيند من اينجا ام“. اسان ڏاهر جا پنهنجا لفظ ن مطابق ”نسي من نسي من“ طور ڏنا آهن.(ن-ب)
(1) هن نالي جي پڙهڻي پ مطابق آهي. فارسي ڇاپي ۾ ٻين نسخن مطابق ”قابل بن هاشم“ پڙهڻي اختيار ڪئي وئي آهي. مگر عربن ۾ قايل نالو بنسبت قابل جي، وڌيڪ قياس ويجهو آهي. ڀانئجي ٿو ته اصل ۾ صحيح عبارت شايد ”قايل من بني هاشم“ هجي. والله اعلم.(ن-ب)

(2)  فارسي ڇاپي ۾ ”قبل المنايا“ آهي مگر وزن جي خيال کان ”قبل منايا“ صحيح آهي. (ن-ب)

(1)  اصل عبارت ”عامريان را“ يعني بنو عامر قبيلي وارن کي، ر، م جي پڙهڻي ”ياران را“ (يعني يارن کي) آهي. (ن-ب)
(1)  هتي اصل متن جي عبارت ۾ ڏاڍو مونجهارو آهي. اصل فارسي عبارت هن طرح آهي. ”گفت اي عـَـمرو! من قاسم و ياران را گواه ميکنم تا بکفارچه کار خواهي کرد؟ گفت: از تو عمل درست آيد يا نه؟“ اسان جي خيال ۾ ٻيءَ ”گفت“ کان اڳ ”ديگر“ لفظ هئڻ گهرجي جو شايد ڪاتب کان ڇڏجي ويل ٿو ڏسجي. ديگر نه هجڻ ڪري ائين پيو معلوم ٿئي ته اهو پويون ”گفت“ ڄڻ عمرو جو جواب آهي. حالانڪ ائين نه آهي، اهو به حجاج بن يوسف جو قول آهي. (مترجم)
(1)  پ: تسقر عابي، ن: اي شتعي عابي، ب: شتعي عابي، ر، م تسقر عالي، س: مشتعر عالي، ڪ: مشعفرعابي، ڏنل پڙهڻي فارسي ڇاپي مطابق آهي ۽ محض قياسي آهي. ”عابي“ شايد ”غساني“ جي تصحيف هجي. فلتامل. (ن-ب)
(2)  اصل پڙهڻي هت توڙي اڳتي هر جڳهه تي ”لادي“ آهي، جنهن کي اسان سنڌي نالي جي اصليت جي لحاظ سان هر جاءِ تي ”لاڏي“ ڪري لکيو آهي. (ن-ب)

(1)  هيءَ روايت ضعيف آهي. ڏسو آخر ۾ حاشيه ص [185]. (ن-ب)

(2)  شرعي اصطلاح ۾ ”اُم ولد“ انهيءَ ٻانهيءَ کي چئبو آهي جنهن مان سردار کي ڪو ٻار پيدا ٿئي. هتي  ”اُم ولد ٿي“ مان مراد ته ”محمد بن قاسم جي نڪاح ۾ آئي“. (مترجم)

(1)  پ: ”مخالف“ ٻين جملي نسخن ۾ ”مخالد“ جا پڙهڻي فارسي ڇاپي ۾ به اختيار ڪيل آهي. مگر ”مخالد“ حقيقت ۾ ”مجالد“ جي تصحيف آهي، جنهن ڪري اسان متن ۾ ”مجالد“ لکيو آهي. بشڪريه عبدالعزيز الميمني. (ن - ب)

(2)  اصل ۾ ”العبدي“، جو غالباً صحيح نه آهي. ڏسو آخر ۾ حاشيه ص  [188].(ن-ب)
&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/Catalogue/History/Book1/Book_page29.html#محمد_بن_قاسم_جو_حملو_ڪرڻ_ Sindhi Adabi Board Online Library (History)&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=January 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref&gt;ڪتاب: چچ نامون، سنڌي ادبي بورڊ&lt;/ref&gt;

==عربن جا دنيا جي ملڪن تي ڪيل حملا==
حضرت محمد صلعم جي برقعو مٽڻ سان ئي عربن دنيا تي حملا ڪرڻ شروع ڪري ڏنا هئا. حضرت عمر جي دؤر ( 13 هجري 624ع کان 24ھ 645ع) تائين ايران، سيستان، مصر، شام، اردن، يمن، عراق، افغانستان ۽ مڪران تي قبضو ڪري چڪا هئا. ديبل تي ٻيڙين ذريعي حملو ڪيو ويو، جنگ ۾ '''“مغيره بن ابي العاص”''' قتل ٿي ويو. حضرت عمر سنڌ جي صورتحال ڄاڻڻ کان پوءِ سنڌ تي حملو ڪرڻ کان روڪو ڇو ته جيڪا کيس ڄاڻ ملي انهن مطابق سنڌ ڏکيو محاذ هيو.

حضرت عثمان (24 هجري 645ع کان 35 هجري 655ع) کي به اها ڄاڻ ملي ته سنڌ هڪ ڏکيو محاذ آهي ان ڪري هن سنڌ تي حملي کان روڪيو. هن جي دؤر حڪومت ۾ اسڪندريه، آرمينيا، آذر بائيجان، طرابلس، تيونس، قبرص، مراڪش ۽ بلتستان تائين جا علائقا قبضي هيٺ آندا ويا، اسپين تي به حملو ڪيو ويو.

حضرت علي ابن ابي طالب (Ali ibn Abi Talib) جي خلافت (35 هجري 656ع کان 40 هجري 661ع) عربن ۾ اندروني ڇڪتاڻ جي ڪري يا سندن پاليسي اهڙي هئي جو ڪٿي به ڪاهه نظر نٿي اچي، شاغر بن ذعر” جيڪو مڪران ۾ هيو انهيءَ پٻ جبل جي علائقي تي حملو ڪيو، پر ڪيڪانان وارن سان مقابلو ڪري نه سگهيو ۽ واپس موٽي ويو.

معاويا بن ابو صفيان (Muawiya ibn Sufyan)  جي خلافت جي دور (41 هجري 661ع کان 59 هجري 669ع) ۾ بحر روم ۾ ٻن ٻيٽن '''روڊس''' ۽ '''ارڊاد''' تي قبضو ڪيو ويو. معاويه جي دؤر ۾ سنڌ تي ٻن طرفن کان حملا ڪيا ويا. هڪ ڪابل (Kabul) ۽ قنڌار (Kandahar) واري پاسي کان ۽ ٻيو پراڻي رستي سان. خيبر کان پهريون حملو 44ھ ۾ '''مهلب بن ابي صغر''' ڪيو. ڪيڪانان مان ڦرلٽ ڪري واپس موٽي ويو. ٻيو حملو عبدالله بن سوار عبدي ڪيو، ڪيڪانان مان گهوڙا ۽ ٻي ڦرلٽ ڪري معاويه جي خدمت ۾ پيش ڪيائين. ٻيهر هن حملو ڪيو ۽ سنڌين هن کي '''ڪيڪانان''' ۾ قتل ڪيو. پوءِ سنان بن ابي سنان هزلي مڪران تي ٻيهر قبضو ڪيو. هن جي جاءِ تي '''راشد بن عمرو ازدي''' مقرر ٿيو. هن '''ڪيڪانان''' تي حملو ڪيو ۽ '''ميد''' قبيلي هٿان مارجي ويو. هن کان پوءِ '''سنان بن سلمه''' مقرر ٿيو، هي '''ٻڌا''' جي علائقي ۾ سنڌين هٿان مارجي ويو. جڏهن '''زياد''' جي پٽ '''عباد''' قنڌار تي قبضو ڪيو ته هن '''قنڌار''' کان '''منذر بن جارود''' کي سنڌ تي حملي لاءِ موڪليو, جنهن ڪيڪانان ۾ ڦرلٽ ڪئي. هي پورالي ندي واري علائقي ۾ بيمار ٿي پيو ۽ مري ويو. هن جي جاءِ تي '''حڪم بن منذر''' کي مقرر ڪيو ويو. '''معاويه''' (Muawiyah) جي دؤر ۾ 55ھ ۾ سمرقند ۽ بخارا تي قبضو ڪيو ويو، اتر آفريڪا جا ڪيئي علائقا قبضي هيٺ آندا ويا، قسطنطنيه تي زوردار حملو ڪيو ويو.

'''يزيد ابن معاويا ابي سوفيان''' (Yazid ibn Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan) جي حڪومت جي دؤر (سنه 60 هجري 680ع کان 64 هجري 683ع) ۾ عربَ اندروني ڇڪتاڻ ۾ رهيا. يزيد، '''امام حسين''' (Imam Hussain) ۽ ان جي ساٿين کي شهيد ڪرايو. مديني تي ڪاهه ڪئي وئي، ٽن ڏينهن تائين مديني ۾ قتل عام ڪيو ويو ۽ ڦرلٽ ڪئي وئي. ان کان پوءِ '''حضرت زبير''' تي مڪي ۾ ڪاهه ڪئي وئي، حضرت زبير حرم ۾ پناهه ورتي، يزيدي لشڪر منجيقن سان ڪعبة الله تي حملو ڪيو ۽ ڪعبة الله کي ڪافي نقصان پهتو. يزيد جي وقت ۾ ترڪمانستان تي حملو ڪيو ويو ۽ 5 ڪروڙ رقم ڦرلٽ ڪئي وئي. يزيد جي وقت ۾ اتر آفريڪا تي ڪاهيو ويو. چچ نامي موجب 61ھ ۾ '''منذر بن جارود''' کي سنڌ تي حملو ڪرڻ لاءِ موڪليو ويو.

'''عبدالملڪ بن مروان''' (65 هجري 686ع کان 86 هجري 707ع) جي خلافت جي دور ۾ '''حجاج بن يوسف''' (Al-Hajaj ibn Yusuf) عراق (Iraq) جو گورنر هيو انهيءَ '''ابن زبير''' کي ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ '''ڪعبة الله''' تي ڪاهه ڪرائي وئي. حضرت '''اِبن زبير''' جو لاش ڦاهي تي ٽنگرايو ويو. عبدالملڪ بن مروان (Abd al-Malik bin Marwan) جي ئي دؤر ۾ حجاج بن يوسف '''اسلم ڪلابي''' کي '''مڪران''' تي حملي لاءِ موڪليو، جنهن کي '''عبدالله بن عبدالرحيم''' ۽ '''محمد بن معاويا علافي''' قتل ڪري '''مڪران''' تي قبضو ڪيو.

وليد بن عبدالملڪ جو عرب جي اقتدار تي ويهڻ (86 هجري 705ع کان 96 هجري 713ع) کان پوءِ 86ھ ۾ ترڪمانستان تي قبضو ڪيو ويو، 87ھ ۾ بخارا تي ڪاهيائون ۽ 88ھ ۾ قبضو ڪيائون. 91ھ طارق بن زياد اسپين تي قبضو ڪيو. 91ھ ۾ چين تي حملو ڪيو ويو، خاڪانِ چين عربن سان ٺاهه ڪري حڪومت بچائي. انهيءَ زماني ۾ '''حجاج بن يوسف عبدالله''' بن نبهان ديبل تي ڪاهه لاءِ موڪليو، جيڪو مارجي ويو. '''جيسينا''' (Jay Seena) جو ساڻن مقابلو ٿيو، ان وقت '''بديل''' به خشڪي رستي الڳ ڪاهي آيو، '''بديل'''، جيسينا هٿان مارجي ويو ۽ عرب موٽي ويا.

==راجا ڏاهر عربن هٿان نه پر سنڌيءَ هٿان قتل ٿيو==
10 رمضان 93ھ، جنگ جو چوٿون ڏينهن محمد بن قاسم جنگ جي اصولن جي ڀڇڪڙي ڪندي سنڌي فوج مٿان پٺئين پاسي کان اوچتو حملو ڪرايو هو ۽ محمد بن قاسم جو سپهه سالار شجاع حبشي هيو، جيڪو جنگ ۾ راجا ڏاهر هٿان مارجي ويو هو. عرب جي لشڪر ۾ ڀاڄ پئجي وئي هئي، محمد بن قاسم، '''پيارو پاڻي پياريو بدرآن''' '''پاڻي کارايو، پاڻي کارايو چئي'''، پنهنجن سپهه سالارن کي سڏي رهيو هو. عملي طور عربن کي شڪست اچي چڪي هئي، انهيءَ صورتحال ۾  '''سنڌي فوج''' ۾ موجود ڪنهن غدار وطن '''راجا ڏاهر''' کي تير هڻي، قتل ڪيو ٿو محسوس ٿئي، جنهن جي خبر هڪ '''سنڌي غدار''' اچي '''محمد بن قاسم''' کي ٻڌائي ۽ انعام ورتا ۽ پنهنجي مائٽن لاءِ رعايتون ورتيون. جيڪڏهن جنگ دوران ڪنهن عرب هٿان راجا ڏاهر قتل ٿئي ها ته عرب لشڪر فتح جا نعرا بلند ڪري ها ۽ انهيءَ مهل ئي راجا ڏاهر جو سر ڪپي نيزي تي ٽنگيو وڃي ها.

ٻيو اِهو ته راجا ڏاهر جي قتل جي حوالي سان چچ نامي جون ٽڪراءَ ۾ آهن، جن مان راجا ڏاهر جي ڪنهن به عرب هٿان شهيد ٿيڻ جي پڪي شاهدي نٿي ملي. پنهنجن غداري ڪري '''محمد بن قاسم''' جو ساٿ به ڏنو، '''راجا ڏاهر''' کي قتل ڪري عربن جي شڪست کي فتح ۾ تبديل ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;[http://affairnews.com/2015/06/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A7-%DA%8F%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%B1-%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%86-%D9%87%D9%BF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%86%D9%87-%D9%BE%D8%B1-%D9%87%DA%AA-%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%8C%D9%8A%D8%A1%D9%8E-%D9%87%D9%BF%D8%A7/ راجا ڏاهر عربن هٿان نه پر هڪ سنڌيءَ هٿان قتل ٿيو!؟ | Affair - افيئر&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref&gt;مضمون: راجا ڏاهر عربن هٿان نه پر هڪ سنڌيءَ هٿان قتل ٿيو!؟ ليکڪ: علي نواز ٻُٽُ&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref&gt;تاريخ اسلامي- جلد- 1- 2، (شاهه معين الدين احمد ندوي) چچ نامو (ڊاڪٽر نبي بخش بلوچ) تاريخ سنڌ (اعجاز الحق قدسي&lt;/ref&gt;

== پڻ ڏسو ==

* [[سنڌ تي عربن جا حملا]]
* [[اموي خلافت]]
* [[سنڌ جي تاريخ]]

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:تاريخ]]
[[زمرو:تاريخ اسلام]]
[[زمرو:اسلامي جنگون]]
[[زمرو:سنڌ جي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>72ybqazpbuhhfk6ldz2mlo3r0p5v6jv</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>امن جي بحاليءَ واري فوج</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>37672</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399318</id>
      <parentid>327982</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T21:29:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399318</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10942" sha1="a1smfy79jg64l64o6aobqlczu1742g3" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|دائمي امن لاءِ سازگار حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ خاطر ڪيل سرگرميون}}


[[File:Italian Soldier UNIFIL 2 Lebanon 2007.jpg|thumb|[[اطالوي فوج]] جو هڪ [[سپاهي]] لبنان ۾ [[يونيفل]] مشن دوران پهرو ڏئي رهيو آهي.]]

'''امن قائم رکندڙ فوج''' (Peacekeeping Force) انهن سرگرمين، خاص طور فوجي سرگرمين،&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Peacekeeping&quot;. Oxford Languages. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جن جو مقصد اهڙيون حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ هوندو آهي جيڪي پائيدار [[امن]] جي قيام لاءِ سازگار هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/|title=United Nations Peacekeeping|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; تحقيق مان عام طور اهو ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون [[شهري جاني نقصان|شهري]] ۽ جنگي ميدان ۾ ٿيندڙ جاني نقصان کي گهٽائين ٿيون ۽ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي پڻ گهٽائين ٿيون.

[[گڏيل قومون]] (UN) ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل [[قومي رياست]]ن جي حڪومتن ۽ [[تنظيم]]ن جي وچ ۾ عام طور اهو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو ته عالمي سطح تي امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا جنگ کان پوءِ وارن علائقن ۾ امن جي عمل جي نگراني ۽ مشاهدو ڪندا آهن، ۽ اڳوڻن ويڙهاڪن کي انهن امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ ۾ مدد ڏيندا آهن، جن جا هو پابند بڻيل هوندا آهن. اهڙي مدد ڪيترين ئي صورتن ۾ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ اعتماد سازي جا قدم، اقتدار جي ورهاست جا انتظام، چونڊن ۾ مدد، [[قانون جي حڪمراني]] کي مضبوط بڻائڻ، ۽ معاشي ۽ سماجي ترقي کي هٿي ڏيڻ. ان ڪري [[گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا]] (جن کي سندن هلڪي نيري [[بيريٽ]] يا هيلمٽ سبب اڪثر '''نيري بيريٽ''' يا '''نيرا هيلمٽ''' چيو ويندو آهي) ۾ فوجي، [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس آفيسر]] ۽ شهري عملي جا ميمبر شامل ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dpko/ |title=Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dfs/ |title=Department of Field Support (DFS) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جا مشن هلائيندڙ واحد تنظيم گڏيل قومون نه آهن. گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم ڪندڙ قوتن ۾ [[ڪوسوو فورس]] جي [[نيٽو]] مشن (گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان)، [[سينا ٻيٽ نما]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]]، ۽ [[يورپي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[EUFOR RCA]]، گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان) ۽ [[آفريقي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[سوڊان ۾ آفريقي يونين مشن]]) پاران منظم ڪيل امن مشن شامل آهن.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

[[بين الاقوامي قانون]] موجب، امن قائم ڪندڙ پنهنجي غيرجانبدار حيثيت سبب [[غير جنگجو]] (non-combatants) شمار ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي ٻن يا وڌيڪ [[جنگ ڪندڙ ڌر]]ن جي وچ ۾ تڪرار ۾ غيرجانبدار هوندا آهن (بلڪل اهڙيءَ طرح جيئن امن قائم رکڻ جي ذميوارين کان ٻاهر موجود غيرجانبدار ماڻهو ۽ ملڪيت). تنهنڪري انهن کي هر حال ۾ حملن کان تحفظ حاصل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule33 |title=Rule 33. Personnel and Objects Involved in a Peacekeeping Mission|publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]|access-date=April 7, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فائل:UN Soldiers in Eritrea.jpeg|thumb|right|upright=1.00|نيدرلينڊز جا ڊچ فوجي اقوام متحده جي امن جي قيام جي فورس ۾ ايٿوپيا ۽ ايريٽيريا جي سرحد تي گڏيل قومن پاران چوڪسي ڪندي]]

'''امن جي بحالي واري فوج'''{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي=Peace Keeping Force}}
ٻن ملڪن ياڌرين جي وچ ۾ ڪو به تڪرار ايترو زور وٺي وڃي، جو ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت کانسواءِ اهو ٽري نه سگهي، ته ٽين ڌر امن قائم ڪرڻ (Peace Keeping) لاءِ مُختلف اُپاءُ وٺندي آهي. ڪنهن به تڪرار جي حل لاءِ ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت جو مقصد ٻن ڌُرين ۾ رڳو صُلح ڪرائڻ هوندو آهي، جنهن لاءِ فوجي ۽ سُفارتي طريقا ڪتب آندا ويندا آهن. ان کان سواءِ گھُرج پوڻ تي ٽين ڌر (يا وچين ڌر) جهيڙو ڪندڙ ڌرين تي مُختلف قسمن جو دٻاءُ رکندي آهي، جيڪڏهن ڌريون پوءِ به جهيڙي کي نه ٿيون ختم ڪن، ته مٿانئن فوجي قدم کڻڻ لاءِ به اڳڀرائي ڪئي ويندي آهي. جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جو عالمي ادارو|گڏيل قومن]] جو ادارو قائم ڪيو ويو هيو ته ان وقت ٻي عالمي جنگ ختم ٿي هئي، پر ملڪن جا پاڻ ۾ تڪرار پوءِ به هلي رهيا هئا ۽ ”سرد جنگ“ به شروع ٿي چڪي هئي، دُنيا جي امن کي گهڻن قسمن جا خطرا پيدا ٿي چڪا هئا. 1950ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل بين الاقوامي جهيڙن کي پاسيرو ڪرڻ ۽ امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ”احتياطي سفارتڪاري“ (Preventive Diplomacy) جو اصطلاح اڳيان آندو هو. انهيءَ قسم جي حڪمت عملي ۾ ڪنهن به تڪرار کي رڳو ٺارڻ جو حل ڏنل هيو، پر جهيڙي کي مستقل طور ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪجهه واڌو قدم به گهربل هئا. انهيءَ ڪري اهڙي صورتحال ۾ اڳتي هلي ”مشن ڪريپ“ (Mission Creep) جو اصطلاح ڪتب آندو ويو، جنهن ۾ جهيڙي کي مڪمل طور ختم ڪرڻ جي تجويز ڏني وئي. انهيءَ حوالي سان 1956ع ۾ ڪئناڊا جي پرڏيهي معاملن جي وزير ۽ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”ڊگ هئمرشولڊ“ گڏيل قومن جي اداري جي پلئٽفارم تان ”امن قائم ڪرڻ واري فوج“ (Peace Keeping Force) قائم ڪئي، جنهن جي شعبا بندي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ان جي ورديءَ کانسواءِ خاص قسم جي ٽوپي به تيار ڪرائي وئي ۽ ان خاص ٽوپيءَ جو رنگ ”نيرو“ مقرر ڪيو ويو. ٽوپيءَ کي ٻين فوجي ٽوپين کان الڳ رنگ ڏيڻ جو مقصد، بين الاقوامي امن فوج جي انفراديت کي ظاهر ڪرڻ آهي. ان هوندي به ”امن فوج“ جي طريقيڪار ۽ اختيارن کي اڃا تائين چڱيءَ ريت گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر ۾ بيان نه ڪيو ويو آهي. گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر جي 6 ۽ 7 باب ۾، امن جي ڪوشش وٺڻ لاءِ جيڪي تفصيل بيان ڪيا ويا آهن، انهن سان امن جي بحاليءَ واري عمل کي به جوڙيو ويو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن جي بحاليءَ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي پڌرنامي جي روح مطابق جوڙجڪ ضروري آهي. انهن کوٽن جي باوجود، گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج، دُنيا ۾ امن ۽ صلح جي لاءِ گھڻن هنڌن مثال طور؛ ڪمبوڊيا، نميبيا، انگولا، لبنان، ايراني نار ۽ [[سوماليا|صوماليا]] وغيره ۾ ڪاميابيءَ سان پنهنجون ذميواريون پوريون ڪري چڪي آهي. امن فوج جي اهڙي اهميت کي محسوس ڪندي، گڏيل قومن جي اداري ڪيترن مُتاثر ملڪن جي داخلي معاملن ۾ به هن فوج جو استعمال مُناسب ۽ بهتر سمجهيو. منڍ ۾ اها فوج ٻن تڪراري ڌُر جي وچ ۾ هلندڙ جهيِڙو ٽارڻ لاءِ ڪتب آندي ويندي هئي، پر 1988ع کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جي اداري اهڙن ملڪن ۾ به کيس ذميواري سونپيون، جتي گهرو ويڙھ ۾ اَڙيل مُختلف ڌرين ۾ جنگ جاري هُئي ۽ اُتي انتظامي معاملا هيٺ مٿي لڳا پيا هُئا. اهڙن مُلڪن ۾ امن فوج کي گڏيل قومن طرفان چونڊون ڪرائڻ، انتظامي معاملن کي سُڌارڻ، عوام کي تحفظ ڏيڻ ۽ جهيڙن کان تنگ اچي ملڪ ڇڏي ويل ماڻهن کي واپس پنهنجي اباڻي وطن ۾ ٻيهر آباد ڪرائڻ جا اختيار به ڏنا ويا. ٻئي طرف اها به حقيقت آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج کي گھڻن معاملن ۽ هنڌن تي ڪن ملڪن پنهنجن خاص مقصدن لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو. ان کانسواءِ گھڻن علائقن (جهڙوڪ ڪشمير) ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن فوج پنهنجي مقصد حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام وئي آهي. سندس مُقابلي ۾ اولھ جي مُلڪن جي فوجي اتحاد نيٽو امن فوج جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ متحرڪ ۽ اثرائتي رهي آهي. 1992ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”بترس غالي“، امن جي آڻڻ لاءِ خاص علائقي ۽ خاص حالتن آهر مداخلت ڪرڻ ۽ نون اختيار ڏيڻ لاءِ اداري آڏو تجويزون پيش ڪيون، پر ان ڏس ۾ مڪمل سوڀاري ٿيڻ لاءِ ”پيس ڪيپگ“ جو عمل نون ضابطن، اختيارن ۽ قانونن جي انتظار ۾ آهي. 
&lt;ref&gt;[http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/define/Peace%20Keeping%20Force.php سنڌي آنلائين ڊڪشنري]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} پاران [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد&lt;/ref&gt;

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:امن]]
[[زمرو:تنظيمون]]
[[زمرو:گڏيل قومون]]
[[زمرو:عالمي سياست]]
[[زمرو:بين الاقوامي لاڳاپا]]</text>
      <sha1>a1smfy79jg64l64o6aobqlczu1742g3</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399319</id>
      <parentid>399318</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T21:30:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399319</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="24064" sha1="jo5psnbjdzow3o174cgbqd0534xe9a4" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|دائمي امن لاءِ سازگار حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ خاطر ڪيل سرگرميون}}


[[File:Italian Soldier UNIFIL 2 Lebanon 2007.jpg|thumb|[[اطالوي فوج]] جو هڪ [[سپاهي]] لبنان ۾ [[يونيفل]] مشن دوران پهرو ڏئي رهيو آهي.]]

'''امن قائم رکندڙ فوج''' (Peacekeeping Force) انهن سرگرمين، خاص طور فوجي سرگرمين،&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Peacekeeping&quot;. Oxford Languages. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جن جو مقصد اهڙيون حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ هوندو آهي جيڪي پائيدار [[امن]] جي قيام لاءِ سازگار هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/|title=United Nations Peacekeeping|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; تحقيق مان عام طور اهو ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون [[شهري جاني نقصان|شهري]] ۽ جنگي ميدان ۾ ٿيندڙ جاني نقصان کي گهٽائين ٿيون ۽ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي پڻ گهٽائين ٿيون.

[[گڏيل قومون]] (UN) ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل [[قومي رياست]]ن جي حڪومتن ۽ [[تنظيم]]ن جي وچ ۾ عام طور اهو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو ته عالمي سطح تي امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا جنگ کان پوءِ وارن علائقن ۾ امن جي عمل جي نگراني ۽ مشاهدو ڪندا آهن، ۽ اڳوڻن ويڙهاڪن کي انهن امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ ۾ مدد ڏيندا آهن، جن جا هو پابند بڻيل هوندا آهن. اهڙي مدد ڪيترين ئي صورتن ۾ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ اعتماد سازي جا قدم، اقتدار جي ورهاست جا انتظام، چونڊن ۾ مدد، [[قانون جي حڪمراني]] کي مضبوط بڻائڻ، ۽ معاشي ۽ سماجي ترقي کي هٿي ڏيڻ. ان ڪري [[گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا]] (جن کي سندن هلڪي نيري [[بيريٽ]] يا هيلمٽ سبب اڪثر '''نيري بيريٽ''' يا '''نيرا هيلمٽ''' چيو ويندو آهي) ۾ فوجي، [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس آفيسر]] ۽ شهري عملي جا ميمبر شامل ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dpko/ |title=Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dfs/ |title=Department of Field Support (DFS) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جا مشن هلائيندڙ واحد تنظيم گڏيل قومون نه آهن. گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم ڪندڙ قوتن ۾ [[ڪوسوو فورس]] جي [[نيٽو]] مشن (گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان)، [[سينا ٻيٽ نما]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]]، ۽ [[يورپي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[EUFOR RCA]]، گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان) ۽ [[آفريقي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[سوڊان ۾ آفريقي يونين مشن]]) پاران منظم ڪيل امن مشن شامل آهن.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

[[بين الاقوامي قانون]] موجب، امن قائم ڪندڙ پنهنجي غيرجانبدار حيثيت سبب [[غير جنگجو]] (non-combatants) شمار ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي ٻن يا وڌيڪ [[جنگ ڪندڙ ڌر]]ن جي وچ ۾ تڪرار ۾ غيرجانبدار هوندا آهن (بلڪل اهڙيءَ طرح جيئن امن قائم رکڻ جي ذميوارين کان ٻاهر موجود غيرجانبدار ماڻهو ۽ ملڪيت). تنهنڪري انهن کي هر حال ۾ حملن کان تحفظ حاصل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule33 |title=Rule 33. Personnel and Objects Involved in a Peacekeeping Mission|publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]|access-date=April 7, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فائل:UN Soldiers in Eritrea.jpeg|thumb|right|upright=1.00|نيدرلينڊز جا ڊچ فوجي اقوام متحده جي امن جي قيام جي فورس ۾ ايٿوپيا ۽ ايريٽيريا جي سرحد تي گڏيل قومن پاران چوڪسي ڪندي]]

'''امن جي بحالي واري فوج'''{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي=Peace Keeping Force}}
ٻن ملڪن ياڌرين جي وچ ۾ ڪو به تڪرار ايترو زور وٺي وڃي، جو ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت کانسواءِ اهو ٽري نه سگهي، ته ٽين ڌر امن قائم ڪرڻ (Peace Keeping) لاءِ مُختلف اُپاءُ وٺندي آهي. ڪنهن به تڪرار جي حل لاءِ ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت جو مقصد ٻن ڌُرين ۾ رڳو صُلح ڪرائڻ هوندو آهي، جنهن لاءِ فوجي ۽ سُفارتي طريقا ڪتب آندا ويندا آهن. ان کان سواءِ گھُرج پوڻ تي ٽين ڌر (يا وچين ڌر) جهيڙو ڪندڙ ڌرين تي مُختلف قسمن جو دٻاءُ رکندي آهي، جيڪڏهن ڌريون پوءِ به جهيڙي کي نه ٿيون ختم ڪن، ته مٿانئن فوجي قدم کڻڻ لاءِ به اڳڀرائي ڪئي ويندي آهي. جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جو عالمي ادارو|گڏيل قومن]] جو ادارو قائم ڪيو ويو هيو ته ان وقت ٻي عالمي جنگ ختم ٿي هئي، پر ملڪن جا پاڻ ۾ تڪرار پوءِ به هلي رهيا هئا ۽ ”سرد جنگ“ به شروع ٿي چڪي هئي، دُنيا جي امن کي گهڻن قسمن جا خطرا پيدا ٿي چڪا هئا. 1950ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل بين الاقوامي جهيڙن کي پاسيرو ڪرڻ ۽ امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ”احتياطي سفارتڪاري“ (Preventive Diplomacy) جو اصطلاح اڳيان آندو هو. انهيءَ قسم جي حڪمت عملي ۾ ڪنهن به تڪرار کي رڳو ٺارڻ جو حل ڏنل هيو، پر جهيڙي کي مستقل طور ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪجهه واڌو قدم به گهربل هئا. انهيءَ ڪري اهڙي صورتحال ۾ اڳتي هلي ”مشن ڪريپ“ (Mission Creep) جو اصطلاح ڪتب آندو ويو، جنهن ۾ جهيڙي کي مڪمل طور ختم ڪرڻ جي تجويز ڏني وئي. انهيءَ حوالي سان 1956ع ۾ ڪئناڊا جي پرڏيهي معاملن جي وزير ۽ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”ڊگ هئمرشولڊ“ گڏيل قومن جي اداري جي پلئٽفارم تان ”امن قائم ڪرڻ واري فوج“ (Peace Keeping Force) قائم ڪئي، جنهن جي شعبا بندي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ان جي ورديءَ کانسواءِ خاص قسم جي ٽوپي به تيار ڪرائي وئي ۽ ان خاص ٽوپيءَ جو رنگ ”نيرو“ مقرر ڪيو ويو. ٽوپيءَ کي ٻين فوجي ٽوپين کان الڳ رنگ ڏيڻ جو مقصد، بين الاقوامي امن فوج جي انفراديت کي ظاهر ڪرڻ آهي. ان هوندي به ”امن فوج“ جي طريقيڪار ۽ اختيارن کي اڃا تائين چڱيءَ ريت گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر ۾ بيان نه ڪيو ويو آهي. گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر جي 6 ۽ 7 باب ۾، امن جي ڪوشش وٺڻ لاءِ جيڪي تفصيل بيان ڪيا ويا آهن، انهن سان امن جي بحاليءَ واري عمل کي به جوڙيو ويو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن جي بحاليءَ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي پڌرنامي جي روح مطابق جوڙجڪ ضروري آهي. انهن کوٽن جي باوجود، گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج، دُنيا ۾ امن ۽ صلح جي لاءِ گھڻن هنڌن مثال طور؛ ڪمبوڊيا، نميبيا، انگولا، لبنان، ايراني نار ۽ [[سوماليا|صوماليا]] وغيره ۾ ڪاميابيءَ سان پنهنجون ذميواريون پوريون ڪري چڪي آهي. امن فوج جي اهڙي اهميت کي محسوس ڪندي، گڏيل قومن جي اداري ڪيترن مُتاثر ملڪن جي داخلي معاملن ۾ به هن فوج جو استعمال مُناسب ۽ بهتر سمجهيو. منڍ ۾ اها فوج ٻن تڪراري ڌُر جي وچ ۾ هلندڙ جهيِڙو ٽارڻ لاءِ ڪتب آندي ويندي هئي، پر 1988ع کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جي اداري اهڙن ملڪن ۾ به کيس ذميواري سونپيون، جتي گهرو ويڙھ ۾ اَڙيل مُختلف ڌرين ۾ جنگ جاري هُئي ۽ اُتي انتظامي معاملا هيٺ مٿي لڳا پيا هُئا. اهڙن مُلڪن ۾ امن فوج کي گڏيل قومن طرفان چونڊون ڪرائڻ، انتظامي معاملن کي سُڌارڻ، عوام کي تحفظ ڏيڻ ۽ جهيڙن کان تنگ اچي ملڪ ڇڏي ويل ماڻهن کي واپس پنهنجي اباڻي وطن ۾ ٻيهر آباد ڪرائڻ جا اختيار به ڏنا ويا. ٻئي طرف اها به حقيقت آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج کي گھڻن معاملن ۽ هنڌن تي ڪن ملڪن پنهنجن خاص مقصدن لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو. ان کانسواءِ گھڻن علائقن (جهڙوڪ ڪشمير) ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن فوج پنهنجي مقصد حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام وئي آهي. سندس مُقابلي ۾ اولھ جي مُلڪن جي فوجي اتحاد نيٽو امن فوج جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ متحرڪ ۽ اثرائتي رهي آهي. 1992ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”بترس غالي“، امن جي آڻڻ لاءِ خاص علائقي ۽ خاص حالتن آهر مداخلت ڪرڻ ۽ نون اختيار ڏيڻ لاءِ اداري آڏو تجويزون پيش ڪيون، پر ان ڏس ۾ مڪمل سوڀاري ٿيڻ لاءِ ”پيس ڪيپگ“ جو عمل نون ضابطن، اختيارن ۽ قانونن جي انتظار ۾ آهي. 
&lt;ref&gt;[http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/define/Peace%20Keeping%20Force.php سنڌي آنلائين ڊڪشنري]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} پاران [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد&lt;/ref&gt;

== وصفون ۽ امن قائم رکڻ جي عمل جا قسم ==

=== گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ===
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن}}

==== ڇهون باب ۽ ستون باب وارا مشن ====

امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن جا ڪيترائي مختلف قسم آهن. مثال طور، پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي ڪتاب ''Does Peacekeeping Work?'' ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن کي چئن مختلف قسمن ۾ ورهايو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=Chapter 7}}&lt;/ref&gt; انهن مشنن جو قسم ۽ انهن تي عملدرآمد جو طريقو گهڻي حد تائين ان اختيارنامي (mandate) تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، جنهن تحت انهن کي اختيار ڏنو ويندو آهي.

فورٽنا جي بيان ڪيل چئن قسمن مان ٽي اهڙا آهن، جيڪي ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن ۽ انهن کي عام طور ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ڇهون باب|ڇهين باب]]'' وارا مشن چيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته چوٿون قسم ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]]'' وارو مشن هوندو آهي.

ڇهين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشنن لاءِ جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي لازمي هوندي آهي؛ جيڪڏهن اها رضامندي ختم ٿي وڃي ته امن قائم ڪندڙ دستن کي علائقو ڇڏڻو پوندو. ان جي ابتڙ، ستين باب وارن مشنن کي قانوني طور رضامندي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي، جيتوڻيڪ عملي طور اها موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي. جيڪڏهن رضامندي بعد ۾ ختم به ٿي وڃي ته به اهڙن مشنن کي واپس وڃڻ ضروري نه هوندو.

# '''مشاهدي وارا مشن''' (Observation Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي يا شهري مبصرن جا ننڍا دستا شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي جنگبندي، فوجن جي واپسي يا جنگبندي واري معاهدي ۾ ڄاڻايل ٻين شرطن جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. اهي عام طور بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا آهن ۽ سندن بنيادي ذميواري رڳو مشاهدو ڪرڻ ۽ رپورٽون تيار ڪرڻ هوندي آهي؛ تنهن ڪري جيڪڏهن ڪا ڌر معاهدي جي ڀڃڪڙي ڪري ته اهي مداخلت ڪرڻ جا مجاز نه هوندا آهن. مثال طور [[انگولا]] ۾ 1991ع وارو [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن II]] (UNAVEM II) ۽ [[اولهه صحارا]] ۾ [[اولهه صحارا بابت راءِ شماري لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو مشن]] (MINURSO).

# '''وچٿري مشن''' (Interpositional Missions)، جن کي روايتي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، نسبتاً وڏن ۽ هلڪي هٿياربند فوجي دستن تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جيڪي تڪرار کان پوءِ ٻن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ طور مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهي ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ بفر زون جو ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. مثال طور 1994ع ۾ [[انگولا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن III]] (UNAVEM III) ۽ 1996ع ۾ [[گوئٽي مالا]] ۾ [[MINUGUA]].

# '''گهڻ رخا مشن''' (Multidimensional Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس]] عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو جامع امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندو آهي. اهي رڳو مشاهدو يا ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رڪاوٽ بڻجڻ تائين محدود نه هوندا آهن، پر چونڊن جي نگراني، پوليس ۽ سلامتي ادارن جي سڌارن، ادارن جي تعمير، معاشي ترقي ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي شعبن ۾ پڻ حصو وٺندا آهن. مثال طور [[نيميبيا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو عبوري امدادي گروهه]] (UNTAG)، [[ايل سلواڊور]] ۾ [[ONUSAL]] ۽ [[موزمبيق]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUMOZ).

# '''[[امن لاڳو ڪندڙ]] مشن''' (Peace Enforcement Missions): اهي ستين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشن هوندا آهن ۽ اڳين ٽن قسمن جي ابتڙ، جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ جا پابند نه هوندا آهن. اهي شهري ۽ فوجي ٻنهي قسمن جي عملي تي مشتمل گهڻ رخا مشن هوندا آهن. انهن وٽ نسبتاً وڏي ۽ بهتر هٿياربند فوج هوندي آهي ۽ انهن کي صرف پنهنجي بچاءَ کان وڌيڪ مقصدن لاءِ به طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل هوندو آهي. مثال طور [[اولهه آفريڪا]] ۾ [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري جو نگراني گروهه]] (ECOMOG)، 1999ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو سيرا ليون مشن]] (UNAMSIL)، ۽ [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ [[نيٽو]] جا [[IFOR]] ۽ [[SFOR]] آپريشن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;/&gt;

==== سرد جنگ دوران ۽ ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ====

[[سرد جنگ]] جي دور ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جا اڪثر مشن روايتي نوعيت جا هئا، جن ۾ امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا ملڪن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ جنگن کان پوءِ مقرر ڪيا ويندا هئا ته جيئن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ بڻجن ۽ امن معاهدن تي عملدرآمد کي يقيني بڻائين. اهي مشن رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا هئا ۽ گهڻو ڪري مبصر بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا هئا، جيئن [[وچ اوڀر]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) ۽ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] بابت [[ڪشمير بابت گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP). ڪجهه مشن هٿياربند به هئا، جهڙوڪ [[سوئيز بحران]] دوران قائم ڪيل [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I). مجموعي طور اهي مشن پنهنجي مقرر ڪيل ڪردار ۾ ڪامياب رهيا.

[[سرد جنگ کان پوءِ وارو دور|سرد جنگ کان پوءِ]] گڏيل قومن امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ جامع ۽ گهڻ رخي طريقيڪار اختيار ڪيو. 1992ع ۾ ان وقت جي [[گڏيل قومن جو سيڪريٽري جنرل|سيڪريٽري جنرل]] [[بوتروس بوتروس غالي]] هڪ رپورٽ تيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ امن قائم رکڻ بابت پنهنجو جامع تصور پيش ڪيو. ''[[امن لاءِ ايجنڊا]]'' (An Agenda for Peace) نالي هن رپورٽ ۾ هن احتياطي سفارتڪاري، امن لاڳو ڪرڻ، امن ڪرائڻ، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ بحاليءَ کي هڪ ٻئي سان ڳنڍيل قدمن طور بيان ڪيو، جن جي ذريعي سرد جنگ کان پوءِ واري عالمي سياست ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ڪردار وڌيڪ اثرائتو بڻجي سگهي.

==== گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جا وسيع مقصد ====

[[مائيڪل ڊوئل]] ۽ نڪولس سامبانس پنهنجي ڪتاب ''The UN Record on Peacekeeping Operations'' ۾ بوتروس غالي جي رپورٽ جو خلاصو پيش ڪندي احتياطي سفارتڪاري، اعتماد سازي جي قدمن (جهڙوڪ حقيقت معلوم ڪرڻ وارا مشن)، مبصر مشن، ۽ تشدد جي خطري کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي اختيار هيٺ فوج مقرر ڪرڻ کي پائيدار امن لاءِ اهم ذريعا قرار ڏين ٿا. سندن بيان موجب:

# '''امن لاڳو ڪرڻ''' (Peace Enforcement): گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي منظور ڪيل جنگبندي يا معاهدي تي عمل ڪرائڻ لاءِ، ضرورت پوڻ تي ڌرين جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به فوجي طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ. اهڙا مشن عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]] تحت هلندا آهن ۽ انهن ۾ مقرر فوجون نسبتاً وڌيڪ هٿياربند هونديون آهن.

# '''امن ڪرائڻ''' (Peacemaking): گڏيل قومن جي سرپرستي هيٺ ثالثي ۽ ڳالهين ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين کي پرامن حل تي راضي ڪرڻ. هي عمل عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] جي ڇهين باب تحت ڪيو ويندو آهي.

# '''امن قائم رکڻ''' (Peacekeeping): جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي سان هلڪي هٿياربند گڏيل قومن جي موجودگي قائم ڪرڻ، اعتماد پيدا ڪرڻ ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ٿيل معاهدن جي نگراني ڪرڻ. ان سان گڏ سفارتي ڪوششون پڻ جاري رهنديون آهن ته جيئن جامع ۽ پائيدار امن حاصل ڪري سگهجي.

# '''تڪرار کان پوءِ بحالي''' (Post-Conflict Reconstruction): معاشي ۽ سماجي سهڪار ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي بحال ڪرڻ، سياسي، سماجي ۽ معاشي ادارن کي مضبوط ڪرڻ، مستقبل ۾ تشدد جي امڪان کي گهٽائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|date=2007|title=The UN Record On Peacekeeping Operations|journal=International Journal|volume=63|issue=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ ۾ غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) سان گڏجي [[ثقافتي ورثو|ثقافتي ورثي]] جي تحفظ لاءِ ڪم ڪرڻ پڻ شامل آهي. ثقافتي ورثي جي حفاظت بابت گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري وابستگي 2012ع کان جاري آهي ۽ ان کي آهستي آهستي وڌايو پيو وڃي. ان سلسلي ۾ 2019ع ۾ [[يونيفل]] ۽ [[بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل]] جو لبنان ۾ [[يونيسڪو عالمي ورثو]] جي تحفظ لاءِ گڏيل مشن نمايان مثال آهي. فوجي ۽ شهري ماهرن پاران مقامي آباديءَ سان گڏجي ثقافتي ورثي جو تحفظ ڪيترن ئي تڪراري علائقن ۾ مستقبل جي پرامن ۽ معاشي ترقيءَ جو بنياد بڻجي ٿو. بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل جي صدر [[ڪارل فون هيبسبرگ]]، اپريل 2019ع ۾ لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ [[يونيسڪو]] جي مشن دوران چيو: ''&quot;ثقافتي ورثو ڪنهن به علائقي ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جي سڃاڻپ جو حصو هوندو آهي. جيڪڏهن توهان انهن جي ثقافت تباهه ڪريو ٿا ته سندن سڃاڻپ به ختم ٿي وڃي ٿي. نتيجي ۾ ڪيترائي ماڻهو بي گهر ٿي وڃن ٿا، سندن مستقبل بابت اميدون ختم ٿي وڃن ٿيون ۽ هو آخرڪار پنهنجو وطن ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ٿين ٿا.&quot;''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Karl von Habsburg auf Mission im Libanon|date=April 28, 2019 |url=https://www.krone.at/1911689|language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Jyot Hosagrahar: ''Culture: at the heart of SDGs.'' UNESCO-Kurier, April-Juni 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rick Szostak: ''The Causes of Economic Growth: Interdisciplinary Perspectives.'' Springer Science &amp; Business Media, 2009, {{ISBN|9783540922827}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bundesheer.at/cms/artikel.php?ID=10118 &quot;Blue Helmet Forum 2019 - Protection of Cultural Heritage in Peace Operations&quot;, Austrian Armed Forces].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017nian-di-3qi/historic-resolution-protect-cultural-heritage|title=A historic resolution to protect cultural heritage, The UNESCO Courier}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/action-plan-to-preserve-heritage-sites-during-conflict|title=Action plan to preserve heritage sites during conflict|website=United Nations Peacekeeping}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''UNESCO Director-General calls for stronger cooperation for heritage protection at the Blue Shield International General Assembly.'' UNESCO, September 13, 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم رکڻ ===
{{See also|غير گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن|نيٽو امن قائم رکڻ|يورپي يونين جي فوجي ۽ شهري مشنن جي فهرست|آفريقي يونين جي فوجي مداخلتن جي فهرست}}

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:امن]]
[[زمرو:تنظيمون]]
[[زمرو:گڏيل قومون]]
[[زمرو:عالمي سياست]]
[[زمرو:بين الاقوامي لاڳاپا]]</text>
      <sha1>jo5psnbjdzow3o174cgbqd0534xe9a4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399320</id>
      <parentid>399319</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T21:35:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399320</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="28809" sha1="thxt2nsr8pkb5oplnojgyq19igeyl2h" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|دائمي امن لاءِ سازگار حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ خاطر ڪيل سرگرميون}}


[[File:Italian Soldier UNIFIL 2 Lebanon 2007.jpg|thumb|[[اطالوي فوج]] جو هڪ [[سپاهي]] لبنان ۾ [[يونيفل]] مشن دوران پهرو ڏئي رهيو آهي.]]

'''امن قائم رکندڙ فوج''' (Peacekeeping Force) انهن سرگرمين، خاص طور فوجي سرگرمين،&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Peacekeeping&quot;. Oxford Languages. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جن جو مقصد اهڙيون حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ هوندو آهي جيڪي پائيدار [[امن]] جي قيام لاءِ سازگار هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/|title=United Nations Peacekeeping|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; تحقيق مان عام طور اهو ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون [[شهري جاني نقصان|شهري]] ۽ جنگي ميدان ۾ ٿيندڙ جاني نقصان کي گهٽائين ٿيون ۽ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي پڻ گهٽائين ٿيون.

[[گڏيل قومون]] (UN) ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل [[قومي رياست]]ن جي حڪومتن ۽ [[تنظيم]]ن جي وچ ۾ عام طور اهو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو ته عالمي سطح تي امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا جنگ کان پوءِ وارن علائقن ۾ امن جي عمل جي نگراني ۽ مشاهدو ڪندا آهن، ۽ اڳوڻن ويڙهاڪن کي انهن امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ ۾ مدد ڏيندا آهن، جن جا هو پابند بڻيل هوندا آهن. اهڙي مدد ڪيترين ئي صورتن ۾ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ اعتماد سازي جا قدم، اقتدار جي ورهاست جا انتظام، چونڊن ۾ مدد، [[قانون جي حڪمراني]] کي مضبوط بڻائڻ، ۽ معاشي ۽ سماجي ترقي کي هٿي ڏيڻ. ان ڪري [[گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا]] (جن کي سندن هلڪي نيري [[بيريٽ]] يا هيلمٽ سبب اڪثر '''نيري بيريٽ''' يا '''نيرا هيلمٽ''' چيو ويندو آهي) ۾ فوجي، [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس آفيسر]] ۽ شهري عملي جا ميمبر شامل ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dpko/ |title=Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dfs/ |title=Department of Field Support (DFS) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جا مشن هلائيندڙ واحد تنظيم گڏيل قومون نه آهن. گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم ڪندڙ قوتن ۾ [[ڪوسوو فورس]] جي [[نيٽو]] مشن (گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان)، [[سينا ٻيٽ نما]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]]، ۽ [[يورپي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[EUFOR RCA]]، گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان) ۽ [[آفريقي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[سوڊان ۾ آفريقي يونين مشن]]) پاران منظم ڪيل امن مشن شامل آهن.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

[[بين الاقوامي قانون]] موجب، امن قائم ڪندڙ پنهنجي غيرجانبدار حيثيت سبب [[غير جنگجو]] (non-combatants) شمار ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي ٻن يا وڌيڪ [[جنگ ڪندڙ ڌر]]ن جي وچ ۾ تڪرار ۾ غيرجانبدار هوندا آهن (بلڪل اهڙيءَ طرح جيئن امن قائم رکڻ جي ذميوارين کان ٻاهر موجود غيرجانبدار ماڻهو ۽ ملڪيت). تنهنڪري انهن کي هر حال ۾ حملن کان تحفظ حاصل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule33 |title=Rule 33. Personnel and Objects Involved in a Peacekeeping Mission|publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]|access-date=April 7, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فائل:UN Soldiers in Eritrea.jpeg|thumb|right|upright=1.00|نيدرلينڊز جا ڊچ فوجي اقوام متحده جي امن جي قيام جي فورس ۾ ايٿوپيا ۽ ايريٽيريا جي سرحد تي گڏيل قومن پاران چوڪسي ڪندي]]

'''امن جي بحالي واري فوج'''{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي=Peace Keeping Force}}
ٻن ملڪن ياڌرين جي وچ ۾ ڪو به تڪرار ايترو زور وٺي وڃي، جو ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت کانسواءِ اهو ٽري نه سگهي، ته ٽين ڌر امن قائم ڪرڻ (Peace Keeping) لاءِ مُختلف اُپاءُ وٺندي آهي. ڪنهن به تڪرار جي حل لاءِ ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت جو مقصد ٻن ڌُرين ۾ رڳو صُلح ڪرائڻ هوندو آهي، جنهن لاءِ فوجي ۽ سُفارتي طريقا ڪتب آندا ويندا آهن. ان کان سواءِ گھُرج پوڻ تي ٽين ڌر (يا وچين ڌر) جهيڙو ڪندڙ ڌرين تي مُختلف قسمن جو دٻاءُ رکندي آهي، جيڪڏهن ڌريون پوءِ به جهيڙي کي نه ٿيون ختم ڪن، ته مٿانئن فوجي قدم کڻڻ لاءِ به اڳڀرائي ڪئي ويندي آهي. جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جو عالمي ادارو|گڏيل قومن]] جو ادارو قائم ڪيو ويو هيو ته ان وقت ٻي عالمي جنگ ختم ٿي هئي، پر ملڪن جا پاڻ ۾ تڪرار پوءِ به هلي رهيا هئا ۽ ”سرد جنگ“ به شروع ٿي چڪي هئي، دُنيا جي امن کي گهڻن قسمن جا خطرا پيدا ٿي چڪا هئا. 1950ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل بين الاقوامي جهيڙن کي پاسيرو ڪرڻ ۽ امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ”احتياطي سفارتڪاري“ (Preventive Diplomacy) جو اصطلاح اڳيان آندو هو. انهيءَ قسم جي حڪمت عملي ۾ ڪنهن به تڪرار کي رڳو ٺارڻ جو حل ڏنل هيو، پر جهيڙي کي مستقل طور ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪجهه واڌو قدم به گهربل هئا. انهيءَ ڪري اهڙي صورتحال ۾ اڳتي هلي ”مشن ڪريپ“ (Mission Creep) جو اصطلاح ڪتب آندو ويو، جنهن ۾ جهيڙي کي مڪمل طور ختم ڪرڻ جي تجويز ڏني وئي. انهيءَ حوالي سان 1956ع ۾ ڪئناڊا جي پرڏيهي معاملن جي وزير ۽ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”ڊگ هئمرشولڊ“ گڏيل قومن جي اداري جي پلئٽفارم تان ”امن قائم ڪرڻ واري فوج“ (Peace Keeping Force) قائم ڪئي، جنهن جي شعبا بندي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ان جي ورديءَ کانسواءِ خاص قسم جي ٽوپي به تيار ڪرائي وئي ۽ ان خاص ٽوپيءَ جو رنگ ”نيرو“ مقرر ڪيو ويو. ٽوپيءَ کي ٻين فوجي ٽوپين کان الڳ رنگ ڏيڻ جو مقصد، بين الاقوامي امن فوج جي انفراديت کي ظاهر ڪرڻ آهي. ان هوندي به ”امن فوج“ جي طريقيڪار ۽ اختيارن کي اڃا تائين چڱيءَ ريت گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر ۾ بيان نه ڪيو ويو آهي. گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر جي 6 ۽ 7 باب ۾، امن جي ڪوشش وٺڻ لاءِ جيڪي تفصيل بيان ڪيا ويا آهن، انهن سان امن جي بحاليءَ واري عمل کي به جوڙيو ويو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن جي بحاليءَ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي پڌرنامي جي روح مطابق جوڙجڪ ضروري آهي. انهن کوٽن جي باوجود، گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج، دُنيا ۾ امن ۽ صلح جي لاءِ گھڻن هنڌن مثال طور؛ ڪمبوڊيا، نميبيا، انگولا، لبنان، ايراني نار ۽ [[سوماليا|صوماليا]] وغيره ۾ ڪاميابيءَ سان پنهنجون ذميواريون پوريون ڪري چڪي آهي. امن فوج جي اهڙي اهميت کي محسوس ڪندي، گڏيل قومن جي اداري ڪيترن مُتاثر ملڪن جي داخلي معاملن ۾ به هن فوج جو استعمال مُناسب ۽ بهتر سمجهيو. منڍ ۾ اها فوج ٻن تڪراري ڌُر جي وچ ۾ هلندڙ جهيِڙو ٽارڻ لاءِ ڪتب آندي ويندي هئي، پر 1988ع کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جي اداري اهڙن ملڪن ۾ به کيس ذميواري سونپيون، جتي گهرو ويڙھ ۾ اَڙيل مُختلف ڌرين ۾ جنگ جاري هُئي ۽ اُتي انتظامي معاملا هيٺ مٿي لڳا پيا هُئا. اهڙن مُلڪن ۾ امن فوج کي گڏيل قومن طرفان چونڊون ڪرائڻ، انتظامي معاملن کي سُڌارڻ، عوام کي تحفظ ڏيڻ ۽ جهيڙن کان تنگ اچي ملڪ ڇڏي ويل ماڻهن کي واپس پنهنجي اباڻي وطن ۾ ٻيهر آباد ڪرائڻ جا اختيار به ڏنا ويا. ٻئي طرف اها به حقيقت آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج کي گھڻن معاملن ۽ هنڌن تي ڪن ملڪن پنهنجن خاص مقصدن لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو. ان کانسواءِ گھڻن علائقن (جهڙوڪ ڪشمير) ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن فوج پنهنجي مقصد حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام وئي آهي. سندس مُقابلي ۾ اولھ جي مُلڪن جي فوجي اتحاد نيٽو امن فوج جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ متحرڪ ۽ اثرائتي رهي آهي. 1992ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”بترس غالي“، امن جي آڻڻ لاءِ خاص علائقي ۽ خاص حالتن آهر مداخلت ڪرڻ ۽ نون اختيار ڏيڻ لاءِ اداري آڏو تجويزون پيش ڪيون، پر ان ڏس ۾ مڪمل سوڀاري ٿيڻ لاءِ ”پيس ڪيپگ“ جو عمل نون ضابطن، اختيارن ۽ قانونن جي انتظار ۾ آهي. 
&lt;ref&gt;[http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/define/Peace%20Keeping%20Force.php سنڌي آنلائين ڊڪشنري]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} پاران [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد&lt;/ref&gt;

== وصفون ۽ امن قائم رکڻ جي عمل جا قسم ==

=== گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ===
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن}}

==== ڇهون باب ۽ ستون باب وارا مشن ====

امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن جا ڪيترائي مختلف قسم آهن. مثال طور، پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي ڪتاب ''Does Peacekeeping Work?'' ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن کي چئن مختلف قسمن ۾ ورهايو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=Chapter 7}}&lt;/ref&gt; انهن مشنن جو قسم ۽ انهن تي عملدرآمد جو طريقو گهڻي حد تائين ان اختيارنامي (mandate) تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، جنهن تحت انهن کي اختيار ڏنو ويندو آهي.

فورٽنا جي بيان ڪيل چئن قسمن مان ٽي اهڙا آهن، جيڪي ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن ۽ انهن کي عام طور ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ڇهون باب|ڇهين باب]]'' وارا مشن چيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته چوٿون قسم ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]]'' وارو مشن هوندو آهي.

ڇهين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشنن لاءِ جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي لازمي هوندي آهي؛ جيڪڏهن اها رضامندي ختم ٿي وڃي ته امن قائم ڪندڙ دستن کي علائقو ڇڏڻو پوندو. ان جي ابتڙ، ستين باب وارن مشنن کي قانوني طور رضامندي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي، جيتوڻيڪ عملي طور اها موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي. جيڪڏهن رضامندي بعد ۾ ختم به ٿي وڃي ته به اهڙن مشنن کي واپس وڃڻ ضروري نه هوندو.

# '''مشاهدي وارا مشن''' (Observation Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي يا شهري مبصرن جا ننڍا دستا شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي جنگبندي، فوجن جي واپسي يا جنگبندي واري معاهدي ۾ ڄاڻايل ٻين شرطن جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. اهي عام طور بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا آهن ۽ سندن بنيادي ذميواري رڳو مشاهدو ڪرڻ ۽ رپورٽون تيار ڪرڻ هوندي آهي؛ تنهن ڪري جيڪڏهن ڪا ڌر معاهدي جي ڀڃڪڙي ڪري ته اهي مداخلت ڪرڻ جا مجاز نه هوندا آهن. مثال طور [[انگولا]] ۾ 1991ع وارو [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن II]] (UNAVEM II) ۽ [[اولهه صحارا]] ۾ [[اولهه صحارا بابت راءِ شماري لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو مشن]] (MINURSO).

# '''وچٿري مشن''' (Interpositional Missions)، جن کي روايتي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، نسبتاً وڏن ۽ هلڪي هٿياربند فوجي دستن تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جيڪي تڪرار کان پوءِ ٻن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ طور مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهي ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ بفر زون جو ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. مثال طور 1994ع ۾ [[انگولا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن III]] (UNAVEM III) ۽ 1996ع ۾ [[گوئٽي مالا]] ۾ [[MINUGUA]].

# '''گهڻ رخا مشن''' (Multidimensional Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس]] عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو جامع امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندو آهي. اهي رڳو مشاهدو يا ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رڪاوٽ بڻجڻ تائين محدود نه هوندا آهن، پر چونڊن جي نگراني، پوليس ۽ سلامتي ادارن جي سڌارن، ادارن جي تعمير، معاشي ترقي ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي شعبن ۾ پڻ حصو وٺندا آهن. مثال طور [[نيميبيا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو عبوري امدادي گروهه]] (UNTAG)، [[ايل سلواڊور]] ۾ [[ONUSAL]] ۽ [[موزمبيق]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUMOZ).

# '''[[امن لاڳو ڪندڙ]] مشن''' (Peace Enforcement Missions): اهي ستين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشن هوندا آهن ۽ اڳين ٽن قسمن جي ابتڙ، جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ جا پابند نه هوندا آهن. اهي شهري ۽ فوجي ٻنهي قسمن جي عملي تي مشتمل گهڻ رخا مشن هوندا آهن. انهن وٽ نسبتاً وڏي ۽ بهتر هٿياربند فوج هوندي آهي ۽ انهن کي صرف پنهنجي بچاءَ کان وڌيڪ مقصدن لاءِ به طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل هوندو آهي. مثال طور [[اولهه آفريڪا]] ۾ [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري جو نگراني گروهه]] (ECOMOG)، 1999ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو سيرا ليون مشن]] (UNAMSIL)، ۽ [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ [[نيٽو]] جا [[IFOR]] ۽ [[SFOR]] آپريشن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;/&gt;

==== سرد جنگ دوران ۽ ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ====

[[سرد جنگ]] جي دور ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جا اڪثر مشن روايتي نوعيت جا هئا، جن ۾ امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا ملڪن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ جنگن کان پوءِ مقرر ڪيا ويندا هئا ته جيئن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ بڻجن ۽ امن معاهدن تي عملدرآمد کي يقيني بڻائين. اهي مشن رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا هئا ۽ گهڻو ڪري مبصر بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا هئا، جيئن [[وچ اوڀر]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) ۽ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] بابت [[ڪشمير بابت گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP). ڪجهه مشن هٿياربند به هئا، جهڙوڪ [[سوئيز بحران]] دوران قائم ڪيل [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I). مجموعي طور اهي مشن پنهنجي مقرر ڪيل ڪردار ۾ ڪامياب رهيا.

[[سرد جنگ کان پوءِ وارو دور|سرد جنگ کان پوءِ]] گڏيل قومن امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ جامع ۽ گهڻ رخي طريقيڪار اختيار ڪيو. 1992ع ۾ ان وقت جي [[گڏيل قومن جو سيڪريٽري جنرل|سيڪريٽري جنرل]] [[بوتروس بوتروس غالي]] هڪ رپورٽ تيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ امن قائم رکڻ بابت پنهنجو جامع تصور پيش ڪيو. ''[[امن لاءِ ايجنڊا]]'' (An Agenda for Peace) نالي هن رپورٽ ۾ هن احتياطي سفارتڪاري، امن لاڳو ڪرڻ، امن ڪرائڻ، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ بحاليءَ کي هڪ ٻئي سان ڳنڍيل قدمن طور بيان ڪيو، جن جي ذريعي سرد جنگ کان پوءِ واري عالمي سياست ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ڪردار وڌيڪ اثرائتو بڻجي سگهي.

==== گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جا وسيع مقصد ====

[[مائيڪل ڊوئل]] ۽ نڪولس سامبانس پنهنجي ڪتاب ''The UN Record on Peacekeeping Operations'' ۾ بوتروس غالي جي رپورٽ جو خلاصو پيش ڪندي احتياطي سفارتڪاري، اعتماد سازي جي قدمن (جهڙوڪ حقيقت معلوم ڪرڻ وارا مشن)، مبصر مشن، ۽ تشدد جي خطري کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي اختيار هيٺ فوج مقرر ڪرڻ کي پائيدار امن لاءِ اهم ذريعا قرار ڏين ٿا. سندن بيان موجب:

# '''امن لاڳو ڪرڻ''' (Peace Enforcement): گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي منظور ڪيل جنگبندي يا معاهدي تي عمل ڪرائڻ لاءِ، ضرورت پوڻ تي ڌرين جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به فوجي طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ. اهڙا مشن عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]] تحت هلندا آهن ۽ انهن ۾ مقرر فوجون نسبتاً وڌيڪ هٿياربند هونديون آهن.

# '''امن ڪرائڻ''' (Peacemaking): گڏيل قومن جي سرپرستي هيٺ ثالثي ۽ ڳالهين ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين کي پرامن حل تي راضي ڪرڻ. هي عمل عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] جي ڇهين باب تحت ڪيو ويندو آهي.

# '''امن قائم رکڻ''' (Peacekeeping): جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي سان هلڪي هٿياربند گڏيل قومن جي موجودگي قائم ڪرڻ، اعتماد پيدا ڪرڻ ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ٿيل معاهدن جي نگراني ڪرڻ. ان سان گڏ سفارتي ڪوششون پڻ جاري رهنديون آهن ته جيئن جامع ۽ پائيدار امن حاصل ڪري سگهجي.

# '''تڪرار کان پوءِ بحالي''' (Post-Conflict Reconstruction): معاشي ۽ سماجي سهڪار ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي بحال ڪرڻ، سياسي، سماجي ۽ معاشي ادارن کي مضبوط ڪرڻ، مستقبل ۾ تشدد جي امڪان کي گهٽائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|date=2007|title=The UN Record On Peacekeeping Operations|journal=International Journal|volume=63|issue=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ ۾ غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) سان گڏجي [[ثقافتي ورثو|ثقافتي ورثي]] جي تحفظ لاءِ ڪم ڪرڻ پڻ شامل آهي. ثقافتي ورثي جي حفاظت بابت گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري وابستگي 2012ع کان جاري آهي ۽ ان کي آهستي آهستي وڌايو پيو وڃي. ان سلسلي ۾ 2019ع ۾ [[يونيفل]] ۽ [[بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل]] جو لبنان ۾ [[يونيسڪو عالمي ورثو]] جي تحفظ لاءِ گڏيل مشن نمايان مثال آهي. فوجي ۽ شهري ماهرن پاران مقامي آباديءَ سان گڏجي ثقافتي ورثي جو تحفظ ڪيترن ئي تڪراري علائقن ۾ مستقبل جي پرامن ۽ معاشي ترقيءَ جو بنياد بڻجي ٿو. بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل جي صدر [[ڪارل فون هيبسبرگ]]، اپريل 2019ع ۾ لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ [[يونيسڪو]] جي مشن دوران چيو: ''&quot;ثقافتي ورثو ڪنهن به علائقي ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جي سڃاڻپ جو حصو هوندو آهي. جيڪڏهن توهان انهن جي ثقافت تباهه ڪريو ٿا ته سندن سڃاڻپ به ختم ٿي وڃي ٿي. نتيجي ۾ ڪيترائي ماڻهو بي گهر ٿي وڃن ٿا، سندن مستقبل بابت اميدون ختم ٿي وڃن ٿيون ۽ هو آخرڪار پنهنجو وطن ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ٿين ٿا.&quot;''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Karl von Habsburg auf Mission im Libanon|date=April 28, 2019 |url=https://www.krone.at/1911689|language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Jyot Hosagrahar: ''Culture: at the heart of SDGs.'' UNESCO-Kurier, April-Juni 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rick Szostak: ''The Causes of Economic Growth: Interdisciplinary Perspectives.'' Springer Science &amp; Business Media, 2009, {{ISBN|9783540922827}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bundesheer.at/cms/artikel.php?ID=10118 &quot;Blue Helmet Forum 2019 - Protection of Cultural Heritage in Peace Operations&quot;, Austrian Armed Forces].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017nian-di-3qi/historic-resolution-protect-cultural-heritage|title=A historic resolution to protect cultural heritage, The UNESCO Courier}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/action-plan-to-preserve-heritage-sites-during-conflict|title=Action plan to preserve heritage sites during conflict|website=United Nations Peacekeeping}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''UNESCO Director-General calls for stronger cooperation for heritage protection at the Blue Shield International General Assembly.'' UNESCO, September 13, 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم رکڻ ===
{{See also|غير گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي فهرست|نيٽو امن قائم رکڻ|يورپي يونين جي فوجي ۽ شهري مشنن جي فهرست|آفريقي يونين جي فوجي مداخلتن جي فهرست}}

[[File:En-MFO1.JPG|thumb|right|1989ع ۾ [[مصر]] جي [[سنائي اپٻيٽ|سنائي]] واري علائقي جي [[ايل گوراح]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) جي غير گڏيل قومن واري امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن سان مقرر ڪيل ڪينيڊا جا [[CH135 ٽوئن هيوئي]] هيليڪاپٽر.]]

[[File:75Parad 04.jpg|thumb|[[آذربائيجان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جا ميمبر، [[2020 ماسڪو فتح پريڊ]] دوران مڪمل فوجي ورديءَ ۾.]]

سڀئي بين الاقوامي امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا سڌي طرح گڏيل قومن جي ڪنٽرول هيٺ ڪم نٿا ڪن. 1981ع ۾ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ [[مصر]] جي وچ ۾ ٿيل هڪ معاهدي تحت [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) قائم ڪئي وئي، جيڪا اڄ تائين [[سنائي اپٻيٽ]] ۾ امن معاهدي تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;10TAGpgA-1&quot;&gt;10 Tactical Air Group: ''Canadian Contingent Multinational Force and Observers Handbook'' (unclassified), page A-1. DND, Ottawa, 1986.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[آفريقي يونين]] (AU) آفريقي امن ۽ سلامتي جو اهڙو ڍانچو (آفريڪن پيس اينڊ سڪيورٽي آرڪيٽيڪچر) قائم ڪرڻ تي ڪم ڪري رهي آهي، جيڪو براعظم ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري نڀائي سگهي. جيڪڏهن ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ [[نسل ڪشي]] يا انساني حقن جون ٻيون سنگين ڀڃڪڙيون ٿين، ته آفريقي يونين جي جنرل اسيمبلي جي منظوري سان، ان ملڪ جي حڪومت جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن موڪلي سگهجي ٿو. هن نظام، جنهن ۾ [[آفريقي اسٽينڊ بائي فورس]] (ASF) پڻ شامل آهي، جي قيام جو منصوبو 2015ع کان اڳ نه هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/african-peace-and-security-architecture-already-proving-useful-even-though-it-still-work |title=The African Peace and Security Architecture is already proving useful even though it is still work in progress |publisher=dandc.eu |date=August 27, 2013 |access-date=November 14, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

علائقائي سطح تي [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري]] (ECOWAS) پنهنجي ڪجهه ميمبر ملڪن ۾ ڪيترائي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا آهن، ۽ ان کي &quot;آفريڪا جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ ترقي يافته علائقائي امن ۽ سلامتي وارو نظام&quot; قرار ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Oni|first1=Cyril I.|date=2009|journal=African Security|volume=2|pages=119–135|doi=10.1080/19362200903361945|title=Economic Community of West African States on the Ground: Comparing Peacekeeping in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea Bissau, and Côte D'Ivoire|issue=2–3|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''غير هٿياربند شهري امن قائم رکڻ''' (ان آرمڊ سويلين پيس ڪيپنگ، UCP) ۾ شهري عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو تڪراري علائقن ۾ شهرين کي تشدد کان بچائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن جي قيام جي ڪوششن جي سهائتا لاءِ غير تشدد، غير مداخلت ۽ غير جانبداريءَ تي ٻڌل حڪمت عمليون اختيار ڪندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ UCP جو اصطلاح سڀني غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) ۾ هڪجهڙو عام نه آهي، پر ڪيترائي ادارا ساڳين طريقن سان ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ امن بابت هڪجهڙا مقصد رکندا آهن. انهن طريقن ۾ متاثر ماڻهن سان گڏ رهڻ، مستقل موجودگي، افواهن تي ضابطو آڻڻ، برادريءَ جي سلامتي بابت گڏجاڻيون، محفوظ لنگهن جو بندوبست ڪرڻ ۽ نگراني ڪرڻ شامل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rachel|first1=Julian|last2=Schweitzer|first2=Christine|date=2015|title=The Origins And Development of Unarmed Civilian Peacekeeping|url=http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|journal=Peace Review|volume=27|issue=1|pages=1–8|doi=10.1080/10402659.2015.1000181|s2cid=144911738|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719124249/http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|archive-date=July 19, 2018|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:امن]]
[[زمرو:تنظيمون]]
[[زمرو:گڏيل قومون]]
[[زمرو:عالمي سياست]]
[[زمرو:بين الاقوامي لاڳاپا]]</text>
      <sha1>thxt2nsr8pkb5oplnojgyq19igeyl2h</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399321</id>
      <parentid>399320</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T21:36:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399321</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="36691" sha1="3tclhrq9s2tblxlcy7hfgmpz2u03t1n" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|دائمي امن لاءِ سازگار حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ خاطر ڪيل سرگرميون}}


[[File:Italian Soldier UNIFIL 2 Lebanon 2007.jpg|thumb|[[اطالوي فوج]] جو هڪ [[سپاهي]] لبنان ۾ [[يونيفل]] مشن دوران پهرو ڏئي رهيو آهي.]]

'''امن قائم رکندڙ فوج''' (Peacekeeping Force) انهن سرگرمين، خاص طور فوجي سرگرمين،&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Peacekeeping&quot;. Oxford Languages. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جن جو مقصد اهڙيون حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ هوندو آهي جيڪي پائيدار [[امن]] جي قيام لاءِ سازگار هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/|title=United Nations Peacekeeping|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; تحقيق مان عام طور اهو ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون [[شهري جاني نقصان|شهري]] ۽ جنگي ميدان ۾ ٿيندڙ جاني نقصان کي گهٽائين ٿيون ۽ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي پڻ گهٽائين ٿيون.

[[گڏيل قومون]] (UN) ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل [[قومي رياست]]ن جي حڪومتن ۽ [[تنظيم]]ن جي وچ ۾ عام طور اهو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو ته عالمي سطح تي امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا جنگ کان پوءِ وارن علائقن ۾ امن جي عمل جي نگراني ۽ مشاهدو ڪندا آهن، ۽ اڳوڻن ويڙهاڪن کي انهن امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ ۾ مدد ڏيندا آهن، جن جا هو پابند بڻيل هوندا آهن. اهڙي مدد ڪيترين ئي صورتن ۾ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ اعتماد سازي جا قدم، اقتدار جي ورهاست جا انتظام، چونڊن ۾ مدد، [[قانون جي حڪمراني]] کي مضبوط بڻائڻ، ۽ معاشي ۽ سماجي ترقي کي هٿي ڏيڻ. ان ڪري [[گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا]] (جن کي سندن هلڪي نيري [[بيريٽ]] يا هيلمٽ سبب اڪثر '''نيري بيريٽ''' يا '''نيرا هيلمٽ''' چيو ويندو آهي) ۾ فوجي، [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس آفيسر]] ۽ شهري عملي جا ميمبر شامل ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dpko/ |title=Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dfs/ |title=Department of Field Support (DFS) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جا مشن هلائيندڙ واحد تنظيم گڏيل قومون نه آهن. گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم ڪندڙ قوتن ۾ [[ڪوسوو فورس]] جي [[نيٽو]] مشن (گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان)، [[سينا ٻيٽ نما]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]]، ۽ [[يورپي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[EUFOR RCA]]، گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان) ۽ [[آفريقي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[سوڊان ۾ آفريقي يونين مشن]]) پاران منظم ڪيل امن مشن شامل آهن.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

[[بين الاقوامي قانون]] موجب، امن قائم ڪندڙ پنهنجي غيرجانبدار حيثيت سبب [[غير جنگجو]] (non-combatants) شمار ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي ٻن يا وڌيڪ [[جنگ ڪندڙ ڌر]]ن جي وچ ۾ تڪرار ۾ غيرجانبدار هوندا آهن (بلڪل اهڙيءَ طرح جيئن امن قائم رکڻ جي ذميوارين کان ٻاهر موجود غيرجانبدار ماڻهو ۽ ملڪيت). تنهنڪري انهن کي هر حال ۾ حملن کان تحفظ حاصل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule33 |title=Rule 33. Personnel and Objects Involved in a Peacekeeping Mission|publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]|access-date=April 7, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فائل:UN Soldiers in Eritrea.jpeg|thumb|right|upright=1.00|نيدرلينڊز جا ڊچ فوجي اقوام متحده جي امن جي قيام جي فورس ۾ ايٿوپيا ۽ ايريٽيريا جي سرحد تي گڏيل قومن پاران چوڪسي ڪندي]]

'''امن جي بحالي واري فوج'''{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي=Peace Keeping Force}}
ٻن ملڪن ياڌرين جي وچ ۾ ڪو به تڪرار ايترو زور وٺي وڃي، جو ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت کانسواءِ اهو ٽري نه سگهي، ته ٽين ڌر امن قائم ڪرڻ (Peace Keeping) لاءِ مُختلف اُپاءُ وٺندي آهي. ڪنهن به تڪرار جي حل لاءِ ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت جو مقصد ٻن ڌُرين ۾ رڳو صُلح ڪرائڻ هوندو آهي، جنهن لاءِ فوجي ۽ سُفارتي طريقا ڪتب آندا ويندا آهن. ان کان سواءِ گھُرج پوڻ تي ٽين ڌر (يا وچين ڌر) جهيڙو ڪندڙ ڌرين تي مُختلف قسمن جو دٻاءُ رکندي آهي، جيڪڏهن ڌريون پوءِ به جهيڙي کي نه ٿيون ختم ڪن، ته مٿانئن فوجي قدم کڻڻ لاءِ به اڳڀرائي ڪئي ويندي آهي. جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جو عالمي ادارو|گڏيل قومن]] جو ادارو قائم ڪيو ويو هيو ته ان وقت ٻي عالمي جنگ ختم ٿي هئي، پر ملڪن جا پاڻ ۾ تڪرار پوءِ به هلي رهيا هئا ۽ ”سرد جنگ“ به شروع ٿي چڪي هئي، دُنيا جي امن کي گهڻن قسمن جا خطرا پيدا ٿي چڪا هئا. 1950ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل بين الاقوامي جهيڙن کي پاسيرو ڪرڻ ۽ امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ”احتياطي سفارتڪاري“ (Preventive Diplomacy) جو اصطلاح اڳيان آندو هو. انهيءَ قسم جي حڪمت عملي ۾ ڪنهن به تڪرار کي رڳو ٺارڻ جو حل ڏنل هيو، پر جهيڙي کي مستقل طور ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪجهه واڌو قدم به گهربل هئا. انهيءَ ڪري اهڙي صورتحال ۾ اڳتي هلي ”مشن ڪريپ“ (Mission Creep) جو اصطلاح ڪتب آندو ويو، جنهن ۾ جهيڙي کي مڪمل طور ختم ڪرڻ جي تجويز ڏني وئي. انهيءَ حوالي سان 1956ع ۾ ڪئناڊا جي پرڏيهي معاملن جي وزير ۽ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”ڊگ هئمرشولڊ“ گڏيل قومن جي اداري جي پلئٽفارم تان ”امن قائم ڪرڻ واري فوج“ (Peace Keeping Force) قائم ڪئي، جنهن جي شعبا بندي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ان جي ورديءَ کانسواءِ خاص قسم جي ٽوپي به تيار ڪرائي وئي ۽ ان خاص ٽوپيءَ جو رنگ ”نيرو“ مقرر ڪيو ويو. ٽوپيءَ کي ٻين فوجي ٽوپين کان الڳ رنگ ڏيڻ جو مقصد، بين الاقوامي امن فوج جي انفراديت کي ظاهر ڪرڻ آهي. ان هوندي به ”امن فوج“ جي طريقيڪار ۽ اختيارن کي اڃا تائين چڱيءَ ريت گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر ۾ بيان نه ڪيو ويو آهي. گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر جي 6 ۽ 7 باب ۾، امن جي ڪوشش وٺڻ لاءِ جيڪي تفصيل بيان ڪيا ويا آهن، انهن سان امن جي بحاليءَ واري عمل کي به جوڙيو ويو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن جي بحاليءَ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي پڌرنامي جي روح مطابق جوڙجڪ ضروري آهي. انهن کوٽن جي باوجود، گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج، دُنيا ۾ امن ۽ صلح جي لاءِ گھڻن هنڌن مثال طور؛ ڪمبوڊيا، نميبيا، انگولا، لبنان، ايراني نار ۽ [[سوماليا|صوماليا]] وغيره ۾ ڪاميابيءَ سان پنهنجون ذميواريون پوريون ڪري چڪي آهي. امن فوج جي اهڙي اهميت کي محسوس ڪندي، گڏيل قومن جي اداري ڪيترن مُتاثر ملڪن جي داخلي معاملن ۾ به هن فوج جو استعمال مُناسب ۽ بهتر سمجهيو. منڍ ۾ اها فوج ٻن تڪراري ڌُر جي وچ ۾ هلندڙ جهيِڙو ٽارڻ لاءِ ڪتب آندي ويندي هئي، پر 1988ع کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جي اداري اهڙن ملڪن ۾ به کيس ذميواري سونپيون، جتي گهرو ويڙھ ۾ اَڙيل مُختلف ڌرين ۾ جنگ جاري هُئي ۽ اُتي انتظامي معاملا هيٺ مٿي لڳا پيا هُئا. اهڙن مُلڪن ۾ امن فوج کي گڏيل قومن طرفان چونڊون ڪرائڻ، انتظامي معاملن کي سُڌارڻ، عوام کي تحفظ ڏيڻ ۽ جهيڙن کان تنگ اچي ملڪ ڇڏي ويل ماڻهن کي واپس پنهنجي اباڻي وطن ۾ ٻيهر آباد ڪرائڻ جا اختيار به ڏنا ويا. ٻئي طرف اها به حقيقت آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج کي گھڻن معاملن ۽ هنڌن تي ڪن ملڪن پنهنجن خاص مقصدن لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو. ان کانسواءِ گھڻن علائقن (جهڙوڪ ڪشمير) ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن فوج پنهنجي مقصد حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام وئي آهي. سندس مُقابلي ۾ اولھ جي مُلڪن جي فوجي اتحاد نيٽو امن فوج جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ متحرڪ ۽ اثرائتي رهي آهي. 1992ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”بترس غالي“، امن جي آڻڻ لاءِ خاص علائقي ۽ خاص حالتن آهر مداخلت ڪرڻ ۽ نون اختيار ڏيڻ لاءِ اداري آڏو تجويزون پيش ڪيون، پر ان ڏس ۾ مڪمل سوڀاري ٿيڻ لاءِ ”پيس ڪيپگ“ جو عمل نون ضابطن، اختيارن ۽ قانونن جي انتظار ۾ آهي. 
&lt;ref&gt;[http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/define/Peace%20Keeping%20Force.php سنڌي آنلائين ڊڪشنري]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} پاران [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد&lt;/ref&gt;

== وصفون ۽ امن قائم رکڻ جي عمل جا قسم ==

=== گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ===
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن}}

==== ڇهون باب ۽ ستون باب وارا مشن ====

امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن جا ڪيترائي مختلف قسم آهن. مثال طور، پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي ڪتاب ''Does Peacekeeping Work?'' ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن کي چئن مختلف قسمن ۾ ورهايو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=Chapter 7}}&lt;/ref&gt; انهن مشنن جو قسم ۽ انهن تي عملدرآمد جو طريقو گهڻي حد تائين ان اختيارنامي (mandate) تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، جنهن تحت انهن کي اختيار ڏنو ويندو آهي.

فورٽنا جي بيان ڪيل چئن قسمن مان ٽي اهڙا آهن، جيڪي ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن ۽ انهن کي عام طور ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ڇهون باب|ڇهين باب]]'' وارا مشن چيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته چوٿون قسم ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]]'' وارو مشن هوندو آهي.

ڇهين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشنن لاءِ جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي لازمي هوندي آهي؛ جيڪڏهن اها رضامندي ختم ٿي وڃي ته امن قائم ڪندڙ دستن کي علائقو ڇڏڻو پوندو. ان جي ابتڙ، ستين باب وارن مشنن کي قانوني طور رضامندي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي، جيتوڻيڪ عملي طور اها موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي. جيڪڏهن رضامندي بعد ۾ ختم به ٿي وڃي ته به اهڙن مشنن کي واپس وڃڻ ضروري نه هوندو.

# '''مشاهدي وارا مشن''' (Observation Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي يا شهري مبصرن جا ننڍا دستا شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي جنگبندي، فوجن جي واپسي يا جنگبندي واري معاهدي ۾ ڄاڻايل ٻين شرطن جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. اهي عام طور بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا آهن ۽ سندن بنيادي ذميواري رڳو مشاهدو ڪرڻ ۽ رپورٽون تيار ڪرڻ هوندي آهي؛ تنهن ڪري جيڪڏهن ڪا ڌر معاهدي جي ڀڃڪڙي ڪري ته اهي مداخلت ڪرڻ جا مجاز نه هوندا آهن. مثال طور [[انگولا]] ۾ 1991ع وارو [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن II]] (UNAVEM II) ۽ [[اولهه صحارا]] ۾ [[اولهه صحارا بابت راءِ شماري لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو مشن]] (MINURSO).

# '''وچٿري مشن''' (Interpositional Missions)، جن کي روايتي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، نسبتاً وڏن ۽ هلڪي هٿياربند فوجي دستن تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جيڪي تڪرار کان پوءِ ٻن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ طور مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهي ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ بفر زون جو ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. مثال طور 1994ع ۾ [[انگولا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن III]] (UNAVEM III) ۽ 1996ع ۾ [[گوئٽي مالا]] ۾ [[MINUGUA]].

# '''گهڻ رخا مشن''' (Multidimensional Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس]] عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو جامع امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندو آهي. اهي رڳو مشاهدو يا ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رڪاوٽ بڻجڻ تائين محدود نه هوندا آهن، پر چونڊن جي نگراني، پوليس ۽ سلامتي ادارن جي سڌارن، ادارن جي تعمير، معاشي ترقي ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي شعبن ۾ پڻ حصو وٺندا آهن. مثال طور [[نيميبيا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو عبوري امدادي گروهه]] (UNTAG)، [[ايل سلواڊور]] ۾ [[ONUSAL]] ۽ [[موزمبيق]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUMOZ).

# '''[[امن لاڳو ڪندڙ]] مشن''' (Peace Enforcement Missions): اهي ستين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشن هوندا آهن ۽ اڳين ٽن قسمن جي ابتڙ، جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ جا پابند نه هوندا آهن. اهي شهري ۽ فوجي ٻنهي قسمن جي عملي تي مشتمل گهڻ رخا مشن هوندا آهن. انهن وٽ نسبتاً وڏي ۽ بهتر هٿياربند فوج هوندي آهي ۽ انهن کي صرف پنهنجي بچاءَ کان وڌيڪ مقصدن لاءِ به طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل هوندو آهي. مثال طور [[اولهه آفريڪا]] ۾ [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري جو نگراني گروهه]] (ECOMOG)، 1999ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو سيرا ليون مشن]] (UNAMSIL)، ۽ [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ [[نيٽو]] جا [[IFOR]] ۽ [[SFOR]] آپريشن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;/&gt;

==== سرد جنگ دوران ۽ ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ====

[[سرد جنگ]] جي دور ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جا اڪثر مشن روايتي نوعيت جا هئا، جن ۾ امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا ملڪن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ جنگن کان پوءِ مقرر ڪيا ويندا هئا ته جيئن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ بڻجن ۽ امن معاهدن تي عملدرآمد کي يقيني بڻائين. اهي مشن رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا هئا ۽ گهڻو ڪري مبصر بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا هئا، جيئن [[وچ اوڀر]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) ۽ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] بابت [[ڪشمير بابت گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP). ڪجهه مشن هٿياربند به هئا، جهڙوڪ [[سوئيز بحران]] دوران قائم ڪيل [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I). مجموعي طور اهي مشن پنهنجي مقرر ڪيل ڪردار ۾ ڪامياب رهيا.

[[سرد جنگ کان پوءِ وارو دور|سرد جنگ کان پوءِ]] گڏيل قومن امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ جامع ۽ گهڻ رخي طريقيڪار اختيار ڪيو. 1992ع ۾ ان وقت جي [[گڏيل قومن جو سيڪريٽري جنرل|سيڪريٽري جنرل]] [[بوتروس بوتروس غالي]] هڪ رپورٽ تيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ امن قائم رکڻ بابت پنهنجو جامع تصور پيش ڪيو. ''[[امن لاءِ ايجنڊا]]'' (An Agenda for Peace) نالي هن رپورٽ ۾ هن احتياطي سفارتڪاري، امن لاڳو ڪرڻ، امن ڪرائڻ، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ بحاليءَ کي هڪ ٻئي سان ڳنڍيل قدمن طور بيان ڪيو، جن جي ذريعي سرد جنگ کان پوءِ واري عالمي سياست ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ڪردار وڌيڪ اثرائتو بڻجي سگهي.

==== گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جا وسيع مقصد ====

[[مائيڪل ڊوئل]] ۽ نڪولس سامبانس پنهنجي ڪتاب ''The UN Record on Peacekeeping Operations'' ۾ بوتروس غالي جي رپورٽ جو خلاصو پيش ڪندي احتياطي سفارتڪاري، اعتماد سازي جي قدمن (جهڙوڪ حقيقت معلوم ڪرڻ وارا مشن)، مبصر مشن، ۽ تشدد جي خطري کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي اختيار هيٺ فوج مقرر ڪرڻ کي پائيدار امن لاءِ اهم ذريعا قرار ڏين ٿا. سندن بيان موجب:

# '''امن لاڳو ڪرڻ''' (Peace Enforcement): گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي منظور ڪيل جنگبندي يا معاهدي تي عمل ڪرائڻ لاءِ، ضرورت پوڻ تي ڌرين جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به فوجي طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ. اهڙا مشن عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]] تحت هلندا آهن ۽ انهن ۾ مقرر فوجون نسبتاً وڌيڪ هٿياربند هونديون آهن.

# '''امن ڪرائڻ''' (Peacemaking): گڏيل قومن جي سرپرستي هيٺ ثالثي ۽ ڳالهين ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين کي پرامن حل تي راضي ڪرڻ. هي عمل عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] جي ڇهين باب تحت ڪيو ويندو آهي.

# '''امن قائم رکڻ''' (Peacekeeping): جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي سان هلڪي هٿياربند گڏيل قومن جي موجودگي قائم ڪرڻ، اعتماد پيدا ڪرڻ ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ٿيل معاهدن جي نگراني ڪرڻ. ان سان گڏ سفارتي ڪوششون پڻ جاري رهنديون آهن ته جيئن جامع ۽ پائيدار امن حاصل ڪري سگهجي.

# '''تڪرار کان پوءِ بحالي''' (Post-Conflict Reconstruction): معاشي ۽ سماجي سهڪار ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي بحال ڪرڻ، سياسي، سماجي ۽ معاشي ادارن کي مضبوط ڪرڻ، مستقبل ۾ تشدد جي امڪان کي گهٽائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|date=2007|title=The UN Record On Peacekeeping Operations|journal=International Journal|volume=63|issue=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ ۾ غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) سان گڏجي [[ثقافتي ورثو|ثقافتي ورثي]] جي تحفظ لاءِ ڪم ڪرڻ پڻ شامل آهي. ثقافتي ورثي جي حفاظت بابت گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري وابستگي 2012ع کان جاري آهي ۽ ان کي آهستي آهستي وڌايو پيو وڃي. ان سلسلي ۾ 2019ع ۾ [[يونيفل]] ۽ [[بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل]] جو لبنان ۾ [[يونيسڪو عالمي ورثو]] جي تحفظ لاءِ گڏيل مشن نمايان مثال آهي. فوجي ۽ شهري ماهرن پاران مقامي آباديءَ سان گڏجي ثقافتي ورثي جو تحفظ ڪيترن ئي تڪراري علائقن ۾ مستقبل جي پرامن ۽ معاشي ترقيءَ جو بنياد بڻجي ٿو. بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل جي صدر [[ڪارل فون هيبسبرگ]]، اپريل 2019ع ۾ لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ [[يونيسڪو]] جي مشن دوران چيو: ''&quot;ثقافتي ورثو ڪنهن به علائقي ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جي سڃاڻپ جو حصو هوندو آهي. جيڪڏهن توهان انهن جي ثقافت تباهه ڪريو ٿا ته سندن سڃاڻپ به ختم ٿي وڃي ٿي. نتيجي ۾ ڪيترائي ماڻهو بي گهر ٿي وڃن ٿا، سندن مستقبل بابت اميدون ختم ٿي وڃن ٿيون ۽ هو آخرڪار پنهنجو وطن ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ٿين ٿا.&quot;''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Karl von Habsburg auf Mission im Libanon|date=April 28, 2019 |url=https://www.krone.at/1911689|language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Jyot Hosagrahar: ''Culture: at the heart of SDGs.'' UNESCO-Kurier, April-Juni 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rick Szostak: ''The Causes of Economic Growth: Interdisciplinary Perspectives.'' Springer Science &amp; Business Media, 2009, {{ISBN|9783540922827}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bundesheer.at/cms/artikel.php?ID=10118 &quot;Blue Helmet Forum 2019 - Protection of Cultural Heritage in Peace Operations&quot;, Austrian Armed Forces].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017nian-di-3qi/historic-resolution-protect-cultural-heritage|title=A historic resolution to protect cultural heritage, The UNESCO Courier}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/action-plan-to-preserve-heritage-sites-during-conflict|title=Action plan to preserve heritage sites during conflict|website=United Nations Peacekeeping}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''UNESCO Director-General calls for stronger cooperation for heritage protection at the Blue Shield International General Assembly.'' UNESCO, September 13, 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم رکڻ ===
{{See also|غير گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي فهرست|نيٽو امن قائم رکڻ|يورپي يونين جي فوجي ۽ شهري مشنن جي فهرست|آفريقي يونين جي فوجي مداخلتن جي فهرست}}

[[File:En-MFO1.JPG|thumb|right|1989ع ۾ [[مصر]] جي [[سنائي اپٻيٽ|سنائي]] واري علائقي جي [[ايل گوراح]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) جي غير گڏيل قومن واري امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن سان مقرر ڪيل ڪينيڊا جا [[CH135 ٽوئن هيوئي]] هيليڪاپٽر.]]

[[File:75Parad 04.jpg|thumb|[[آذربائيجان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جا ميمبر، [[2020 ماسڪو فتح پريڊ]] دوران مڪمل فوجي ورديءَ ۾.]]

سڀئي بين الاقوامي امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا سڌي طرح گڏيل قومن جي ڪنٽرول هيٺ ڪم نٿا ڪن. 1981ع ۾ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ [[مصر]] جي وچ ۾ ٿيل هڪ معاهدي تحت [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) قائم ڪئي وئي، جيڪا اڄ تائين [[سنائي اپٻيٽ]] ۾ امن معاهدي تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;10TAGpgA-1&quot;&gt;10 Tactical Air Group: ''Canadian Contingent Multinational Force and Observers Handbook'' (unclassified), page A-1. DND, Ottawa, 1986.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[آفريقي يونين]] (AU) آفريقي امن ۽ سلامتي جو اهڙو ڍانچو (آفريڪن پيس اينڊ سڪيورٽي آرڪيٽيڪچر) قائم ڪرڻ تي ڪم ڪري رهي آهي، جيڪو براعظم ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري نڀائي سگهي. جيڪڏهن ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ [[نسل ڪشي]] يا انساني حقن جون ٻيون سنگين ڀڃڪڙيون ٿين، ته آفريقي يونين جي جنرل اسيمبلي جي منظوري سان، ان ملڪ جي حڪومت جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن موڪلي سگهجي ٿو. هن نظام، جنهن ۾ [[آفريقي اسٽينڊ بائي فورس]] (ASF) پڻ شامل آهي، جي قيام جو منصوبو 2015ع کان اڳ نه هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/african-peace-and-security-architecture-already-proving-useful-even-though-it-still-work |title=The African Peace and Security Architecture is already proving useful even though it is still work in progress |publisher=dandc.eu |date=August 27, 2013 |access-date=November 14, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

علائقائي سطح تي [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري]] (ECOWAS) پنهنجي ڪجهه ميمبر ملڪن ۾ ڪيترائي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا آهن، ۽ ان کي &quot;آفريڪا جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ ترقي يافته علائقائي امن ۽ سلامتي وارو نظام&quot; قرار ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Oni|first1=Cyril I.|date=2009|journal=African Security|volume=2|pages=119–135|doi=10.1080/19362200903361945|title=Economic Community of West African States on the Ground: Comparing Peacekeeping in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea Bissau, and Côte D'Ivoire|issue=2–3|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''غير هٿياربند شهري امن قائم رکڻ''' (ان آرمڊ سويلين پيس ڪيپنگ، UCP) ۾ شهري عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو تڪراري علائقن ۾ شهرين کي تشدد کان بچائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن جي قيام جي ڪوششن جي سهائتا لاءِ غير تشدد، غير مداخلت ۽ غير جانبداريءَ تي ٻڌل حڪمت عمليون اختيار ڪندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ UCP جو اصطلاح سڀني غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) ۾ هڪجهڙو عام نه آهي، پر ڪيترائي ادارا ساڳين طريقن سان ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ امن بابت هڪجهڙا مقصد رکندا آهن. انهن طريقن ۾ متاثر ماڻهن سان گڏ رهڻ، مستقل موجودگي، افواهن تي ضابطو آڻڻ، برادريءَ جي سلامتي بابت گڏجاڻيون، محفوظ لنگهن جو بندوبست ڪرڻ ۽ نگراني ڪرڻ شامل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rachel|first1=Julian|last2=Schweitzer|first2=Christine|date=2015|title=The Origins And Development of Unarmed Civilian Peacekeeping|url=http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|journal=Peace Review|volume=27|issue=1|pages=1–8|doi=10.1080/10402659.2015.1000181|s2cid=144911738|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719124249/http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|archive-date=July 19, 2018|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== مختصر تاريخ ==
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي تاريخ}}

=== قيام ۽ شروعاتي سال ===

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري نظام جي شروعات 1948ع ۾ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] [[1948ع جي عرب-اسرائيل جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ ان جي عرب پاڙيسري ملڪن وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي واري معاهدي جي نگراني لاءِ وچ اوڀر ۾ گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن کي مقرر ڪرڻ جي منظوري ڏني. هن مشن کي [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) سڏيو ويو، جيڪو اڄ تائين جاري آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/history.shtml|title=History of Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آگسٽ 1949ع ۾ سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 73 (1949ع) منظور ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNTSO کي اسرائيل ۽ انهن عرب رياستن جي وچ ۾ ٿيل چئن جنگبندي معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني جي ذميواري ڏني وئي، جيڪي ان جنگ ۾ شامل هيون. نتيجي طور، UNTSO جون سرگرميون علائقي جي پنجن رياستن، يعني [[اسرائيل]]، [[مصر]]، [[اردن]]، [[لبنان]] ۽ [[شام]] تائين ڦهلجي ويون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/untso/background.shtml|title=UNTSO Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== سرد جنگ دوران امن قائم رکڻ ===

آگسٽ 1947ع ۾ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] جي آزادي ۽ ان کان پوءِ ٿيل وڏي پيماني تي خونريزيءَ کان پوءِ، سلامتي ڪائونسل جنوري 1948ع ۾ قرارداد 39 (1948ع) منظور ڪري [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP) قائم ڪيو، جنهن جو مقصد [[ڪشمير]] بابت ٻنهي ملڪن جي وچ ۾ پيدا ٿيل تڪرار ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل ويڙهه ۾ ثالثي ڪرڻ هو.

هي مشن غير مداخلتي نوعيت جو هو ۽ ان کي [[ڄمون ۽ ڪشمير]] ۾ ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان جي وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي جي نگراني جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي. جولاءِ 1949ع ۾ [[ڪراچي معاهدو]] ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNCIP جنگبندي واري لڪير جي نگراني شروع ڪئي، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن ۽ ٻنهي ڌرين جي مقامي فوجي ڪمانڊرن جي گڏيل نگراني هيٺ هئي. هن مشن جو تسلسل اڄ به [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان ۾ گڏيل قومن جو فوجي مبصر گروپ]] (UNMOGIP) جي نالي سان جاري آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unmogip/background.shtml|title=UNMOGIP Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف ملڪن ۾ ڪُل 69 امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي منظوري ڏني.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;/&gt; انهن مان گهڻا مشن سرد جنگ جي خاتمي کان پوءِ قائم ٿيا. 1988ع کان 1998ع جي وچ ۾ گڏيل قومن 35 نوان امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا، جڏهن ته 1948ع کان 1978ع تائين صرف 13 مشن قائم ٿيا هئا، ۽ 1978ع کان 1988ع جي وچ واري ڏهاڪي دوران ڪو به نئون مشن قائم نه ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Duffey|first=Tamara|date=2000|title=Cultural Issues in Contemporary Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=7|issue=1|pages=142–168|doi=10.1080/13533310008413823|s2cid=145210823}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|142–168}}

گڏيل قومن جي پهرين هٿياربند مداخلت 1956ع جي [[سوئيز بحران]] کان پوءِ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I) قائم ڪئي وئي. هي فوج نومبر 1956ع کان جون 1967ع تائين موجود رهي ۽ ان کي [[مصر]]، [[برطانيه]]، [[فرانس]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] جي وچ ۾ جنگبندي برقرار رکڻ، مصري علائقي مان برطانوي، فرينچ ۽ اسرائيلي فوجن جي واپسي جي نگراني ڪرڻ، ۽ پوءِ مصر ۽ اسرائيل جي فوجن جي وچ ۾ بفر فورس طور ڪم ڪندي جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ جو مينڊيٽ ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unef1mandate.html|title=UNEF Mandate|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان ٿوري ئي عرصي بعد 1960ع ۾ [[ڪانگو ۾ گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUC) شروع ڪيو ويو. پنهنجي عروج تي هن مشن ۾ ويهه هزار کان وڌيڪ فوجي اهلڪار شامل هئا، ۽ ان دوران 250 گڏيل قومن جا اهلڪار مارجي ويا، جن ۾ ان وقت جو سيڪريٽري جنرل [[ڊيگ هيملشولڊ]] پڻ شامل هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/early.shtml|title=The Early Years of UN Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ONUC جو مقصد [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] مان بيلجيم جي فوجن جي واپسي کي يقيني بڻائڻ هو، جيڪي [[فورس پبليڪ]] (Force Publique) جي بغاوت کان پوءِ بيلجيم جي شهرين ۽ اقتصادي مفادن جي تحفظ لاءِ ٻيهر داخل ٿي ويون هيون. هن مشن کي قانون ۽ امن امان بحال ڪرڻ، بغاوت ۽ نسلي تشدد کي ختم ڪرڻ، ڪانگولي سلامتي فورسن کي فني مدد ۽ تربيت ڏيڻ، ۽ ملڪ جي علائقائي سالميت ۽ سياسي خودمختياري کي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/onuc.htm|title=ONUC|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي ذميواري خاص طور تي [[ڪتانگا]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪاسائي]] جهڙن معدني وسيلن سان مالامال صوبن جي علحدگيءَ واري تحريڪ جي پسمنظر ۾ شامل ڪئي وئي. ان دور ۾ گڏيل قومن جون فوجون، ڪجهه تڪراري انداز ۾، ڪانگو جي حڪومت جي مدد ڪندي ٻنهي صوبن جي علحدگي ختم ڪرائڻ ۾ به ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

1960ع ۽ 1970ع واري ڏهاڪن دوران گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف علائقن ۾ ڪيترائي مختصر مدي وارا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن قائم ڪيا، جن ۾ [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريه ۾ سيڪريٽري جنرل جي نمائندي جو مشن]] (DOMREP)، [[اولهه نيو گني ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي فورس]] (UNSF) ۽ [[يمن ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مبصر مشن]] (UNYOM) شامل هئا. ساڳئي وقت ڪجهه ڊگهي مدي وارا مشن پڻ جاري رهيا، جهڙوڪ [[قبرص ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج]] (UNFICYP)، [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج II]] (UNEF II)، [[گڏيل قومن جي ڌرين جي الڳ ٿيڻ جي نگراني ڪندڙ فوج]] (UNDOF)، ۽ [[لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن جي عبوري فوج]] (UNIFIL).&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;/&gt;

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:امن]]
[[زمرو:تنظيمون]]
[[زمرو:گڏيل قومون]]
[[زمرو:عالمي سياست]]
[[زمرو:بين الاقوامي لاڳاپا]]</text>
      <sha1>3tclhrq9s2tblxlcy7hfgmpz2u03t1n</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399322</id>
      <parentid>399321</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T21:39:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399322</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="41386" sha1="4r4kni61c72dhjuq8lwt380dnf5v821" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|دائمي امن لاءِ سازگار حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ خاطر ڪيل سرگرميون}}


[[File:Italian Soldier UNIFIL 2 Lebanon 2007.jpg|thumb|[[اطالوي فوج]] جو هڪ [[سپاهي]] لبنان ۾ [[يونيفل]] مشن دوران پهرو ڏئي رهيو آهي.]]

'''امن قائم رکندڙ فوج''' (Peacekeeping Force) انهن سرگرمين، خاص طور فوجي سرگرمين،&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Peacekeeping&quot;. Oxford Languages. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جن جو مقصد اهڙيون حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ هوندو آهي جيڪي پائيدار [[امن]] جي قيام لاءِ سازگار هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/|title=United Nations Peacekeeping|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; تحقيق مان عام طور اهو ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون [[شهري جاني نقصان|شهري]] ۽ جنگي ميدان ۾ ٿيندڙ جاني نقصان کي گهٽائين ٿيون ۽ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي پڻ گهٽائين ٿيون.

[[گڏيل قومون]] (UN) ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل [[قومي رياست]]ن جي حڪومتن ۽ [[تنظيم]]ن جي وچ ۾ عام طور اهو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو ته عالمي سطح تي امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا جنگ کان پوءِ وارن علائقن ۾ امن جي عمل جي نگراني ۽ مشاهدو ڪندا آهن، ۽ اڳوڻن ويڙهاڪن کي انهن امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ ۾ مدد ڏيندا آهن، جن جا هو پابند بڻيل هوندا آهن. اهڙي مدد ڪيترين ئي صورتن ۾ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ اعتماد سازي جا قدم، اقتدار جي ورهاست جا انتظام، چونڊن ۾ مدد، [[قانون جي حڪمراني]] کي مضبوط بڻائڻ، ۽ معاشي ۽ سماجي ترقي کي هٿي ڏيڻ. ان ڪري [[گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا]] (جن کي سندن هلڪي نيري [[بيريٽ]] يا هيلمٽ سبب اڪثر '''نيري بيريٽ''' يا '''نيرا هيلمٽ''' چيو ويندو آهي) ۾ فوجي، [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس آفيسر]] ۽ شهري عملي جا ميمبر شامل ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dpko/ |title=Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dfs/ |title=Department of Field Support (DFS) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جا مشن هلائيندڙ واحد تنظيم گڏيل قومون نه آهن. گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم ڪندڙ قوتن ۾ [[ڪوسوو فورس]] جي [[نيٽو]] مشن (گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان)، [[سينا ٻيٽ نما]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]]، ۽ [[يورپي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[EUFOR RCA]]، گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان) ۽ [[آفريقي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[سوڊان ۾ آفريقي يونين مشن]]) پاران منظم ڪيل امن مشن شامل آهن.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

[[بين الاقوامي قانون]] موجب، امن قائم ڪندڙ پنهنجي غيرجانبدار حيثيت سبب [[غير جنگجو]] (non-combatants) شمار ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي ٻن يا وڌيڪ [[جنگ ڪندڙ ڌر]]ن جي وچ ۾ تڪرار ۾ غيرجانبدار هوندا آهن (بلڪل اهڙيءَ طرح جيئن امن قائم رکڻ جي ذميوارين کان ٻاهر موجود غيرجانبدار ماڻهو ۽ ملڪيت). تنهنڪري انهن کي هر حال ۾ حملن کان تحفظ حاصل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule33 |title=Rule 33. Personnel and Objects Involved in a Peacekeeping Mission|publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]|access-date=April 7, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فائل:UN Soldiers in Eritrea.jpeg|thumb|right|upright=1.00|نيدرلينڊز جا ڊچ فوجي اقوام متحده جي امن جي قيام جي فورس ۾ ايٿوپيا ۽ ايريٽيريا جي سرحد تي گڏيل قومن پاران چوڪسي ڪندي]]

'''امن جي بحالي واري فوج'''{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي=Peace Keeping Force}}
ٻن ملڪن ياڌرين جي وچ ۾ ڪو به تڪرار ايترو زور وٺي وڃي، جو ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت کانسواءِ اهو ٽري نه سگهي، ته ٽين ڌر امن قائم ڪرڻ (Peace Keeping) لاءِ مُختلف اُپاءُ وٺندي آهي. ڪنهن به تڪرار جي حل لاءِ ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت جو مقصد ٻن ڌُرين ۾ رڳو صُلح ڪرائڻ هوندو آهي، جنهن لاءِ فوجي ۽ سُفارتي طريقا ڪتب آندا ويندا آهن. ان کان سواءِ گھُرج پوڻ تي ٽين ڌر (يا وچين ڌر) جهيڙو ڪندڙ ڌرين تي مُختلف قسمن جو دٻاءُ رکندي آهي، جيڪڏهن ڌريون پوءِ به جهيڙي کي نه ٿيون ختم ڪن، ته مٿانئن فوجي قدم کڻڻ لاءِ به اڳڀرائي ڪئي ويندي آهي. جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جو عالمي ادارو|گڏيل قومن]] جو ادارو قائم ڪيو ويو هيو ته ان وقت ٻي عالمي جنگ ختم ٿي هئي، پر ملڪن جا پاڻ ۾ تڪرار پوءِ به هلي رهيا هئا ۽ ”سرد جنگ“ به شروع ٿي چڪي هئي، دُنيا جي امن کي گهڻن قسمن جا خطرا پيدا ٿي چڪا هئا. 1950ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل بين الاقوامي جهيڙن کي پاسيرو ڪرڻ ۽ امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ”احتياطي سفارتڪاري“ (Preventive Diplomacy) جو اصطلاح اڳيان آندو هو. انهيءَ قسم جي حڪمت عملي ۾ ڪنهن به تڪرار کي رڳو ٺارڻ جو حل ڏنل هيو، پر جهيڙي کي مستقل طور ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪجهه واڌو قدم به گهربل هئا. انهيءَ ڪري اهڙي صورتحال ۾ اڳتي هلي ”مشن ڪريپ“ (Mission Creep) جو اصطلاح ڪتب آندو ويو، جنهن ۾ جهيڙي کي مڪمل طور ختم ڪرڻ جي تجويز ڏني وئي. انهيءَ حوالي سان 1956ع ۾ ڪئناڊا جي پرڏيهي معاملن جي وزير ۽ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”ڊگ هئمرشولڊ“ گڏيل قومن جي اداري جي پلئٽفارم تان ”امن قائم ڪرڻ واري فوج“ (Peace Keeping Force) قائم ڪئي، جنهن جي شعبا بندي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ان جي ورديءَ کانسواءِ خاص قسم جي ٽوپي به تيار ڪرائي وئي ۽ ان خاص ٽوپيءَ جو رنگ ”نيرو“ مقرر ڪيو ويو. ٽوپيءَ کي ٻين فوجي ٽوپين کان الڳ رنگ ڏيڻ جو مقصد، بين الاقوامي امن فوج جي انفراديت کي ظاهر ڪرڻ آهي. ان هوندي به ”امن فوج“ جي طريقيڪار ۽ اختيارن کي اڃا تائين چڱيءَ ريت گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر ۾ بيان نه ڪيو ويو آهي. گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر جي 6 ۽ 7 باب ۾، امن جي ڪوشش وٺڻ لاءِ جيڪي تفصيل بيان ڪيا ويا آهن، انهن سان امن جي بحاليءَ واري عمل کي به جوڙيو ويو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن جي بحاليءَ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي پڌرنامي جي روح مطابق جوڙجڪ ضروري آهي. انهن کوٽن جي باوجود، گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج، دُنيا ۾ امن ۽ صلح جي لاءِ گھڻن هنڌن مثال طور؛ ڪمبوڊيا، نميبيا، انگولا، لبنان، ايراني نار ۽ [[سوماليا|صوماليا]] وغيره ۾ ڪاميابيءَ سان پنهنجون ذميواريون پوريون ڪري چڪي آهي. امن فوج جي اهڙي اهميت کي محسوس ڪندي، گڏيل قومن جي اداري ڪيترن مُتاثر ملڪن جي داخلي معاملن ۾ به هن فوج جو استعمال مُناسب ۽ بهتر سمجهيو. منڍ ۾ اها فوج ٻن تڪراري ڌُر جي وچ ۾ هلندڙ جهيِڙو ٽارڻ لاءِ ڪتب آندي ويندي هئي، پر 1988ع کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جي اداري اهڙن ملڪن ۾ به کيس ذميواري سونپيون، جتي گهرو ويڙھ ۾ اَڙيل مُختلف ڌرين ۾ جنگ جاري هُئي ۽ اُتي انتظامي معاملا هيٺ مٿي لڳا پيا هُئا. اهڙن مُلڪن ۾ امن فوج کي گڏيل قومن طرفان چونڊون ڪرائڻ، انتظامي معاملن کي سُڌارڻ، عوام کي تحفظ ڏيڻ ۽ جهيڙن کان تنگ اچي ملڪ ڇڏي ويل ماڻهن کي واپس پنهنجي اباڻي وطن ۾ ٻيهر آباد ڪرائڻ جا اختيار به ڏنا ويا. ٻئي طرف اها به حقيقت آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج کي گھڻن معاملن ۽ هنڌن تي ڪن ملڪن پنهنجن خاص مقصدن لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو. ان کانسواءِ گھڻن علائقن (جهڙوڪ ڪشمير) ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن فوج پنهنجي مقصد حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام وئي آهي. سندس مُقابلي ۾ اولھ جي مُلڪن جي فوجي اتحاد نيٽو امن فوج جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ متحرڪ ۽ اثرائتي رهي آهي. 1992ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”بترس غالي“، امن جي آڻڻ لاءِ خاص علائقي ۽ خاص حالتن آهر مداخلت ڪرڻ ۽ نون اختيار ڏيڻ لاءِ اداري آڏو تجويزون پيش ڪيون، پر ان ڏس ۾ مڪمل سوڀاري ٿيڻ لاءِ ”پيس ڪيپگ“ جو عمل نون ضابطن، اختيارن ۽ قانونن جي انتظار ۾ آهي. 
&lt;ref&gt;[http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/define/Peace%20Keeping%20Force.php سنڌي آنلائين ڊڪشنري]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} پاران [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد&lt;/ref&gt;

== وصفون ۽ امن قائم رکڻ جي عمل جا قسم ==

=== گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ===
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن}}

==== ڇهون باب ۽ ستون باب وارا مشن ====

امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن جا ڪيترائي مختلف قسم آهن. مثال طور، پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي ڪتاب ''Does Peacekeeping Work?'' ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن کي چئن مختلف قسمن ۾ ورهايو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=Chapter 7}}&lt;/ref&gt; انهن مشنن جو قسم ۽ انهن تي عملدرآمد جو طريقو گهڻي حد تائين ان اختيارنامي (mandate) تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، جنهن تحت انهن کي اختيار ڏنو ويندو آهي.

فورٽنا جي بيان ڪيل چئن قسمن مان ٽي اهڙا آهن، جيڪي ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن ۽ انهن کي عام طور ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ڇهون باب|ڇهين باب]]'' وارا مشن چيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته چوٿون قسم ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]]'' وارو مشن هوندو آهي.

ڇهين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشنن لاءِ جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي لازمي هوندي آهي؛ جيڪڏهن اها رضامندي ختم ٿي وڃي ته امن قائم ڪندڙ دستن کي علائقو ڇڏڻو پوندو. ان جي ابتڙ، ستين باب وارن مشنن کي قانوني طور رضامندي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي، جيتوڻيڪ عملي طور اها موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي. جيڪڏهن رضامندي بعد ۾ ختم به ٿي وڃي ته به اهڙن مشنن کي واپس وڃڻ ضروري نه هوندو.

# '''مشاهدي وارا مشن''' (Observation Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي يا شهري مبصرن جا ننڍا دستا شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي جنگبندي، فوجن جي واپسي يا جنگبندي واري معاهدي ۾ ڄاڻايل ٻين شرطن جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. اهي عام طور بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا آهن ۽ سندن بنيادي ذميواري رڳو مشاهدو ڪرڻ ۽ رپورٽون تيار ڪرڻ هوندي آهي؛ تنهن ڪري جيڪڏهن ڪا ڌر معاهدي جي ڀڃڪڙي ڪري ته اهي مداخلت ڪرڻ جا مجاز نه هوندا آهن. مثال طور [[انگولا]] ۾ 1991ع وارو [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن II]] (UNAVEM II) ۽ [[اولهه صحارا]] ۾ [[اولهه صحارا بابت راءِ شماري لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو مشن]] (MINURSO).

# '''وچٿري مشن''' (Interpositional Missions)، جن کي روايتي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، نسبتاً وڏن ۽ هلڪي هٿياربند فوجي دستن تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جيڪي تڪرار کان پوءِ ٻن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ طور مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهي ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ بفر زون جو ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. مثال طور 1994ع ۾ [[انگولا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن III]] (UNAVEM III) ۽ 1996ع ۾ [[گوئٽي مالا]] ۾ [[MINUGUA]].

# '''گهڻ رخا مشن''' (Multidimensional Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس]] عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو جامع امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندو آهي. اهي رڳو مشاهدو يا ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رڪاوٽ بڻجڻ تائين محدود نه هوندا آهن، پر چونڊن جي نگراني، پوليس ۽ سلامتي ادارن جي سڌارن، ادارن جي تعمير، معاشي ترقي ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي شعبن ۾ پڻ حصو وٺندا آهن. مثال طور [[نيميبيا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو عبوري امدادي گروهه]] (UNTAG)، [[ايل سلواڊور]] ۾ [[ONUSAL]] ۽ [[موزمبيق]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUMOZ).

# '''[[امن لاڳو ڪندڙ]] مشن''' (Peace Enforcement Missions): اهي ستين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشن هوندا آهن ۽ اڳين ٽن قسمن جي ابتڙ، جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ جا پابند نه هوندا آهن. اهي شهري ۽ فوجي ٻنهي قسمن جي عملي تي مشتمل گهڻ رخا مشن هوندا آهن. انهن وٽ نسبتاً وڏي ۽ بهتر هٿياربند فوج هوندي آهي ۽ انهن کي صرف پنهنجي بچاءَ کان وڌيڪ مقصدن لاءِ به طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل هوندو آهي. مثال طور [[اولهه آفريڪا]] ۾ [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري جو نگراني گروهه]] (ECOMOG)، 1999ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو سيرا ليون مشن]] (UNAMSIL)، ۽ [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ [[نيٽو]] جا [[IFOR]] ۽ [[SFOR]] آپريشن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;/&gt;

==== سرد جنگ دوران ۽ ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ====

[[سرد جنگ]] جي دور ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جا اڪثر مشن روايتي نوعيت جا هئا، جن ۾ امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا ملڪن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ جنگن کان پوءِ مقرر ڪيا ويندا هئا ته جيئن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ بڻجن ۽ امن معاهدن تي عملدرآمد کي يقيني بڻائين. اهي مشن رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا هئا ۽ گهڻو ڪري مبصر بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا هئا، جيئن [[وچ اوڀر]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) ۽ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] بابت [[ڪشمير بابت گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP). ڪجهه مشن هٿياربند به هئا، جهڙوڪ [[سوئيز بحران]] دوران قائم ڪيل [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I). مجموعي طور اهي مشن پنهنجي مقرر ڪيل ڪردار ۾ ڪامياب رهيا.

[[سرد جنگ کان پوءِ وارو دور|سرد جنگ کان پوءِ]] گڏيل قومن امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ جامع ۽ گهڻ رخي طريقيڪار اختيار ڪيو. 1992ع ۾ ان وقت جي [[گڏيل قومن جو سيڪريٽري جنرل|سيڪريٽري جنرل]] [[بوتروس بوتروس غالي]] هڪ رپورٽ تيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ امن قائم رکڻ بابت پنهنجو جامع تصور پيش ڪيو. ''[[امن لاءِ ايجنڊا]]'' (An Agenda for Peace) نالي هن رپورٽ ۾ هن احتياطي سفارتڪاري، امن لاڳو ڪرڻ، امن ڪرائڻ، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ بحاليءَ کي هڪ ٻئي سان ڳنڍيل قدمن طور بيان ڪيو، جن جي ذريعي سرد جنگ کان پوءِ واري عالمي سياست ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ڪردار وڌيڪ اثرائتو بڻجي سگهي.

==== گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جا وسيع مقصد ====

[[مائيڪل ڊوئل]] ۽ نڪولس سامبانس پنهنجي ڪتاب ''The UN Record on Peacekeeping Operations'' ۾ بوتروس غالي جي رپورٽ جو خلاصو پيش ڪندي احتياطي سفارتڪاري، اعتماد سازي جي قدمن (جهڙوڪ حقيقت معلوم ڪرڻ وارا مشن)، مبصر مشن، ۽ تشدد جي خطري کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي اختيار هيٺ فوج مقرر ڪرڻ کي پائيدار امن لاءِ اهم ذريعا قرار ڏين ٿا. سندن بيان موجب:

# '''امن لاڳو ڪرڻ''' (Peace Enforcement): گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي منظور ڪيل جنگبندي يا معاهدي تي عمل ڪرائڻ لاءِ، ضرورت پوڻ تي ڌرين جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به فوجي طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ. اهڙا مشن عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]] تحت هلندا آهن ۽ انهن ۾ مقرر فوجون نسبتاً وڌيڪ هٿياربند هونديون آهن.

# '''امن ڪرائڻ''' (Peacemaking): گڏيل قومن جي سرپرستي هيٺ ثالثي ۽ ڳالهين ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين کي پرامن حل تي راضي ڪرڻ. هي عمل عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] جي ڇهين باب تحت ڪيو ويندو آهي.

# '''امن قائم رکڻ''' (Peacekeeping): جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي سان هلڪي هٿياربند گڏيل قومن جي موجودگي قائم ڪرڻ، اعتماد پيدا ڪرڻ ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ٿيل معاهدن جي نگراني ڪرڻ. ان سان گڏ سفارتي ڪوششون پڻ جاري رهنديون آهن ته جيئن جامع ۽ پائيدار امن حاصل ڪري سگهجي.

# '''تڪرار کان پوءِ بحالي''' (Post-Conflict Reconstruction): معاشي ۽ سماجي سهڪار ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي بحال ڪرڻ، سياسي، سماجي ۽ معاشي ادارن کي مضبوط ڪرڻ، مستقبل ۾ تشدد جي امڪان کي گهٽائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|date=2007|title=The UN Record On Peacekeeping Operations|journal=International Journal|volume=63|issue=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ ۾ غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) سان گڏجي [[ثقافتي ورثو|ثقافتي ورثي]] جي تحفظ لاءِ ڪم ڪرڻ پڻ شامل آهي. ثقافتي ورثي جي حفاظت بابت گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري وابستگي 2012ع کان جاري آهي ۽ ان کي آهستي آهستي وڌايو پيو وڃي. ان سلسلي ۾ 2019ع ۾ [[يونيفل]] ۽ [[بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل]] جو لبنان ۾ [[يونيسڪو عالمي ورثو]] جي تحفظ لاءِ گڏيل مشن نمايان مثال آهي. فوجي ۽ شهري ماهرن پاران مقامي آباديءَ سان گڏجي ثقافتي ورثي جو تحفظ ڪيترن ئي تڪراري علائقن ۾ مستقبل جي پرامن ۽ معاشي ترقيءَ جو بنياد بڻجي ٿو. بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل جي صدر [[ڪارل فون هيبسبرگ]]، اپريل 2019ع ۾ لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ [[يونيسڪو]] جي مشن دوران چيو: ''&quot;ثقافتي ورثو ڪنهن به علائقي ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جي سڃاڻپ جو حصو هوندو آهي. جيڪڏهن توهان انهن جي ثقافت تباهه ڪريو ٿا ته سندن سڃاڻپ به ختم ٿي وڃي ٿي. نتيجي ۾ ڪيترائي ماڻهو بي گهر ٿي وڃن ٿا، سندن مستقبل بابت اميدون ختم ٿي وڃن ٿيون ۽ هو آخرڪار پنهنجو وطن ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ٿين ٿا.&quot;''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Karl von Habsburg auf Mission im Libanon|date=April 28, 2019 |url=https://www.krone.at/1911689|language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Jyot Hosagrahar: ''Culture: at the heart of SDGs.'' UNESCO-Kurier, April-Juni 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rick Szostak: ''The Causes of Economic Growth: Interdisciplinary Perspectives.'' Springer Science &amp; Business Media, 2009, {{ISBN|9783540922827}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bundesheer.at/cms/artikel.php?ID=10118 &quot;Blue Helmet Forum 2019 - Protection of Cultural Heritage in Peace Operations&quot;, Austrian Armed Forces].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017nian-di-3qi/historic-resolution-protect-cultural-heritage|title=A historic resolution to protect cultural heritage, The UNESCO Courier}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/action-plan-to-preserve-heritage-sites-during-conflict|title=Action plan to preserve heritage sites during conflict|website=United Nations Peacekeeping}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''UNESCO Director-General calls for stronger cooperation for heritage protection at the Blue Shield International General Assembly.'' UNESCO, September 13, 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم رکڻ ===
{{See also|غير گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي فهرست|نيٽو امن قائم رکڻ|يورپي يونين جي فوجي ۽ شهري مشنن جي فهرست|آفريقي يونين جي فوجي مداخلتن جي فهرست}}

[[File:En-MFO1.JPG|thumb|right|1989ع ۾ [[مصر]] جي [[سنائي اپٻيٽ|سنائي]] واري علائقي جي [[ايل گوراح]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) جي غير گڏيل قومن واري امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن سان مقرر ڪيل ڪينيڊا جا [[CH135 ٽوئن هيوئي]] هيليڪاپٽر.]]

[[File:75Parad 04.jpg|thumb|[[آذربائيجان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جا ميمبر، [[2020 ماسڪو فتح پريڊ]] دوران مڪمل فوجي ورديءَ ۾.]]

سڀئي بين الاقوامي امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا سڌي طرح گڏيل قومن جي ڪنٽرول هيٺ ڪم نٿا ڪن. 1981ع ۾ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ [[مصر]] جي وچ ۾ ٿيل هڪ معاهدي تحت [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) قائم ڪئي وئي، جيڪا اڄ تائين [[سنائي اپٻيٽ]] ۾ امن معاهدي تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;10TAGpgA-1&quot;&gt;10 Tactical Air Group: ''Canadian Contingent Multinational Force and Observers Handbook'' (unclassified), page A-1. DND, Ottawa, 1986.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[آفريقي يونين]] (AU) آفريقي امن ۽ سلامتي جو اهڙو ڍانچو (آفريڪن پيس اينڊ سڪيورٽي آرڪيٽيڪچر) قائم ڪرڻ تي ڪم ڪري رهي آهي، جيڪو براعظم ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري نڀائي سگهي. جيڪڏهن ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ [[نسل ڪشي]] يا انساني حقن جون ٻيون سنگين ڀڃڪڙيون ٿين، ته آفريقي يونين جي جنرل اسيمبلي جي منظوري سان، ان ملڪ جي حڪومت جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن موڪلي سگهجي ٿو. هن نظام، جنهن ۾ [[آفريقي اسٽينڊ بائي فورس]] (ASF) پڻ شامل آهي، جي قيام جو منصوبو 2015ع کان اڳ نه هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/african-peace-and-security-architecture-already-proving-useful-even-though-it-still-work |title=The African Peace and Security Architecture is already proving useful even though it is still work in progress |publisher=dandc.eu |date=August 27, 2013 |access-date=November 14, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

علائقائي سطح تي [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري]] (ECOWAS) پنهنجي ڪجهه ميمبر ملڪن ۾ ڪيترائي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا آهن، ۽ ان کي &quot;آفريڪا جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ ترقي يافته علائقائي امن ۽ سلامتي وارو نظام&quot; قرار ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Oni|first1=Cyril I.|date=2009|journal=African Security|volume=2|pages=119–135|doi=10.1080/19362200903361945|title=Economic Community of West African States on the Ground: Comparing Peacekeeping in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea Bissau, and Côte D'Ivoire|issue=2–3|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''غير هٿياربند شهري امن قائم رکڻ''' (ان آرمڊ سويلين پيس ڪيپنگ، UCP) ۾ شهري عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو تڪراري علائقن ۾ شهرين کي تشدد کان بچائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن جي قيام جي ڪوششن جي سهائتا لاءِ غير تشدد، غير مداخلت ۽ غير جانبداريءَ تي ٻڌل حڪمت عمليون اختيار ڪندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ UCP جو اصطلاح سڀني غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) ۾ هڪجهڙو عام نه آهي، پر ڪيترائي ادارا ساڳين طريقن سان ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ امن بابت هڪجهڙا مقصد رکندا آهن. انهن طريقن ۾ متاثر ماڻهن سان گڏ رهڻ، مستقل موجودگي، افواهن تي ضابطو آڻڻ، برادريءَ جي سلامتي بابت گڏجاڻيون، محفوظ لنگهن جو بندوبست ڪرڻ ۽ نگراني ڪرڻ شامل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rachel|first1=Julian|last2=Schweitzer|first2=Christine|date=2015|title=The Origins And Development of Unarmed Civilian Peacekeeping|url=http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|journal=Peace Review|volume=27|issue=1|pages=1–8|doi=10.1080/10402659.2015.1000181|s2cid=144911738|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719124249/http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|archive-date=July 19, 2018|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== مختصر تاريخ ==
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي تاريخ}}

=== قيام ۽ شروعاتي سال ===

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري نظام جي شروعات 1948ع ۾ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] [[1948ع جي عرب-اسرائيل جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ ان جي عرب پاڙيسري ملڪن وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي واري معاهدي جي نگراني لاءِ وچ اوڀر ۾ گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن کي مقرر ڪرڻ جي منظوري ڏني. هن مشن کي [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) سڏيو ويو، جيڪو اڄ تائين جاري آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/history.shtml|title=History of Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آگسٽ 1949ع ۾ سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 73 (1949ع) منظور ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNTSO کي اسرائيل ۽ انهن عرب رياستن جي وچ ۾ ٿيل چئن جنگبندي معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني جي ذميواري ڏني وئي، جيڪي ان جنگ ۾ شامل هيون. نتيجي طور، UNTSO جون سرگرميون علائقي جي پنجن رياستن، يعني [[اسرائيل]]، [[مصر]]، [[اردن]]، [[لبنان]] ۽ [[شام]] تائين ڦهلجي ويون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/untso/background.shtml|title=UNTSO Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== سرد جنگ دوران امن قائم رکڻ ===

آگسٽ 1947ع ۾ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] جي آزادي ۽ ان کان پوءِ ٿيل وڏي پيماني تي خونريزيءَ کان پوءِ، سلامتي ڪائونسل جنوري 1948ع ۾ قرارداد 39 (1948ع) منظور ڪري [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP) قائم ڪيو، جنهن جو مقصد [[ڪشمير]] بابت ٻنهي ملڪن جي وچ ۾ پيدا ٿيل تڪرار ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل ويڙهه ۾ ثالثي ڪرڻ هو.

هي مشن غير مداخلتي نوعيت جو هو ۽ ان کي [[ڄمون ۽ ڪشمير]] ۾ ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان جي وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي جي نگراني جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي. جولاءِ 1949ع ۾ [[ڪراچي معاهدو]] ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNCIP جنگبندي واري لڪير جي نگراني شروع ڪئي، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن ۽ ٻنهي ڌرين جي مقامي فوجي ڪمانڊرن جي گڏيل نگراني هيٺ هئي. هن مشن جو تسلسل اڄ به [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان ۾ گڏيل قومن جو فوجي مبصر گروپ]] (UNMOGIP) جي نالي سان جاري آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unmogip/background.shtml|title=UNMOGIP Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف ملڪن ۾ ڪُل 69 امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي منظوري ڏني.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;/&gt; انهن مان گهڻا مشن سرد جنگ جي خاتمي کان پوءِ قائم ٿيا. 1988ع کان 1998ع جي وچ ۾ گڏيل قومن 35 نوان امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا، جڏهن ته 1948ع کان 1978ع تائين صرف 13 مشن قائم ٿيا هئا، ۽ 1978ع کان 1988ع جي وچ واري ڏهاڪي دوران ڪو به نئون مشن قائم نه ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Duffey|first=Tamara|date=2000|title=Cultural Issues in Contemporary Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=7|issue=1|pages=142–168|doi=10.1080/13533310008413823|s2cid=145210823}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|142–168}}

گڏيل قومن جي پهرين هٿياربند مداخلت 1956ع جي [[سوئيز بحران]] کان پوءِ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I) قائم ڪئي وئي. هي فوج نومبر 1956ع کان جون 1967ع تائين موجود رهي ۽ ان کي [[مصر]]، [[برطانيه]]، [[فرانس]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] جي وچ ۾ جنگبندي برقرار رکڻ، مصري علائقي مان برطانوي، فرينچ ۽ اسرائيلي فوجن جي واپسي جي نگراني ڪرڻ، ۽ پوءِ مصر ۽ اسرائيل جي فوجن جي وچ ۾ بفر فورس طور ڪم ڪندي جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ جو مينڊيٽ ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unef1mandate.html|title=UNEF Mandate|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان ٿوري ئي عرصي بعد 1960ع ۾ [[ڪانگو ۾ گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUC) شروع ڪيو ويو. پنهنجي عروج تي هن مشن ۾ ويهه هزار کان وڌيڪ فوجي اهلڪار شامل هئا، ۽ ان دوران 250 گڏيل قومن جا اهلڪار مارجي ويا، جن ۾ ان وقت جو سيڪريٽري جنرل [[ڊيگ هيملشولڊ]] پڻ شامل هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/early.shtml|title=The Early Years of UN Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ONUC جو مقصد [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] مان بيلجيم جي فوجن جي واپسي کي يقيني بڻائڻ هو، جيڪي [[فورس پبليڪ]] جي بغاوت کان پوءِ بيلجيم جي شهرين ۽ اقتصادي مفادن جي تحفظ لاءِ ٻيهر داخل ٿي ويون هيون. هن مشن کي قانون ۽ امن امان بحال ڪرڻ، بغاوت ۽ نسلي تشدد کي ختم ڪرڻ، ڪانگولي سلامتي فورسن کي فني مدد ۽ تربيت ڏيڻ، ۽ ملڪ جي علائقائي سالميت ۽ سياسي خودمختياري کي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/onuc.htm|title=ONUC|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي ذميواري خاص طور تي [[ڪتانگا]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪاسائي]] جهڙن معدني وسيلن سان مالامال صوبن جي علحدگيءَ واري تحريڪ جي پسمنظر ۾ شامل ڪئي وئي. ان دور ۾ گڏيل قومن جون فوجون، ڪجهه تڪراري انداز ۾، ڪانگو جي حڪومت جي مدد ڪندي ٻنهي صوبن جي علحدگي ختم ڪرائڻ ۾ به ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

1960ع ۽ 1970ع واري ڏهاڪن دوران گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف علائقن ۾ ڪيترائي مختصر مدي وارا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن قائم ڪيا، جن ۾ [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريه ۾ سيڪريٽري جنرل جي نمائندي جو مشن]] (DOMREP)، [[اولهه نيو گني ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي فورس]] (UNSF) ۽ [[يمن ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مبصر مشن]] (UNYOM) شامل هئا. ساڳئي وقت ڪجهه ڊگهي مدي وارا مشن پڻ جاري رهيا، جهڙوڪ [[قبرص ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج]] (UNFICYP)، [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج II]] (UNEF II)، [[گڏيل قومن جي ڌرين جي الڳ ٿيڻ جي نگراني ڪندڙ فوج]] (UNDOF)، ۽ [[لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن جي عبوري فوج]] (UNIFIL).&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;/&gt;

=== 1991ع کان پوءِ ===

[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-un-holds-head.jpg|thumb|[[سراييوو جو گهيرو|سراييوو جي گهيري]] (1992ع–1993ع) دوران هڪ [[ناروي]] جو امن قائم رکڻ وارو اهلڪار؛ تصوير: [[ميخائل اِوستافيئف]].]]

[[يوگوسلاو جنگين]] دوران امن قائم رکڻ جي تجربن، خاص طور تي [[سربرينيتسا قتلِ عام]] جهڙين ناڪامين، جزوي طور [[گڏيل قومن جي امن تعمير ڪميشن]] (يونائيٽيڊ نيشنز پيس بلڊنگ ڪميشن) جي قيام جو سبب بڻيا. هي ڪميشن چونڊن ۽ ٻين شهري ادارن جي مضبوطي جهڙين سرگرمين وسيلي پائيدار امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ انجام ڏيندا آهن. هن وقت اها ڪميشن آفريڪا جي ڇهن ملڪن سان ڪم ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/projects/africa/beyond-peace-deals-united-nations-experiment-peacebuilding |title=Beyond Peace Deals: The United Nations Experiment in &quot;Peacebuilding&quot;|date=June 22, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ڳالهين سان گڏ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، ۾ عورتن جي وڌيڪ مؤثر شرڪت، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهرن جي مقرري، هٿياربند تڪرارن جا عورتن تي پوندڙ اثرن بابت وڌيڪ معلومات، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |title=UN Security Council Takes a Historic Stand Supporting Abortion Access for Women Raped in War / Library / Homepage |publisher=AWID |access-date=October 28, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203101025/http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |archive-date=December 3, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن سان امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW)، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن بابت ڪميٽي آهي، هڪ عام سفارش جاري ڪئي، جنهن موجب اهي رياستون، جيڪي گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جون ڌريون آهن، پابند آهن ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌيءَ طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ فوجون موڪلين، يا تڪرارن جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مالي يا ٻئي قسم جي مدد فراهم ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=13885&amp;LangID=E|title=OHCHR -|website=www.ohchr.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪميٽي اهو پڻ واضح ڪيو ته اهڙين رياستن کي مناسب احتياط اختيار ڪرڻ گهرجي ته جيئن [[غير رياستي ڌريون]]، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي سلامتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ٿيندڙ ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

[[پيج فورٽنا]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي مقرري بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍيو ته ''&quot;امن قائم رکڻ رسد ۽ طلب جو معاملو آهي.&quot;'' رسد جي لحاظ کان سندس مشاهدو آهي ته سلامتي ڪائونسل جي مستقل ميمبرن مان ڪنهن هڪ جي ويجهن ملڪن ۾ هلندڙ گهرو ويڙهن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن مقرر ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن. جڏهن ته طلب جي لحاظ کان مختلف تحقيقون ظاهر ڪن ٿيون ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن گهڻو ڪري انهن ملڪن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن، جتي انهن جي ضرورت سڀ کان وڌيڪ هوندي آهي، يعني جتي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تمام گهڻو هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot; /&gt;

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:امن]]
[[زمرو:تنظيمون]]
[[زمرو:گڏيل قومون]]
[[زمرو:عالمي سياست]]
[[زمرو:بين الاقوامي لاڳاپا]]</text>
      <sha1>4r4kni61c72dhjuq8lwt380dnf5v821</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399323</id>
      <parentid>399322</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T21:40:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399323</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="49420" sha1="dovi2u9oupfrkfs1r2pexnd4u2vemhv" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|دائمي امن لاءِ سازگار حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ خاطر ڪيل سرگرميون}}


[[File:Italian Soldier UNIFIL 2 Lebanon 2007.jpg|thumb|[[اطالوي فوج]] جو هڪ [[سپاهي]] لبنان ۾ [[يونيفل]] مشن دوران پهرو ڏئي رهيو آهي.]]

'''امن قائم رکندڙ فوج''' (Peacekeeping Force) انهن سرگرمين، خاص طور فوجي سرگرمين،&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Peacekeeping&quot;. Oxford Languages. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جن جو مقصد اهڙيون حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ هوندو آهي جيڪي پائيدار [[امن]] جي قيام لاءِ سازگار هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/|title=United Nations Peacekeeping|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; تحقيق مان عام طور اهو ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون [[شهري جاني نقصان|شهري]] ۽ جنگي ميدان ۾ ٿيندڙ جاني نقصان کي گهٽائين ٿيون ۽ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي پڻ گهٽائين ٿيون.

[[گڏيل قومون]] (UN) ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل [[قومي رياست]]ن جي حڪومتن ۽ [[تنظيم]]ن جي وچ ۾ عام طور اهو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو ته عالمي سطح تي امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا جنگ کان پوءِ وارن علائقن ۾ امن جي عمل جي نگراني ۽ مشاهدو ڪندا آهن، ۽ اڳوڻن ويڙهاڪن کي انهن امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ ۾ مدد ڏيندا آهن، جن جا هو پابند بڻيل هوندا آهن. اهڙي مدد ڪيترين ئي صورتن ۾ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ اعتماد سازي جا قدم، اقتدار جي ورهاست جا انتظام، چونڊن ۾ مدد، [[قانون جي حڪمراني]] کي مضبوط بڻائڻ، ۽ معاشي ۽ سماجي ترقي کي هٿي ڏيڻ. ان ڪري [[گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا]] (جن کي سندن هلڪي نيري [[بيريٽ]] يا هيلمٽ سبب اڪثر '''نيري بيريٽ''' يا '''نيرا هيلمٽ''' چيو ويندو آهي) ۾ فوجي، [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس آفيسر]] ۽ شهري عملي جا ميمبر شامل ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dpko/ |title=Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dfs/ |title=Department of Field Support (DFS) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جا مشن هلائيندڙ واحد تنظيم گڏيل قومون نه آهن. گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم ڪندڙ قوتن ۾ [[ڪوسوو فورس]] جي [[نيٽو]] مشن (گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان)، [[سينا ٻيٽ نما]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]]، ۽ [[يورپي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[EUFOR RCA]]، گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان) ۽ [[آفريقي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[سوڊان ۾ آفريقي يونين مشن]]) پاران منظم ڪيل امن مشن شامل آهن.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

[[بين الاقوامي قانون]] موجب، امن قائم ڪندڙ پنهنجي غيرجانبدار حيثيت سبب [[غير جنگجو]] (non-combatants) شمار ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي ٻن يا وڌيڪ [[جنگ ڪندڙ ڌر]]ن جي وچ ۾ تڪرار ۾ غيرجانبدار هوندا آهن (بلڪل اهڙيءَ طرح جيئن امن قائم رکڻ جي ذميوارين کان ٻاهر موجود غيرجانبدار ماڻهو ۽ ملڪيت). تنهنڪري انهن کي هر حال ۾ حملن کان تحفظ حاصل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule33 |title=Rule 33. Personnel and Objects Involved in a Peacekeeping Mission|publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]|access-date=April 7, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فائل:UN Soldiers in Eritrea.jpeg|thumb|right|upright=1.00|نيدرلينڊز جا ڊچ فوجي اقوام متحده جي امن جي قيام جي فورس ۾ ايٿوپيا ۽ ايريٽيريا جي سرحد تي گڏيل قومن پاران چوڪسي ڪندي]]

'''امن جي بحالي واري فوج'''{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي=Peace Keeping Force}}
ٻن ملڪن ياڌرين جي وچ ۾ ڪو به تڪرار ايترو زور وٺي وڃي، جو ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت کانسواءِ اهو ٽري نه سگهي، ته ٽين ڌر امن قائم ڪرڻ (Peace Keeping) لاءِ مُختلف اُپاءُ وٺندي آهي. ڪنهن به تڪرار جي حل لاءِ ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت جو مقصد ٻن ڌُرين ۾ رڳو صُلح ڪرائڻ هوندو آهي، جنهن لاءِ فوجي ۽ سُفارتي طريقا ڪتب آندا ويندا آهن. ان کان سواءِ گھُرج پوڻ تي ٽين ڌر (يا وچين ڌر) جهيڙو ڪندڙ ڌرين تي مُختلف قسمن جو دٻاءُ رکندي آهي، جيڪڏهن ڌريون پوءِ به جهيڙي کي نه ٿيون ختم ڪن، ته مٿانئن فوجي قدم کڻڻ لاءِ به اڳڀرائي ڪئي ويندي آهي. جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جو عالمي ادارو|گڏيل قومن]] جو ادارو قائم ڪيو ويو هيو ته ان وقت ٻي عالمي جنگ ختم ٿي هئي، پر ملڪن جا پاڻ ۾ تڪرار پوءِ به هلي رهيا هئا ۽ ”سرد جنگ“ به شروع ٿي چڪي هئي، دُنيا جي امن کي گهڻن قسمن جا خطرا پيدا ٿي چڪا هئا. 1950ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل بين الاقوامي جهيڙن کي پاسيرو ڪرڻ ۽ امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ”احتياطي سفارتڪاري“ (Preventive Diplomacy) جو اصطلاح اڳيان آندو هو. انهيءَ قسم جي حڪمت عملي ۾ ڪنهن به تڪرار کي رڳو ٺارڻ جو حل ڏنل هيو، پر جهيڙي کي مستقل طور ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪجهه واڌو قدم به گهربل هئا. انهيءَ ڪري اهڙي صورتحال ۾ اڳتي هلي ”مشن ڪريپ“ (Mission Creep) جو اصطلاح ڪتب آندو ويو، جنهن ۾ جهيڙي کي مڪمل طور ختم ڪرڻ جي تجويز ڏني وئي. انهيءَ حوالي سان 1956ع ۾ ڪئناڊا جي پرڏيهي معاملن جي وزير ۽ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”ڊگ هئمرشولڊ“ گڏيل قومن جي اداري جي پلئٽفارم تان ”امن قائم ڪرڻ واري فوج“ (Peace Keeping Force) قائم ڪئي، جنهن جي شعبا بندي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ان جي ورديءَ کانسواءِ خاص قسم جي ٽوپي به تيار ڪرائي وئي ۽ ان خاص ٽوپيءَ جو رنگ ”نيرو“ مقرر ڪيو ويو. ٽوپيءَ کي ٻين فوجي ٽوپين کان الڳ رنگ ڏيڻ جو مقصد، بين الاقوامي امن فوج جي انفراديت کي ظاهر ڪرڻ آهي. ان هوندي به ”امن فوج“ جي طريقيڪار ۽ اختيارن کي اڃا تائين چڱيءَ ريت گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر ۾ بيان نه ڪيو ويو آهي. گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر جي 6 ۽ 7 باب ۾، امن جي ڪوشش وٺڻ لاءِ جيڪي تفصيل بيان ڪيا ويا آهن، انهن سان امن جي بحاليءَ واري عمل کي به جوڙيو ويو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن جي بحاليءَ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي پڌرنامي جي روح مطابق جوڙجڪ ضروري آهي. انهن کوٽن جي باوجود، گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج، دُنيا ۾ امن ۽ صلح جي لاءِ گھڻن هنڌن مثال طور؛ ڪمبوڊيا، نميبيا، انگولا، لبنان، ايراني نار ۽ [[سوماليا|صوماليا]] وغيره ۾ ڪاميابيءَ سان پنهنجون ذميواريون پوريون ڪري چڪي آهي. امن فوج جي اهڙي اهميت کي محسوس ڪندي، گڏيل قومن جي اداري ڪيترن مُتاثر ملڪن جي داخلي معاملن ۾ به هن فوج جو استعمال مُناسب ۽ بهتر سمجهيو. منڍ ۾ اها فوج ٻن تڪراري ڌُر جي وچ ۾ هلندڙ جهيِڙو ٽارڻ لاءِ ڪتب آندي ويندي هئي، پر 1988ع کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جي اداري اهڙن ملڪن ۾ به کيس ذميواري سونپيون، جتي گهرو ويڙھ ۾ اَڙيل مُختلف ڌرين ۾ جنگ جاري هُئي ۽ اُتي انتظامي معاملا هيٺ مٿي لڳا پيا هُئا. اهڙن مُلڪن ۾ امن فوج کي گڏيل قومن طرفان چونڊون ڪرائڻ، انتظامي معاملن کي سُڌارڻ، عوام کي تحفظ ڏيڻ ۽ جهيڙن کان تنگ اچي ملڪ ڇڏي ويل ماڻهن کي واپس پنهنجي اباڻي وطن ۾ ٻيهر آباد ڪرائڻ جا اختيار به ڏنا ويا. ٻئي طرف اها به حقيقت آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج کي گھڻن معاملن ۽ هنڌن تي ڪن ملڪن پنهنجن خاص مقصدن لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو. ان کانسواءِ گھڻن علائقن (جهڙوڪ ڪشمير) ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن فوج پنهنجي مقصد حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام وئي آهي. سندس مُقابلي ۾ اولھ جي مُلڪن جي فوجي اتحاد نيٽو امن فوج جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ متحرڪ ۽ اثرائتي رهي آهي. 1992ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”بترس غالي“، امن جي آڻڻ لاءِ خاص علائقي ۽ خاص حالتن آهر مداخلت ڪرڻ ۽ نون اختيار ڏيڻ لاءِ اداري آڏو تجويزون پيش ڪيون، پر ان ڏس ۾ مڪمل سوڀاري ٿيڻ لاءِ ”پيس ڪيپگ“ جو عمل نون ضابطن، اختيارن ۽ قانونن جي انتظار ۾ آهي. 
&lt;ref&gt;[http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/define/Peace%20Keeping%20Force.php سنڌي آنلائين ڊڪشنري]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} پاران [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد&lt;/ref&gt;

== وصفون ۽ امن قائم رکڻ جي عمل جا قسم ==

=== گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ===
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن}}

==== ڇهون باب ۽ ستون باب وارا مشن ====

امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن جا ڪيترائي مختلف قسم آهن. مثال طور، پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي ڪتاب ''Does Peacekeeping Work?'' ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن کي چئن مختلف قسمن ۾ ورهايو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=Chapter 7}}&lt;/ref&gt; انهن مشنن جو قسم ۽ انهن تي عملدرآمد جو طريقو گهڻي حد تائين ان اختيارنامي (mandate) تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، جنهن تحت انهن کي اختيار ڏنو ويندو آهي.

فورٽنا جي بيان ڪيل چئن قسمن مان ٽي اهڙا آهن، جيڪي ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن ۽ انهن کي عام طور ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ڇهون باب|ڇهين باب]]'' وارا مشن چيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته چوٿون قسم ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]]'' وارو مشن هوندو آهي.

ڇهين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشنن لاءِ جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي لازمي هوندي آهي؛ جيڪڏهن اها رضامندي ختم ٿي وڃي ته امن قائم ڪندڙ دستن کي علائقو ڇڏڻو پوندو. ان جي ابتڙ، ستين باب وارن مشنن کي قانوني طور رضامندي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي، جيتوڻيڪ عملي طور اها موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي. جيڪڏهن رضامندي بعد ۾ ختم به ٿي وڃي ته به اهڙن مشنن کي واپس وڃڻ ضروري نه هوندو.

# '''مشاهدي وارا مشن''' (Observation Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي يا شهري مبصرن جا ننڍا دستا شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي جنگبندي، فوجن جي واپسي يا جنگبندي واري معاهدي ۾ ڄاڻايل ٻين شرطن جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. اهي عام طور بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا آهن ۽ سندن بنيادي ذميواري رڳو مشاهدو ڪرڻ ۽ رپورٽون تيار ڪرڻ هوندي آهي؛ تنهن ڪري جيڪڏهن ڪا ڌر معاهدي جي ڀڃڪڙي ڪري ته اهي مداخلت ڪرڻ جا مجاز نه هوندا آهن. مثال طور [[انگولا]] ۾ 1991ع وارو [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن II]] (UNAVEM II) ۽ [[اولهه صحارا]] ۾ [[اولهه صحارا بابت راءِ شماري لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو مشن]] (MINURSO).

# '''وچٿري مشن''' (Interpositional Missions)، جن کي روايتي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، نسبتاً وڏن ۽ هلڪي هٿياربند فوجي دستن تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جيڪي تڪرار کان پوءِ ٻن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ طور مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهي ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ بفر زون جو ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. مثال طور 1994ع ۾ [[انگولا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن III]] (UNAVEM III) ۽ 1996ع ۾ [[گوئٽي مالا]] ۾ [[MINUGUA]].

# '''گهڻ رخا مشن''' (Multidimensional Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس]] عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو جامع امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندو آهي. اهي رڳو مشاهدو يا ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رڪاوٽ بڻجڻ تائين محدود نه هوندا آهن، پر چونڊن جي نگراني، پوليس ۽ سلامتي ادارن جي سڌارن، ادارن جي تعمير، معاشي ترقي ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي شعبن ۾ پڻ حصو وٺندا آهن. مثال طور [[نيميبيا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو عبوري امدادي گروهه]] (UNTAG)، [[ايل سلواڊور]] ۾ [[ONUSAL]] ۽ [[موزمبيق]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUMOZ).

# '''[[امن لاڳو ڪندڙ]] مشن''' (Peace Enforcement Missions): اهي ستين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشن هوندا آهن ۽ اڳين ٽن قسمن جي ابتڙ، جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ جا پابند نه هوندا آهن. اهي شهري ۽ فوجي ٻنهي قسمن جي عملي تي مشتمل گهڻ رخا مشن هوندا آهن. انهن وٽ نسبتاً وڏي ۽ بهتر هٿياربند فوج هوندي آهي ۽ انهن کي صرف پنهنجي بچاءَ کان وڌيڪ مقصدن لاءِ به طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل هوندو آهي. مثال طور [[اولهه آفريڪا]] ۾ [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري جو نگراني گروهه]] (ECOMOG)، 1999ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو سيرا ليون مشن]] (UNAMSIL)، ۽ [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ [[نيٽو]] جا [[IFOR]] ۽ [[SFOR]] آپريشن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;/&gt;

==== سرد جنگ دوران ۽ ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ====

[[سرد جنگ]] جي دور ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جا اڪثر مشن روايتي نوعيت جا هئا، جن ۾ امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا ملڪن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ جنگن کان پوءِ مقرر ڪيا ويندا هئا ته جيئن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ بڻجن ۽ امن معاهدن تي عملدرآمد کي يقيني بڻائين. اهي مشن رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا هئا ۽ گهڻو ڪري مبصر بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا هئا، جيئن [[وچ اوڀر]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) ۽ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] بابت [[ڪشمير بابت گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP). ڪجهه مشن هٿياربند به هئا، جهڙوڪ [[سوئيز بحران]] دوران قائم ڪيل [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I). مجموعي طور اهي مشن پنهنجي مقرر ڪيل ڪردار ۾ ڪامياب رهيا.

[[سرد جنگ کان پوءِ وارو دور|سرد جنگ کان پوءِ]] گڏيل قومن امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ جامع ۽ گهڻ رخي طريقيڪار اختيار ڪيو. 1992ع ۾ ان وقت جي [[گڏيل قومن جو سيڪريٽري جنرل|سيڪريٽري جنرل]] [[بوتروس بوتروس غالي]] هڪ رپورٽ تيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ امن قائم رکڻ بابت پنهنجو جامع تصور پيش ڪيو. ''[[امن لاءِ ايجنڊا]]'' (An Agenda for Peace) نالي هن رپورٽ ۾ هن احتياطي سفارتڪاري، امن لاڳو ڪرڻ، امن ڪرائڻ، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ بحاليءَ کي هڪ ٻئي سان ڳنڍيل قدمن طور بيان ڪيو، جن جي ذريعي سرد جنگ کان پوءِ واري عالمي سياست ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ڪردار وڌيڪ اثرائتو بڻجي سگهي.

==== گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جا وسيع مقصد ====

[[مائيڪل ڊوئل]] ۽ نڪولس سامبانس پنهنجي ڪتاب ''The UN Record on Peacekeeping Operations'' ۾ بوتروس غالي جي رپورٽ جو خلاصو پيش ڪندي احتياطي سفارتڪاري، اعتماد سازي جي قدمن (جهڙوڪ حقيقت معلوم ڪرڻ وارا مشن)، مبصر مشن، ۽ تشدد جي خطري کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي اختيار هيٺ فوج مقرر ڪرڻ کي پائيدار امن لاءِ اهم ذريعا قرار ڏين ٿا. سندن بيان موجب:

# '''امن لاڳو ڪرڻ''' (Peace Enforcement): گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي منظور ڪيل جنگبندي يا معاهدي تي عمل ڪرائڻ لاءِ، ضرورت پوڻ تي ڌرين جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به فوجي طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ. اهڙا مشن عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]] تحت هلندا آهن ۽ انهن ۾ مقرر فوجون نسبتاً وڌيڪ هٿياربند هونديون آهن.

# '''امن ڪرائڻ''' (Peacemaking): گڏيل قومن جي سرپرستي هيٺ ثالثي ۽ ڳالهين ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين کي پرامن حل تي راضي ڪرڻ. هي عمل عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] جي ڇهين باب تحت ڪيو ويندو آهي.

# '''امن قائم رکڻ''' (Peacekeeping): جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي سان هلڪي هٿياربند گڏيل قومن جي موجودگي قائم ڪرڻ، اعتماد پيدا ڪرڻ ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ٿيل معاهدن جي نگراني ڪرڻ. ان سان گڏ سفارتي ڪوششون پڻ جاري رهنديون آهن ته جيئن جامع ۽ پائيدار امن حاصل ڪري سگهجي.

# '''تڪرار کان پوءِ بحالي''' (Post-Conflict Reconstruction): معاشي ۽ سماجي سهڪار ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي بحال ڪرڻ، سياسي، سماجي ۽ معاشي ادارن کي مضبوط ڪرڻ، مستقبل ۾ تشدد جي امڪان کي گهٽائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|date=2007|title=The UN Record On Peacekeeping Operations|journal=International Journal|volume=63|issue=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ ۾ غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) سان گڏجي [[ثقافتي ورثو|ثقافتي ورثي]] جي تحفظ لاءِ ڪم ڪرڻ پڻ شامل آهي. ثقافتي ورثي جي حفاظت بابت گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري وابستگي 2012ع کان جاري آهي ۽ ان کي آهستي آهستي وڌايو پيو وڃي. ان سلسلي ۾ 2019ع ۾ [[يونيفل]] ۽ [[بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل]] جو لبنان ۾ [[يونيسڪو عالمي ورثو]] جي تحفظ لاءِ گڏيل مشن نمايان مثال آهي. فوجي ۽ شهري ماهرن پاران مقامي آباديءَ سان گڏجي ثقافتي ورثي جو تحفظ ڪيترن ئي تڪراري علائقن ۾ مستقبل جي پرامن ۽ معاشي ترقيءَ جو بنياد بڻجي ٿو. بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل جي صدر [[ڪارل فون هيبسبرگ]]، اپريل 2019ع ۾ لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ [[يونيسڪو]] جي مشن دوران چيو: ''&quot;ثقافتي ورثو ڪنهن به علائقي ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جي سڃاڻپ جو حصو هوندو آهي. جيڪڏهن توهان انهن جي ثقافت تباهه ڪريو ٿا ته سندن سڃاڻپ به ختم ٿي وڃي ٿي. نتيجي ۾ ڪيترائي ماڻهو بي گهر ٿي وڃن ٿا، سندن مستقبل بابت اميدون ختم ٿي وڃن ٿيون ۽ هو آخرڪار پنهنجو وطن ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ٿين ٿا.&quot;''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Karl von Habsburg auf Mission im Libanon|date=April 28, 2019 |url=https://www.krone.at/1911689|language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Jyot Hosagrahar: ''Culture: at the heart of SDGs.'' UNESCO-Kurier, April-Juni 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rick Szostak: ''The Causes of Economic Growth: Interdisciplinary Perspectives.'' Springer Science &amp; Business Media, 2009, {{ISBN|9783540922827}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bundesheer.at/cms/artikel.php?ID=10118 &quot;Blue Helmet Forum 2019 - Protection of Cultural Heritage in Peace Operations&quot;, Austrian Armed Forces].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017nian-di-3qi/historic-resolution-protect-cultural-heritage|title=A historic resolution to protect cultural heritage, The UNESCO Courier}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/action-plan-to-preserve-heritage-sites-during-conflict|title=Action plan to preserve heritage sites during conflict|website=United Nations Peacekeeping}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''UNESCO Director-General calls for stronger cooperation for heritage protection at the Blue Shield International General Assembly.'' UNESCO, September 13, 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم رکڻ ===
{{See also|غير گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي فهرست|نيٽو امن قائم رکڻ|يورپي يونين جي فوجي ۽ شهري مشنن جي فهرست|آفريقي يونين جي فوجي مداخلتن جي فهرست}}

[[File:En-MFO1.JPG|thumb|right|1989ع ۾ [[مصر]] جي [[سنائي اپٻيٽ|سنائي]] واري علائقي جي [[ايل گوراح]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) جي غير گڏيل قومن واري امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن سان مقرر ڪيل ڪينيڊا جا [[CH135 ٽوئن هيوئي]] هيليڪاپٽر.]]

[[File:75Parad 04.jpg|thumb|[[آذربائيجان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جا ميمبر، [[2020 ماسڪو فتح پريڊ]] دوران مڪمل فوجي ورديءَ ۾.]]

سڀئي بين الاقوامي امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا سڌي طرح گڏيل قومن جي ڪنٽرول هيٺ ڪم نٿا ڪن. 1981ع ۾ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ [[مصر]] جي وچ ۾ ٿيل هڪ معاهدي تحت [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) قائم ڪئي وئي، جيڪا اڄ تائين [[سنائي اپٻيٽ]] ۾ امن معاهدي تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;10TAGpgA-1&quot;&gt;10 Tactical Air Group: ''Canadian Contingent Multinational Force and Observers Handbook'' (unclassified), page A-1. DND, Ottawa, 1986.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[آفريقي يونين]] (AU) آفريقي امن ۽ سلامتي جو اهڙو ڍانچو (آفريڪن پيس اينڊ سڪيورٽي آرڪيٽيڪچر) قائم ڪرڻ تي ڪم ڪري رهي آهي، جيڪو براعظم ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري نڀائي سگهي. جيڪڏهن ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ [[نسل ڪشي]] يا انساني حقن جون ٻيون سنگين ڀڃڪڙيون ٿين، ته آفريقي يونين جي جنرل اسيمبلي جي منظوري سان، ان ملڪ جي حڪومت جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن موڪلي سگهجي ٿو. هن نظام، جنهن ۾ [[آفريقي اسٽينڊ بائي فورس]] (ASF) پڻ شامل آهي، جي قيام جو منصوبو 2015ع کان اڳ نه هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/african-peace-and-security-architecture-already-proving-useful-even-though-it-still-work |title=The African Peace and Security Architecture is already proving useful even though it is still work in progress |publisher=dandc.eu |date=August 27, 2013 |access-date=November 14, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

علائقائي سطح تي [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري]] (ECOWAS) پنهنجي ڪجهه ميمبر ملڪن ۾ ڪيترائي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا آهن، ۽ ان کي &quot;آفريڪا جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ ترقي يافته علائقائي امن ۽ سلامتي وارو نظام&quot; قرار ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Oni|first1=Cyril I.|date=2009|journal=African Security|volume=2|pages=119–135|doi=10.1080/19362200903361945|title=Economic Community of West African States on the Ground: Comparing Peacekeeping in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea Bissau, and Côte D'Ivoire|issue=2–3|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''غير هٿياربند شهري امن قائم رکڻ''' (ان آرمڊ سويلين پيس ڪيپنگ، UCP) ۾ شهري عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو تڪراري علائقن ۾ شهرين کي تشدد کان بچائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن جي قيام جي ڪوششن جي سهائتا لاءِ غير تشدد، غير مداخلت ۽ غير جانبداريءَ تي ٻڌل حڪمت عمليون اختيار ڪندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ UCP جو اصطلاح سڀني غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) ۾ هڪجهڙو عام نه آهي، پر ڪيترائي ادارا ساڳين طريقن سان ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ امن بابت هڪجهڙا مقصد رکندا آهن. انهن طريقن ۾ متاثر ماڻهن سان گڏ رهڻ، مستقل موجودگي، افواهن تي ضابطو آڻڻ، برادريءَ جي سلامتي بابت گڏجاڻيون، محفوظ لنگهن جو بندوبست ڪرڻ ۽ نگراني ڪرڻ شامل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rachel|first1=Julian|last2=Schweitzer|first2=Christine|date=2015|title=The Origins And Development of Unarmed Civilian Peacekeeping|url=http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|journal=Peace Review|volume=27|issue=1|pages=1–8|doi=10.1080/10402659.2015.1000181|s2cid=144911738|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719124249/http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|archive-date=July 19, 2018|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== مختصر تاريخ ==
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي تاريخ}}

=== قيام ۽ شروعاتي سال ===

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري نظام جي شروعات 1948ع ۾ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] [[1948ع جي عرب-اسرائيل جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ ان جي عرب پاڙيسري ملڪن وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي واري معاهدي جي نگراني لاءِ وچ اوڀر ۾ گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن کي مقرر ڪرڻ جي منظوري ڏني. هن مشن کي [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) سڏيو ويو، جيڪو اڄ تائين جاري آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/history.shtml|title=History of Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آگسٽ 1949ع ۾ سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 73 (1949ع) منظور ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNTSO کي اسرائيل ۽ انهن عرب رياستن جي وچ ۾ ٿيل چئن جنگبندي معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني جي ذميواري ڏني وئي، جيڪي ان جنگ ۾ شامل هيون. نتيجي طور، UNTSO جون سرگرميون علائقي جي پنجن رياستن، يعني [[اسرائيل]]، [[مصر]]، [[اردن]]، [[لبنان]] ۽ [[شام]] تائين ڦهلجي ويون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/untso/background.shtml|title=UNTSO Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== سرد جنگ دوران امن قائم رکڻ ===

آگسٽ 1947ع ۾ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] جي آزادي ۽ ان کان پوءِ ٿيل وڏي پيماني تي خونريزيءَ کان پوءِ، سلامتي ڪائونسل جنوري 1948ع ۾ قرارداد 39 (1948ع) منظور ڪري [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP) قائم ڪيو، جنهن جو مقصد [[ڪشمير]] بابت ٻنهي ملڪن جي وچ ۾ پيدا ٿيل تڪرار ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل ويڙهه ۾ ثالثي ڪرڻ هو.

هي مشن غير مداخلتي نوعيت جو هو ۽ ان کي [[ڄمون ۽ ڪشمير]] ۾ ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان جي وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي جي نگراني جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي. جولاءِ 1949ع ۾ [[ڪراچي معاهدو]] ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNCIP جنگبندي واري لڪير جي نگراني شروع ڪئي، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن ۽ ٻنهي ڌرين جي مقامي فوجي ڪمانڊرن جي گڏيل نگراني هيٺ هئي. هن مشن جو تسلسل اڄ به [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان ۾ گڏيل قومن جو فوجي مبصر گروپ]] (UNMOGIP) جي نالي سان جاري آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unmogip/background.shtml|title=UNMOGIP Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف ملڪن ۾ ڪُل 69 امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي منظوري ڏني.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;/&gt; انهن مان گهڻا مشن سرد جنگ جي خاتمي کان پوءِ قائم ٿيا. 1988ع کان 1998ع جي وچ ۾ گڏيل قومن 35 نوان امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا، جڏهن ته 1948ع کان 1978ع تائين صرف 13 مشن قائم ٿيا هئا، ۽ 1978ع کان 1988ع جي وچ واري ڏهاڪي دوران ڪو به نئون مشن قائم نه ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Duffey|first=Tamara|date=2000|title=Cultural Issues in Contemporary Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=7|issue=1|pages=142–168|doi=10.1080/13533310008413823|s2cid=145210823}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|142–168}}

گڏيل قومن جي پهرين هٿياربند مداخلت 1956ع جي [[سوئيز بحران]] کان پوءِ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I) قائم ڪئي وئي. هي فوج نومبر 1956ع کان جون 1967ع تائين موجود رهي ۽ ان کي [[مصر]]، [[برطانيه]]، [[فرانس]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] جي وچ ۾ جنگبندي برقرار رکڻ، مصري علائقي مان برطانوي، فرينچ ۽ اسرائيلي فوجن جي واپسي جي نگراني ڪرڻ، ۽ پوءِ مصر ۽ اسرائيل جي فوجن جي وچ ۾ بفر فورس طور ڪم ڪندي جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ جو مينڊيٽ ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unef1mandate.html|title=UNEF Mandate|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان ٿوري ئي عرصي بعد 1960ع ۾ [[ڪانگو ۾ گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUC) شروع ڪيو ويو. پنهنجي عروج تي هن مشن ۾ ويهه هزار کان وڌيڪ فوجي اهلڪار شامل هئا، ۽ ان دوران 250 گڏيل قومن جا اهلڪار مارجي ويا، جن ۾ ان وقت جو سيڪريٽري جنرل [[ڊيگ هيملشولڊ]] پڻ شامل هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/early.shtml|title=The Early Years of UN Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ONUC جو مقصد [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] مان بيلجيم جي فوجن جي واپسي کي يقيني بڻائڻ هو، جيڪي [[فورس پبليڪ]] جي بغاوت کان پوءِ بيلجيم جي شهرين ۽ اقتصادي مفادن جي تحفظ لاءِ ٻيهر داخل ٿي ويون هيون. هن مشن کي قانون ۽ امن امان بحال ڪرڻ، بغاوت ۽ نسلي تشدد کي ختم ڪرڻ، ڪانگولي سلامتي فورسن کي فني مدد ۽ تربيت ڏيڻ، ۽ ملڪ جي علائقائي سالميت ۽ سياسي خودمختياري کي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/onuc.htm|title=ONUC|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي ذميواري خاص طور تي [[ڪتانگا]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪاسائي]] جهڙن معدني وسيلن سان مالامال صوبن جي علحدگيءَ واري تحريڪ جي پسمنظر ۾ شامل ڪئي وئي. ان دور ۾ گڏيل قومن جون فوجون، ڪجهه تڪراري انداز ۾، ڪانگو جي حڪومت جي مدد ڪندي ٻنهي صوبن جي علحدگي ختم ڪرائڻ ۾ به ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

1960ع ۽ 1970ع واري ڏهاڪن دوران گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف علائقن ۾ ڪيترائي مختصر مدي وارا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن قائم ڪيا، جن ۾ [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريه ۾ سيڪريٽري جنرل جي نمائندي جو مشن]] (DOMREP)، [[اولهه نيو گني ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي فورس]] (UNSF) ۽ [[يمن ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مبصر مشن]] (UNYOM) شامل هئا. ساڳئي وقت ڪجهه ڊگهي مدي وارا مشن پڻ جاري رهيا، جهڙوڪ [[قبرص ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج]] (UNFICYP)، [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج II]] (UNEF II)، [[گڏيل قومن جي ڌرين جي الڳ ٿيڻ جي نگراني ڪندڙ فوج]] (UNDOF)، ۽ [[لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن جي عبوري فوج]] (UNIFIL).&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;/&gt;

=== 1991ع کان پوءِ ===

[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-un-holds-head.jpg|thumb|[[سراييوو جو گهيرو|سراييوو جي گهيري]] (1992ع–1993ع) دوران هڪ [[ناروي]] جو امن قائم رکڻ وارو اهلڪار؛ تصوير: [[ميخائل اِوستافيئف]].]]

[[يوگوسلاو جنگين]] دوران امن قائم رکڻ جي تجربن، خاص طور تي [[سربرينيتسا قتلِ عام]] جهڙين ناڪامين، جزوي طور [[گڏيل قومن جي امن تعمير ڪميشن]] (يونائيٽيڊ نيشنز پيس بلڊنگ ڪميشن) جي قيام جو سبب بڻيا. هي ڪميشن چونڊن ۽ ٻين شهري ادارن جي مضبوطي جهڙين سرگرمين وسيلي پائيدار امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ انجام ڏيندا آهن. هن وقت اها ڪميشن آفريڪا جي ڇهن ملڪن سان ڪم ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/projects/africa/beyond-peace-deals-united-nations-experiment-peacebuilding |title=Beyond Peace Deals: The United Nations Experiment in &quot;Peacebuilding&quot;|date=June 22, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ڳالهين سان گڏ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، ۾ عورتن جي وڌيڪ مؤثر شرڪت، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهرن جي مقرري، هٿياربند تڪرارن جا عورتن تي پوندڙ اثرن بابت وڌيڪ معلومات، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |title=UN Security Council Takes a Historic Stand Supporting Abortion Access for Women Raped in War / Library / Homepage |publisher=AWID |access-date=October 28, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203101025/http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |archive-date=December 3, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن سان امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW)، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن بابت ڪميٽي آهي، هڪ عام سفارش جاري ڪئي، جنهن موجب اهي رياستون، جيڪي گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جون ڌريون آهن، پابند آهن ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌيءَ طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ فوجون موڪلين، يا تڪرارن جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مالي يا ٻئي قسم جي مدد فراهم ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=13885&amp;LangID=E|title=OHCHR -|website=www.ohchr.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪميٽي اهو پڻ واضح ڪيو ته اهڙين رياستن کي مناسب احتياط اختيار ڪرڻ گهرجي ته جيئن [[غير رياستي ڌريون]]، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي سلامتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ٿيندڙ ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

[[پيج فورٽنا]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي مقرري بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍيو ته ''&quot;امن قائم رکڻ رسد ۽ طلب جو معاملو آهي.&quot;'' رسد جي لحاظ کان سندس مشاهدو آهي ته سلامتي ڪائونسل جي مستقل ميمبرن مان ڪنهن هڪ جي ويجهن ملڪن ۾ هلندڙ گهرو ويڙهن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن مقرر ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن. جڏهن ته طلب جي لحاظ کان مختلف تحقيقون ظاهر ڪن ٿيون ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن گهڻو ڪري انهن ملڪن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن، جتي انهن جي ضرورت سڀ کان وڌيڪ هوندي آهي، يعني جتي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تمام گهڻو هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot; /&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي جوڙجڪ ==

=== اهي ملڪ جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺن ٿا ===
{{See also|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي تعداد موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Irish troops UNMIL.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|جولاءِ 2006ع ۾ [[لائبيريا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو مشن لائبيريا]] (UNMIL) سان مقرر آئرش فوجي گشت ڪندي.]]

[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] موجب، دنيا ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ ۾ مدد ڏيڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا سڀئي ميمبر ملڪ سلامتي ڪائونسل کي ضرورت موجب فوجي دستا ۽ ٻيون سهولتون فراهم ڪندا. 1948ع کان وٺي لڳ ڀڳ 130 ملڪن امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن لاءِ فوجي اهلڪار، شهري پوليس ۽ ٻيو عملو فراهم ڪيو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ 1948ع کان وٺي سڀني امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏيندڙ اهلڪارن جو مڪمل رڪارڊ موجود ناهي، پر اندازو آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي 71 مشنن ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه لک فوجين، پوليس اهلڪارن ۽ شهرين گڏيل قومن جي جهنڊي هيٺ خدمتون انجام ڏنيون آهن. سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين 122 ملڪ گڏيل طور لڳ ڀڳ 76,000 فوجي مبصر، پوليس اهلڪار ۽ فوجي مهيا ڪري رهيا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Troop and police contributors|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/troop-and-police-contributors|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

شرڪت ڪندڙ ملڪن جو تعداد گهڻو هجڻ باوجود، امن قائم رکڻ جو وڏو بار اڃا تائين [[ترقي پذير ملڪ|ترقي پذير ملڪن]] جي هڪ بنيادي گروهه تي آهي. آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي، پوليس ۽ فوجي ماهر موڪليندڙ ڏهه ملڪ [[بنگلاديش]] (6,447)، [[نيپال]] (5,536)، [[ڀارت]] (5,481)، [[روانڊا]] (5,263)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (4,856)، [[پاڪستان]] (3,949)، [[مصر]] (2,818)، [[انڊونيشيا]] (2,818)، [[گهانا]] (2,296) ۽ [[چين]] (2,248) هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين 14,000 کان وڌيڪ شهري اهلڪار به امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ قانوني يا طبي ماهرن، استادن، مواصلاتي ٽيڪنالاجي جي ماهرن ۽ انتظامي عملي طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/civilians|title=Civilians|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

30 سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن دوران 100 کان وڌيڪ ملڪن سان تعلق رکندڙ 4,147 ماڻهو پنهنجون حياتيون وڃائي چڪا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/fatalities|title=Fatalities|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان وڌيڪ جاني نقصان [[ڀارت]] جو ٿيو، جنهن جا 174 امن اهلڪار مارجي ويا، ان کان پوءِ [[بنگلاديش]] (159)، [[پاڪستان]] (159)، [[نائيجيريا]] (157)، [[گهانا]] (145)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (138)، [[ڪينيڊا]] (123)، [[فرانس]] (115) ۽ [[برطانيه]] (106) شامل آهن. 1948ع کان وٺي سراسري طور هر سال 56 امن اهلڪار ماريا ويا، پر 2001ع کان پوءِ هي انگ لڳ ڀڳ ٻيڻو ٿي هر سال 110 تائين پهچي ويو. گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي پهرين 55 سالن دوران ٿيل ڪل جاني نقصان جو 30 سيڪڙو حصو صرف 1993ع کان 1995ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جي شعبي ۾ عالمي اتر ۽ عالمي ڏکڻ (Global North ۽ Global South) جي وچ ۾ واضح فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي وڏي اڪثريت [[عالمي ڏکڻ]] جي ترقي پذير ملڪن مان ايندي آهي. [[ٿامس جي. وائيس]] ۽ جيووانا ڪيولي موجب، ان جا ٽي اهم سبب علائقائي مفاد، بين الاقوامي وقار ۽ مالي فائدا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=February 3, 2019|title=The Global South and UN Peace Operations|url=https://www.e-ir.info/2019/02/03/the-global-south-and-un-peace-operations/|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=E-International Relations|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آفريقي ملڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا سڀ کان وڌيڪ اهلڪار فراهم ڪن ٿا، پر ساڳئي وقت آفريڪا ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جو تعداد به سڀ کان وڌيڪ آهي، ۽ گهڻا آفريقي امن اهلڪار آفريڪا جي اندر ئي مقرر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، ايٿوپيا جا لڳ ڀڳ سڀئي 4,800 امن اهلڪار پاڙيسري ملڪن [[سوڊان]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ مقرر هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺڻ سان ترقي پذير ملڪن کي بين الاقوامي وقار پڻ حاصل ٿيندو آهي، ۽ اهو [[عظيم طاقت]] طور پنهنجون دعوائون مضبوط ڪرڻ ۾ مددگار ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيئن [[برازيل]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جي صورت ۾ ڏٺو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، غريب ملڪن لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين کي موڪلڻ مالي لحاظ کان به فائديمند هوندو آهي. هر امن اهلڪار لاءِ ماهوار واپسيءَ جي رقم ۾ پگهار ۽ الائونس لاءِ 1,028 آمريڪي ڊالر، ماهرن لاءِ اضافي 303 آمريڪي ڊالر، ذاتي لباس، سامان ۽ اوزارن لاءِ 68 آمريڪي ڊالر، ۽ ذاتي هٿيار لاءِ 5 آمريڪي ڊالر شامل هوندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/faq/q10.htm|title=United Nations Peacekeepers - How are peacekeepers compensated?|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; گڏيل قومن طرفان فراهم ڪيل اهي ادائيگيون، تربيت ۽ سامان، انفرادي فوجين سان گڏ ترقي پذير ملڪن لاءِ به مالي طور پرڪشش هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ مقرر ڪيل فوجي ۽ شهري پوليس اهلڪارن مان لڳ ڀڳ 4.5 سيڪڙو [[يورپي يونين]] مان ايندا آهن، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو حصو هڪ سيڪڙو کان به گهٽ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;factsheet&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/overview.shtml |title=Peacekeeping Fact Sheet |publisher=United Nations|access-date=December 20, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

مشنن جي قيادت بابت عام طور تي فوجي ڪمانڊر انهن ملڪن مان چونڊيا ويندا آهن، جيڪي سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي دستا فراهم ڪندا آهن، جڏهن ته سيڪريٽري جنرل جا خاص نمائندا گهڻو ڪري ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Oksamytna |first1= Kseniya|last2= Bove |first2= Vincenzo|last3= Lundgren |first3= Magnus|date= 2021 |title=Leadership selection in United Nations peacekeeping |journal= International Studies Quarterly|volume= 65|pages= 16–28|doi= 10.1093/isq/sqaa023 |doi-access= free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:امن]]
[[زمرو:تنظيمون]]
[[زمرو:گڏيل قومون]]
[[زمرو:عالمي سياست]]
[[زمرو:بين الاقوامي لاڳاپا]]</text>
      <sha1>dovi2u9oupfrkfs1r2pexnd4u2vemhv</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399324</id>
      <parentid>399323</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T21:42:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399324</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="57259" sha1="1k5vgy8sp51xr7ouedi12c5j2cy2smk" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|دائمي امن لاءِ سازگار حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ خاطر ڪيل سرگرميون}}


[[File:Italian Soldier UNIFIL 2 Lebanon 2007.jpg|thumb|[[اطالوي فوج]] جو هڪ [[سپاهي]] لبنان ۾ [[يونيفل]] مشن دوران پهرو ڏئي رهيو آهي.]]

'''امن قائم رکندڙ فوج''' (Peacekeeping Force) انهن سرگرمين، خاص طور فوجي سرگرمين،&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Peacekeeping&quot;. Oxford Languages. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جن جو مقصد اهڙيون حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ هوندو آهي جيڪي پائيدار [[امن]] جي قيام لاءِ سازگار هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/|title=United Nations Peacekeeping|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; تحقيق مان عام طور اهو ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون [[شهري جاني نقصان|شهري]] ۽ جنگي ميدان ۾ ٿيندڙ جاني نقصان کي گهٽائين ٿيون ۽ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي پڻ گهٽائين ٿيون.

[[گڏيل قومون]] (UN) ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل [[قومي رياست]]ن جي حڪومتن ۽ [[تنظيم]]ن جي وچ ۾ عام طور اهو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو ته عالمي سطح تي امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا جنگ کان پوءِ وارن علائقن ۾ امن جي عمل جي نگراني ۽ مشاهدو ڪندا آهن، ۽ اڳوڻن ويڙهاڪن کي انهن امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ ۾ مدد ڏيندا آهن، جن جا هو پابند بڻيل هوندا آهن. اهڙي مدد ڪيترين ئي صورتن ۾ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ اعتماد سازي جا قدم، اقتدار جي ورهاست جا انتظام، چونڊن ۾ مدد، [[قانون جي حڪمراني]] کي مضبوط بڻائڻ، ۽ معاشي ۽ سماجي ترقي کي هٿي ڏيڻ. ان ڪري [[گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا]] (جن کي سندن هلڪي نيري [[بيريٽ]] يا هيلمٽ سبب اڪثر '''نيري بيريٽ''' يا '''نيرا هيلمٽ''' چيو ويندو آهي) ۾ فوجي، [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس آفيسر]] ۽ شهري عملي جا ميمبر شامل ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dpko/ |title=Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dfs/ |title=Department of Field Support (DFS) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جا مشن هلائيندڙ واحد تنظيم گڏيل قومون نه آهن. گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم ڪندڙ قوتن ۾ [[ڪوسوو فورس]] جي [[نيٽو]] مشن (گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان)، [[سينا ٻيٽ نما]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]]، ۽ [[يورپي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[EUFOR RCA]]، گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان) ۽ [[آفريقي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[سوڊان ۾ آفريقي يونين مشن]]) پاران منظم ڪيل امن مشن شامل آهن.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

[[بين الاقوامي قانون]] موجب، امن قائم ڪندڙ پنهنجي غيرجانبدار حيثيت سبب [[غير جنگجو]] (non-combatants) شمار ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي ٻن يا وڌيڪ [[جنگ ڪندڙ ڌر]]ن جي وچ ۾ تڪرار ۾ غيرجانبدار هوندا آهن (بلڪل اهڙيءَ طرح جيئن امن قائم رکڻ جي ذميوارين کان ٻاهر موجود غيرجانبدار ماڻهو ۽ ملڪيت). تنهنڪري انهن کي هر حال ۾ حملن کان تحفظ حاصل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule33 |title=Rule 33. Personnel and Objects Involved in a Peacekeeping Mission|publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]|access-date=April 7, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فائل:UN Soldiers in Eritrea.jpeg|thumb|right|upright=1.00|نيدرلينڊز جا ڊچ فوجي اقوام متحده جي امن جي قيام جي فورس ۾ ايٿوپيا ۽ ايريٽيريا جي سرحد تي گڏيل قومن پاران چوڪسي ڪندي]]

'''امن جي بحالي واري فوج'''{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي=Peace Keeping Force}}
ٻن ملڪن ياڌرين جي وچ ۾ ڪو به تڪرار ايترو زور وٺي وڃي، جو ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت کانسواءِ اهو ٽري نه سگهي، ته ٽين ڌر امن قائم ڪرڻ (Peace Keeping) لاءِ مُختلف اُپاءُ وٺندي آهي. ڪنهن به تڪرار جي حل لاءِ ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت جو مقصد ٻن ڌُرين ۾ رڳو صُلح ڪرائڻ هوندو آهي، جنهن لاءِ فوجي ۽ سُفارتي طريقا ڪتب آندا ويندا آهن. ان کان سواءِ گھُرج پوڻ تي ٽين ڌر (يا وچين ڌر) جهيڙو ڪندڙ ڌرين تي مُختلف قسمن جو دٻاءُ رکندي آهي، جيڪڏهن ڌريون پوءِ به جهيڙي کي نه ٿيون ختم ڪن، ته مٿانئن فوجي قدم کڻڻ لاءِ به اڳڀرائي ڪئي ويندي آهي. جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جو عالمي ادارو|گڏيل قومن]] جو ادارو قائم ڪيو ويو هيو ته ان وقت ٻي عالمي جنگ ختم ٿي هئي، پر ملڪن جا پاڻ ۾ تڪرار پوءِ به هلي رهيا هئا ۽ ”سرد جنگ“ به شروع ٿي چڪي هئي، دُنيا جي امن کي گهڻن قسمن جا خطرا پيدا ٿي چڪا هئا. 1950ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل بين الاقوامي جهيڙن کي پاسيرو ڪرڻ ۽ امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ”احتياطي سفارتڪاري“ (Preventive Diplomacy) جو اصطلاح اڳيان آندو هو. انهيءَ قسم جي حڪمت عملي ۾ ڪنهن به تڪرار کي رڳو ٺارڻ جو حل ڏنل هيو، پر جهيڙي کي مستقل طور ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪجهه واڌو قدم به گهربل هئا. انهيءَ ڪري اهڙي صورتحال ۾ اڳتي هلي ”مشن ڪريپ“ (Mission Creep) جو اصطلاح ڪتب آندو ويو، جنهن ۾ جهيڙي کي مڪمل طور ختم ڪرڻ جي تجويز ڏني وئي. انهيءَ حوالي سان 1956ع ۾ ڪئناڊا جي پرڏيهي معاملن جي وزير ۽ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”ڊگ هئمرشولڊ“ گڏيل قومن جي اداري جي پلئٽفارم تان ”امن قائم ڪرڻ واري فوج“ (Peace Keeping Force) قائم ڪئي، جنهن جي شعبا بندي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ان جي ورديءَ کانسواءِ خاص قسم جي ٽوپي به تيار ڪرائي وئي ۽ ان خاص ٽوپيءَ جو رنگ ”نيرو“ مقرر ڪيو ويو. ٽوپيءَ کي ٻين فوجي ٽوپين کان الڳ رنگ ڏيڻ جو مقصد، بين الاقوامي امن فوج جي انفراديت کي ظاهر ڪرڻ آهي. ان هوندي به ”امن فوج“ جي طريقيڪار ۽ اختيارن کي اڃا تائين چڱيءَ ريت گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر ۾ بيان نه ڪيو ويو آهي. گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر جي 6 ۽ 7 باب ۾، امن جي ڪوشش وٺڻ لاءِ جيڪي تفصيل بيان ڪيا ويا آهن، انهن سان امن جي بحاليءَ واري عمل کي به جوڙيو ويو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن جي بحاليءَ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي پڌرنامي جي روح مطابق جوڙجڪ ضروري آهي. انهن کوٽن جي باوجود، گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج، دُنيا ۾ امن ۽ صلح جي لاءِ گھڻن هنڌن مثال طور؛ ڪمبوڊيا، نميبيا، انگولا، لبنان، ايراني نار ۽ [[سوماليا|صوماليا]] وغيره ۾ ڪاميابيءَ سان پنهنجون ذميواريون پوريون ڪري چڪي آهي. امن فوج جي اهڙي اهميت کي محسوس ڪندي، گڏيل قومن جي اداري ڪيترن مُتاثر ملڪن جي داخلي معاملن ۾ به هن فوج جو استعمال مُناسب ۽ بهتر سمجهيو. منڍ ۾ اها فوج ٻن تڪراري ڌُر جي وچ ۾ هلندڙ جهيِڙو ٽارڻ لاءِ ڪتب آندي ويندي هئي، پر 1988ع کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جي اداري اهڙن ملڪن ۾ به کيس ذميواري سونپيون، جتي گهرو ويڙھ ۾ اَڙيل مُختلف ڌرين ۾ جنگ جاري هُئي ۽ اُتي انتظامي معاملا هيٺ مٿي لڳا پيا هُئا. اهڙن مُلڪن ۾ امن فوج کي گڏيل قومن طرفان چونڊون ڪرائڻ، انتظامي معاملن کي سُڌارڻ، عوام کي تحفظ ڏيڻ ۽ جهيڙن کان تنگ اچي ملڪ ڇڏي ويل ماڻهن کي واپس پنهنجي اباڻي وطن ۾ ٻيهر آباد ڪرائڻ جا اختيار به ڏنا ويا. ٻئي طرف اها به حقيقت آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج کي گھڻن معاملن ۽ هنڌن تي ڪن ملڪن پنهنجن خاص مقصدن لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو. ان کانسواءِ گھڻن علائقن (جهڙوڪ ڪشمير) ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن فوج پنهنجي مقصد حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام وئي آهي. سندس مُقابلي ۾ اولھ جي مُلڪن جي فوجي اتحاد نيٽو امن فوج جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ متحرڪ ۽ اثرائتي رهي آهي. 1992ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”بترس غالي“، امن جي آڻڻ لاءِ خاص علائقي ۽ خاص حالتن آهر مداخلت ڪرڻ ۽ نون اختيار ڏيڻ لاءِ اداري آڏو تجويزون پيش ڪيون، پر ان ڏس ۾ مڪمل سوڀاري ٿيڻ لاءِ ”پيس ڪيپگ“ جو عمل نون ضابطن، اختيارن ۽ قانونن جي انتظار ۾ آهي. 
&lt;ref&gt;[http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/define/Peace%20Keeping%20Force.php سنڌي آنلائين ڊڪشنري]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} پاران [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد&lt;/ref&gt;

== وصفون ۽ امن قائم رکڻ جي عمل جا قسم ==

=== گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ===
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن}}

==== ڇهون باب ۽ ستون باب وارا مشن ====

امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن جا ڪيترائي مختلف قسم آهن. مثال طور، پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي ڪتاب ''Does Peacekeeping Work?'' ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن کي چئن مختلف قسمن ۾ ورهايو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=Chapter 7}}&lt;/ref&gt; انهن مشنن جو قسم ۽ انهن تي عملدرآمد جو طريقو گهڻي حد تائين ان اختيارنامي (mandate) تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، جنهن تحت انهن کي اختيار ڏنو ويندو آهي.

فورٽنا جي بيان ڪيل چئن قسمن مان ٽي اهڙا آهن، جيڪي ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن ۽ انهن کي عام طور ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ڇهون باب|ڇهين باب]]'' وارا مشن چيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته چوٿون قسم ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]]'' وارو مشن هوندو آهي.

ڇهين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشنن لاءِ جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي لازمي هوندي آهي؛ جيڪڏهن اها رضامندي ختم ٿي وڃي ته امن قائم ڪندڙ دستن کي علائقو ڇڏڻو پوندو. ان جي ابتڙ، ستين باب وارن مشنن کي قانوني طور رضامندي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي، جيتوڻيڪ عملي طور اها موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي. جيڪڏهن رضامندي بعد ۾ ختم به ٿي وڃي ته به اهڙن مشنن کي واپس وڃڻ ضروري نه هوندو.

# '''مشاهدي وارا مشن''' (Observation Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي يا شهري مبصرن جا ننڍا دستا شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي جنگبندي، فوجن جي واپسي يا جنگبندي واري معاهدي ۾ ڄاڻايل ٻين شرطن جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. اهي عام طور بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا آهن ۽ سندن بنيادي ذميواري رڳو مشاهدو ڪرڻ ۽ رپورٽون تيار ڪرڻ هوندي آهي؛ تنهن ڪري جيڪڏهن ڪا ڌر معاهدي جي ڀڃڪڙي ڪري ته اهي مداخلت ڪرڻ جا مجاز نه هوندا آهن. مثال طور [[انگولا]] ۾ 1991ع وارو [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن II]] (UNAVEM II) ۽ [[اولهه صحارا]] ۾ [[اولهه صحارا بابت راءِ شماري لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو مشن]] (MINURSO).

# '''وچٿري مشن''' (Interpositional Missions)، جن کي روايتي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، نسبتاً وڏن ۽ هلڪي هٿياربند فوجي دستن تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جيڪي تڪرار کان پوءِ ٻن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ طور مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهي ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ بفر زون جو ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. مثال طور 1994ع ۾ [[انگولا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن III]] (UNAVEM III) ۽ 1996ع ۾ [[گوئٽي مالا]] ۾ [[MINUGUA]].

# '''گهڻ رخا مشن''' (Multidimensional Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس]] عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو جامع امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندو آهي. اهي رڳو مشاهدو يا ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رڪاوٽ بڻجڻ تائين محدود نه هوندا آهن، پر چونڊن جي نگراني، پوليس ۽ سلامتي ادارن جي سڌارن، ادارن جي تعمير، معاشي ترقي ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي شعبن ۾ پڻ حصو وٺندا آهن. مثال طور [[نيميبيا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو عبوري امدادي گروهه]] (UNTAG)، [[ايل سلواڊور]] ۾ [[ONUSAL]] ۽ [[موزمبيق]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUMOZ).

# '''[[امن لاڳو ڪندڙ]] مشن''' (Peace Enforcement Missions): اهي ستين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشن هوندا آهن ۽ اڳين ٽن قسمن جي ابتڙ، جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ جا پابند نه هوندا آهن. اهي شهري ۽ فوجي ٻنهي قسمن جي عملي تي مشتمل گهڻ رخا مشن هوندا آهن. انهن وٽ نسبتاً وڏي ۽ بهتر هٿياربند فوج هوندي آهي ۽ انهن کي صرف پنهنجي بچاءَ کان وڌيڪ مقصدن لاءِ به طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل هوندو آهي. مثال طور [[اولهه آفريڪا]] ۾ [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري جو نگراني گروهه]] (ECOMOG)، 1999ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو سيرا ليون مشن]] (UNAMSIL)، ۽ [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ [[نيٽو]] جا [[IFOR]] ۽ [[SFOR]] آپريشن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;/&gt;

==== سرد جنگ دوران ۽ ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ====

[[سرد جنگ]] جي دور ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جا اڪثر مشن روايتي نوعيت جا هئا، جن ۾ امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا ملڪن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ جنگن کان پوءِ مقرر ڪيا ويندا هئا ته جيئن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ بڻجن ۽ امن معاهدن تي عملدرآمد کي يقيني بڻائين. اهي مشن رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا هئا ۽ گهڻو ڪري مبصر بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا هئا، جيئن [[وچ اوڀر]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) ۽ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] بابت [[ڪشمير بابت گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP). ڪجهه مشن هٿياربند به هئا، جهڙوڪ [[سوئيز بحران]] دوران قائم ڪيل [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I). مجموعي طور اهي مشن پنهنجي مقرر ڪيل ڪردار ۾ ڪامياب رهيا.

[[سرد جنگ کان پوءِ وارو دور|سرد جنگ کان پوءِ]] گڏيل قومن امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ جامع ۽ گهڻ رخي طريقيڪار اختيار ڪيو. 1992ع ۾ ان وقت جي [[گڏيل قومن جو سيڪريٽري جنرل|سيڪريٽري جنرل]] [[بوتروس بوتروس غالي]] هڪ رپورٽ تيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ امن قائم رکڻ بابت پنهنجو جامع تصور پيش ڪيو. ''[[امن لاءِ ايجنڊا]]'' (An Agenda for Peace) نالي هن رپورٽ ۾ هن احتياطي سفارتڪاري، امن لاڳو ڪرڻ، امن ڪرائڻ، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ بحاليءَ کي هڪ ٻئي سان ڳنڍيل قدمن طور بيان ڪيو، جن جي ذريعي سرد جنگ کان پوءِ واري عالمي سياست ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ڪردار وڌيڪ اثرائتو بڻجي سگهي.

==== گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جا وسيع مقصد ====

[[مائيڪل ڊوئل]] ۽ نڪولس سامبانس پنهنجي ڪتاب ''The UN Record on Peacekeeping Operations'' ۾ بوتروس غالي جي رپورٽ جو خلاصو پيش ڪندي احتياطي سفارتڪاري، اعتماد سازي جي قدمن (جهڙوڪ حقيقت معلوم ڪرڻ وارا مشن)، مبصر مشن، ۽ تشدد جي خطري کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي اختيار هيٺ فوج مقرر ڪرڻ کي پائيدار امن لاءِ اهم ذريعا قرار ڏين ٿا. سندن بيان موجب:

# '''امن لاڳو ڪرڻ''' (Peace Enforcement): گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي منظور ڪيل جنگبندي يا معاهدي تي عمل ڪرائڻ لاءِ، ضرورت پوڻ تي ڌرين جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به فوجي طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ. اهڙا مشن عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]] تحت هلندا آهن ۽ انهن ۾ مقرر فوجون نسبتاً وڌيڪ هٿياربند هونديون آهن.

# '''امن ڪرائڻ''' (Peacemaking): گڏيل قومن جي سرپرستي هيٺ ثالثي ۽ ڳالهين ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين کي پرامن حل تي راضي ڪرڻ. هي عمل عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] جي ڇهين باب تحت ڪيو ويندو آهي.

# '''امن قائم رکڻ''' (Peacekeeping): جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي سان هلڪي هٿياربند گڏيل قومن جي موجودگي قائم ڪرڻ، اعتماد پيدا ڪرڻ ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ٿيل معاهدن جي نگراني ڪرڻ. ان سان گڏ سفارتي ڪوششون پڻ جاري رهنديون آهن ته جيئن جامع ۽ پائيدار امن حاصل ڪري سگهجي.

# '''تڪرار کان پوءِ بحالي''' (Post-Conflict Reconstruction): معاشي ۽ سماجي سهڪار ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي بحال ڪرڻ، سياسي، سماجي ۽ معاشي ادارن کي مضبوط ڪرڻ، مستقبل ۾ تشدد جي امڪان کي گهٽائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|date=2007|title=The UN Record On Peacekeeping Operations|journal=International Journal|volume=63|issue=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ ۾ غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) سان گڏجي [[ثقافتي ورثو|ثقافتي ورثي]] جي تحفظ لاءِ ڪم ڪرڻ پڻ شامل آهي. ثقافتي ورثي جي حفاظت بابت گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري وابستگي 2012ع کان جاري آهي ۽ ان کي آهستي آهستي وڌايو پيو وڃي. ان سلسلي ۾ 2019ع ۾ [[يونيفل]] ۽ [[بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل]] جو لبنان ۾ [[يونيسڪو عالمي ورثو]] جي تحفظ لاءِ گڏيل مشن نمايان مثال آهي. فوجي ۽ شهري ماهرن پاران مقامي آباديءَ سان گڏجي ثقافتي ورثي جو تحفظ ڪيترن ئي تڪراري علائقن ۾ مستقبل جي پرامن ۽ معاشي ترقيءَ جو بنياد بڻجي ٿو. بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل جي صدر [[ڪارل فون هيبسبرگ]]، اپريل 2019ع ۾ لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ [[يونيسڪو]] جي مشن دوران چيو: ''&quot;ثقافتي ورثو ڪنهن به علائقي ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جي سڃاڻپ جو حصو هوندو آهي. جيڪڏهن توهان انهن جي ثقافت تباهه ڪريو ٿا ته سندن سڃاڻپ به ختم ٿي وڃي ٿي. نتيجي ۾ ڪيترائي ماڻهو بي گهر ٿي وڃن ٿا، سندن مستقبل بابت اميدون ختم ٿي وڃن ٿيون ۽ هو آخرڪار پنهنجو وطن ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ٿين ٿا.&quot;''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Karl von Habsburg auf Mission im Libanon|date=April 28, 2019 |url=https://www.krone.at/1911689|language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Jyot Hosagrahar: ''Culture: at the heart of SDGs.'' UNESCO-Kurier, April-Juni 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rick Szostak: ''The Causes of Economic Growth: Interdisciplinary Perspectives.'' Springer Science &amp; Business Media, 2009, {{ISBN|9783540922827}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bundesheer.at/cms/artikel.php?ID=10118 &quot;Blue Helmet Forum 2019 - Protection of Cultural Heritage in Peace Operations&quot;, Austrian Armed Forces].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017nian-di-3qi/historic-resolution-protect-cultural-heritage|title=A historic resolution to protect cultural heritage, The UNESCO Courier}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/action-plan-to-preserve-heritage-sites-during-conflict|title=Action plan to preserve heritage sites during conflict|website=United Nations Peacekeeping}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''UNESCO Director-General calls for stronger cooperation for heritage protection at the Blue Shield International General Assembly.'' UNESCO, September 13, 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم رکڻ ===
{{See also|غير گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي فهرست|نيٽو امن قائم رکڻ|يورپي يونين جي فوجي ۽ شهري مشنن جي فهرست|آفريقي يونين جي فوجي مداخلتن جي فهرست}}

[[File:En-MFO1.JPG|thumb|right|1989ع ۾ [[مصر]] جي [[سنائي اپٻيٽ|سنائي]] واري علائقي جي [[ايل گوراح]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) جي غير گڏيل قومن واري امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن سان مقرر ڪيل ڪينيڊا جا [[CH135 ٽوئن هيوئي]] هيليڪاپٽر.]]

[[File:75Parad 04.jpg|thumb|[[آذربائيجان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جا ميمبر، [[2020 ماسڪو فتح پريڊ]] دوران مڪمل فوجي ورديءَ ۾.]]

سڀئي بين الاقوامي امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا سڌي طرح گڏيل قومن جي ڪنٽرول هيٺ ڪم نٿا ڪن. 1981ع ۾ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ [[مصر]] جي وچ ۾ ٿيل هڪ معاهدي تحت [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) قائم ڪئي وئي، جيڪا اڄ تائين [[سنائي اپٻيٽ]] ۾ امن معاهدي تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;10TAGpgA-1&quot;&gt;10 Tactical Air Group: ''Canadian Contingent Multinational Force and Observers Handbook'' (unclassified), page A-1. DND, Ottawa, 1986.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[آفريقي يونين]] (AU) آفريقي امن ۽ سلامتي جو اهڙو ڍانچو (آفريڪن پيس اينڊ سڪيورٽي آرڪيٽيڪچر) قائم ڪرڻ تي ڪم ڪري رهي آهي، جيڪو براعظم ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري نڀائي سگهي. جيڪڏهن ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ [[نسل ڪشي]] يا انساني حقن جون ٻيون سنگين ڀڃڪڙيون ٿين، ته آفريقي يونين جي جنرل اسيمبلي جي منظوري سان، ان ملڪ جي حڪومت جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن موڪلي سگهجي ٿو. هن نظام، جنهن ۾ [[آفريقي اسٽينڊ بائي فورس]] (ASF) پڻ شامل آهي، جي قيام جو منصوبو 2015ع کان اڳ نه هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/african-peace-and-security-architecture-already-proving-useful-even-though-it-still-work |title=The African Peace and Security Architecture is already proving useful even though it is still work in progress |publisher=dandc.eu |date=August 27, 2013 |access-date=November 14, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

علائقائي سطح تي [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري]] (ECOWAS) پنهنجي ڪجهه ميمبر ملڪن ۾ ڪيترائي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا آهن، ۽ ان کي &quot;آفريڪا جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ ترقي يافته علائقائي امن ۽ سلامتي وارو نظام&quot; قرار ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Oni|first1=Cyril I.|date=2009|journal=African Security|volume=2|pages=119–135|doi=10.1080/19362200903361945|title=Economic Community of West African States on the Ground: Comparing Peacekeeping in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea Bissau, and Côte D'Ivoire|issue=2–3|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''غير هٿياربند شهري امن قائم رکڻ''' (ان آرمڊ سويلين پيس ڪيپنگ، UCP) ۾ شهري عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو تڪراري علائقن ۾ شهرين کي تشدد کان بچائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن جي قيام جي ڪوششن جي سهائتا لاءِ غير تشدد، غير مداخلت ۽ غير جانبداريءَ تي ٻڌل حڪمت عمليون اختيار ڪندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ UCP جو اصطلاح سڀني غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) ۾ هڪجهڙو عام نه آهي، پر ڪيترائي ادارا ساڳين طريقن سان ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ امن بابت هڪجهڙا مقصد رکندا آهن. انهن طريقن ۾ متاثر ماڻهن سان گڏ رهڻ، مستقل موجودگي، افواهن تي ضابطو آڻڻ، برادريءَ جي سلامتي بابت گڏجاڻيون، محفوظ لنگهن جو بندوبست ڪرڻ ۽ نگراني ڪرڻ شامل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rachel|first1=Julian|last2=Schweitzer|first2=Christine|date=2015|title=The Origins And Development of Unarmed Civilian Peacekeeping|url=http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|journal=Peace Review|volume=27|issue=1|pages=1–8|doi=10.1080/10402659.2015.1000181|s2cid=144911738|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719124249/http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|archive-date=July 19, 2018|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== مختصر تاريخ ==
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي تاريخ}}

=== قيام ۽ شروعاتي سال ===

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري نظام جي شروعات 1948ع ۾ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] [[1948ع جي عرب-اسرائيل جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ ان جي عرب پاڙيسري ملڪن وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي واري معاهدي جي نگراني لاءِ وچ اوڀر ۾ گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن کي مقرر ڪرڻ جي منظوري ڏني. هن مشن کي [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) سڏيو ويو، جيڪو اڄ تائين جاري آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/history.shtml|title=History of Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آگسٽ 1949ع ۾ سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 73 (1949ع) منظور ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNTSO کي اسرائيل ۽ انهن عرب رياستن جي وچ ۾ ٿيل چئن جنگبندي معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني جي ذميواري ڏني وئي، جيڪي ان جنگ ۾ شامل هيون. نتيجي طور، UNTSO جون سرگرميون علائقي جي پنجن رياستن، يعني [[اسرائيل]]، [[مصر]]، [[اردن]]، [[لبنان]] ۽ [[شام]] تائين ڦهلجي ويون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/untso/background.shtml|title=UNTSO Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== سرد جنگ دوران امن قائم رکڻ ===

آگسٽ 1947ع ۾ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] جي آزادي ۽ ان کان پوءِ ٿيل وڏي پيماني تي خونريزيءَ کان پوءِ، سلامتي ڪائونسل جنوري 1948ع ۾ قرارداد 39 (1948ع) منظور ڪري [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP) قائم ڪيو، جنهن جو مقصد [[ڪشمير]] بابت ٻنهي ملڪن جي وچ ۾ پيدا ٿيل تڪرار ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل ويڙهه ۾ ثالثي ڪرڻ هو.

هي مشن غير مداخلتي نوعيت جو هو ۽ ان کي [[ڄمون ۽ ڪشمير]] ۾ ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان جي وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي جي نگراني جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي. جولاءِ 1949ع ۾ [[ڪراچي معاهدو]] ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNCIP جنگبندي واري لڪير جي نگراني شروع ڪئي، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن ۽ ٻنهي ڌرين جي مقامي فوجي ڪمانڊرن جي گڏيل نگراني هيٺ هئي. هن مشن جو تسلسل اڄ به [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان ۾ گڏيل قومن جو فوجي مبصر گروپ]] (UNMOGIP) جي نالي سان جاري آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unmogip/background.shtml|title=UNMOGIP Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف ملڪن ۾ ڪُل 69 امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي منظوري ڏني.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;/&gt; انهن مان گهڻا مشن سرد جنگ جي خاتمي کان پوءِ قائم ٿيا. 1988ع کان 1998ع جي وچ ۾ گڏيل قومن 35 نوان امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا، جڏهن ته 1948ع کان 1978ع تائين صرف 13 مشن قائم ٿيا هئا، ۽ 1978ع کان 1988ع جي وچ واري ڏهاڪي دوران ڪو به نئون مشن قائم نه ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Duffey|first=Tamara|date=2000|title=Cultural Issues in Contemporary Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=7|issue=1|pages=142–168|doi=10.1080/13533310008413823|s2cid=145210823}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|142–168}}

گڏيل قومن جي پهرين هٿياربند مداخلت 1956ع جي [[سوئيز بحران]] کان پوءِ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I) قائم ڪئي وئي. هي فوج نومبر 1956ع کان جون 1967ع تائين موجود رهي ۽ ان کي [[مصر]]، [[برطانيه]]، [[فرانس]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] جي وچ ۾ جنگبندي برقرار رکڻ، مصري علائقي مان برطانوي، فرينچ ۽ اسرائيلي فوجن جي واپسي جي نگراني ڪرڻ، ۽ پوءِ مصر ۽ اسرائيل جي فوجن جي وچ ۾ بفر فورس طور ڪم ڪندي جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ جو مينڊيٽ ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unef1mandate.html|title=UNEF Mandate|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان ٿوري ئي عرصي بعد 1960ع ۾ [[ڪانگو ۾ گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUC) شروع ڪيو ويو. پنهنجي عروج تي هن مشن ۾ ويهه هزار کان وڌيڪ فوجي اهلڪار شامل هئا، ۽ ان دوران 250 گڏيل قومن جا اهلڪار مارجي ويا، جن ۾ ان وقت جو سيڪريٽري جنرل [[ڊيگ هيملشولڊ]] پڻ شامل هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/early.shtml|title=The Early Years of UN Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ONUC جو مقصد [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] مان بيلجيم جي فوجن جي واپسي کي يقيني بڻائڻ هو، جيڪي [[فورس پبليڪ]] جي بغاوت کان پوءِ بيلجيم جي شهرين ۽ اقتصادي مفادن جي تحفظ لاءِ ٻيهر داخل ٿي ويون هيون. هن مشن کي قانون ۽ امن امان بحال ڪرڻ، بغاوت ۽ نسلي تشدد کي ختم ڪرڻ، ڪانگولي سلامتي فورسن کي فني مدد ۽ تربيت ڏيڻ، ۽ ملڪ جي علائقائي سالميت ۽ سياسي خودمختياري کي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/onuc.htm|title=ONUC|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي ذميواري خاص طور تي [[ڪتانگا]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪاسائي]] جهڙن معدني وسيلن سان مالامال صوبن جي علحدگيءَ واري تحريڪ جي پسمنظر ۾ شامل ڪئي وئي. ان دور ۾ گڏيل قومن جون فوجون، ڪجهه تڪراري انداز ۾، ڪانگو جي حڪومت جي مدد ڪندي ٻنهي صوبن جي علحدگي ختم ڪرائڻ ۾ به ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

1960ع ۽ 1970ع واري ڏهاڪن دوران گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف علائقن ۾ ڪيترائي مختصر مدي وارا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن قائم ڪيا، جن ۾ [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريه ۾ سيڪريٽري جنرل جي نمائندي جو مشن]] (DOMREP)، [[اولهه نيو گني ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي فورس]] (UNSF) ۽ [[يمن ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مبصر مشن]] (UNYOM) شامل هئا. ساڳئي وقت ڪجهه ڊگهي مدي وارا مشن پڻ جاري رهيا، جهڙوڪ [[قبرص ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج]] (UNFICYP)، [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج II]] (UNEF II)، [[گڏيل قومن جي ڌرين جي الڳ ٿيڻ جي نگراني ڪندڙ فوج]] (UNDOF)، ۽ [[لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن جي عبوري فوج]] (UNIFIL).&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;/&gt;

=== 1991ع کان پوءِ ===

[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-un-holds-head.jpg|thumb|[[سراييوو جو گهيرو|سراييوو جي گهيري]] (1992ع–1993ع) دوران هڪ [[ناروي]] جو امن قائم رکڻ وارو اهلڪار؛ تصوير: [[ميخائل اِوستافيئف]].]]

[[يوگوسلاو جنگين]] دوران امن قائم رکڻ جي تجربن، خاص طور تي [[سربرينيتسا قتلِ عام]] جهڙين ناڪامين، جزوي طور [[گڏيل قومن جي امن تعمير ڪميشن]] (يونائيٽيڊ نيشنز پيس بلڊنگ ڪميشن) جي قيام جو سبب بڻيا. هي ڪميشن چونڊن ۽ ٻين شهري ادارن جي مضبوطي جهڙين سرگرمين وسيلي پائيدار امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ انجام ڏيندا آهن. هن وقت اها ڪميشن آفريڪا جي ڇهن ملڪن سان ڪم ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/projects/africa/beyond-peace-deals-united-nations-experiment-peacebuilding |title=Beyond Peace Deals: The United Nations Experiment in &quot;Peacebuilding&quot;|date=June 22, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ڳالهين سان گڏ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، ۾ عورتن جي وڌيڪ مؤثر شرڪت، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهرن جي مقرري، هٿياربند تڪرارن جا عورتن تي پوندڙ اثرن بابت وڌيڪ معلومات، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |title=UN Security Council Takes a Historic Stand Supporting Abortion Access for Women Raped in War / Library / Homepage |publisher=AWID |access-date=October 28, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203101025/http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |archive-date=December 3, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن سان امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW)، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن بابت ڪميٽي آهي، هڪ عام سفارش جاري ڪئي، جنهن موجب اهي رياستون، جيڪي گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جون ڌريون آهن، پابند آهن ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌيءَ طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ فوجون موڪلين، يا تڪرارن جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مالي يا ٻئي قسم جي مدد فراهم ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=13885&amp;LangID=E|title=OHCHR -|website=www.ohchr.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪميٽي اهو پڻ واضح ڪيو ته اهڙين رياستن کي مناسب احتياط اختيار ڪرڻ گهرجي ته جيئن [[غير رياستي ڌريون]]، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي سلامتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ٿيندڙ ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

[[پيج فورٽنا]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي مقرري بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍيو ته ''&quot;امن قائم رکڻ رسد ۽ طلب جو معاملو آهي.&quot;'' رسد جي لحاظ کان سندس مشاهدو آهي ته سلامتي ڪائونسل جي مستقل ميمبرن مان ڪنهن هڪ جي ويجهن ملڪن ۾ هلندڙ گهرو ويڙهن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن مقرر ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن. جڏهن ته طلب جي لحاظ کان مختلف تحقيقون ظاهر ڪن ٿيون ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن گهڻو ڪري انهن ملڪن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن، جتي انهن جي ضرورت سڀ کان وڌيڪ هوندي آهي، يعني جتي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تمام گهڻو هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot; /&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي جوڙجڪ ==

=== اهي ملڪ جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺن ٿا ===
{{See also|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي تعداد موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Irish troops UNMIL.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|جولاءِ 2006ع ۾ [[لائبيريا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو مشن لائبيريا]] (UNMIL) سان مقرر آئرش فوجي گشت ڪندي.]]

[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] موجب، دنيا ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ ۾ مدد ڏيڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا سڀئي ميمبر ملڪ سلامتي ڪائونسل کي ضرورت موجب فوجي دستا ۽ ٻيون سهولتون فراهم ڪندا. 1948ع کان وٺي لڳ ڀڳ 130 ملڪن امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن لاءِ فوجي اهلڪار، شهري پوليس ۽ ٻيو عملو فراهم ڪيو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ 1948ع کان وٺي سڀني امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏيندڙ اهلڪارن جو مڪمل رڪارڊ موجود ناهي، پر اندازو آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي 71 مشنن ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه لک فوجين، پوليس اهلڪارن ۽ شهرين گڏيل قومن جي جهنڊي هيٺ خدمتون انجام ڏنيون آهن. سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين 122 ملڪ گڏيل طور لڳ ڀڳ 76,000 فوجي مبصر، پوليس اهلڪار ۽ فوجي مهيا ڪري رهيا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Troop and police contributors|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/troop-and-police-contributors|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

شرڪت ڪندڙ ملڪن جو تعداد گهڻو هجڻ باوجود، امن قائم رکڻ جو وڏو بار اڃا تائين [[ترقي پذير ملڪ|ترقي پذير ملڪن]] جي هڪ بنيادي گروهه تي آهي. آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي، پوليس ۽ فوجي ماهر موڪليندڙ ڏهه ملڪ [[بنگلاديش]] (6,447)، [[نيپال]] (5,536)، [[ڀارت]] (5,481)، [[روانڊا]] (5,263)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (4,856)، [[پاڪستان]] (3,949)، [[مصر]] (2,818)، [[انڊونيشيا]] (2,818)، [[گهانا]] (2,296) ۽ [[چين]] (2,248) هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين 14,000 کان وڌيڪ شهري اهلڪار به امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ قانوني يا طبي ماهرن، استادن، مواصلاتي ٽيڪنالاجي جي ماهرن ۽ انتظامي عملي طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/civilians|title=Civilians|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

30 سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن دوران 100 کان وڌيڪ ملڪن سان تعلق رکندڙ 4,147 ماڻهو پنهنجون حياتيون وڃائي چڪا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/fatalities|title=Fatalities|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان وڌيڪ جاني نقصان [[ڀارت]] جو ٿيو، جنهن جا 174 امن اهلڪار مارجي ويا، ان کان پوءِ [[بنگلاديش]] (159)، [[پاڪستان]] (159)، [[نائيجيريا]] (157)، [[گهانا]] (145)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (138)، [[ڪينيڊا]] (123)، [[فرانس]] (115) ۽ [[برطانيه]] (106) شامل آهن. 1948ع کان وٺي سراسري طور هر سال 56 امن اهلڪار ماريا ويا، پر 2001ع کان پوءِ هي انگ لڳ ڀڳ ٻيڻو ٿي هر سال 110 تائين پهچي ويو. گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي پهرين 55 سالن دوران ٿيل ڪل جاني نقصان جو 30 سيڪڙو حصو صرف 1993ع کان 1995ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جي شعبي ۾ عالمي اتر ۽ عالمي ڏکڻ (Global North ۽ Global South) جي وچ ۾ واضح فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي وڏي اڪثريت [[عالمي ڏکڻ]] جي ترقي پذير ملڪن مان ايندي آهي. [[ٿامس جي. وائيس]] ۽ جيووانا ڪيولي موجب، ان جا ٽي اهم سبب علائقائي مفاد، بين الاقوامي وقار ۽ مالي فائدا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=February 3, 2019|title=The Global South and UN Peace Operations|url=https://www.e-ir.info/2019/02/03/the-global-south-and-un-peace-operations/|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=E-International Relations|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آفريقي ملڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا سڀ کان وڌيڪ اهلڪار فراهم ڪن ٿا، پر ساڳئي وقت آفريڪا ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جو تعداد به سڀ کان وڌيڪ آهي، ۽ گهڻا آفريقي امن اهلڪار آفريڪا جي اندر ئي مقرر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، ايٿوپيا جا لڳ ڀڳ سڀئي 4,800 امن اهلڪار پاڙيسري ملڪن [[سوڊان]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ مقرر هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺڻ سان ترقي پذير ملڪن کي بين الاقوامي وقار پڻ حاصل ٿيندو آهي، ۽ اهو [[عظيم طاقت]] طور پنهنجون دعوائون مضبوط ڪرڻ ۾ مددگار ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيئن [[برازيل]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جي صورت ۾ ڏٺو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، غريب ملڪن لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين کي موڪلڻ مالي لحاظ کان به فائديمند هوندو آهي. هر امن اهلڪار لاءِ ماهوار واپسيءَ جي رقم ۾ پگهار ۽ الائونس لاءِ 1,028 آمريڪي ڊالر، ماهرن لاءِ اضافي 303 آمريڪي ڊالر، ذاتي لباس، سامان ۽ اوزارن لاءِ 68 آمريڪي ڊالر، ۽ ذاتي هٿيار لاءِ 5 آمريڪي ڊالر شامل هوندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/faq/q10.htm|title=United Nations Peacekeepers - How are peacekeepers compensated?|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; گڏيل قومن طرفان فراهم ڪيل اهي ادائيگيون، تربيت ۽ سامان، انفرادي فوجين سان گڏ ترقي پذير ملڪن لاءِ به مالي طور پرڪشش هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ مقرر ڪيل فوجي ۽ شهري پوليس اهلڪارن مان لڳ ڀڳ 4.5 سيڪڙو [[يورپي يونين]] مان ايندا آهن، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو حصو هڪ سيڪڙو کان به گهٽ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;factsheet&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/overview.shtml |title=Peacekeeping Fact Sheet |publisher=United Nations|access-date=December 20, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

مشنن جي قيادت بابت عام طور تي فوجي ڪمانڊر انهن ملڪن مان چونڊيا ويندا آهن، جيڪي سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي دستا فراهم ڪندا آهن، جڏهن ته سيڪريٽري جنرل جا خاص نمائندا گهڻو ڪري ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Oksamytna |first1= Kseniya|last2= Bove |first2= Vincenzo|last3= Lundgren |first3= Magnus|date= 2021 |title=Leadership selection in United Nations peacekeeping |journal= International Studies Quarterly|volume= 65|pages= 16–28|doi= 10.1093/isq/sqaa023 |doi-access= free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت ===
{{See also|امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتون}}

[[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 1325]] عورتن کي تڪرارن جي روڪٿام ۽ حل، امن ڳالهين، امن جي تعمير، امن قائم رکڻ، انساني امداد ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ ۾ سرگرم ۽ برابر ڌر طور شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو پهريون اهم قدم هو. هن قرارداد ۾ زور ڏنو ويو ته امن ۽ سلامتي جي قيام ۽ واڌاري لاءِ ٿيندڙ سڀني ڪوششن ۾ عورتن جي برابر شرڪت ۽ مڪمل شموليت کي يقيني بڻايو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and the Advancement of Women. &quot;[http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/wps/#resolution Landmark resolution on Women, Peace and Security]&quot;, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Security Council (October 31, 2000) &quot;Resolution 1325&quot;, S/RES/1325, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;

هن قرارداد تي هڪ تنقيد اها به ڪئي وئي آهي ته ان ۾ صنفي مرڪزي ڌارا (جينڊر مين اسٽريمنگ) کي لاڳو ڪرڻ جي ڳالهه ڪئي وئي، پر عملي طور گهڻو ڌيان صرف عورتن جي شموليت وڌائڻ تي ڏنو ويو، جڏهن ته مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي تي پاليسين جي اثرن جو مناسب جائزو نه ورتو ويو. 2010ع ۾ هن قرارداد جي ڏهن سالن جي اثرن بابت هڪ جامع جائزو ورتو ويو، جنهن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ان تي عملدرآمد محدود حد تائين ڪامياب رهيو، خاص طور تي امن ڳالهين ۽ امن معاهدن ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت وڌائڻ جي حوالي سان، جڏهن ته جنسي ۽ صنفي بنياد تي تشدد گهٽائڻ جي ڪوششن باوجود اهو مسئلو برقرار رهيو.&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations and Department of Field Support (2010). &quot;Ten-year Impact Study on Implementation of UN Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) on Women, Peace and Security in Peacekeeping&quot;, United Nations, p. 9-10. https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/documents/10year_impact_study_1325.pdf.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Ghana IntPeaceCorps 2016-05-29 B002a.jpg|thumb|گھانا جون عورتون گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏينديون.]]

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهريت، هٿياربند تڪرارن جي عورتن تي اثرن بابت بهتر ڄاڻ، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي وڌيڪ سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ مؤثر قدمن تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;/&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن خلاف امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW) پڻ پنهنجي هڪ عام سفارش ۾ چيو ته جن رياستن گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جي توثيق ڪئي آهي، انهن تي لازم آهي ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌي طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا، تڪرار جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مدد فراهم ڪري رهيون هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

ڪميٽي وڌيڪ چيو ته توثيق ڪندڙ رياستن کي مناسب احتياط سان اهو به يقيني بڻائڻ گهرجي ته غير رياستي ڌريون، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي حفاظتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

جولاءِ 2016ع تائين عورتون گڏيل قومن جي هر امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن ۾ فوجي، پوليس يا شهري عملي جي حيثيت سان خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيون هيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/resources/statistics/gender.shtml|title=Gender statistics. United Nations Peacekeeping|website=www.un.org|access-date=September 6, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

1993ع ۾ مقرر ٿيل يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن مان رڳو 1 سيڪڙو عورتون هيون. 2020ع تائين لڳ ڀڳ 95,000 امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن مان عورتون فوجي عملي جو 4.8 سيڪڙو، پوليس عملي جو 10.9 سيڪڙو، ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عملي جو 34 سيڪڙو هيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Women in peacekeeping|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/women-peacekeeping|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين اهڙو ڪو به ملڪ، جيڪو گڏيل قومن لاءِ 100 کان وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار موڪلي ٿو، پنهنجي دستي ۾ 25 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ عورتون نامزد نه ڪندو هو. حقيقي انگن اکرن موجب سڀ کان وڏا عورتن جا دستا [[ايٿوپيا]] (578 عورتون، يعني ان جي ڪل دستي جو 12 سيڪڙو)، [[روانڊا]] (500، يعني 10 سيڪڙو) ۽ [[گهانا]] (389، يعني 17 سيڪڙو) طرفان فراهم ڪيا ويا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

جيتوڻيڪ فوجي عملي ۾ عورتن جي مقرر تناسب بابت گڏيل قومن ڪو لازمي هدف مقرر نه ڪيو آهي، پر ميمبر رياستن کان درخواست ڪئي وئي آهي ته اهي پوليس آفيسرن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 20 سيڪڙو ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 30 سيڪڙو عورتون نامزد ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot; /&gt;

2024ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجي دستن ۾ عورتن جو ڪل انگ گهٽجي ويو، پر انهن جو تناسب وڌيو. يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن ۾ صنفي برابري واري حڪمت عملي (يونيفارمڊ جينڊر پئرٽي اسٽريٽجي) شروع ٿيڻ کان پوءِ عورتن جو تناسب مسلسل وڌندو رهيو آهي. عورتن جي ڪل تعداد ۾ گهٽتائي جو وڏو سبب [[گڏيل قومن جو مالي ۾ ڪثيرالجہتي مربوط استحڪامي مشن]] (MINUSMA) جو خاتمو هو. جون 2024ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن ۾ مقرر فوجي عملي مان عورتن جو تناسب 8.6 سيڪڙو هو، جيڪو گذريل سال جي ڀيٽ ۾ 1.3 سيڪڙو وڌيڪ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pfeifer Cruz |first=Claudia |title=Women in Multilateral Peace Operations in 2024: What is the State of Play? |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241031064944/https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |archive-date=October 31, 2024 |date=October 2024 |doi=10.55163/VYHM5282 |doi-access=free |location=Stockholm |publisher=SIPRI}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:امن]]
[[زمرو:تنظيمون]]
[[زمرو:گڏيل قومون]]
[[زمرو:عالمي سياست]]
[[زمرو:بين الاقوامي لاڳاپا]]</text>
      <sha1>1k5vgy8sp51xr7ouedi12c5j2cy2smk</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399325</id>
      <parentid>399324</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T21:46:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399325</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="65866" sha1="nbqxw9iex6r3hx414sco1nfd8qeiqr4" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|دائمي امن لاءِ سازگار حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ خاطر ڪيل سرگرميون}}


[[File:Italian Soldier UNIFIL 2 Lebanon 2007.jpg|thumb|[[اطالوي فوج]] جو هڪ [[سپاهي]] لبنان ۾ [[يونيفل]] مشن دوران پهرو ڏئي رهيو آهي.]]

'''امن قائم رکندڙ فوج''' (Peacekeeping Force) انهن سرگرمين، خاص طور فوجي سرگرمين،&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Peacekeeping&quot;. Oxford Languages. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جن جو مقصد اهڙيون حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ هوندو آهي جيڪي پائيدار [[امن]] جي قيام لاءِ سازگار هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/|title=United Nations Peacekeeping|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; تحقيق مان عام طور اهو ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون [[شهري جاني نقصان|شهري]] ۽ جنگي ميدان ۾ ٿيندڙ جاني نقصان کي گهٽائين ٿيون ۽ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي پڻ گهٽائين ٿيون.

[[گڏيل قومون]] (UN) ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل [[قومي رياست]]ن جي حڪومتن ۽ [[تنظيم]]ن جي وچ ۾ عام طور اهو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو ته عالمي سطح تي امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا جنگ کان پوءِ وارن علائقن ۾ امن جي عمل جي نگراني ۽ مشاهدو ڪندا آهن، ۽ اڳوڻن ويڙهاڪن کي انهن امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ ۾ مدد ڏيندا آهن، جن جا هو پابند بڻيل هوندا آهن. اهڙي مدد ڪيترين ئي صورتن ۾ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ اعتماد سازي جا قدم، اقتدار جي ورهاست جا انتظام، چونڊن ۾ مدد، [[قانون جي حڪمراني]] کي مضبوط بڻائڻ، ۽ معاشي ۽ سماجي ترقي کي هٿي ڏيڻ. ان ڪري [[گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا]] (جن کي سندن هلڪي نيري [[بيريٽ]] يا هيلمٽ سبب اڪثر '''نيري بيريٽ''' يا '''نيرا هيلمٽ''' چيو ويندو آهي) ۾ فوجي، [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس آفيسر]] ۽ شهري عملي جا ميمبر شامل ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dpko/ |title=Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dfs/ |title=Department of Field Support (DFS) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جا مشن هلائيندڙ واحد تنظيم گڏيل قومون نه آهن. گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم ڪندڙ قوتن ۾ [[ڪوسوو فورس]] جي [[نيٽو]] مشن (گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان)، [[سينا ٻيٽ نما]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]]، ۽ [[يورپي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[EUFOR RCA]]، گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان) ۽ [[آفريقي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[سوڊان ۾ آفريقي يونين مشن]]) پاران منظم ڪيل امن مشن شامل آهن.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

[[بين الاقوامي قانون]] موجب، امن قائم ڪندڙ پنهنجي غيرجانبدار حيثيت سبب [[غير جنگجو]] (non-combatants) شمار ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي ٻن يا وڌيڪ [[جنگ ڪندڙ ڌر]]ن جي وچ ۾ تڪرار ۾ غيرجانبدار هوندا آهن (بلڪل اهڙيءَ طرح جيئن امن قائم رکڻ جي ذميوارين کان ٻاهر موجود غيرجانبدار ماڻهو ۽ ملڪيت). تنهنڪري انهن کي هر حال ۾ حملن کان تحفظ حاصل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule33 |title=Rule 33. Personnel and Objects Involved in a Peacekeeping Mission|publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]|access-date=April 7, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فائل:UN Soldiers in Eritrea.jpeg|thumb|right|upright=1.00|نيدرلينڊز جا ڊچ فوجي اقوام متحده جي امن جي قيام جي فورس ۾ ايٿوپيا ۽ ايريٽيريا جي سرحد تي گڏيل قومن پاران چوڪسي ڪندي]]

'''امن جي بحالي واري فوج'''{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي=Peace Keeping Force}}
ٻن ملڪن ياڌرين جي وچ ۾ ڪو به تڪرار ايترو زور وٺي وڃي، جو ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت کانسواءِ اهو ٽري نه سگهي، ته ٽين ڌر امن قائم ڪرڻ (Peace Keeping) لاءِ مُختلف اُپاءُ وٺندي آهي. ڪنهن به تڪرار جي حل لاءِ ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت جو مقصد ٻن ڌُرين ۾ رڳو صُلح ڪرائڻ هوندو آهي، جنهن لاءِ فوجي ۽ سُفارتي طريقا ڪتب آندا ويندا آهن. ان کان سواءِ گھُرج پوڻ تي ٽين ڌر (يا وچين ڌر) جهيڙو ڪندڙ ڌرين تي مُختلف قسمن جو دٻاءُ رکندي آهي، جيڪڏهن ڌريون پوءِ به جهيڙي کي نه ٿيون ختم ڪن، ته مٿانئن فوجي قدم کڻڻ لاءِ به اڳڀرائي ڪئي ويندي آهي. جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جو عالمي ادارو|گڏيل قومن]] جو ادارو قائم ڪيو ويو هيو ته ان وقت ٻي عالمي جنگ ختم ٿي هئي، پر ملڪن جا پاڻ ۾ تڪرار پوءِ به هلي رهيا هئا ۽ ”سرد جنگ“ به شروع ٿي چڪي هئي، دُنيا جي امن کي گهڻن قسمن جا خطرا پيدا ٿي چڪا هئا. 1950ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل بين الاقوامي جهيڙن کي پاسيرو ڪرڻ ۽ امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ”احتياطي سفارتڪاري“ (Preventive Diplomacy) جو اصطلاح اڳيان آندو هو. انهيءَ قسم جي حڪمت عملي ۾ ڪنهن به تڪرار کي رڳو ٺارڻ جو حل ڏنل هيو، پر جهيڙي کي مستقل طور ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪجهه واڌو قدم به گهربل هئا. انهيءَ ڪري اهڙي صورتحال ۾ اڳتي هلي ”مشن ڪريپ“ (Mission Creep) جو اصطلاح ڪتب آندو ويو، جنهن ۾ جهيڙي کي مڪمل طور ختم ڪرڻ جي تجويز ڏني وئي. انهيءَ حوالي سان 1956ع ۾ ڪئناڊا جي پرڏيهي معاملن جي وزير ۽ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”ڊگ هئمرشولڊ“ گڏيل قومن جي اداري جي پلئٽفارم تان ”امن قائم ڪرڻ واري فوج“ (Peace Keeping Force) قائم ڪئي، جنهن جي شعبا بندي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ان جي ورديءَ کانسواءِ خاص قسم جي ٽوپي به تيار ڪرائي وئي ۽ ان خاص ٽوپيءَ جو رنگ ”نيرو“ مقرر ڪيو ويو. ٽوپيءَ کي ٻين فوجي ٽوپين کان الڳ رنگ ڏيڻ جو مقصد، بين الاقوامي امن فوج جي انفراديت کي ظاهر ڪرڻ آهي. ان هوندي به ”امن فوج“ جي طريقيڪار ۽ اختيارن کي اڃا تائين چڱيءَ ريت گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر ۾ بيان نه ڪيو ويو آهي. گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر جي 6 ۽ 7 باب ۾، امن جي ڪوشش وٺڻ لاءِ جيڪي تفصيل بيان ڪيا ويا آهن، انهن سان امن جي بحاليءَ واري عمل کي به جوڙيو ويو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن جي بحاليءَ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي پڌرنامي جي روح مطابق جوڙجڪ ضروري آهي. انهن کوٽن جي باوجود، گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج، دُنيا ۾ امن ۽ صلح جي لاءِ گھڻن هنڌن مثال طور؛ ڪمبوڊيا، نميبيا، انگولا، لبنان، ايراني نار ۽ [[سوماليا|صوماليا]] وغيره ۾ ڪاميابيءَ سان پنهنجون ذميواريون پوريون ڪري چڪي آهي. امن فوج جي اهڙي اهميت کي محسوس ڪندي، گڏيل قومن جي اداري ڪيترن مُتاثر ملڪن جي داخلي معاملن ۾ به هن فوج جو استعمال مُناسب ۽ بهتر سمجهيو. منڍ ۾ اها فوج ٻن تڪراري ڌُر جي وچ ۾ هلندڙ جهيِڙو ٽارڻ لاءِ ڪتب آندي ويندي هئي، پر 1988ع کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جي اداري اهڙن ملڪن ۾ به کيس ذميواري سونپيون، جتي گهرو ويڙھ ۾ اَڙيل مُختلف ڌرين ۾ جنگ جاري هُئي ۽ اُتي انتظامي معاملا هيٺ مٿي لڳا پيا هُئا. اهڙن مُلڪن ۾ امن فوج کي گڏيل قومن طرفان چونڊون ڪرائڻ، انتظامي معاملن کي سُڌارڻ، عوام کي تحفظ ڏيڻ ۽ جهيڙن کان تنگ اچي ملڪ ڇڏي ويل ماڻهن کي واپس پنهنجي اباڻي وطن ۾ ٻيهر آباد ڪرائڻ جا اختيار به ڏنا ويا. ٻئي طرف اها به حقيقت آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج کي گھڻن معاملن ۽ هنڌن تي ڪن ملڪن پنهنجن خاص مقصدن لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو. ان کانسواءِ گھڻن علائقن (جهڙوڪ ڪشمير) ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن فوج پنهنجي مقصد حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام وئي آهي. سندس مُقابلي ۾ اولھ جي مُلڪن جي فوجي اتحاد نيٽو امن فوج جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ متحرڪ ۽ اثرائتي رهي آهي. 1992ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”بترس غالي“، امن جي آڻڻ لاءِ خاص علائقي ۽ خاص حالتن آهر مداخلت ڪرڻ ۽ نون اختيار ڏيڻ لاءِ اداري آڏو تجويزون پيش ڪيون، پر ان ڏس ۾ مڪمل سوڀاري ٿيڻ لاءِ ”پيس ڪيپگ“ جو عمل نون ضابطن، اختيارن ۽ قانونن جي انتظار ۾ آهي. 
&lt;ref&gt;[http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/define/Peace%20Keeping%20Force.php سنڌي آنلائين ڊڪشنري]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} پاران [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد&lt;/ref&gt;

== وصفون ۽ امن قائم رکڻ جي عمل جا قسم ==

=== گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ===
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن}}

==== ڇهون باب ۽ ستون باب وارا مشن ====

امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن جا ڪيترائي مختلف قسم آهن. مثال طور، پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي ڪتاب ''Does Peacekeeping Work?'' ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن کي چئن مختلف قسمن ۾ ورهايو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=Chapter 7}}&lt;/ref&gt; انهن مشنن جو قسم ۽ انهن تي عملدرآمد جو طريقو گهڻي حد تائين ان اختيارنامي (mandate) تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، جنهن تحت انهن کي اختيار ڏنو ويندو آهي.

فورٽنا جي بيان ڪيل چئن قسمن مان ٽي اهڙا آهن، جيڪي ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن ۽ انهن کي عام طور ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ڇهون باب|ڇهين باب]]'' وارا مشن چيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته چوٿون قسم ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]]'' وارو مشن هوندو آهي.

ڇهين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشنن لاءِ جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي لازمي هوندي آهي؛ جيڪڏهن اها رضامندي ختم ٿي وڃي ته امن قائم ڪندڙ دستن کي علائقو ڇڏڻو پوندو. ان جي ابتڙ، ستين باب وارن مشنن کي قانوني طور رضامندي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي، جيتوڻيڪ عملي طور اها موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي. جيڪڏهن رضامندي بعد ۾ ختم به ٿي وڃي ته به اهڙن مشنن کي واپس وڃڻ ضروري نه هوندو.

# '''مشاهدي وارا مشن''' (Observation Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي يا شهري مبصرن جا ننڍا دستا شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي جنگبندي، فوجن جي واپسي يا جنگبندي واري معاهدي ۾ ڄاڻايل ٻين شرطن جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. اهي عام طور بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا آهن ۽ سندن بنيادي ذميواري رڳو مشاهدو ڪرڻ ۽ رپورٽون تيار ڪرڻ هوندي آهي؛ تنهن ڪري جيڪڏهن ڪا ڌر معاهدي جي ڀڃڪڙي ڪري ته اهي مداخلت ڪرڻ جا مجاز نه هوندا آهن. مثال طور [[انگولا]] ۾ 1991ع وارو [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن II]] (UNAVEM II) ۽ [[اولهه صحارا]] ۾ [[اولهه صحارا بابت راءِ شماري لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو مشن]] (MINURSO).

# '''وچٿري مشن''' (Interpositional Missions)، جن کي روايتي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، نسبتاً وڏن ۽ هلڪي هٿياربند فوجي دستن تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جيڪي تڪرار کان پوءِ ٻن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ طور مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهي ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ بفر زون جو ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. مثال طور 1994ع ۾ [[انگولا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن III]] (UNAVEM III) ۽ 1996ع ۾ [[گوئٽي مالا]] ۾ [[MINUGUA]].

# '''گهڻ رخا مشن''' (Multidimensional Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس]] عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو جامع امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندو آهي. اهي رڳو مشاهدو يا ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رڪاوٽ بڻجڻ تائين محدود نه هوندا آهن، پر چونڊن جي نگراني، پوليس ۽ سلامتي ادارن جي سڌارن، ادارن جي تعمير، معاشي ترقي ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي شعبن ۾ پڻ حصو وٺندا آهن. مثال طور [[نيميبيا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو عبوري امدادي گروهه]] (UNTAG)، [[ايل سلواڊور]] ۾ [[ONUSAL]] ۽ [[موزمبيق]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUMOZ).

# '''[[امن لاڳو ڪندڙ]] مشن''' (Peace Enforcement Missions): اهي ستين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشن هوندا آهن ۽ اڳين ٽن قسمن جي ابتڙ، جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ جا پابند نه هوندا آهن. اهي شهري ۽ فوجي ٻنهي قسمن جي عملي تي مشتمل گهڻ رخا مشن هوندا آهن. انهن وٽ نسبتاً وڏي ۽ بهتر هٿياربند فوج هوندي آهي ۽ انهن کي صرف پنهنجي بچاءَ کان وڌيڪ مقصدن لاءِ به طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل هوندو آهي. مثال طور [[اولهه آفريڪا]] ۾ [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري جو نگراني گروهه]] (ECOMOG)، 1999ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو سيرا ليون مشن]] (UNAMSIL)، ۽ [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ [[نيٽو]] جا [[IFOR]] ۽ [[SFOR]] آپريشن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;/&gt;

==== سرد جنگ دوران ۽ ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ====

[[سرد جنگ]] جي دور ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جا اڪثر مشن روايتي نوعيت جا هئا، جن ۾ امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا ملڪن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ جنگن کان پوءِ مقرر ڪيا ويندا هئا ته جيئن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ بڻجن ۽ امن معاهدن تي عملدرآمد کي يقيني بڻائين. اهي مشن رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا هئا ۽ گهڻو ڪري مبصر بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا هئا، جيئن [[وچ اوڀر]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) ۽ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] بابت [[ڪشمير بابت گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP). ڪجهه مشن هٿياربند به هئا، جهڙوڪ [[سوئيز بحران]] دوران قائم ڪيل [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I). مجموعي طور اهي مشن پنهنجي مقرر ڪيل ڪردار ۾ ڪامياب رهيا.

[[سرد جنگ کان پوءِ وارو دور|سرد جنگ کان پوءِ]] گڏيل قومن امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ جامع ۽ گهڻ رخي طريقيڪار اختيار ڪيو. 1992ع ۾ ان وقت جي [[گڏيل قومن جو سيڪريٽري جنرل|سيڪريٽري جنرل]] [[بوتروس بوتروس غالي]] هڪ رپورٽ تيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ امن قائم رکڻ بابت پنهنجو جامع تصور پيش ڪيو. ''[[امن لاءِ ايجنڊا]]'' (An Agenda for Peace) نالي هن رپورٽ ۾ هن احتياطي سفارتڪاري، امن لاڳو ڪرڻ، امن ڪرائڻ، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ بحاليءَ کي هڪ ٻئي سان ڳنڍيل قدمن طور بيان ڪيو، جن جي ذريعي سرد جنگ کان پوءِ واري عالمي سياست ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ڪردار وڌيڪ اثرائتو بڻجي سگهي.

==== گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جا وسيع مقصد ====

[[مائيڪل ڊوئل]] ۽ نڪولس سامبانس پنهنجي ڪتاب ''The UN Record on Peacekeeping Operations'' ۾ بوتروس غالي جي رپورٽ جو خلاصو پيش ڪندي احتياطي سفارتڪاري، اعتماد سازي جي قدمن (جهڙوڪ حقيقت معلوم ڪرڻ وارا مشن)، مبصر مشن، ۽ تشدد جي خطري کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي اختيار هيٺ فوج مقرر ڪرڻ کي پائيدار امن لاءِ اهم ذريعا قرار ڏين ٿا. سندن بيان موجب:

# '''امن لاڳو ڪرڻ''' (Peace Enforcement): گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي منظور ڪيل جنگبندي يا معاهدي تي عمل ڪرائڻ لاءِ، ضرورت پوڻ تي ڌرين جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به فوجي طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ. اهڙا مشن عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]] تحت هلندا آهن ۽ انهن ۾ مقرر فوجون نسبتاً وڌيڪ هٿياربند هونديون آهن.

# '''امن ڪرائڻ''' (Peacemaking): گڏيل قومن جي سرپرستي هيٺ ثالثي ۽ ڳالهين ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين کي پرامن حل تي راضي ڪرڻ. هي عمل عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] جي ڇهين باب تحت ڪيو ويندو آهي.

# '''امن قائم رکڻ''' (Peacekeeping): جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي سان هلڪي هٿياربند گڏيل قومن جي موجودگي قائم ڪرڻ، اعتماد پيدا ڪرڻ ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ٿيل معاهدن جي نگراني ڪرڻ. ان سان گڏ سفارتي ڪوششون پڻ جاري رهنديون آهن ته جيئن جامع ۽ پائيدار امن حاصل ڪري سگهجي.

# '''تڪرار کان پوءِ بحالي''' (Post-Conflict Reconstruction): معاشي ۽ سماجي سهڪار ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي بحال ڪرڻ، سياسي، سماجي ۽ معاشي ادارن کي مضبوط ڪرڻ، مستقبل ۾ تشدد جي امڪان کي گهٽائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|date=2007|title=The UN Record On Peacekeeping Operations|journal=International Journal|volume=63|issue=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ ۾ غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) سان گڏجي [[ثقافتي ورثو|ثقافتي ورثي]] جي تحفظ لاءِ ڪم ڪرڻ پڻ شامل آهي. ثقافتي ورثي جي حفاظت بابت گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري وابستگي 2012ع کان جاري آهي ۽ ان کي آهستي آهستي وڌايو پيو وڃي. ان سلسلي ۾ 2019ع ۾ [[يونيفل]] ۽ [[بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل]] جو لبنان ۾ [[يونيسڪو عالمي ورثو]] جي تحفظ لاءِ گڏيل مشن نمايان مثال آهي. فوجي ۽ شهري ماهرن پاران مقامي آباديءَ سان گڏجي ثقافتي ورثي جو تحفظ ڪيترن ئي تڪراري علائقن ۾ مستقبل جي پرامن ۽ معاشي ترقيءَ جو بنياد بڻجي ٿو. بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل جي صدر [[ڪارل فون هيبسبرگ]]، اپريل 2019ع ۾ لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ [[يونيسڪو]] جي مشن دوران چيو: ''&quot;ثقافتي ورثو ڪنهن به علائقي ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جي سڃاڻپ جو حصو هوندو آهي. جيڪڏهن توهان انهن جي ثقافت تباهه ڪريو ٿا ته سندن سڃاڻپ به ختم ٿي وڃي ٿي. نتيجي ۾ ڪيترائي ماڻهو بي گهر ٿي وڃن ٿا، سندن مستقبل بابت اميدون ختم ٿي وڃن ٿيون ۽ هو آخرڪار پنهنجو وطن ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ٿين ٿا.&quot;''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Karl von Habsburg auf Mission im Libanon|date=April 28, 2019 |url=https://www.krone.at/1911689|language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Jyot Hosagrahar: ''Culture: at the heart of SDGs.'' UNESCO-Kurier, April-Juni 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rick Szostak: ''The Causes of Economic Growth: Interdisciplinary Perspectives.'' Springer Science &amp; Business Media, 2009, {{ISBN|9783540922827}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bundesheer.at/cms/artikel.php?ID=10118 &quot;Blue Helmet Forum 2019 - Protection of Cultural Heritage in Peace Operations&quot;, Austrian Armed Forces].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017nian-di-3qi/historic-resolution-protect-cultural-heritage|title=A historic resolution to protect cultural heritage, The UNESCO Courier}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/action-plan-to-preserve-heritage-sites-during-conflict|title=Action plan to preserve heritage sites during conflict|website=United Nations Peacekeeping}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''UNESCO Director-General calls for stronger cooperation for heritage protection at the Blue Shield International General Assembly.'' UNESCO, September 13, 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم رکڻ ===
{{See also|غير گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي فهرست|نيٽو امن قائم رکڻ|يورپي يونين جي فوجي ۽ شهري مشنن جي فهرست|آفريقي يونين جي فوجي مداخلتن جي فهرست}}

[[File:En-MFO1.JPG|thumb|right|1989ع ۾ [[مصر]] جي [[سنائي اپٻيٽ|سنائي]] واري علائقي جي [[ايل گوراح]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) جي غير گڏيل قومن واري امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن سان مقرر ڪيل ڪينيڊا جا [[CH135 ٽوئن هيوئي]] هيليڪاپٽر.]]

[[File:75Parad 04.jpg|thumb|[[آذربائيجان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جا ميمبر، [[2020 ماسڪو فتح پريڊ]] دوران مڪمل فوجي ورديءَ ۾.]]

سڀئي بين الاقوامي امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا سڌي طرح گڏيل قومن جي ڪنٽرول هيٺ ڪم نٿا ڪن. 1981ع ۾ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ [[مصر]] جي وچ ۾ ٿيل هڪ معاهدي تحت [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) قائم ڪئي وئي، جيڪا اڄ تائين [[سنائي اپٻيٽ]] ۾ امن معاهدي تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;10TAGpgA-1&quot;&gt;10 Tactical Air Group: ''Canadian Contingent Multinational Force and Observers Handbook'' (unclassified), page A-1. DND, Ottawa, 1986.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[آفريقي يونين]] (AU) آفريقي امن ۽ سلامتي جو اهڙو ڍانچو (آفريڪن پيس اينڊ سڪيورٽي آرڪيٽيڪچر) قائم ڪرڻ تي ڪم ڪري رهي آهي، جيڪو براعظم ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري نڀائي سگهي. جيڪڏهن ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ [[نسل ڪشي]] يا انساني حقن جون ٻيون سنگين ڀڃڪڙيون ٿين، ته آفريقي يونين جي جنرل اسيمبلي جي منظوري سان، ان ملڪ جي حڪومت جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن موڪلي سگهجي ٿو. هن نظام، جنهن ۾ [[آفريقي اسٽينڊ بائي فورس]] (ASF) پڻ شامل آهي، جي قيام جو منصوبو 2015ع کان اڳ نه هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/african-peace-and-security-architecture-already-proving-useful-even-though-it-still-work |title=The African Peace and Security Architecture is already proving useful even though it is still work in progress |publisher=dandc.eu |date=August 27, 2013 |access-date=November 14, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

علائقائي سطح تي [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري]] (ECOWAS) پنهنجي ڪجهه ميمبر ملڪن ۾ ڪيترائي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا آهن، ۽ ان کي &quot;آفريڪا جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ ترقي يافته علائقائي امن ۽ سلامتي وارو نظام&quot; قرار ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Oni|first1=Cyril I.|date=2009|journal=African Security|volume=2|pages=119–135|doi=10.1080/19362200903361945|title=Economic Community of West African States on the Ground: Comparing Peacekeeping in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea Bissau, and Côte D'Ivoire|issue=2–3|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''غير هٿياربند شهري امن قائم رکڻ''' (ان آرمڊ سويلين پيس ڪيپنگ، UCP) ۾ شهري عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو تڪراري علائقن ۾ شهرين کي تشدد کان بچائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن جي قيام جي ڪوششن جي سهائتا لاءِ غير تشدد، غير مداخلت ۽ غير جانبداريءَ تي ٻڌل حڪمت عمليون اختيار ڪندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ UCP جو اصطلاح سڀني غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) ۾ هڪجهڙو عام نه آهي، پر ڪيترائي ادارا ساڳين طريقن سان ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ امن بابت هڪجهڙا مقصد رکندا آهن. انهن طريقن ۾ متاثر ماڻهن سان گڏ رهڻ، مستقل موجودگي، افواهن تي ضابطو آڻڻ، برادريءَ جي سلامتي بابت گڏجاڻيون، محفوظ لنگهن جو بندوبست ڪرڻ ۽ نگراني ڪرڻ شامل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rachel|first1=Julian|last2=Schweitzer|first2=Christine|date=2015|title=The Origins And Development of Unarmed Civilian Peacekeeping|url=http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|journal=Peace Review|volume=27|issue=1|pages=1–8|doi=10.1080/10402659.2015.1000181|s2cid=144911738|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719124249/http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|archive-date=July 19, 2018|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== مختصر تاريخ ==
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي تاريخ}}

=== قيام ۽ شروعاتي سال ===

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري نظام جي شروعات 1948ع ۾ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] [[1948ع جي عرب-اسرائيل جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ ان جي عرب پاڙيسري ملڪن وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي واري معاهدي جي نگراني لاءِ وچ اوڀر ۾ گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن کي مقرر ڪرڻ جي منظوري ڏني. هن مشن کي [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) سڏيو ويو، جيڪو اڄ تائين جاري آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/history.shtml|title=History of Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آگسٽ 1949ع ۾ سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 73 (1949ع) منظور ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNTSO کي اسرائيل ۽ انهن عرب رياستن جي وچ ۾ ٿيل چئن جنگبندي معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني جي ذميواري ڏني وئي، جيڪي ان جنگ ۾ شامل هيون. نتيجي طور، UNTSO جون سرگرميون علائقي جي پنجن رياستن، يعني [[اسرائيل]]، [[مصر]]، [[اردن]]، [[لبنان]] ۽ [[شام]] تائين ڦهلجي ويون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/untso/background.shtml|title=UNTSO Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== سرد جنگ دوران امن قائم رکڻ ===

آگسٽ 1947ع ۾ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] جي آزادي ۽ ان کان پوءِ ٿيل وڏي پيماني تي خونريزيءَ کان پوءِ، سلامتي ڪائونسل جنوري 1948ع ۾ قرارداد 39 (1948ع) منظور ڪري [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP) قائم ڪيو، جنهن جو مقصد [[ڪشمير]] بابت ٻنهي ملڪن جي وچ ۾ پيدا ٿيل تڪرار ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل ويڙهه ۾ ثالثي ڪرڻ هو.

هي مشن غير مداخلتي نوعيت جو هو ۽ ان کي [[ڄمون ۽ ڪشمير]] ۾ ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان جي وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي جي نگراني جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي. جولاءِ 1949ع ۾ [[ڪراچي معاهدو]] ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNCIP جنگبندي واري لڪير جي نگراني شروع ڪئي، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن ۽ ٻنهي ڌرين جي مقامي فوجي ڪمانڊرن جي گڏيل نگراني هيٺ هئي. هن مشن جو تسلسل اڄ به [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان ۾ گڏيل قومن جو فوجي مبصر گروپ]] (UNMOGIP) جي نالي سان جاري آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unmogip/background.shtml|title=UNMOGIP Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف ملڪن ۾ ڪُل 69 امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي منظوري ڏني.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;/&gt; انهن مان گهڻا مشن سرد جنگ جي خاتمي کان پوءِ قائم ٿيا. 1988ع کان 1998ع جي وچ ۾ گڏيل قومن 35 نوان امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا، جڏهن ته 1948ع کان 1978ع تائين صرف 13 مشن قائم ٿيا هئا، ۽ 1978ع کان 1988ع جي وچ واري ڏهاڪي دوران ڪو به نئون مشن قائم نه ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Duffey|first=Tamara|date=2000|title=Cultural Issues in Contemporary Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=7|issue=1|pages=142–168|doi=10.1080/13533310008413823|s2cid=145210823}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|142–168}}

گڏيل قومن جي پهرين هٿياربند مداخلت 1956ع جي [[سوئيز بحران]] کان پوءِ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I) قائم ڪئي وئي. هي فوج نومبر 1956ع کان جون 1967ع تائين موجود رهي ۽ ان کي [[مصر]]، [[برطانيه]]، [[فرانس]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] جي وچ ۾ جنگبندي برقرار رکڻ، مصري علائقي مان برطانوي، فرينچ ۽ اسرائيلي فوجن جي واپسي جي نگراني ڪرڻ، ۽ پوءِ مصر ۽ اسرائيل جي فوجن جي وچ ۾ بفر فورس طور ڪم ڪندي جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ جو مينڊيٽ ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unef1mandate.html|title=UNEF Mandate|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان ٿوري ئي عرصي بعد 1960ع ۾ [[ڪانگو ۾ گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUC) شروع ڪيو ويو. پنهنجي عروج تي هن مشن ۾ ويهه هزار کان وڌيڪ فوجي اهلڪار شامل هئا، ۽ ان دوران 250 گڏيل قومن جا اهلڪار مارجي ويا، جن ۾ ان وقت جو سيڪريٽري جنرل [[ڊيگ هيملشولڊ]] پڻ شامل هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/early.shtml|title=The Early Years of UN Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ONUC جو مقصد [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] مان بيلجيم جي فوجن جي واپسي کي يقيني بڻائڻ هو، جيڪي [[فورس پبليڪ]] جي بغاوت کان پوءِ بيلجيم جي شهرين ۽ اقتصادي مفادن جي تحفظ لاءِ ٻيهر داخل ٿي ويون هيون. هن مشن کي قانون ۽ امن امان بحال ڪرڻ، بغاوت ۽ نسلي تشدد کي ختم ڪرڻ، ڪانگولي سلامتي فورسن کي فني مدد ۽ تربيت ڏيڻ، ۽ ملڪ جي علائقائي سالميت ۽ سياسي خودمختياري کي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/onuc.htm|title=ONUC|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي ذميواري خاص طور تي [[ڪتانگا]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪاسائي]] جهڙن معدني وسيلن سان مالامال صوبن جي علحدگيءَ واري تحريڪ جي پسمنظر ۾ شامل ڪئي وئي. ان دور ۾ گڏيل قومن جون فوجون، ڪجهه تڪراري انداز ۾، ڪانگو جي حڪومت جي مدد ڪندي ٻنهي صوبن جي علحدگي ختم ڪرائڻ ۾ به ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

1960ع ۽ 1970ع واري ڏهاڪن دوران گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف علائقن ۾ ڪيترائي مختصر مدي وارا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن قائم ڪيا، جن ۾ [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريه ۾ سيڪريٽري جنرل جي نمائندي جو مشن]] (DOMREP)، [[اولهه نيو گني ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي فورس]] (UNSF) ۽ [[يمن ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مبصر مشن]] (UNYOM) شامل هئا. ساڳئي وقت ڪجهه ڊگهي مدي وارا مشن پڻ جاري رهيا، جهڙوڪ [[قبرص ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج]] (UNFICYP)، [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج II]] (UNEF II)، [[گڏيل قومن جي ڌرين جي الڳ ٿيڻ جي نگراني ڪندڙ فوج]] (UNDOF)، ۽ [[لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن جي عبوري فوج]] (UNIFIL).&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;/&gt;

=== 1991ع کان پوءِ ===

[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-un-holds-head.jpg|thumb|[[سراييوو جو گهيرو|سراييوو جي گهيري]] (1992ع–1993ع) دوران هڪ [[ناروي]] جو امن قائم رکڻ وارو اهلڪار؛ تصوير: [[ميخائل اِوستافيئف]].]]

[[يوگوسلاو جنگين]] دوران امن قائم رکڻ جي تجربن، خاص طور تي [[سربرينيتسا قتلِ عام]] جهڙين ناڪامين، جزوي طور [[گڏيل قومن جي امن تعمير ڪميشن]] (يونائيٽيڊ نيشنز پيس بلڊنگ ڪميشن) جي قيام جو سبب بڻيا. هي ڪميشن چونڊن ۽ ٻين شهري ادارن جي مضبوطي جهڙين سرگرمين وسيلي پائيدار امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ انجام ڏيندا آهن. هن وقت اها ڪميشن آفريڪا جي ڇهن ملڪن سان ڪم ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/projects/africa/beyond-peace-deals-united-nations-experiment-peacebuilding |title=Beyond Peace Deals: The United Nations Experiment in &quot;Peacebuilding&quot;|date=June 22, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ڳالهين سان گڏ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، ۾ عورتن جي وڌيڪ مؤثر شرڪت، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهرن جي مقرري، هٿياربند تڪرارن جا عورتن تي پوندڙ اثرن بابت وڌيڪ معلومات، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |title=UN Security Council Takes a Historic Stand Supporting Abortion Access for Women Raped in War / Library / Homepage |publisher=AWID |access-date=October 28, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203101025/http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |archive-date=December 3, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن سان امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW)، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن بابت ڪميٽي آهي، هڪ عام سفارش جاري ڪئي، جنهن موجب اهي رياستون، جيڪي گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جون ڌريون آهن، پابند آهن ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌيءَ طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ فوجون موڪلين، يا تڪرارن جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مالي يا ٻئي قسم جي مدد فراهم ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=13885&amp;LangID=E|title=OHCHR -|website=www.ohchr.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪميٽي اهو پڻ واضح ڪيو ته اهڙين رياستن کي مناسب احتياط اختيار ڪرڻ گهرجي ته جيئن [[غير رياستي ڌريون]]، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي سلامتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ٿيندڙ ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

[[پيج فورٽنا]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي مقرري بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍيو ته ''&quot;امن قائم رکڻ رسد ۽ طلب جو معاملو آهي.&quot;'' رسد جي لحاظ کان سندس مشاهدو آهي ته سلامتي ڪائونسل جي مستقل ميمبرن مان ڪنهن هڪ جي ويجهن ملڪن ۾ هلندڙ گهرو ويڙهن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن مقرر ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن. جڏهن ته طلب جي لحاظ کان مختلف تحقيقون ظاهر ڪن ٿيون ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن گهڻو ڪري انهن ملڪن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن، جتي انهن جي ضرورت سڀ کان وڌيڪ هوندي آهي، يعني جتي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تمام گهڻو هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot; /&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي جوڙجڪ ==

=== اهي ملڪ جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺن ٿا ===
{{See also|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي تعداد موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Irish troops UNMIL.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|جولاءِ 2006ع ۾ [[لائبيريا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو مشن لائبيريا]] (UNMIL) سان مقرر آئرش فوجي گشت ڪندي.]]

[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] موجب، دنيا ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ ۾ مدد ڏيڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا سڀئي ميمبر ملڪ سلامتي ڪائونسل کي ضرورت موجب فوجي دستا ۽ ٻيون سهولتون فراهم ڪندا. 1948ع کان وٺي لڳ ڀڳ 130 ملڪن امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن لاءِ فوجي اهلڪار، شهري پوليس ۽ ٻيو عملو فراهم ڪيو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ 1948ع کان وٺي سڀني امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏيندڙ اهلڪارن جو مڪمل رڪارڊ موجود ناهي، پر اندازو آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي 71 مشنن ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه لک فوجين، پوليس اهلڪارن ۽ شهرين گڏيل قومن جي جهنڊي هيٺ خدمتون انجام ڏنيون آهن. سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين 122 ملڪ گڏيل طور لڳ ڀڳ 76,000 فوجي مبصر، پوليس اهلڪار ۽ فوجي مهيا ڪري رهيا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Troop and police contributors|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/troop-and-police-contributors|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

شرڪت ڪندڙ ملڪن جو تعداد گهڻو هجڻ باوجود، امن قائم رکڻ جو وڏو بار اڃا تائين [[ترقي پذير ملڪ|ترقي پذير ملڪن]] جي هڪ بنيادي گروهه تي آهي. آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي، پوليس ۽ فوجي ماهر موڪليندڙ ڏهه ملڪ [[بنگلاديش]] (6,447)، [[نيپال]] (5,536)، [[ڀارت]] (5,481)، [[روانڊا]] (5,263)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (4,856)، [[پاڪستان]] (3,949)، [[مصر]] (2,818)، [[انڊونيشيا]] (2,818)، [[گهانا]] (2,296) ۽ [[چين]] (2,248) هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين 14,000 کان وڌيڪ شهري اهلڪار به امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ قانوني يا طبي ماهرن، استادن، مواصلاتي ٽيڪنالاجي جي ماهرن ۽ انتظامي عملي طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/civilians|title=Civilians|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

30 سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن دوران 100 کان وڌيڪ ملڪن سان تعلق رکندڙ 4,147 ماڻهو پنهنجون حياتيون وڃائي چڪا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/fatalities|title=Fatalities|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان وڌيڪ جاني نقصان [[ڀارت]] جو ٿيو، جنهن جا 174 امن اهلڪار مارجي ويا، ان کان پوءِ [[بنگلاديش]] (159)، [[پاڪستان]] (159)، [[نائيجيريا]] (157)، [[گهانا]] (145)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (138)، [[ڪينيڊا]] (123)، [[فرانس]] (115) ۽ [[برطانيه]] (106) شامل آهن. 1948ع کان وٺي سراسري طور هر سال 56 امن اهلڪار ماريا ويا، پر 2001ع کان پوءِ هي انگ لڳ ڀڳ ٻيڻو ٿي هر سال 110 تائين پهچي ويو. گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي پهرين 55 سالن دوران ٿيل ڪل جاني نقصان جو 30 سيڪڙو حصو صرف 1993ع کان 1995ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جي شعبي ۾ عالمي اتر ۽ عالمي ڏکڻ (Global North ۽ Global South) جي وچ ۾ واضح فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي وڏي اڪثريت [[عالمي ڏکڻ]] جي ترقي پذير ملڪن مان ايندي آهي. [[ٿامس جي. وائيس]] ۽ جيووانا ڪيولي موجب، ان جا ٽي اهم سبب علائقائي مفاد، بين الاقوامي وقار ۽ مالي فائدا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=February 3, 2019|title=The Global South and UN Peace Operations|url=https://www.e-ir.info/2019/02/03/the-global-south-and-un-peace-operations/|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=E-International Relations|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آفريقي ملڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا سڀ کان وڌيڪ اهلڪار فراهم ڪن ٿا، پر ساڳئي وقت آفريڪا ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جو تعداد به سڀ کان وڌيڪ آهي، ۽ گهڻا آفريقي امن اهلڪار آفريڪا جي اندر ئي مقرر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، ايٿوپيا جا لڳ ڀڳ سڀئي 4,800 امن اهلڪار پاڙيسري ملڪن [[سوڊان]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ مقرر هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺڻ سان ترقي پذير ملڪن کي بين الاقوامي وقار پڻ حاصل ٿيندو آهي، ۽ اهو [[عظيم طاقت]] طور پنهنجون دعوائون مضبوط ڪرڻ ۾ مددگار ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيئن [[برازيل]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جي صورت ۾ ڏٺو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، غريب ملڪن لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين کي موڪلڻ مالي لحاظ کان به فائديمند هوندو آهي. هر امن اهلڪار لاءِ ماهوار واپسيءَ جي رقم ۾ پگهار ۽ الائونس لاءِ 1,028 آمريڪي ڊالر، ماهرن لاءِ اضافي 303 آمريڪي ڊالر، ذاتي لباس، سامان ۽ اوزارن لاءِ 68 آمريڪي ڊالر، ۽ ذاتي هٿيار لاءِ 5 آمريڪي ڊالر شامل هوندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/faq/q10.htm|title=United Nations Peacekeepers - How are peacekeepers compensated?|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; گڏيل قومن طرفان فراهم ڪيل اهي ادائيگيون، تربيت ۽ سامان، انفرادي فوجين سان گڏ ترقي پذير ملڪن لاءِ به مالي طور پرڪشش هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ مقرر ڪيل فوجي ۽ شهري پوليس اهلڪارن مان لڳ ڀڳ 4.5 سيڪڙو [[يورپي يونين]] مان ايندا آهن، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو حصو هڪ سيڪڙو کان به گهٽ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;factsheet&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/overview.shtml |title=Peacekeeping Fact Sheet |publisher=United Nations|access-date=December 20, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

مشنن جي قيادت بابت عام طور تي فوجي ڪمانڊر انهن ملڪن مان چونڊيا ويندا آهن، جيڪي سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي دستا فراهم ڪندا آهن، جڏهن ته سيڪريٽري جنرل جا خاص نمائندا گهڻو ڪري ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Oksamytna |first1= Kseniya|last2= Bove |first2= Vincenzo|last3= Lundgren |first3= Magnus|date= 2021 |title=Leadership selection in United Nations peacekeeping |journal= International Studies Quarterly|volume= 65|pages= 16–28|doi= 10.1093/isq/sqaa023 |doi-access= free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت ===
{{See also|امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتون}}

[[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 1325]] عورتن کي تڪرارن جي روڪٿام ۽ حل، امن ڳالهين، امن جي تعمير، امن قائم رکڻ، انساني امداد ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ ۾ سرگرم ۽ برابر ڌر طور شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو پهريون اهم قدم هو. هن قرارداد ۾ زور ڏنو ويو ته امن ۽ سلامتي جي قيام ۽ واڌاري لاءِ ٿيندڙ سڀني ڪوششن ۾ عورتن جي برابر شرڪت ۽ مڪمل شموليت کي يقيني بڻايو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and the Advancement of Women. &quot;[http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/wps/#resolution Landmark resolution on Women, Peace and Security]&quot;, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Security Council (October 31, 2000) &quot;Resolution 1325&quot;, S/RES/1325, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;

هن قرارداد تي هڪ تنقيد اها به ڪئي وئي آهي ته ان ۾ صنفي مرڪزي ڌارا (جينڊر مين اسٽريمنگ) کي لاڳو ڪرڻ جي ڳالهه ڪئي وئي، پر عملي طور گهڻو ڌيان صرف عورتن جي شموليت وڌائڻ تي ڏنو ويو، جڏهن ته مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي تي پاليسين جي اثرن جو مناسب جائزو نه ورتو ويو. 2010ع ۾ هن قرارداد جي ڏهن سالن جي اثرن بابت هڪ جامع جائزو ورتو ويو، جنهن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ان تي عملدرآمد محدود حد تائين ڪامياب رهيو، خاص طور تي امن ڳالهين ۽ امن معاهدن ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت وڌائڻ جي حوالي سان، جڏهن ته جنسي ۽ صنفي بنياد تي تشدد گهٽائڻ جي ڪوششن باوجود اهو مسئلو برقرار رهيو.&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations and Department of Field Support (2010). &quot;Ten-year Impact Study on Implementation of UN Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) on Women, Peace and Security in Peacekeeping&quot;, United Nations, p. 9-10. https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/documents/10year_impact_study_1325.pdf.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Ghana IntPeaceCorps 2016-05-29 B002a.jpg|thumb|گھانا جون عورتون گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏينديون.]]

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهريت، هٿياربند تڪرارن جي عورتن تي اثرن بابت بهتر ڄاڻ، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي وڌيڪ سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ مؤثر قدمن تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;/&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن خلاف امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW) پڻ پنهنجي هڪ عام سفارش ۾ چيو ته جن رياستن گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جي توثيق ڪئي آهي، انهن تي لازم آهي ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌي طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا، تڪرار جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مدد فراهم ڪري رهيون هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

ڪميٽي وڌيڪ چيو ته توثيق ڪندڙ رياستن کي مناسب احتياط سان اهو به يقيني بڻائڻ گهرجي ته غير رياستي ڌريون، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي حفاظتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

جولاءِ 2016ع تائين عورتون گڏيل قومن جي هر امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن ۾ فوجي، پوليس يا شهري عملي جي حيثيت سان خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيون هيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/resources/statistics/gender.shtml|title=Gender statistics. United Nations Peacekeeping|website=www.un.org|access-date=September 6, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

1993ع ۾ مقرر ٿيل يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن مان رڳو 1 سيڪڙو عورتون هيون. 2020ع تائين لڳ ڀڳ 95,000 امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن مان عورتون فوجي عملي جو 4.8 سيڪڙو، پوليس عملي جو 10.9 سيڪڙو، ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عملي جو 34 سيڪڙو هيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Women in peacekeeping|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/women-peacekeeping|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين اهڙو ڪو به ملڪ، جيڪو گڏيل قومن لاءِ 100 کان وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار موڪلي ٿو، پنهنجي دستي ۾ 25 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ عورتون نامزد نه ڪندو هو. حقيقي انگن اکرن موجب سڀ کان وڏا عورتن جا دستا [[ايٿوپيا]] (578 عورتون، يعني ان جي ڪل دستي جو 12 سيڪڙو)، [[روانڊا]] (500، يعني 10 سيڪڙو) ۽ [[گهانا]] (389، يعني 17 سيڪڙو) طرفان فراهم ڪيا ويا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

جيتوڻيڪ فوجي عملي ۾ عورتن جي مقرر تناسب بابت گڏيل قومن ڪو لازمي هدف مقرر نه ڪيو آهي، پر ميمبر رياستن کان درخواست ڪئي وئي آهي ته اهي پوليس آفيسرن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 20 سيڪڙو ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 30 سيڪڙو عورتون نامزد ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot; /&gt;

2024ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجي دستن ۾ عورتن جو ڪل انگ گهٽجي ويو، پر انهن جو تناسب وڌيو. يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن ۾ صنفي برابري واري حڪمت عملي (يونيفارمڊ جينڊر پئرٽي اسٽريٽجي) شروع ٿيڻ کان پوءِ عورتن جو تناسب مسلسل وڌندو رهيو آهي. عورتن جي ڪل تعداد ۾ گهٽتائي جو وڏو سبب [[گڏيل قومن جو مالي ۾ ڪثيرالجہتي مربوط استحڪامي مشن]] (MINUSMA) جو خاتمو هو. جون 2024ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن ۾ مقرر فوجي عملي مان عورتن جو تناسب 8.6 سيڪڙو هو، جيڪو گذريل سال جي ڀيٽ ۾ 1.3 سيڪڙو وڌيڪ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pfeifer Cruz |first=Claudia |title=Women in Multilateral Peace Operations in 2024: What is the State of Play? |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241031064944/https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |archive-date=October 31, 2024 |date=October 2024 |doi=10.55163/VYHM5282 |doi-access=free |location=Stockholm |publisher=SIPRI}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ جو نظرياتي بنياد ==
{{One source section
| date = August 2024
}}

جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ ۽ امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي ڪردار بابت گهڻو ڪجهه لکيو ويو آهي، پر اهڙي تجرباتي تحقيق نسبتاً گهٽ ٿي آهي، جيڪا اهو واضح ڪري سگهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول ۾ ڪهڙي نموني اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. [[ڪولمبيا يونيورسٽي]] جي پروفيسر [[ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا]] چار اهڙن سببن (ڪيئيوئل ميڪينزم) جي سڃاڻپ ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي، جن جي ذريعي امن قائم رکڻ وارا پائيدار امن لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices After Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|location=Princeton|pages=175}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا موجب اهي چار بنيادي طريقا هي آهن:

# تازن ويڙهاڪن جي ترغيبي عنصرن ۾ تبديلي آڻڻ، جيئن امن وڌيڪ فائديمند ۽ جنگ وڌيڪ مهانگي محسوس ٿئي.
# غير يقيني صورتحال ۽ خوف کي گهٽائڻ، جيڪي سلامتي جي مخمصي (سڪيورٽي ڊليما) کي وڌائين ٿا.
# حادثاتي واقعن يا بي ضابطه هٿياربند گروهن جي ڪاررواين کي روڪڻ يا ضابطي ۾ آڻڻ، جيڪي ٻيهر جنگ جو سبب بڻجي سگهن.
# ڪنهن هڪ ڌر (خاص طور حڪومت) طرفان سياسي زيادتين کي روڪڻ، جيڪي امن کان محروم ڌرين کي ٻيهر هٿيار کڻڻ تي مجبور ڪري سگهن.

فورٽنا جو دليل آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا امن جي عمل تي مثبت اثر ڇڏين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ انهن کي اڪثر اهڙن هنڌن تي موڪليو ويندو آهي، جتي امن قائم رکڻ سڀ کان وڌيڪ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. امن قائم رکڻ تي تنقيد ڪندڙ اڪثر چوندا آهن ته اهي مشن غير مؤثر يا غير ضروري آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن ويڙهاڪ ڌريون پاڻ امن برقرار رکڻ ۾ دلچسپي رکن ٿيون ته امن قائم رهندو. تنهن هوندي به، فورٽنا جو خيال آهي ته مٿي بيان ڪيل سبب ڏيکارين ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا پائيدار امن کي يقيني بڻائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، خاص طور تي انهن حالتن جي ڀيٽ ۾ جتي ويڙهاڪ ڌريون مڪمل طور پنهنجي حال تي ڇڏيل هجن. اهي سبب اهو به واضح ڪن ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ جي ضرورت ڇو آهي ۽ اهو تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول تي ڪيئن اثرانداز ٿي سگهي ٿو.

جنگ جي ترغيبن کي گهٽائڻ ۽ امن کي وڌيڪ پرڪشش بڻائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومون نفاذي اختيارن (انفورسمينٽ مينڊيٽ) تحت فوجي قوت مقرر ڪري سگهي ٿي، جيڪا امن خراب ڪندڙ ڌرين لاءِ روڪ جو سبب بڻجي. اهڙا دستا حالتن جي نگراني ڪري سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي اوچتي حملي جو امڪان گهٽجي وڃي ٿو يا اهڙو حملو ڪرڻ وڌيڪ ڏکيو ٿي وڃي ٿو. هلڪي هٿيارن سان ليس مشاهدي وارو مشن پڻ ابتدائي خبرداري واري قوت (ارلي-وارننگ فورس) يا &quot;ٽرپ وائر&quot; طور ڪم ڪري سگهي ٿو. بين الاقوامي برادري طرفان ڏني ويندڙ امداد ۽ سياسي سڃاڻپ کي به ان ڳالهه سان مشروط ڪيو وڃي ته ڌريون ڳالهين دوران طئي ٿيل شرطن تي عمل ڪن. ان سان گڏ، روزگار، عوامي ترقياتي منصوبن ۽ ٻين فائدن جي صورت ۾ &quot;امن جا فائدا&quot; (پيس ڊويڊينڊس) پڻ فراهم ڪيا وڃن.

غير يقيني صورتحال ۽ خوف کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري سگهن ٿا، ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رابطي کي آسان بڻائي سگهن ٿا ته جيئن سلامتي بابت خدشا گهٽجن، ۽ هر ڌر کي اها خاطري ملي ته ٻي ڌر پنهنجن واعدن کان نه ڦرندي. اهڙي طرح اهي ٻنهي ڌرين کي پنهنجي امن پسند ارادن کي واضح ۽ قابل اعتماد نموني ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ مؤثر ذريعو مهيا ڪن ٿا.

امن جي عمل کي پٽڙي تان لاهي ڇڏيندڙ حادثن يا بي ضابطه گروهن جي ڪاررواين کي روڪڻ لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهڙن گروهن کي روڪي سگهن ٿا. ويڙهاڪ قوتون اڪثر مضبوط قيادت ۽ [[حڪم ۽ ضابطي]] (ڪمانڊ اينڊ ڪنٽرول) کان محروم هونديون آهن، تنهنڪري امن ڳالهين دوران ڪنهن بي ضابطه گروهه جي معاهدي کان انڪار ڪرڻ يا امن جي عمل کي ناڪام بڻائڻ جو خطرو موجود هوندو آهي. گڏيل قومن جا دستا اهڙين حالتن کي روڪڻ سان گڏ ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ثالثي ۽ رابطي کي پڻ آسان بڻائي سگهن ٿا ۽ سياسي اعتدال پسند قوتن کي اڳتي آڻي سگهن ٿا. قانون ۽ امن امان برقرار رکندي اهي عارضي طور رياستي حفاظتي ادارن جي ذميواري سنڀالي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي مبينا ڀڃڪڙي تي غيرجانبدار رويو اختيار ڪيو وڃي ۽ تشدد جي ٻيهر شروعات کان بچي سگهجي.

سياسي زيادتين جي روڪٿام لاءِ حڪومت سان لاڳاپيل ادارن ۾ سڌارا آندا وڃن ٿا. فوج ۽ پوليس جهڙن حفاظتي ادارن کي تربيت ڏيڻ ۽ انهن جي نگراني ڪرڻ سان کين حڪمرانن جي دٻاءَ جو اوزار بڻجڻ بدران عوام جا غيرجانبدار محافظ بڻائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. اهڙي تربيت عوام جو اعتماد وڌائڻ ۾ مددگار ثابت ٿي سگهي ٿي. گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا آزاد ۽ منصفاڻي چونڊون ڪرائڻ ۽ انهن جي نگراني پڻ ڪري سگهن ٿا. ڪجهه حالتن ۾ گڏيل قومون عبوري دور دوران غيرجانبدار عبوري حڪومت پڻ قائم ڪري سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ملڪ جو انتظام سنڀالي، جڏهن ته سرڪاري ادارن کي ٻيهر منظم، سڌاريو يا وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪيو وڃي. ان کان سواءِ هٿياربند باغي گروهن کي هٿيار ڦٽا ڪرڻ، انهن کي سياسي تنظيمن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ ۽ پرامن جمهوري عمل وسيلي پنهنجا مطالبا پيش ڪرڻ لاءِ همٿايو وڃي ٿو. اهو خاص طور اهم آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي باغي گروهه حڪومت جي اهم مخالف قوت هوندا آهن، پر سياسي تنظيم طور مؤثر نموني ڪم ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت کان محروم هوندا آهن.

مختلف امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن مختلف سببن ۽ ضرورتن جي بنياد تي قائم ڪيا ويندا آهن. [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VII]] تحت هلندڙ مشنن ۾ فوجي روڪ ۽ نفاذ تي وڌيڪ زور هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VI]] تحت مشن بنيادي طور نگراني ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ غيرجانبدار موجودگي برقرار رکڻ لاءِ هوندا آهن. سياسي زيادتين جي روڪٿام لاءِ قائم ڪيل مشن گهڻ رخي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ واري سياسي عمل ۾ سرگرم ڪردار ادا ڪندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|chapter=4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:امن]]
[[زمرو:تنظيمون]]
[[زمرو:گڏيل قومون]]
[[زمرو:عالمي سياست]]
[[زمرو:بين الاقوامي لاڳاپا]]</text>
      <sha1>nbqxw9iex6r3hx414sco1nfd8qeiqr4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399326</id>
      <parentid>399325</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T21:49:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399326</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="82386" sha1="hcwf8vggfjqlx401kwexmcttwzgwzzk" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|دائمي امن لاءِ سازگار حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ خاطر ڪيل سرگرميون}}


[[File:Italian Soldier UNIFIL 2 Lebanon 2007.jpg|thumb|[[اطالوي فوج]] جو هڪ [[سپاهي]] لبنان ۾ [[يونيفل]] مشن دوران پهرو ڏئي رهيو آهي.]]

'''امن قائم رکندڙ فوج''' (Peacekeeping Force) انهن سرگرمين، خاص طور فوجي سرگرمين،&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Peacekeeping&quot;. Oxford Languages. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جن جو مقصد اهڙيون حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ هوندو آهي جيڪي پائيدار [[امن]] جي قيام لاءِ سازگار هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/|title=United Nations Peacekeeping|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; تحقيق مان عام طور اهو ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون [[شهري جاني نقصان|شهري]] ۽ جنگي ميدان ۾ ٿيندڙ جاني نقصان کي گهٽائين ٿيون ۽ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي پڻ گهٽائين ٿيون.

[[گڏيل قومون]] (UN) ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل [[قومي رياست]]ن جي حڪومتن ۽ [[تنظيم]]ن جي وچ ۾ عام طور اهو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو ته عالمي سطح تي امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا جنگ کان پوءِ وارن علائقن ۾ امن جي عمل جي نگراني ۽ مشاهدو ڪندا آهن، ۽ اڳوڻن ويڙهاڪن کي انهن امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ ۾ مدد ڏيندا آهن، جن جا هو پابند بڻيل هوندا آهن. اهڙي مدد ڪيترين ئي صورتن ۾ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ اعتماد سازي جا قدم، اقتدار جي ورهاست جا انتظام، چونڊن ۾ مدد، [[قانون جي حڪمراني]] کي مضبوط بڻائڻ، ۽ معاشي ۽ سماجي ترقي کي هٿي ڏيڻ. ان ڪري [[گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا]] (جن کي سندن هلڪي نيري [[بيريٽ]] يا هيلمٽ سبب اڪثر '''نيري بيريٽ''' يا '''نيرا هيلمٽ''' چيو ويندو آهي) ۾ فوجي، [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس آفيسر]] ۽ شهري عملي جا ميمبر شامل ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dpko/ |title=Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dfs/ |title=Department of Field Support (DFS) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جا مشن هلائيندڙ واحد تنظيم گڏيل قومون نه آهن. گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم ڪندڙ قوتن ۾ [[ڪوسوو فورس]] جي [[نيٽو]] مشن (گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان)، [[سينا ٻيٽ نما]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]]، ۽ [[يورپي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[EUFOR RCA]]، گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان) ۽ [[آفريقي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[سوڊان ۾ آفريقي يونين مشن]]) پاران منظم ڪيل امن مشن شامل آهن.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

[[بين الاقوامي قانون]] موجب، امن قائم ڪندڙ پنهنجي غيرجانبدار حيثيت سبب [[غير جنگجو]] (non-combatants) شمار ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي ٻن يا وڌيڪ [[جنگ ڪندڙ ڌر]]ن جي وچ ۾ تڪرار ۾ غيرجانبدار هوندا آهن (بلڪل اهڙيءَ طرح جيئن امن قائم رکڻ جي ذميوارين کان ٻاهر موجود غيرجانبدار ماڻهو ۽ ملڪيت). تنهنڪري انهن کي هر حال ۾ حملن کان تحفظ حاصل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule33 |title=Rule 33. Personnel and Objects Involved in a Peacekeeping Mission|publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]|access-date=April 7, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فائل:UN Soldiers in Eritrea.jpeg|thumb|right|upright=1.00|نيدرلينڊز جا ڊچ فوجي اقوام متحده جي امن جي قيام جي فورس ۾ ايٿوپيا ۽ ايريٽيريا جي سرحد تي گڏيل قومن پاران چوڪسي ڪندي]]

'''امن جي بحالي واري فوج'''{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي=Peace Keeping Force}}
ٻن ملڪن ياڌرين جي وچ ۾ ڪو به تڪرار ايترو زور وٺي وڃي، جو ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت کانسواءِ اهو ٽري نه سگهي، ته ٽين ڌر امن قائم ڪرڻ (Peace Keeping) لاءِ مُختلف اُپاءُ وٺندي آهي. ڪنهن به تڪرار جي حل لاءِ ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت جو مقصد ٻن ڌُرين ۾ رڳو صُلح ڪرائڻ هوندو آهي، جنهن لاءِ فوجي ۽ سُفارتي طريقا ڪتب آندا ويندا آهن. ان کان سواءِ گھُرج پوڻ تي ٽين ڌر (يا وچين ڌر) جهيڙو ڪندڙ ڌرين تي مُختلف قسمن جو دٻاءُ رکندي آهي، جيڪڏهن ڌريون پوءِ به جهيڙي کي نه ٿيون ختم ڪن، ته مٿانئن فوجي قدم کڻڻ لاءِ به اڳڀرائي ڪئي ويندي آهي. جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جو عالمي ادارو|گڏيل قومن]] جو ادارو قائم ڪيو ويو هيو ته ان وقت ٻي عالمي جنگ ختم ٿي هئي، پر ملڪن جا پاڻ ۾ تڪرار پوءِ به هلي رهيا هئا ۽ ”سرد جنگ“ به شروع ٿي چڪي هئي، دُنيا جي امن کي گهڻن قسمن جا خطرا پيدا ٿي چڪا هئا. 1950ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل بين الاقوامي جهيڙن کي پاسيرو ڪرڻ ۽ امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ”احتياطي سفارتڪاري“ (Preventive Diplomacy) جو اصطلاح اڳيان آندو هو. انهيءَ قسم جي حڪمت عملي ۾ ڪنهن به تڪرار کي رڳو ٺارڻ جو حل ڏنل هيو، پر جهيڙي کي مستقل طور ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪجهه واڌو قدم به گهربل هئا. انهيءَ ڪري اهڙي صورتحال ۾ اڳتي هلي ”مشن ڪريپ“ (Mission Creep) جو اصطلاح ڪتب آندو ويو، جنهن ۾ جهيڙي کي مڪمل طور ختم ڪرڻ جي تجويز ڏني وئي. انهيءَ حوالي سان 1956ع ۾ ڪئناڊا جي پرڏيهي معاملن جي وزير ۽ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”ڊگ هئمرشولڊ“ گڏيل قومن جي اداري جي پلئٽفارم تان ”امن قائم ڪرڻ واري فوج“ (Peace Keeping Force) قائم ڪئي، جنهن جي شعبا بندي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ان جي ورديءَ کانسواءِ خاص قسم جي ٽوپي به تيار ڪرائي وئي ۽ ان خاص ٽوپيءَ جو رنگ ”نيرو“ مقرر ڪيو ويو. ٽوپيءَ کي ٻين فوجي ٽوپين کان الڳ رنگ ڏيڻ جو مقصد، بين الاقوامي امن فوج جي انفراديت کي ظاهر ڪرڻ آهي. ان هوندي به ”امن فوج“ جي طريقيڪار ۽ اختيارن کي اڃا تائين چڱيءَ ريت گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر ۾ بيان نه ڪيو ويو آهي. گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر جي 6 ۽ 7 باب ۾، امن جي ڪوشش وٺڻ لاءِ جيڪي تفصيل بيان ڪيا ويا آهن، انهن سان امن جي بحاليءَ واري عمل کي به جوڙيو ويو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن جي بحاليءَ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي پڌرنامي جي روح مطابق جوڙجڪ ضروري آهي. انهن کوٽن جي باوجود، گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج، دُنيا ۾ امن ۽ صلح جي لاءِ گھڻن هنڌن مثال طور؛ ڪمبوڊيا، نميبيا، انگولا، لبنان، ايراني نار ۽ [[سوماليا|صوماليا]] وغيره ۾ ڪاميابيءَ سان پنهنجون ذميواريون پوريون ڪري چڪي آهي. امن فوج جي اهڙي اهميت کي محسوس ڪندي، گڏيل قومن جي اداري ڪيترن مُتاثر ملڪن جي داخلي معاملن ۾ به هن فوج جو استعمال مُناسب ۽ بهتر سمجهيو. منڍ ۾ اها فوج ٻن تڪراري ڌُر جي وچ ۾ هلندڙ جهيِڙو ٽارڻ لاءِ ڪتب آندي ويندي هئي، پر 1988ع کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جي اداري اهڙن ملڪن ۾ به کيس ذميواري سونپيون، جتي گهرو ويڙھ ۾ اَڙيل مُختلف ڌرين ۾ جنگ جاري هُئي ۽ اُتي انتظامي معاملا هيٺ مٿي لڳا پيا هُئا. اهڙن مُلڪن ۾ امن فوج کي گڏيل قومن طرفان چونڊون ڪرائڻ، انتظامي معاملن کي سُڌارڻ، عوام کي تحفظ ڏيڻ ۽ جهيڙن کان تنگ اچي ملڪ ڇڏي ويل ماڻهن کي واپس پنهنجي اباڻي وطن ۾ ٻيهر آباد ڪرائڻ جا اختيار به ڏنا ويا. ٻئي طرف اها به حقيقت آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج کي گھڻن معاملن ۽ هنڌن تي ڪن ملڪن پنهنجن خاص مقصدن لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو. ان کانسواءِ گھڻن علائقن (جهڙوڪ ڪشمير) ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن فوج پنهنجي مقصد حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام وئي آهي. سندس مُقابلي ۾ اولھ جي مُلڪن جي فوجي اتحاد نيٽو امن فوج جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ متحرڪ ۽ اثرائتي رهي آهي. 1992ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”بترس غالي“، امن جي آڻڻ لاءِ خاص علائقي ۽ خاص حالتن آهر مداخلت ڪرڻ ۽ نون اختيار ڏيڻ لاءِ اداري آڏو تجويزون پيش ڪيون، پر ان ڏس ۾ مڪمل سوڀاري ٿيڻ لاءِ ”پيس ڪيپگ“ جو عمل نون ضابطن، اختيارن ۽ قانونن جي انتظار ۾ آهي. 
&lt;ref&gt;[http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/define/Peace%20Keeping%20Force.php سنڌي آنلائين ڊڪشنري]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} پاران [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد&lt;/ref&gt;

== وصفون ۽ امن قائم رکڻ جي عمل جا قسم ==

=== گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ===
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن}}

==== ڇهون باب ۽ ستون باب وارا مشن ====

امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن جا ڪيترائي مختلف قسم آهن. مثال طور، پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي ڪتاب ''Does Peacekeeping Work?'' ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن کي چئن مختلف قسمن ۾ ورهايو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=Chapter 7}}&lt;/ref&gt; انهن مشنن جو قسم ۽ انهن تي عملدرآمد جو طريقو گهڻي حد تائين ان اختيارنامي (mandate) تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، جنهن تحت انهن کي اختيار ڏنو ويندو آهي.

فورٽنا جي بيان ڪيل چئن قسمن مان ٽي اهڙا آهن، جيڪي ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن ۽ انهن کي عام طور ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ڇهون باب|ڇهين باب]]'' وارا مشن چيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته چوٿون قسم ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]]'' وارو مشن هوندو آهي.

ڇهين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشنن لاءِ جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي لازمي هوندي آهي؛ جيڪڏهن اها رضامندي ختم ٿي وڃي ته امن قائم ڪندڙ دستن کي علائقو ڇڏڻو پوندو. ان جي ابتڙ، ستين باب وارن مشنن کي قانوني طور رضامندي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي، جيتوڻيڪ عملي طور اها موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي. جيڪڏهن رضامندي بعد ۾ ختم به ٿي وڃي ته به اهڙن مشنن کي واپس وڃڻ ضروري نه هوندو.

# '''مشاهدي وارا مشن''' (Observation Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي يا شهري مبصرن جا ننڍا دستا شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي جنگبندي، فوجن جي واپسي يا جنگبندي واري معاهدي ۾ ڄاڻايل ٻين شرطن جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. اهي عام طور بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا آهن ۽ سندن بنيادي ذميواري رڳو مشاهدو ڪرڻ ۽ رپورٽون تيار ڪرڻ هوندي آهي؛ تنهن ڪري جيڪڏهن ڪا ڌر معاهدي جي ڀڃڪڙي ڪري ته اهي مداخلت ڪرڻ جا مجاز نه هوندا آهن. مثال طور [[انگولا]] ۾ 1991ع وارو [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن II]] (UNAVEM II) ۽ [[اولهه صحارا]] ۾ [[اولهه صحارا بابت راءِ شماري لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو مشن]] (MINURSO).

# '''وچٿري مشن''' (Interpositional Missions)، جن کي روايتي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، نسبتاً وڏن ۽ هلڪي هٿياربند فوجي دستن تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جيڪي تڪرار کان پوءِ ٻن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ طور مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهي ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ بفر زون جو ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. مثال طور 1994ع ۾ [[انگولا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن III]] (UNAVEM III) ۽ 1996ع ۾ [[گوئٽي مالا]] ۾ [[MINUGUA]].

# '''گهڻ رخا مشن''' (Multidimensional Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس]] عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو جامع امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندو آهي. اهي رڳو مشاهدو يا ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رڪاوٽ بڻجڻ تائين محدود نه هوندا آهن، پر چونڊن جي نگراني، پوليس ۽ سلامتي ادارن جي سڌارن، ادارن جي تعمير، معاشي ترقي ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي شعبن ۾ پڻ حصو وٺندا آهن. مثال طور [[نيميبيا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو عبوري امدادي گروهه]] (UNTAG)، [[ايل سلواڊور]] ۾ [[ONUSAL]] ۽ [[موزمبيق]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUMOZ).

# '''[[امن لاڳو ڪندڙ]] مشن''' (Peace Enforcement Missions): اهي ستين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشن هوندا آهن ۽ اڳين ٽن قسمن جي ابتڙ، جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ جا پابند نه هوندا آهن. اهي شهري ۽ فوجي ٻنهي قسمن جي عملي تي مشتمل گهڻ رخا مشن هوندا آهن. انهن وٽ نسبتاً وڏي ۽ بهتر هٿياربند فوج هوندي آهي ۽ انهن کي صرف پنهنجي بچاءَ کان وڌيڪ مقصدن لاءِ به طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل هوندو آهي. مثال طور [[اولهه آفريڪا]] ۾ [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري جو نگراني گروهه]] (ECOMOG)، 1999ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو سيرا ليون مشن]] (UNAMSIL)، ۽ [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ [[نيٽو]] جا [[IFOR]] ۽ [[SFOR]] آپريشن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;/&gt;

==== سرد جنگ دوران ۽ ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ====

[[سرد جنگ]] جي دور ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جا اڪثر مشن روايتي نوعيت جا هئا، جن ۾ امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا ملڪن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ جنگن کان پوءِ مقرر ڪيا ويندا هئا ته جيئن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ بڻجن ۽ امن معاهدن تي عملدرآمد کي يقيني بڻائين. اهي مشن رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا هئا ۽ گهڻو ڪري مبصر بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا هئا، جيئن [[وچ اوڀر]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) ۽ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] بابت [[ڪشمير بابت گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP). ڪجهه مشن هٿياربند به هئا، جهڙوڪ [[سوئيز بحران]] دوران قائم ڪيل [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I). مجموعي طور اهي مشن پنهنجي مقرر ڪيل ڪردار ۾ ڪامياب رهيا.

[[سرد جنگ کان پوءِ وارو دور|سرد جنگ کان پوءِ]] گڏيل قومن امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ جامع ۽ گهڻ رخي طريقيڪار اختيار ڪيو. 1992ع ۾ ان وقت جي [[گڏيل قومن جو سيڪريٽري جنرل|سيڪريٽري جنرل]] [[بوتروس بوتروس غالي]] هڪ رپورٽ تيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ امن قائم رکڻ بابت پنهنجو جامع تصور پيش ڪيو. ''[[امن لاءِ ايجنڊا]]'' (An Agenda for Peace) نالي هن رپورٽ ۾ هن احتياطي سفارتڪاري، امن لاڳو ڪرڻ، امن ڪرائڻ، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ بحاليءَ کي هڪ ٻئي سان ڳنڍيل قدمن طور بيان ڪيو، جن جي ذريعي سرد جنگ کان پوءِ واري عالمي سياست ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ڪردار وڌيڪ اثرائتو بڻجي سگهي.

==== گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جا وسيع مقصد ====

[[مائيڪل ڊوئل]] ۽ نڪولس سامبانس پنهنجي ڪتاب ''The UN Record on Peacekeeping Operations'' ۾ بوتروس غالي جي رپورٽ جو خلاصو پيش ڪندي احتياطي سفارتڪاري، اعتماد سازي جي قدمن (جهڙوڪ حقيقت معلوم ڪرڻ وارا مشن)، مبصر مشن، ۽ تشدد جي خطري کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي اختيار هيٺ فوج مقرر ڪرڻ کي پائيدار امن لاءِ اهم ذريعا قرار ڏين ٿا. سندن بيان موجب:

# '''امن لاڳو ڪرڻ''' (Peace Enforcement): گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي منظور ڪيل جنگبندي يا معاهدي تي عمل ڪرائڻ لاءِ، ضرورت پوڻ تي ڌرين جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به فوجي طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ. اهڙا مشن عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]] تحت هلندا آهن ۽ انهن ۾ مقرر فوجون نسبتاً وڌيڪ هٿياربند هونديون آهن.

# '''امن ڪرائڻ''' (Peacemaking): گڏيل قومن جي سرپرستي هيٺ ثالثي ۽ ڳالهين ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين کي پرامن حل تي راضي ڪرڻ. هي عمل عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] جي ڇهين باب تحت ڪيو ويندو آهي.

# '''امن قائم رکڻ''' (Peacekeeping): جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي سان هلڪي هٿياربند گڏيل قومن جي موجودگي قائم ڪرڻ، اعتماد پيدا ڪرڻ ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ٿيل معاهدن جي نگراني ڪرڻ. ان سان گڏ سفارتي ڪوششون پڻ جاري رهنديون آهن ته جيئن جامع ۽ پائيدار امن حاصل ڪري سگهجي.

# '''تڪرار کان پوءِ بحالي''' (Post-Conflict Reconstruction): معاشي ۽ سماجي سهڪار ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي بحال ڪرڻ، سياسي، سماجي ۽ معاشي ادارن کي مضبوط ڪرڻ، مستقبل ۾ تشدد جي امڪان کي گهٽائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|date=2007|title=The UN Record On Peacekeeping Operations|journal=International Journal|volume=63|issue=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ ۾ غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) سان گڏجي [[ثقافتي ورثو|ثقافتي ورثي]] جي تحفظ لاءِ ڪم ڪرڻ پڻ شامل آهي. ثقافتي ورثي جي حفاظت بابت گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري وابستگي 2012ع کان جاري آهي ۽ ان کي آهستي آهستي وڌايو پيو وڃي. ان سلسلي ۾ 2019ع ۾ [[يونيفل]] ۽ [[بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل]] جو لبنان ۾ [[يونيسڪو عالمي ورثو]] جي تحفظ لاءِ گڏيل مشن نمايان مثال آهي. فوجي ۽ شهري ماهرن پاران مقامي آباديءَ سان گڏجي ثقافتي ورثي جو تحفظ ڪيترن ئي تڪراري علائقن ۾ مستقبل جي پرامن ۽ معاشي ترقيءَ جو بنياد بڻجي ٿو. بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل جي صدر [[ڪارل فون هيبسبرگ]]، اپريل 2019ع ۾ لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ [[يونيسڪو]] جي مشن دوران چيو: ''&quot;ثقافتي ورثو ڪنهن به علائقي ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جي سڃاڻپ جو حصو هوندو آهي. جيڪڏهن توهان انهن جي ثقافت تباهه ڪريو ٿا ته سندن سڃاڻپ به ختم ٿي وڃي ٿي. نتيجي ۾ ڪيترائي ماڻهو بي گهر ٿي وڃن ٿا، سندن مستقبل بابت اميدون ختم ٿي وڃن ٿيون ۽ هو آخرڪار پنهنجو وطن ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ٿين ٿا.&quot;''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Karl von Habsburg auf Mission im Libanon|date=April 28, 2019 |url=https://www.krone.at/1911689|language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Jyot Hosagrahar: ''Culture: at the heart of SDGs.'' UNESCO-Kurier, April-Juni 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rick Szostak: ''The Causes of Economic Growth: Interdisciplinary Perspectives.'' Springer Science &amp; Business Media, 2009, {{ISBN|9783540922827}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bundesheer.at/cms/artikel.php?ID=10118 &quot;Blue Helmet Forum 2019 - Protection of Cultural Heritage in Peace Operations&quot;, Austrian Armed Forces].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017nian-di-3qi/historic-resolution-protect-cultural-heritage|title=A historic resolution to protect cultural heritage, The UNESCO Courier}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/action-plan-to-preserve-heritage-sites-during-conflict|title=Action plan to preserve heritage sites during conflict|website=United Nations Peacekeeping}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''UNESCO Director-General calls for stronger cooperation for heritage protection at the Blue Shield International General Assembly.'' UNESCO, September 13, 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم رکڻ ===
{{See also|غير گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي فهرست|نيٽو امن قائم رکڻ|يورپي يونين جي فوجي ۽ شهري مشنن جي فهرست|آفريقي يونين جي فوجي مداخلتن جي فهرست}}

[[File:En-MFO1.JPG|thumb|right|1989ع ۾ [[مصر]] جي [[سنائي اپٻيٽ|سنائي]] واري علائقي جي [[ايل گوراح]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) جي غير گڏيل قومن واري امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن سان مقرر ڪيل ڪينيڊا جا [[CH135 ٽوئن هيوئي]] هيليڪاپٽر.]]

[[File:75Parad 04.jpg|thumb|[[آذربائيجان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جا ميمبر، [[2020 ماسڪو فتح پريڊ]] دوران مڪمل فوجي ورديءَ ۾.]]

سڀئي بين الاقوامي امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا سڌي طرح گڏيل قومن جي ڪنٽرول هيٺ ڪم نٿا ڪن. 1981ع ۾ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ [[مصر]] جي وچ ۾ ٿيل هڪ معاهدي تحت [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) قائم ڪئي وئي، جيڪا اڄ تائين [[سنائي اپٻيٽ]] ۾ امن معاهدي تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;10TAGpgA-1&quot;&gt;10 Tactical Air Group: ''Canadian Contingent Multinational Force and Observers Handbook'' (unclassified), page A-1. DND, Ottawa, 1986.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[آفريقي يونين]] (AU) آفريقي امن ۽ سلامتي جو اهڙو ڍانچو (آفريڪن پيس اينڊ سڪيورٽي آرڪيٽيڪچر) قائم ڪرڻ تي ڪم ڪري رهي آهي، جيڪو براعظم ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري نڀائي سگهي. جيڪڏهن ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ [[نسل ڪشي]] يا انساني حقن جون ٻيون سنگين ڀڃڪڙيون ٿين، ته آفريقي يونين جي جنرل اسيمبلي جي منظوري سان، ان ملڪ جي حڪومت جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن موڪلي سگهجي ٿو. هن نظام، جنهن ۾ [[آفريقي اسٽينڊ بائي فورس]] (ASF) پڻ شامل آهي، جي قيام جو منصوبو 2015ع کان اڳ نه هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/african-peace-and-security-architecture-already-proving-useful-even-though-it-still-work |title=The African Peace and Security Architecture is already proving useful even though it is still work in progress |publisher=dandc.eu |date=August 27, 2013 |access-date=November 14, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

علائقائي سطح تي [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري]] (ECOWAS) پنهنجي ڪجهه ميمبر ملڪن ۾ ڪيترائي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا آهن، ۽ ان کي &quot;آفريڪا جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ ترقي يافته علائقائي امن ۽ سلامتي وارو نظام&quot; قرار ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Oni|first1=Cyril I.|date=2009|journal=African Security|volume=2|pages=119–135|doi=10.1080/19362200903361945|title=Economic Community of West African States on the Ground: Comparing Peacekeeping in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea Bissau, and Côte D'Ivoire|issue=2–3|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''غير هٿياربند شهري امن قائم رکڻ''' (ان آرمڊ سويلين پيس ڪيپنگ، UCP) ۾ شهري عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو تڪراري علائقن ۾ شهرين کي تشدد کان بچائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن جي قيام جي ڪوششن جي سهائتا لاءِ غير تشدد، غير مداخلت ۽ غير جانبداريءَ تي ٻڌل حڪمت عمليون اختيار ڪندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ UCP جو اصطلاح سڀني غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) ۾ هڪجهڙو عام نه آهي، پر ڪيترائي ادارا ساڳين طريقن سان ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ امن بابت هڪجهڙا مقصد رکندا آهن. انهن طريقن ۾ متاثر ماڻهن سان گڏ رهڻ، مستقل موجودگي، افواهن تي ضابطو آڻڻ، برادريءَ جي سلامتي بابت گڏجاڻيون، محفوظ لنگهن جو بندوبست ڪرڻ ۽ نگراني ڪرڻ شامل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rachel|first1=Julian|last2=Schweitzer|first2=Christine|date=2015|title=The Origins And Development of Unarmed Civilian Peacekeeping|url=http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|journal=Peace Review|volume=27|issue=1|pages=1–8|doi=10.1080/10402659.2015.1000181|s2cid=144911738|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719124249/http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|archive-date=July 19, 2018|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== مختصر تاريخ ==
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي تاريخ}}

=== قيام ۽ شروعاتي سال ===

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري نظام جي شروعات 1948ع ۾ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] [[1948ع جي عرب-اسرائيل جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ ان جي عرب پاڙيسري ملڪن وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي واري معاهدي جي نگراني لاءِ وچ اوڀر ۾ گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن کي مقرر ڪرڻ جي منظوري ڏني. هن مشن کي [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) سڏيو ويو، جيڪو اڄ تائين جاري آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/history.shtml|title=History of Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آگسٽ 1949ع ۾ سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 73 (1949ع) منظور ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNTSO کي اسرائيل ۽ انهن عرب رياستن جي وچ ۾ ٿيل چئن جنگبندي معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني جي ذميواري ڏني وئي، جيڪي ان جنگ ۾ شامل هيون. نتيجي طور، UNTSO جون سرگرميون علائقي جي پنجن رياستن، يعني [[اسرائيل]]، [[مصر]]، [[اردن]]، [[لبنان]] ۽ [[شام]] تائين ڦهلجي ويون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/untso/background.shtml|title=UNTSO Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== سرد جنگ دوران امن قائم رکڻ ===

آگسٽ 1947ع ۾ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] جي آزادي ۽ ان کان پوءِ ٿيل وڏي پيماني تي خونريزيءَ کان پوءِ، سلامتي ڪائونسل جنوري 1948ع ۾ قرارداد 39 (1948ع) منظور ڪري [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP) قائم ڪيو، جنهن جو مقصد [[ڪشمير]] بابت ٻنهي ملڪن جي وچ ۾ پيدا ٿيل تڪرار ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل ويڙهه ۾ ثالثي ڪرڻ هو.

هي مشن غير مداخلتي نوعيت جو هو ۽ ان کي [[ڄمون ۽ ڪشمير]] ۾ ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان جي وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي جي نگراني جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي. جولاءِ 1949ع ۾ [[ڪراچي معاهدو]] ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNCIP جنگبندي واري لڪير جي نگراني شروع ڪئي، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن ۽ ٻنهي ڌرين جي مقامي فوجي ڪمانڊرن جي گڏيل نگراني هيٺ هئي. هن مشن جو تسلسل اڄ به [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان ۾ گڏيل قومن جو فوجي مبصر گروپ]] (UNMOGIP) جي نالي سان جاري آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unmogip/background.shtml|title=UNMOGIP Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف ملڪن ۾ ڪُل 69 امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي منظوري ڏني.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;/&gt; انهن مان گهڻا مشن سرد جنگ جي خاتمي کان پوءِ قائم ٿيا. 1988ع کان 1998ع جي وچ ۾ گڏيل قومن 35 نوان امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا، جڏهن ته 1948ع کان 1978ع تائين صرف 13 مشن قائم ٿيا هئا، ۽ 1978ع کان 1988ع جي وچ واري ڏهاڪي دوران ڪو به نئون مشن قائم نه ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Duffey|first=Tamara|date=2000|title=Cultural Issues in Contemporary Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=7|issue=1|pages=142–168|doi=10.1080/13533310008413823|s2cid=145210823}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|142–168}}

گڏيل قومن جي پهرين هٿياربند مداخلت 1956ع جي [[سوئيز بحران]] کان پوءِ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I) قائم ڪئي وئي. هي فوج نومبر 1956ع کان جون 1967ع تائين موجود رهي ۽ ان کي [[مصر]]، [[برطانيه]]، [[فرانس]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] جي وچ ۾ جنگبندي برقرار رکڻ، مصري علائقي مان برطانوي، فرينچ ۽ اسرائيلي فوجن جي واپسي جي نگراني ڪرڻ، ۽ پوءِ مصر ۽ اسرائيل جي فوجن جي وچ ۾ بفر فورس طور ڪم ڪندي جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ جو مينڊيٽ ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unef1mandate.html|title=UNEF Mandate|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان ٿوري ئي عرصي بعد 1960ع ۾ [[ڪانگو ۾ گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUC) شروع ڪيو ويو. پنهنجي عروج تي هن مشن ۾ ويهه هزار کان وڌيڪ فوجي اهلڪار شامل هئا، ۽ ان دوران 250 گڏيل قومن جا اهلڪار مارجي ويا، جن ۾ ان وقت جو سيڪريٽري جنرل [[ڊيگ هيملشولڊ]] پڻ شامل هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/early.shtml|title=The Early Years of UN Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ONUC جو مقصد [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] مان بيلجيم جي فوجن جي واپسي کي يقيني بڻائڻ هو، جيڪي [[فورس پبليڪ]] جي بغاوت کان پوءِ بيلجيم جي شهرين ۽ اقتصادي مفادن جي تحفظ لاءِ ٻيهر داخل ٿي ويون هيون. هن مشن کي قانون ۽ امن امان بحال ڪرڻ، بغاوت ۽ نسلي تشدد کي ختم ڪرڻ، ڪانگولي سلامتي فورسن کي فني مدد ۽ تربيت ڏيڻ، ۽ ملڪ جي علائقائي سالميت ۽ سياسي خودمختياري کي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/onuc.htm|title=ONUC|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي ذميواري خاص طور تي [[ڪتانگا]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪاسائي]] جهڙن معدني وسيلن سان مالامال صوبن جي علحدگيءَ واري تحريڪ جي پسمنظر ۾ شامل ڪئي وئي. ان دور ۾ گڏيل قومن جون فوجون، ڪجهه تڪراري انداز ۾، ڪانگو جي حڪومت جي مدد ڪندي ٻنهي صوبن جي علحدگي ختم ڪرائڻ ۾ به ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

1960ع ۽ 1970ع واري ڏهاڪن دوران گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف علائقن ۾ ڪيترائي مختصر مدي وارا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن قائم ڪيا، جن ۾ [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريه ۾ سيڪريٽري جنرل جي نمائندي جو مشن]] (DOMREP)، [[اولهه نيو گني ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي فورس]] (UNSF) ۽ [[يمن ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مبصر مشن]] (UNYOM) شامل هئا. ساڳئي وقت ڪجهه ڊگهي مدي وارا مشن پڻ جاري رهيا، جهڙوڪ [[قبرص ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج]] (UNFICYP)، [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج II]] (UNEF II)، [[گڏيل قومن جي ڌرين جي الڳ ٿيڻ جي نگراني ڪندڙ فوج]] (UNDOF)، ۽ [[لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن جي عبوري فوج]] (UNIFIL).&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;/&gt;

=== 1991ع کان پوءِ ===

[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-un-holds-head.jpg|thumb|[[سراييوو جو گهيرو|سراييوو جي گهيري]] (1992ع–1993ع) دوران هڪ [[ناروي]] جو امن قائم رکڻ وارو اهلڪار؛ تصوير: [[ميخائل اِوستافيئف]].]]

[[يوگوسلاو جنگين]] دوران امن قائم رکڻ جي تجربن، خاص طور تي [[سربرينيتسا قتلِ عام]] جهڙين ناڪامين، جزوي طور [[گڏيل قومن جي امن تعمير ڪميشن]] (يونائيٽيڊ نيشنز پيس بلڊنگ ڪميشن) جي قيام جو سبب بڻيا. هي ڪميشن چونڊن ۽ ٻين شهري ادارن جي مضبوطي جهڙين سرگرمين وسيلي پائيدار امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ انجام ڏيندا آهن. هن وقت اها ڪميشن آفريڪا جي ڇهن ملڪن سان ڪم ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/projects/africa/beyond-peace-deals-united-nations-experiment-peacebuilding |title=Beyond Peace Deals: The United Nations Experiment in &quot;Peacebuilding&quot;|date=June 22, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ڳالهين سان گڏ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، ۾ عورتن جي وڌيڪ مؤثر شرڪت، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهرن جي مقرري، هٿياربند تڪرارن جا عورتن تي پوندڙ اثرن بابت وڌيڪ معلومات، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |title=UN Security Council Takes a Historic Stand Supporting Abortion Access for Women Raped in War / Library / Homepage |publisher=AWID |access-date=October 28, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203101025/http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |archive-date=December 3, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن سان امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW)، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن بابت ڪميٽي آهي، هڪ عام سفارش جاري ڪئي، جنهن موجب اهي رياستون، جيڪي گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جون ڌريون آهن، پابند آهن ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌيءَ طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ فوجون موڪلين، يا تڪرارن جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مالي يا ٻئي قسم جي مدد فراهم ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=13885&amp;LangID=E|title=OHCHR -|website=www.ohchr.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪميٽي اهو پڻ واضح ڪيو ته اهڙين رياستن کي مناسب احتياط اختيار ڪرڻ گهرجي ته جيئن [[غير رياستي ڌريون]]، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي سلامتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ٿيندڙ ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

[[پيج فورٽنا]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي مقرري بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍيو ته ''&quot;امن قائم رکڻ رسد ۽ طلب جو معاملو آهي.&quot;'' رسد جي لحاظ کان سندس مشاهدو آهي ته سلامتي ڪائونسل جي مستقل ميمبرن مان ڪنهن هڪ جي ويجهن ملڪن ۾ هلندڙ گهرو ويڙهن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن مقرر ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن. جڏهن ته طلب جي لحاظ کان مختلف تحقيقون ظاهر ڪن ٿيون ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن گهڻو ڪري انهن ملڪن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن، جتي انهن جي ضرورت سڀ کان وڌيڪ هوندي آهي، يعني جتي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تمام گهڻو هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot; /&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي جوڙجڪ ==

=== اهي ملڪ جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺن ٿا ===
{{See also|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي تعداد موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Irish troops UNMIL.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|جولاءِ 2006ع ۾ [[لائبيريا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو مشن لائبيريا]] (UNMIL) سان مقرر آئرش فوجي گشت ڪندي.]]

[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] موجب، دنيا ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ ۾ مدد ڏيڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا سڀئي ميمبر ملڪ سلامتي ڪائونسل کي ضرورت موجب فوجي دستا ۽ ٻيون سهولتون فراهم ڪندا. 1948ع کان وٺي لڳ ڀڳ 130 ملڪن امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن لاءِ فوجي اهلڪار، شهري پوليس ۽ ٻيو عملو فراهم ڪيو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ 1948ع کان وٺي سڀني امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏيندڙ اهلڪارن جو مڪمل رڪارڊ موجود ناهي، پر اندازو آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي 71 مشنن ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه لک فوجين، پوليس اهلڪارن ۽ شهرين گڏيل قومن جي جهنڊي هيٺ خدمتون انجام ڏنيون آهن. سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين 122 ملڪ گڏيل طور لڳ ڀڳ 76,000 فوجي مبصر، پوليس اهلڪار ۽ فوجي مهيا ڪري رهيا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Troop and police contributors|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/troop-and-police-contributors|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

شرڪت ڪندڙ ملڪن جو تعداد گهڻو هجڻ باوجود، امن قائم رکڻ جو وڏو بار اڃا تائين [[ترقي پذير ملڪ|ترقي پذير ملڪن]] جي هڪ بنيادي گروهه تي آهي. آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي، پوليس ۽ فوجي ماهر موڪليندڙ ڏهه ملڪ [[بنگلاديش]] (6,447)، [[نيپال]] (5,536)، [[ڀارت]] (5,481)، [[روانڊا]] (5,263)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (4,856)، [[پاڪستان]] (3,949)، [[مصر]] (2,818)، [[انڊونيشيا]] (2,818)، [[گهانا]] (2,296) ۽ [[چين]] (2,248) هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين 14,000 کان وڌيڪ شهري اهلڪار به امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ قانوني يا طبي ماهرن، استادن، مواصلاتي ٽيڪنالاجي جي ماهرن ۽ انتظامي عملي طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/civilians|title=Civilians|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

30 سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن دوران 100 کان وڌيڪ ملڪن سان تعلق رکندڙ 4,147 ماڻهو پنهنجون حياتيون وڃائي چڪا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/fatalities|title=Fatalities|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان وڌيڪ جاني نقصان [[ڀارت]] جو ٿيو، جنهن جا 174 امن اهلڪار مارجي ويا، ان کان پوءِ [[بنگلاديش]] (159)، [[پاڪستان]] (159)، [[نائيجيريا]] (157)، [[گهانا]] (145)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (138)، [[ڪينيڊا]] (123)، [[فرانس]] (115) ۽ [[برطانيه]] (106) شامل آهن. 1948ع کان وٺي سراسري طور هر سال 56 امن اهلڪار ماريا ويا، پر 2001ع کان پوءِ هي انگ لڳ ڀڳ ٻيڻو ٿي هر سال 110 تائين پهچي ويو. گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي پهرين 55 سالن دوران ٿيل ڪل جاني نقصان جو 30 سيڪڙو حصو صرف 1993ع کان 1995ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جي شعبي ۾ عالمي اتر ۽ عالمي ڏکڻ (Global North ۽ Global South) جي وچ ۾ واضح فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي وڏي اڪثريت [[عالمي ڏکڻ]] جي ترقي پذير ملڪن مان ايندي آهي. [[ٿامس جي. وائيس]] ۽ جيووانا ڪيولي موجب، ان جا ٽي اهم سبب علائقائي مفاد، بين الاقوامي وقار ۽ مالي فائدا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=February 3, 2019|title=The Global South and UN Peace Operations|url=https://www.e-ir.info/2019/02/03/the-global-south-and-un-peace-operations/|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=E-International Relations|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آفريقي ملڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا سڀ کان وڌيڪ اهلڪار فراهم ڪن ٿا، پر ساڳئي وقت آفريڪا ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جو تعداد به سڀ کان وڌيڪ آهي، ۽ گهڻا آفريقي امن اهلڪار آفريڪا جي اندر ئي مقرر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، ايٿوپيا جا لڳ ڀڳ سڀئي 4,800 امن اهلڪار پاڙيسري ملڪن [[سوڊان]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ مقرر هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺڻ سان ترقي پذير ملڪن کي بين الاقوامي وقار پڻ حاصل ٿيندو آهي، ۽ اهو [[عظيم طاقت]] طور پنهنجون دعوائون مضبوط ڪرڻ ۾ مددگار ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيئن [[برازيل]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جي صورت ۾ ڏٺو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، غريب ملڪن لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين کي موڪلڻ مالي لحاظ کان به فائديمند هوندو آهي. هر امن اهلڪار لاءِ ماهوار واپسيءَ جي رقم ۾ پگهار ۽ الائونس لاءِ 1,028 آمريڪي ڊالر، ماهرن لاءِ اضافي 303 آمريڪي ڊالر، ذاتي لباس، سامان ۽ اوزارن لاءِ 68 آمريڪي ڊالر، ۽ ذاتي هٿيار لاءِ 5 آمريڪي ڊالر شامل هوندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/faq/q10.htm|title=United Nations Peacekeepers - How are peacekeepers compensated?|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; گڏيل قومن طرفان فراهم ڪيل اهي ادائيگيون، تربيت ۽ سامان، انفرادي فوجين سان گڏ ترقي پذير ملڪن لاءِ به مالي طور پرڪشش هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ مقرر ڪيل فوجي ۽ شهري پوليس اهلڪارن مان لڳ ڀڳ 4.5 سيڪڙو [[يورپي يونين]] مان ايندا آهن، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو حصو هڪ سيڪڙو کان به گهٽ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;factsheet&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/overview.shtml |title=Peacekeeping Fact Sheet |publisher=United Nations|access-date=December 20, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

مشنن جي قيادت بابت عام طور تي فوجي ڪمانڊر انهن ملڪن مان چونڊيا ويندا آهن، جيڪي سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي دستا فراهم ڪندا آهن، جڏهن ته سيڪريٽري جنرل جا خاص نمائندا گهڻو ڪري ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Oksamytna |first1= Kseniya|last2= Bove |first2= Vincenzo|last3= Lundgren |first3= Magnus|date= 2021 |title=Leadership selection in United Nations peacekeeping |journal= International Studies Quarterly|volume= 65|pages= 16–28|doi= 10.1093/isq/sqaa023 |doi-access= free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت ===
{{See also|امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتون}}

[[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 1325]] عورتن کي تڪرارن جي روڪٿام ۽ حل، امن ڳالهين، امن جي تعمير، امن قائم رکڻ، انساني امداد ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ ۾ سرگرم ۽ برابر ڌر طور شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو پهريون اهم قدم هو. هن قرارداد ۾ زور ڏنو ويو ته امن ۽ سلامتي جي قيام ۽ واڌاري لاءِ ٿيندڙ سڀني ڪوششن ۾ عورتن جي برابر شرڪت ۽ مڪمل شموليت کي يقيني بڻايو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and the Advancement of Women. &quot;[http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/wps/#resolution Landmark resolution on Women, Peace and Security]&quot;, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Security Council (October 31, 2000) &quot;Resolution 1325&quot;, S/RES/1325, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;

هن قرارداد تي هڪ تنقيد اها به ڪئي وئي آهي ته ان ۾ صنفي مرڪزي ڌارا (جينڊر مين اسٽريمنگ) کي لاڳو ڪرڻ جي ڳالهه ڪئي وئي، پر عملي طور گهڻو ڌيان صرف عورتن جي شموليت وڌائڻ تي ڏنو ويو، جڏهن ته مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي تي پاليسين جي اثرن جو مناسب جائزو نه ورتو ويو. 2010ع ۾ هن قرارداد جي ڏهن سالن جي اثرن بابت هڪ جامع جائزو ورتو ويو، جنهن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ان تي عملدرآمد محدود حد تائين ڪامياب رهيو، خاص طور تي امن ڳالهين ۽ امن معاهدن ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت وڌائڻ جي حوالي سان، جڏهن ته جنسي ۽ صنفي بنياد تي تشدد گهٽائڻ جي ڪوششن باوجود اهو مسئلو برقرار رهيو.&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations and Department of Field Support (2010). &quot;Ten-year Impact Study on Implementation of UN Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) on Women, Peace and Security in Peacekeeping&quot;, United Nations, p. 9-10. https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/documents/10year_impact_study_1325.pdf.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Ghana IntPeaceCorps 2016-05-29 B002a.jpg|thumb|گھانا جون عورتون گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏينديون.]]

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهريت، هٿياربند تڪرارن جي عورتن تي اثرن بابت بهتر ڄاڻ، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي وڌيڪ سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ مؤثر قدمن تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;/&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن خلاف امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW) پڻ پنهنجي هڪ عام سفارش ۾ چيو ته جن رياستن گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جي توثيق ڪئي آهي، انهن تي لازم آهي ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌي طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا، تڪرار جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مدد فراهم ڪري رهيون هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

ڪميٽي وڌيڪ چيو ته توثيق ڪندڙ رياستن کي مناسب احتياط سان اهو به يقيني بڻائڻ گهرجي ته غير رياستي ڌريون، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي حفاظتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

جولاءِ 2016ع تائين عورتون گڏيل قومن جي هر امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن ۾ فوجي، پوليس يا شهري عملي جي حيثيت سان خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيون هيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/resources/statistics/gender.shtml|title=Gender statistics. United Nations Peacekeeping|website=www.un.org|access-date=September 6, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

1993ع ۾ مقرر ٿيل يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن مان رڳو 1 سيڪڙو عورتون هيون. 2020ع تائين لڳ ڀڳ 95,000 امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن مان عورتون فوجي عملي جو 4.8 سيڪڙو، پوليس عملي جو 10.9 سيڪڙو، ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عملي جو 34 سيڪڙو هيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Women in peacekeeping|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/women-peacekeeping|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين اهڙو ڪو به ملڪ، جيڪو گڏيل قومن لاءِ 100 کان وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار موڪلي ٿو، پنهنجي دستي ۾ 25 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ عورتون نامزد نه ڪندو هو. حقيقي انگن اکرن موجب سڀ کان وڏا عورتن جا دستا [[ايٿوپيا]] (578 عورتون، يعني ان جي ڪل دستي جو 12 سيڪڙو)، [[روانڊا]] (500، يعني 10 سيڪڙو) ۽ [[گهانا]] (389، يعني 17 سيڪڙو) طرفان فراهم ڪيا ويا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

جيتوڻيڪ فوجي عملي ۾ عورتن جي مقرر تناسب بابت گڏيل قومن ڪو لازمي هدف مقرر نه ڪيو آهي، پر ميمبر رياستن کان درخواست ڪئي وئي آهي ته اهي پوليس آفيسرن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 20 سيڪڙو ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 30 سيڪڙو عورتون نامزد ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot; /&gt;

2024ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجي دستن ۾ عورتن جو ڪل انگ گهٽجي ويو، پر انهن جو تناسب وڌيو. يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن ۾ صنفي برابري واري حڪمت عملي (يونيفارمڊ جينڊر پئرٽي اسٽريٽجي) شروع ٿيڻ کان پوءِ عورتن جو تناسب مسلسل وڌندو رهيو آهي. عورتن جي ڪل تعداد ۾ گهٽتائي جو وڏو سبب [[گڏيل قومن جو مالي ۾ ڪثيرالجہتي مربوط استحڪامي مشن]] (MINUSMA) جو خاتمو هو. جون 2024ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن ۾ مقرر فوجي عملي مان عورتن جو تناسب 8.6 سيڪڙو هو، جيڪو گذريل سال جي ڀيٽ ۾ 1.3 سيڪڙو وڌيڪ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pfeifer Cruz |first=Claudia |title=Women in Multilateral Peace Operations in 2024: What is the State of Play? |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241031064944/https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |archive-date=October 31, 2024 |date=October 2024 |doi=10.55163/VYHM5282 |doi-access=free |location=Stockholm |publisher=SIPRI}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ جو نظرياتي بنياد ==


جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ ۽ امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي ڪردار بابت گهڻو ڪجهه لکيو ويو آهي، پر اهڙي تجرباتي تحقيق نسبتاً گهٽ ٿي آهي، جيڪا اهو واضح ڪري سگهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول ۾ ڪهڙي نموني اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. [[ڪولمبيا يونيورسٽي]] جي پروفيسر [[ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا]] چار اهڙن سببن (ڪيئيوئل ميڪينزم) جي سڃاڻپ ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي، جن جي ذريعي امن قائم رکڻ وارا پائيدار امن لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices After Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|location=Princeton|pages=175}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا موجب اهي چار بنيادي طريقا هي آهن:

# تازن ويڙهاڪن جي ترغيبي عنصرن ۾ تبديلي آڻڻ، جيئن امن وڌيڪ فائديمند ۽ جنگ وڌيڪ مهانگي محسوس ٿئي.
# غير يقيني صورتحال ۽ خوف کي گهٽائڻ، جيڪي سلامتي جي مخمصي (سڪيورٽي ڊليما) کي وڌائين ٿا.
# حادثاتي واقعن يا بي ضابطه هٿياربند گروهن جي ڪاررواين کي روڪڻ يا ضابطي ۾ آڻڻ، جيڪي ٻيهر جنگ جو سبب بڻجي سگهن.
# ڪنهن هڪ ڌر (خاص طور حڪومت) طرفان سياسي زيادتين کي روڪڻ، جيڪي امن کان محروم ڌرين کي ٻيهر هٿيار کڻڻ تي مجبور ڪري سگهن.

فورٽنا جو دليل آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا امن جي عمل تي مثبت اثر ڇڏين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ انهن کي اڪثر اهڙن هنڌن تي موڪليو ويندو آهي، جتي امن قائم رکڻ سڀ کان وڌيڪ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. امن قائم رکڻ تي تنقيد ڪندڙ اڪثر چوندا آهن ته اهي مشن غير مؤثر يا غير ضروري آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن ويڙهاڪ ڌريون پاڻ امن برقرار رکڻ ۾ دلچسپي رکن ٿيون ته امن قائم رهندو. تنهن هوندي به، فورٽنا جو خيال آهي ته مٿي بيان ڪيل سبب ڏيکارين ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا پائيدار امن کي يقيني بڻائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، خاص طور تي انهن حالتن جي ڀيٽ ۾ جتي ويڙهاڪ ڌريون مڪمل طور پنهنجي حال تي ڇڏيل هجن. اهي سبب اهو به واضح ڪن ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ جي ضرورت ڇو آهي ۽ اهو تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول تي ڪيئن اثرانداز ٿي سگهي ٿو.

جنگ جي ترغيبن کي گهٽائڻ ۽ امن کي وڌيڪ پرڪشش بڻائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومون نفاذي اختيارن (انفورسمينٽ مينڊيٽ) تحت فوجي قوت مقرر ڪري سگهي ٿي، جيڪا امن خراب ڪندڙ ڌرين لاءِ روڪ جو سبب بڻجي. اهڙا دستا حالتن جي نگراني ڪري سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي اوچتي حملي جو امڪان گهٽجي وڃي ٿو يا اهڙو حملو ڪرڻ وڌيڪ ڏکيو ٿي وڃي ٿو. هلڪي هٿيارن سان ليس مشاهدي وارو مشن پڻ ابتدائي خبرداري واري قوت (ارلي-وارننگ فورس) يا &quot;ٽرپ وائر&quot; طور ڪم ڪري سگهي ٿو. بين الاقوامي برادري طرفان ڏني ويندڙ امداد ۽ سياسي سڃاڻپ کي به ان ڳالهه سان مشروط ڪيو وڃي ته ڌريون ڳالهين دوران طئي ٿيل شرطن تي عمل ڪن. ان سان گڏ، روزگار، عوامي ترقياتي منصوبن ۽ ٻين فائدن جي صورت ۾ &quot;امن جا فائدا&quot; (پيس ڊويڊينڊس) پڻ فراهم ڪيا وڃن.

غير يقيني صورتحال ۽ خوف کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري سگهن ٿا، ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رابطي کي آسان بڻائي سگهن ٿا ته جيئن سلامتي بابت خدشا گهٽجن، ۽ هر ڌر کي اها خاطري ملي ته ٻي ڌر پنهنجن واعدن کان نه ڦرندي. اهڙي طرح اهي ٻنهي ڌرين کي پنهنجي امن پسند ارادن کي واضح ۽ قابل اعتماد نموني ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ مؤثر ذريعو مهيا ڪن ٿا.

امن جي عمل کي پٽڙي تان لاهي ڇڏيندڙ حادثن يا بي ضابطه گروهن جي ڪاررواين کي روڪڻ لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهڙن گروهن کي روڪي سگهن ٿا. ويڙهاڪ قوتون اڪثر مضبوط قيادت ۽ [[حڪم ۽ ضابطي]] (ڪمانڊ اينڊ ڪنٽرول) کان محروم هونديون آهن، تنهنڪري امن ڳالهين دوران ڪنهن بي ضابطه گروهه جي معاهدي کان انڪار ڪرڻ يا امن جي عمل کي ناڪام بڻائڻ جو خطرو موجود هوندو آهي. گڏيل قومن جا دستا اهڙين حالتن کي روڪڻ سان گڏ ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ثالثي ۽ رابطي کي پڻ آسان بڻائي سگهن ٿا ۽ سياسي اعتدال پسند قوتن کي اڳتي آڻي سگهن ٿا. قانون ۽ امن امان برقرار رکندي اهي عارضي طور رياستي حفاظتي ادارن جي ذميواري سنڀالي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي مبينا ڀڃڪڙي تي غيرجانبدار رويو اختيار ڪيو وڃي ۽ تشدد جي ٻيهر شروعات کان بچي سگهجي.

سياسي زيادتين جي روڪٿام لاءِ حڪومت سان لاڳاپيل ادارن ۾ سڌارا آندا وڃن ٿا. فوج ۽ پوليس جهڙن حفاظتي ادارن کي تربيت ڏيڻ ۽ انهن جي نگراني ڪرڻ سان کين حڪمرانن جي دٻاءَ جو اوزار بڻجڻ بدران عوام جا غيرجانبدار محافظ بڻائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. اهڙي تربيت عوام جو اعتماد وڌائڻ ۾ مددگار ثابت ٿي سگهي ٿي. گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا آزاد ۽ منصفاڻي چونڊون ڪرائڻ ۽ انهن جي نگراني پڻ ڪري سگهن ٿا. ڪجهه حالتن ۾ گڏيل قومون عبوري دور دوران غيرجانبدار عبوري حڪومت پڻ قائم ڪري سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ملڪ جو انتظام سنڀالي، جڏهن ته سرڪاري ادارن کي ٻيهر منظم، سڌاريو يا وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪيو وڃي. ان کان سواءِ هٿياربند باغي گروهن کي هٿيار ڦٽا ڪرڻ، انهن کي سياسي تنظيمن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ ۽ پرامن جمهوري عمل وسيلي پنهنجا مطالبا پيش ڪرڻ لاءِ همٿايو وڃي ٿو. اهو خاص طور اهم آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي باغي گروهه حڪومت جي اهم مخالف قوت هوندا آهن، پر سياسي تنظيم طور مؤثر نموني ڪم ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت کان محروم هوندا آهن.

مختلف امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن مختلف سببن ۽ ضرورتن جي بنياد تي قائم ڪيا ويندا آهن. [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VII]] تحت هلندڙ مشنن ۾ فوجي روڪ ۽ نفاذ تي وڌيڪ زور هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VI]] تحت مشن بنيادي طور نگراني ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ غيرجانبدار موجودگي برقرار رکڻ لاءِ هوندا آهن. سياسي زيادتين جي روڪٿام لاءِ قائم ڪيل مشن گهڻ رخي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ واري سياسي عمل ۾ سرگرم ڪردار ادا ڪندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|chapter=4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي اثرائتي ==

علمي تحقيق جي جائزي مان مضبوط ثبوت مليا آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن امن جي استحڪام ۾ واڌارو آڻين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Walter|first1=Barbara F.|last2=Howard|first2=Lise Morje|last3=Fortna|first3=V. Page|date=2020|title=The Extraordinary Relationship between Peacekeeping and Peace|journal=British Journal of Political Science|volume=51|issue=4|language=en|pages=1705–1722|doi=10.1017/S000712342000023X|s2cid=229469021 |issn=0007-1234|doi-access=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hoeffler|first=Anke|date=March 11, 2014|title=Can international interventions secure the peace?|journal=International Area Studies Review|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=75–94|doi=10.1177/2233865914525380|s2cid=16303210|url=http://www.econrsa.org/node/700|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا]] موجب مضبوط ثبوت موجود آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي نمايان طور گهٽائي ٿي. امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين جو تعداد جيترو وڌيڪ هوندو، اوترا ئي جنگي محاذ تي مارجي ويل ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽ ٿيندو، ۽ عام شهرين جي جاني نقصان ۾ به گهٽتائي ايندي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://politicalviolenceataglance.org/2015/09/24/enough-with-the-pessimism-about-peacekeeping/|title=Enough with the Pessimism about Peacekeeping|date=September 24, 2015|website=Political Violence at a Glance|access-date=January 26, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[اپسالا يونيورسٽي]] ۽ [[اوسلو امن تحقيقاتي اداري]] جي سياسي سائنسدانن جي هڪ مطالعي موجب، جيڪڏهن گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري پاليسي کي وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪيو وڃي، امن قائم رکڻ وارن دستن جو تعداد ٻيڻو ڪيو وڃي ۽ انهن کي وڌيڪ وسيع اختيار ڏنا وڃن، ته هٿياربند تڪرارن جي عالمي شرح، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي غير موجودگي واري صورتحال جي ڀيٽ ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ٻه ٽيون حصو گهٽجي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Hegre|first1=Håvard|last2=Hultman|first2=Lisa|last3=Nygård|first3=Håvard Mokleiv|date=November 28, 2018|title=Evaluating the Conflict-Reducing Effect of UN Peacekeeping Operations|journal=The Journal of Politics|volume=81|language=en|pages=215–232|doi=10.1086/700203|s2cid=13894244|issn=0022-3816|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فورڊهم يونيورسٽي]] جي سياسي سائنسدان [[انجلي ديال]] موجب، تحقيق مان ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن جنگ کي سرحدن کان ٻاهر پکڙجڻ کان روڪين ٿا. زمين تي وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار هجڻ سان عام شهرين خلاف تشدد جا واقعا پڻ گهٽ ٿيندا آهن، ۽ ڪيترين حالتن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ڪاميابي سان عبوري انتظاميا جو ڪردار ادا ڪندي اقتدار ٻيهر مقامي اختيارين حوالي ڪيو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ هاڻي اهڙو عمل اڳ جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ڏسڻ ۾ اچي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/02/01/is-u-n-peacekeeping-under-fire-heres-what-you-need-to-know/|title=Is U.N. peacekeeping under fire? Here's what you need to know.|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=February 1, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2018ع جي هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پنهنجي سر به گهرو ويڙهه جي شدت کي گهٽائين ٿا، پر جڏهن انهن کي ثالثي سان گڏ استعمال ڪيو وڃي ٿو ته انهن جو اثر وڌيڪ نمايان ٿي وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Mediation, Peacekeeping, and the Severity of Civil War|journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution|volume=63|issue=7|pages=1682–1709|language=en|doi=10.1177/0022002718817092|year=2018|last1=Beardsley|first1=Kyle|last2=Cunningham|first2=David E.|last3=White|first3=Peter B.|s2cid=202164361}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهڙا به ثبوت موجود آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا موڪلڻ جو واعدو ئي ويڙهاڪ ڌرين کي ڳالهين جي ميز تي آڻڻ ۽ جنگبندي تي راضي ٿيڻ جا امڪان وڌائي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lundgren|first=Magnus|year=2016|title=Which international organizations can settle civil wars?|journal=Review of International Organizations|volume=DOI 10.1007/s11558-016-9253-0|issue=4|pages=613–641|doi=10.1007/s11558-016-9253-0|s2cid=152898046}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي شمارياتي تحقيق ۾ انهن عنصرن کي به نظر ۾ رکيو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ڪٿي مقرر ڪيا وڃن ۽ ڪٿي امن قائم ٿيڻ جا امڪان ڪيترا آهن. هن جي نتيجن موجب، امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ۽ پائيدار امن جي وچ ۾ شمارياتي طور اهم لاڳاپو موجود آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن عام طور تي انهن علائقن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن جتي امن قائم ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن، فورٽنا جو اندازو آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 55 کان 60 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽائي ٿي، جڏهن ته ڪجهه وڌيڪ پراميد اندازن موجب اها گهٽتائي 75 کان 85 سيڪڙو تائين ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 116&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=116}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا جي تجزيي موجب [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VI]] تحت رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل مشنن ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VII]] تحت نفاذي مشنن جي اثرائتي ۾ گهڻو فرق نظر نٿو اچي. البته نفاذي مشن تڏهن ئي اثرائتا ثابت ٿين ٿا، جڏهن امن قائم رکڻ واري قوت طاقت جي استعمال بابت پنهنجي اعتبار ۽ صلاحيت برقرار رکي سگهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=109, 116, 125}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهو ان ڳالهه جي اهميت کي اجاگر ڪري ٿو ته گڏيل قومن جا مشن مقامي ڌرين جي رضامندي برقرار رکن. مجموعي طور فورٽنا جو نتيجو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ويڙهاڪ ڌريون مڪمل طور پنهنجي حال تي نه ڇڏيون وڃن، ته امن قائم رکڻ پائيدار امن کي يقيني بڻائڻ جو هڪ مؤثر اوزار آهي. هن اڳ بيان ڪيل سببن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول ۾ امن جي استحڪام تي نمايان اثر وجهي سگهن ٿا. فورٽنا ۽ [[ليز مورجي هاورڊ]] جو چوڻ آهي ته هاڻي تحقيق جو ڌيان امن قائم رکڻ جي بنيادي اثرائتي کان اڳتي وڌي، مختلف قسمن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن، عبوري انتظاميائن، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ جمهوريت جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن، ۽ انهن ماڻهن جي نظرين ڏانهن منتقل ٿي رهيو آهي، جن جي لاءِ امن قائم رکيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Pitfalls and Prospects in the Peacekeeping Literature*|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|volume=11|pages=283–301|last1=Fortna|first1=Virginia Page|last2=Howard|first2=Lise Morjé|date=May 20, 2008|language=en|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.9.041205.103022|s2cid=15740415|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[مائيڪل ڊبليو ڊائل]] ۽ [[نيڪولس سامبانس]] جي تجزيي موجب، انهن ملڪن ۾، جتي نسلي بنيادن تي جنگ نه هجي، معاشي ترقي جو سطح نسبتاً بهتر هجي ۽ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا ۽ مالي امداد موجود هجن، اتي پائيدار امن قائم رهڻ جا امڪان وڌيڪ هوندا آهن. انهن جو نتيجو آهي ته مختصر مدي ۾ پائيدار امن جو دارومدار گڏيل قومن جي مضبوط موجودگي ۽ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ گهٽ دشمني تي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ڊگهي مدي ۾ معاشي صلاحيت وڌيڪ اهم عنصر بڻجي ويندي آهي ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ دشمني جي شدت نسبتاً گهٽ اهم رهندي آهي. سندن خيال ۾، جيتوڻيڪ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ڪافي حد تائين ڪامياب رهيا آهن، پر اهي مداخلت هيٺ آيل ملڪن ۾ خودمختيار معاشي ترقي کي ڪافي حد تائين هٿي نه ڏئي سگهيا آهن. تنهنڪري گڏيل قومون امن برقرار رکڻ ۾ هڪ مضبوط پر اڻ سڌو ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿيون، جڏهن ته پائيدار امن جو اصل دارومدار اهڙن ادارن جي قيام تي هوندو آهي، جيڪي امن کي ڊگهي عرصي تائين برقرار رکي سگهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Making War and Building Peace : United Nations Peace Operations|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2010|pages=336–337}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ٻين علمي تحقيقن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي ڪاميابيءَ بابت مختلف نتيجا سامهون آيا آهن، جن موجب انهن جي ڪاميابيءَ جي شرح تقريباً 31 سيڪڙو کان 85 سيڪڙو تائين رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Autesserre|first1=Severine|title=Peaceland: Conflict Resolution and the Everyday Politics of International Intervention|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2020ع جي هڪ مطالعي موجب، گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر هلندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن به اثرائتي جي لحاظ کان گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جيترا ئي مؤثر آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Bara|first1=Corinne|last2=Hultman|first2=Lisa|date=March 20, 2020|title=Just Different Hats? Comparing UN and Non-UN Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=27|issue=3|pages=341–368|doi=10.1080/13533312.2020.1737023|issn=1353-3312|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; ساڳئي سال شايع ٿيل هڪ ٻي تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن عام شهرين جي تحفظ ۾ به ڪامياب رهيا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Carnegie|first1=Allison|last2=Mikulaschek|first2=Christoph|date=2020|title=The Promise of Peacekeeping: Protecting Civilians in Civil Wars|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-organization/article/promise-of-peacekeeping-protecting-civilians-in-civil-wars/2BA3A91C26CF29480409B1FFB64F7E40|journal=International Organization|volume=74|issue=4|language=en|pages=810–832|doi=10.1017/S0020818320000442|s2cid=232253107|issn=0020-8183|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2021ع ۾ ''[[آمريڪن جرنل آف پوليٽيڪل سائنس]]'' ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن مقامي معيشت تي مثبت اثر وڌو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Bove|first1=Vincenzo|last2=Salvatore|first2=Jessica Di|last3=Elia|first3=Leandro|date=2021|title=UN Peacekeeping and Households' Well-Being in Civil Wars|journal=American Journal of Political Science|volume=66|issue=2|pages=402–417|language=en|doi=10.1111/ajps.12644|issn=1540-5907|doi-access=free|hdl=10281/458537|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== پائيدار امن تي اثرانداز ٿيندڙ عنصر ===

ڪيترائي عنصر پائيدار امن تي منفي اثر وجهي سگهن ٿا. انهن ۾ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي حقيقي فوجي طاقت بابت لڪل معلومات، باغي گروهن جي هيرن، ٻين معدنيات يا غيرقانوني واپار وسيلي مالي وسيلا حاصل ڪرڻ، منشيات، هٿيارن ۽ انساني اسمگلنگ ۾ سندن شموليت، ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي فوجي فتح يا شڪست، جنگ جو عرصو ۽ ان جي قيمت، ٻنهي ڌرين کي درپيش واعدن تي عملدرآمد جا مسئلا (ڪمٽمينٽ پرابلم) ۽ سلامتي جو مخمصو (سڪيورٽي ڊليما)، جنگبندي يا امن معاهدي جي موجودگي، تڪرار ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ ڌرين جي ارادن ۽ ڪاررواين بابت شفافيت جي کوٽ، امن کي نقصان پهچائيندڙ انتهاپسند گروهه، اهڙا ڌر يا فرد جيڪي جنگ جاري رهڻ مان فائدو حاصل ڪن، ۽ اهڙا تڪراري مسئلا جيڪي ورهائي يا سمجهوتي ذريعي حل نٿا ٿي سگهن شامل آهن.

فورٽنا جي تحقيق موجب، پائيدار امن جو سڀ کان اهم شمارياتي عنصر اهو آهي ته ڇا جنگ ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي فوجي فتح تي ختم ٿي آهي يا نه. جيڪڏهن گهرو ويڙهه ۾ هڪ ڌر واضح فوجي فتح حاصل ڪري ۽ ان کان پوءِ جنگبندي يا صلح جو معاهدو ٿئي، ته ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تقريباً 85 کان 90 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽجي ويندو آهي. ان کان علاوه، رسمي امن معاهدا ٻيهر تڪرار جي خطري کي لڳ ڀڳ 60 کان 70 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 116&quot;/&gt;

جيڪڏهن ڪو هٿياربند گروهه منشيات، هيرن يا ٻين غيرقانوني واپاري ذريعن مان مالي مدد حاصل ڪري ٿو، ته ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان نمايان طور وڌي وڃن ٿا. فورٽنا موجب اهڙين حالتن ۾ جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو 100 کان 250 سيڪڙو تائين وڌي سگهي ٿو، يعني اهڙي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان عام حالتن جي ڀيٽ ۾ ٻه کان ساڍا ٽي ڀيرا وڌيڪ هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choice after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=117}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا جو خيال آهي ته جن جنگين ۾ ڪيترائي ڌر شامل هجن، اهي ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان نسبتاً گهٽ رکن ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; ان جي ابتڙ، [[مائيڪل ڊبليو ڊائل]] ۽ [[نيڪولس سامبانس]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ نتيجو ڪڍيو ته گهڻ ڌرين وارا تڪرار ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان وڌيڪ رکن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Making War and Building Peace : United Nations Peace Operations|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2010|pages=336}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڊگهي عرصي تائين هلندڙ جنگين ۽ سڃاڻپ يا قومي/نسلي بنيادن تي وڙهيل جنگين ۾ ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. بهرحال، ڊگهيون جنگيون ۽ اهي امن معاهدا جيڪي فوجي فتح کان پوءِ وجود ۾ اچن، عام طور تي مستقبل ۾ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽائين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=117–119}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:امن]]
[[زمرو:تنظيمون]]
[[زمرو:گڏيل قومون]]
[[زمرو:عالمي سياست]]
[[زمرو:بين الاقوامي لاڳاپا]]</text>
      <sha1>hcwf8vggfjqlx401kwexmcttwzgwzzk</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399327</id>
      <parentid>399326</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T21:51:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399327</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="89154" sha1="t8rzrc9xxxeoe3vypu9dnfotu2zt96x" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|دائمي امن لاءِ سازگار حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ خاطر ڪيل سرگرميون}}


[[File:Italian Soldier UNIFIL 2 Lebanon 2007.jpg|thumb|[[اطالوي فوج]] جو هڪ [[سپاهي]] لبنان ۾ [[يونيفل]] مشن دوران پهرو ڏئي رهيو آهي.]]

'''امن قائم رکندڙ فوج''' (Peacekeeping Force) انهن سرگرمين، خاص طور فوجي سرگرمين،&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Peacekeeping&quot;. Oxford Languages. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جن جو مقصد اهڙيون حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ هوندو آهي جيڪي پائيدار [[امن]] جي قيام لاءِ سازگار هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/|title=United Nations Peacekeeping|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; تحقيق مان عام طور اهو ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون [[شهري جاني نقصان|شهري]] ۽ جنگي ميدان ۾ ٿيندڙ جاني نقصان کي گهٽائين ٿيون ۽ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي پڻ گهٽائين ٿيون.

[[گڏيل قومون]] (UN) ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل [[قومي رياست]]ن جي حڪومتن ۽ [[تنظيم]]ن جي وچ ۾ عام طور اهو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو ته عالمي سطح تي امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا جنگ کان پوءِ وارن علائقن ۾ امن جي عمل جي نگراني ۽ مشاهدو ڪندا آهن، ۽ اڳوڻن ويڙهاڪن کي انهن امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ ۾ مدد ڏيندا آهن، جن جا هو پابند بڻيل هوندا آهن. اهڙي مدد ڪيترين ئي صورتن ۾ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ اعتماد سازي جا قدم، اقتدار جي ورهاست جا انتظام، چونڊن ۾ مدد، [[قانون جي حڪمراني]] کي مضبوط بڻائڻ، ۽ معاشي ۽ سماجي ترقي کي هٿي ڏيڻ. ان ڪري [[گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا]] (جن کي سندن هلڪي نيري [[بيريٽ]] يا هيلمٽ سبب اڪثر '''نيري بيريٽ''' يا '''نيرا هيلمٽ''' چيو ويندو آهي) ۾ فوجي، [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس آفيسر]] ۽ شهري عملي جا ميمبر شامل ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dpko/ |title=Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dfs/ |title=Department of Field Support (DFS) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جا مشن هلائيندڙ واحد تنظيم گڏيل قومون نه آهن. گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم ڪندڙ قوتن ۾ [[ڪوسوو فورس]] جي [[نيٽو]] مشن (گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان)، [[سينا ٻيٽ نما]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]]، ۽ [[يورپي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[EUFOR RCA]]، گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان) ۽ [[آفريقي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[سوڊان ۾ آفريقي يونين مشن]]) پاران منظم ڪيل امن مشن شامل آهن.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

[[بين الاقوامي قانون]] موجب، امن قائم ڪندڙ پنهنجي غيرجانبدار حيثيت سبب [[غير جنگجو]] (non-combatants) شمار ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي ٻن يا وڌيڪ [[جنگ ڪندڙ ڌر]]ن جي وچ ۾ تڪرار ۾ غيرجانبدار هوندا آهن (بلڪل اهڙيءَ طرح جيئن امن قائم رکڻ جي ذميوارين کان ٻاهر موجود غيرجانبدار ماڻهو ۽ ملڪيت). تنهنڪري انهن کي هر حال ۾ حملن کان تحفظ حاصل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule33 |title=Rule 33. Personnel and Objects Involved in a Peacekeeping Mission|publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]|access-date=April 7, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فائل:UN Soldiers in Eritrea.jpeg|thumb|right|upright=1.00|نيدرلينڊز جا ڊچ فوجي اقوام متحده جي امن جي قيام جي فورس ۾ ايٿوپيا ۽ ايريٽيريا جي سرحد تي گڏيل قومن پاران چوڪسي ڪندي]]

'''امن جي بحالي واري فوج'''{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي=Peace Keeping Force}}
ٻن ملڪن ياڌرين جي وچ ۾ ڪو به تڪرار ايترو زور وٺي وڃي، جو ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت کانسواءِ اهو ٽري نه سگهي، ته ٽين ڌر امن قائم ڪرڻ (Peace Keeping) لاءِ مُختلف اُپاءُ وٺندي آهي. ڪنهن به تڪرار جي حل لاءِ ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت جو مقصد ٻن ڌُرين ۾ رڳو صُلح ڪرائڻ هوندو آهي، جنهن لاءِ فوجي ۽ سُفارتي طريقا ڪتب آندا ويندا آهن. ان کان سواءِ گھُرج پوڻ تي ٽين ڌر (يا وچين ڌر) جهيڙو ڪندڙ ڌرين تي مُختلف قسمن جو دٻاءُ رکندي آهي، جيڪڏهن ڌريون پوءِ به جهيڙي کي نه ٿيون ختم ڪن، ته مٿانئن فوجي قدم کڻڻ لاءِ به اڳڀرائي ڪئي ويندي آهي. جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جو عالمي ادارو|گڏيل قومن]] جو ادارو قائم ڪيو ويو هيو ته ان وقت ٻي عالمي جنگ ختم ٿي هئي، پر ملڪن جا پاڻ ۾ تڪرار پوءِ به هلي رهيا هئا ۽ ”سرد جنگ“ به شروع ٿي چڪي هئي، دُنيا جي امن کي گهڻن قسمن جا خطرا پيدا ٿي چڪا هئا. 1950ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل بين الاقوامي جهيڙن کي پاسيرو ڪرڻ ۽ امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ”احتياطي سفارتڪاري“ (Preventive Diplomacy) جو اصطلاح اڳيان آندو هو. انهيءَ قسم جي حڪمت عملي ۾ ڪنهن به تڪرار کي رڳو ٺارڻ جو حل ڏنل هيو، پر جهيڙي کي مستقل طور ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪجهه واڌو قدم به گهربل هئا. انهيءَ ڪري اهڙي صورتحال ۾ اڳتي هلي ”مشن ڪريپ“ (Mission Creep) جو اصطلاح ڪتب آندو ويو، جنهن ۾ جهيڙي کي مڪمل طور ختم ڪرڻ جي تجويز ڏني وئي. انهيءَ حوالي سان 1956ع ۾ ڪئناڊا جي پرڏيهي معاملن جي وزير ۽ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”ڊگ هئمرشولڊ“ گڏيل قومن جي اداري جي پلئٽفارم تان ”امن قائم ڪرڻ واري فوج“ (Peace Keeping Force) قائم ڪئي، جنهن جي شعبا بندي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ان جي ورديءَ کانسواءِ خاص قسم جي ٽوپي به تيار ڪرائي وئي ۽ ان خاص ٽوپيءَ جو رنگ ”نيرو“ مقرر ڪيو ويو. ٽوپيءَ کي ٻين فوجي ٽوپين کان الڳ رنگ ڏيڻ جو مقصد، بين الاقوامي امن فوج جي انفراديت کي ظاهر ڪرڻ آهي. ان هوندي به ”امن فوج“ جي طريقيڪار ۽ اختيارن کي اڃا تائين چڱيءَ ريت گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر ۾ بيان نه ڪيو ويو آهي. گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر جي 6 ۽ 7 باب ۾، امن جي ڪوشش وٺڻ لاءِ جيڪي تفصيل بيان ڪيا ويا آهن، انهن سان امن جي بحاليءَ واري عمل کي به جوڙيو ويو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن جي بحاليءَ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي پڌرنامي جي روح مطابق جوڙجڪ ضروري آهي. انهن کوٽن جي باوجود، گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج، دُنيا ۾ امن ۽ صلح جي لاءِ گھڻن هنڌن مثال طور؛ ڪمبوڊيا، نميبيا، انگولا، لبنان، ايراني نار ۽ [[سوماليا|صوماليا]] وغيره ۾ ڪاميابيءَ سان پنهنجون ذميواريون پوريون ڪري چڪي آهي. امن فوج جي اهڙي اهميت کي محسوس ڪندي، گڏيل قومن جي اداري ڪيترن مُتاثر ملڪن جي داخلي معاملن ۾ به هن فوج جو استعمال مُناسب ۽ بهتر سمجهيو. منڍ ۾ اها فوج ٻن تڪراري ڌُر جي وچ ۾ هلندڙ جهيِڙو ٽارڻ لاءِ ڪتب آندي ويندي هئي، پر 1988ع کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جي اداري اهڙن ملڪن ۾ به کيس ذميواري سونپيون، جتي گهرو ويڙھ ۾ اَڙيل مُختلف ڌرين ۾ جنگ جاري هُئي ۽ اُتي انتظامي معاملا هيٺ مٿي لڳا پيا هُئا. اهڙن مُلڪن ۾ امن فوج کي گڏيل قومن طرفان چونڊون ڪرائڻ، انتظامي معاملن کي سُڌارڻ، عوام کي تحفظ ڏيڻ ۽ جهيڙن کان تنگ اچي ملڪ ڇڏي ويل ماڻهن کي واپس پنهنجي اباڻي وطن ۾ ٻيهر آباد ڪرائڻ جا اختيار به ڏنا ويا. ٻئي طرف اها به حقيقت آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج کي گھڻن معاملن ۽ هنڌن تي ڪن ملڪن پنهنجن خاص مقصدن لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو. ان کانسواءِ گھڻن علائقن (جهڙوڪ ڪشمير) ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن فوج پنهنجي مقصد حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام وئي آهي. سندس مُقابلي ۾ اولھ جي مُلڪن جي فوجي اتحاد نيٽو امن فوج جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ متحرڪ ۽ اثرائتي رهي آهي. 1992ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”بترس غالي“، امن جي آڻڻ لاءِ خاص علائقي ۽ خاص حالتن آهر مداخلت ڪرڻ ۽ نون اختيار ڏيڻ لاءِ اداري آڏو تجويزون پيش ڪيون، پر ان ڏس ۾ مڪمل سوڀاري ٿيڻ لاءِ ”پيس ڪيپگ“ جو عمل نون ضابطن، اختيارن ۽ قانونن جي انتظار ۾ آهي. 
&lt;ref&gt;[http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/define/Peace%20Keeping%20Force.php سنڌي آنلائين ڊڪشنري]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} پاران [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد&lt;/ref&gt;

== وصفون ۽ امن قائم رکڻ جي عمل جا قسم ==

=== گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ===
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن}}

==== ڇهون باب ۽ ستون باب وارا مشن ====

امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن جا ڪيترائي مختلف قسم آهن. مثال طور، پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي ڪتاب ''Does Peacekeeping Work?'' ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن کي چئن مختلف قسمن ۾ ورهايو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=Chapter 7}}&lt;/ref&gt; انهن مشنن جو قسم ۽ انهن تي عملدرآمد جو طريقو گهڻي حد تائين ان اختيارنامي (mandate) تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، جنهن تحت انهن کي اختيار ڏنو ويندو آهي.

فورٽنا جي بيان ڪيل چئن قسمن مان ٽي اهڙا آهن، جيڪي ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن ۽ انهن کي عام طور ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ڇهون باب|ڇهين باب]]'' وارا مشن چيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته چوٿون قسم ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]]'' وارو مشن هوندو آهي.

ڇهين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشنن لاءِ جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي لازمي هوندي آهي؛ جيڪڏهن اها رضامندي ختم ٿي وڃي ته امن قائم ڪندڙ دستن کي علائقو ڇڏڻو پوندو. ان جي ابتڙ، ستين باب وارن مشنن کي قانوني طور رضامندي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي، جيتوڻيڪ عملي طور اها موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي. جيڪڏهن رضامندي بعد ۾ ختم به ٿي وڃي ته به اهڙن مشنن کي واپس وڃڻ ضروري نه هوندو.

# '''مشاهدي وارا مشن''' (Observation Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي يا شهري مبصرن جا ننڍا دستا شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي جنگبندي، فوجن جي واپسي يا جنگبندي واري معاهدي ۾ ڄاڻايل ٻين شرطن جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. اهي عام طور بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا آهن ۽ سندن بنيادي ذميواري رڳو مشاهدو ڪرڻ ۽ رپورٽون تيار ڪرڻ هوندي آهي؛ تنهن ڪري جيڪڏهن ڪا ڌر معاهدي جي ڀڃڪڙي ڪري ته اهي مداخلت ڪرڻ جا مجاز نه هوندا آهن. مثال طور [[انگولا]] ۾ 1991ع وارو [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن II]] (UNAVEM II) ۽ [[اولهه صحارا]] ۾ [[اولهه صحارا بابت راءِ شماري لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو مشن]] (MINURSO).

# '''وچٿري مشن''' (Interpositional Missions)، جن کي روايتي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، نسبتاً وڏن ۽ هلڪي هٿياربند فوجي دستن تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جيڪي تڪرار کان پوءِ ٻن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ طور مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهي ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ بفر زون جو ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. مثال طور 1994ع ۾ [[انگولا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن III]] (UNAVEM III) ۽ 1996ع ۾ [[گوئٽي مالا]] ۾ [[MINUGUA]].

# '''گهڻ رخا مشن''' (Multidimensional Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس]] عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو جامع امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندو آهي. اهي رڳو مشاهدو يا ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رڪاوٽ بڻجڻ تائين محدود نه هوندا آهن، پر چونڊن جي نگراني، پوليس ۽ سلامتي ادارن جي سڌارن، ادارن جي تعمير، معاشي ترقي ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي شعبن ۾ پڻ حصو وٺندا آهن. مثال طور [[نيميبيا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو عبوري امدادي گروهه]] (UNTAG)، [[ايل سلواڊور]] ۾ [[ONUSAL]] ۽ [[موزمبيق]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUMOZ).

# '''[[امن لاڳو ڪندڙ]] مشن''' (Peace Enforcement Missions): اهي ستين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشن هوندا آهن ۽ اڳين ٽن قسمن جي ابتڙ، جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ جا پابند نه هوندا آهن. اهي شهري ۽ فوجي ٻنهي قسمن جي عملي تي مشتمل گهڻ رخا مشن هوندا آهن. انهن وٽ نسبتاً وڏي ۽ بهتر هٿياربند فوج هوندي آهي ۽ انهن کي صرف پنهنجي بچاءَ کان وڌيڪ مقصدن لاءِ به طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل هوندو آهي. مثال طور [[اولهه آفريڪا]] ۾ [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري جو نگراني گروهه]] (ECOMOG)، 1999ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو سيرا ليون مشن]] (UNAMSIL)، ۽ [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ [[نيٽو]] جا [[IFOR]] ۽ [[SFOR]] آپريشن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;/&gt;

==== سرد جنگ دوران ۽ ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ====

[[سرد جنگ]] جي دور ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جا اڪثر مشن روايتي نوعيت جا هئا، جن ۾ امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا ملڪن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ جنگن کان پوءِ مقرر ڪيا ويندا هئا ته جيئن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ بڻجن ۽ امن معاهدن تي عملدرآمد کي يقيني بڻائين. اهي مشن رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا هئا ۽ گهڻو ڪري مبصر بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا هئا، جيئن [[وچ اوڀر]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) ۽ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] بابت [[ڪشمير بابت گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP). ڪجهه مشن هٿياربند به هئا، جهڙوڪ [[سوئيز بحران]] دوران قائم ڪيل [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I). مجموعي طور اهي مشن پنهنجي مقرر ڪيل ڪردار ۾ ڪامياب رهيا.

[[سرد جنگ کان پوءِ وارو دور|سرد جنگ کان پوءِ]] گڏيل قومن امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ جامع ۽ گهڻ رخي طريقيڪار اختيار ڪيو. 1992ع ۾ ان وقت جي [[گڏيل قومن جو سيڪريٽري جنرل|سيڪريٽري جنرل]] [[بوتروس بوتروس غالي]] هڪ رپورٽ تيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ امن قائم رکڻ بابت پنهنجو جامع تصور پيش ڪيو. ''[[امن لاءِ ايجنڊا]]'' (An Agenda for Peace) نالي هن رپورٽ ۾ هن احتياطي سفارتڪاري، امن لاڳو ڪرڻ، امن ڪرائڻ، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ بحاليءَ کي هڪ ٻئي سان ڳنڍيل قدمن طور بيان ڪيو، جن جي ذريعي سرد جنگ کان پوءِ واري عالمي سياست ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ڪردار وڌيڪ اثرائتو بڻجي سگهي.

==== گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جا وسيع مقصد ====

[[مائيڪل ڊوئل]] ۽ نڪولس سامبانس پنهنجي ڪتاب ''The UN Record on Peacekeeping Operations'' ۾ بوتروس غالي جي رپورٽ جو خلاصو پيش ڪندي احتياطي سفارتڪاري، اعتماد سازي جي قدمن (جهڙوڪ حقيقت معلوم ڪرڻ وارا مشن)، مبصر مشن، ۽ تشدد جي خطري کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي اختيار هيٺ فوج مقرر ڪرڻ کي پائيدار امن لاءِ اهم ذريعا قرار ڏين ٿا. سندن بيان موجب:

# '''امن لاڳو ڪرڻ''' (Peace Enforcement): گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي منظور ڪيل جنگبندي يا معاهدي تي عمل ڪرائڻ لاءِ، ضرورت پوڻ تي ڌرين جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به فوجي طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ. اهڙا مشن عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]] تحت هلندا آهن ۽ انهن ۾ مقرر فوجون نسبتاً وڌيڪ هٿياربند هونديون آهن.

# '''امن ڪرائڻ''' (Peacemaking): گڏيل قومن جي سرپرستي هيٺ ثالثي ۽ ڳالهين ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين کي پرامن حل تي راضي ڪرڻ. هي عمل عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] جي ڇهين باب تحت ڪيو ويندو آهي.

# '''امن قائم رکڻ''' (Peacekeeping): جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي سان هلڪي هٿياربند گڏيل قومن جي موجودگي قائم ڪرڻ، اعتماد پيدا ڪرڻ ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ٿيل معاهدن جي نگراني ڪرڻ. ان سان گڏ سفارتي ڪوششون پڻ جاري رهنديون آهن ته جيئن جامع ۽ پائيدار امن حاصل ڪري سگهجي.

# '''تڪرار کان پوءِ بحالي''' (Post-Conflict Reconstruction): معاشي ۽ سماجي سهڪار ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي بحال ڪرڻ، سياسي، سماجي ۽ معاشي ادارن کي مضبوط ڪرڻ، مستقبل ۾ تشدد جي امڪان کي گهٽائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|date=2007|title=The UN Record On Peacekeeping Operations|journal=International Journal|volume=63|issue=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ ۾ غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) سان گڏجي [[ثقافتي ورثو|ثقافتي ورثي]] جي تحفظ لاءِ ڪم ڪرڻ پڻ شامل آهي. ثقافتي ورثي جي حفاظت بابت گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري وابستگي 2012ع کان جاري آهي ۽ ان کي آهستي آهستي وڌايو پيو وڃي. ان سلسلي ۾ 2019ع ۾ [[يونيفل]] ۽ [[بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل]] جو لبنان ۾ [[يونيسڪو عالمي ورثو]] جي تحفظ لاءِ گڏيل مشن نمايان مثال آهي. فوجي ۽ شهري ماهرن پاران مقامي آباديءَ سان گڏجي ثقافتي ورثي جو تحفظ ڪيترن ئي تڪراري علائقن ۾ مستقبل جي پرامن ۽ معاشي ترقيءَ جو بنياد بڻجي ٿو. بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل جي صدر [[ڪارل فون هيبسبرگ]]، اپريل 2019ع ۾ لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ [[يونيسڪو]] جي مشن دوران چيو: ''&quot;ثقافتي ورثو ڪنهن به علائقي ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جي سڃاڻپ جو حصو هوندو آهي. جيڪڏهن توهان انهن جي ثقافت تباهه ڪريو ٿا ته سندن سڃاڻپ به ختم ٿي وڃي ٿي. نتيجي ۾ ڪيترائي ماڻهو بي گهر ٿي وڃن ٿا، سندن مستقبل بابت اميدون ختم ٿي وڃن ٿيون ۽ هو آخرڪار پنهنجو وطن ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ٿين ٿا.&quot;''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Karl von Habsburg auf Mission im Libanon|date=April 28, 2019 |url=https://www.krone.at/1911689|language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Jyot Hosagrahar: ''Culture: at the heart of SDGs.'' UNESCO-Kurier, April-Juni 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rick Szostak: ''The Causes of Economic Growth: Interdisciplinary Perspectives.'' Springer Science &amp; Business Media, 2009, {{ISBN|9783540922827}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bundesheer.at/cms/artikel.php?ID=10118 &quot;Blue Helmet Forum 2019 - Protection of Cultural Heritage in Peace Operations&quot;, Austrian Armed Forces].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017nian-di-3qi/historic-resolution-protect-cultural-heritage|title=A historic resolution to protect cultural heritage, The UNESCO Courier}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/action-plan-to-preserve-heritage-sites-during-conflict|title=Action plan to preserve heritage sites during conflict|website=United Nations Peacekeeping}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''UNESCO Director-General calls for stronger cooperation for heritage protection at the Blue Shield International General Assembly.'' UNESCO, September 13, 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم رکڻ ===
{{See also|غير گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي فهرست|نيٽو امن قائم رکڻ|يورپي يونين جي فوجي ۽ شهري مشنن جي فهرست|آفريقي يونين جي فوجي مداخلتن جي فهرست}}

[[File:En-MFO1.JPG|thumb|right|1989ع ۾ [[مصر]] جي [[سنائي اپٻيٽ|سنائي]] واري علائقي جي [[ايل گوراح]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) جي غير گڏيل قومن واري امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن سان مقرر ڪيل ڪينيڊا جا [[CH135 ٽوئن هيوئي]] هيليڪاپٽر.]]

[[File:75Parad 04.jpg|thumb|[[آذربائيجان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جا ميمبر، [[2020 ماسڪو فتح پريڊ]] دوران مڪمل فوجي ورديءَ ۾.]]

سڀئي بين الاقوامي امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا سڌي طرح گڏيل قومن جي ڪنٽرول هيٺ ڪم نٿا ڪن. 1981ع ۾ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ [[مصر]] جي وچ ۾ ٿيل هڪ معاهدي تحت [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) قائم ڪئي وئي، جيڪا اڄ تائين [[سنائي اپٻيٽ]] ۾ امن معاهدي تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;10TAGpgA-1&quot;&gt;10 Tactical Air Group: ''Canadian Contingent Multinational Force and Observers Handbook'' (unclassified), page A-1. DND, Ottawa, 1986.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[آفريقي يونين]] (AU) آفريقي امن ۽ سلامتي جو اهڙو ڍانچو (آفريڪن پيس اينڊ سڪيورٽي آرڪيٽيڪچر) قائم ڪرڻ تي ڪم ڪري رهي آهي، جيڪو براعظم ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري نڀائي سگهي. جيڪڏهن ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ [[نسل ڪشي]] يا انساني حقن جون ٻيون سنگين ڀڃڪڙيون ٿين، ته آفريقي يونين جي جنرل اسيمبلي جي منظوري سان، ان ملڪ جي حڪومت جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن موڪلي سگهجي ٿو. هن نظام، جنهن ۾ [[آفريقي اسٽينڊ بائي فورس]] (ASF) پڻ شامل آهي، جي قيام جو منصوبو 2015ع کان اڳ نه هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/african-peace-and-security-architecture-already-proving-useful-even-though-it-still-work |title=The African Peace and Security Architecture is already proving useful even though it is still work in progress |publisher=dandc.eu |date=August 27, 2013 |access-date=November 14, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

علائقائي سطح تي [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري]] (ECOWAS) پنهنجي ڪجهه ميمبر ملڪن ۾ ڪيترائي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا آهن، ۽ ان کي &quot;آفريڪا جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ ترقي يافته علائقائي امن ۽ سلامتي وارو نظام&quot; قرار ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Oni|first1=Cyril I.|date=2009|journal=African Security|volume=2|pages=119–135|doi=10.1080/19362200903361945|title=Economic Community of West African States on the Ground: Comparing Peacekeeping in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea Bissau, and Côte D'Ivoire|issue=2–3|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''غير هٿياربند شهري امن قائم رکڻ''' (ان آرمڊ سويلين پيس ڪيپنگ، UCP) ۾ شهري عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو تڪراري علائقن ۾ شهرين کي تشدد کان بچائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن جي قيام جي ڪوششن جي سهائتا لاءِ غير تشدد، غير مداخلت ۽ غير جانبداريءَ تي ٻڌل حڪمت عمليون اختيار ڪندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ UCP جو اصطلاح سڀني غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) ۾ هڪجهڙو عام نه آهي، پر ڪيترائي ادارا ساڳين طريقن سان ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ امن بابت هڪجهڙا مقصد رکندا آهن. انهن طريقن ۾ متاثر ماڻهن سان گڏ رهڻ، مستقل موجودگي، افواهن تي ضابطو آڻڻ، برادريءَ جي سلامتي بابت گڏجاڻيون، محفوظ لنگهن جو بندوبست ڪرڻ ۽ نگراني ڪرڻ شامل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rachel|first1=Julian|last2=Schweitzer|first2=Christine|date=2015|title=The Origins And Development of Unarmed Civilian Peacekeeping|url=http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|journal=Peace Review|volume=27|issue=1|pages=1–8|doi=10.1080/10402659.2015.1000181|s2cid=144911738|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719124249/http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|archive-date=July 19, 2018|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== مختصر تاريخ ==
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي تاريخ}}

=== قيام ۽ شروعاتي سال ===

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري نظام جي شروعات 1948ع ۾ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] [[1948ع جي عرب-اسرائيل جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ ان جي عرب پاڙيسري ملڪن وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي واري معاهدي جي نگراني لاءِ وچ اوڀر ۾ گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن کي مقرر ڪرڻ جي منظوري ڏني. هن مشن کي [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) سڏيو ويو، جيڪو اڄ تائين جاري آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/history.shtml|title=History of Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آگسٽ 1949ع ۾ سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 73 (1949ع) منظور ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNTSO کي اسرائيل ۽ انهن عرب رياستن جي وچ ۾ ٿيل چئن جنگبندي معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني جي ذميواري ڏني وئي، جيڪي ان جنگ ۾ شامل هيون. نتيجي طور، UNTSO جون سرگرميون علائقي جي پنجن رياستن، يعني [[اسرائيل]]، [[مصر]]، [[اردن]]، [[لبنان]] ۽ [[شام]] تائين ڦهلجي ويون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/untso/background.shtml|title=UNTSO Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== سرد جنگ دوران امن قائم رکڻ ===

آگسٽ 1947ع ۾ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] جي آزادي ۽ ان کان پوءِ ٿيل وڏي پيماني تي خونريزيءَ کان پوءِ، سلامتي ڪائونسل جنوري 1948ع ۾ قرارداد 39 (1948ع) منظور ڪري [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP) قائم ڪيو، جنهن جو مقصد [[ڪشمير]] بابت ٻنهي ملڪن جي وچ ۾ پيدا ٿيل تڪرار ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل ويڙهه ۾ ثالثي ڪرڻ هو.

هي مشن غير مداخلتي نوعيت جو هو ۽ ان کي [[ڄمون ۽ ڪشمير]] ۾ ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان جي وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي جي نگراني جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي. جولاءِ 1949ع ۾ [[ڪراچي معاهدو]] ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNCIP جنگبندي واري لڪير جي نگراني شروع ڪئي، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن ۽ ٻنهي ڌرين جي مقامي فوجي ڪمانڊرن جي گڏيل نگراني هيٺ هئي. هن مشن جو تسلسل اڄ به [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان ۾ گڏيل قومن جو فوجي مبصر گروپ]] (UNMOGIP) جي نالي سان جاري آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unmogip/background.shtml|title=UNMOGIP Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف ملڪن ۾ ڪُل 69 امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي منظوري ڏني.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;/&gt; انهن مان گهڻا مشن سرد جنگ جي خاتمي کان پوءِ قائم ٿيا. 1988ع کان 1998ع جي وچ ۾ گڏيل قومن 35 نوان امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا، جڏهن ته 1948ع کان 1978ع تائين صرف 13 مشن قائم ٿيا هئا، ۽ 1978ع کان 1988ع جي وچ واري ڏهاڪي دوران ڪو به نئون مشن قائم نه ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Duffey|first=Tamara|date=2000|title=Cultural Issues in Contemporary Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=7|issue=1|pages=142–168|doi=10.1080/13533310008413823|s2cid=145210823}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|142–168}}

گڏيل قومن جي پهرين هٿياربند مداخلت 1956ع جي [[سوئيز بحران]] کان پوءِ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I) قائم ڪئي وئي. هي فوج نومبر 1956ع کان جون 1967ع تائين موجود رهي ۽ ان کي [[مصر]]، [[برطانيه]]، [[فرانس]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] جي وچ ۾ جنگبندي برقرار رکڻ، مصري علائقي مان برطانوي، فرينچ ۽ اسرائيلي فوجن جي واپسي جي نگراني ڪرڻ، ۽ پوءِ مصر ۽ اسرائيل جي فوجن جي وچ ۾ بفر فورس طور ڪم ڪندي جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ جو مينڊيٽ ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unef1mandate.html|title=UNEF Mandate|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان ٿوري ئي عرصي بعد 1960ع ۾ [[ڪانگو ۾ گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUC) شروع ڪيو ويو. پنهنجي عروج تي هن مشن ۾ ويهه هزار کان وڌيڪ فوجي اهلڪار شامل هئا، ۽ ان دوران 250 گڏيل قومن جا اهلڪار مارجي ويا، جن ۾ ان وقت جو سيڪريٽري جنرل [[ڊيگ هيملشولڊ]] پڻ شامل هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/early.shtml|title=The Early Years of UN Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ONUC جو مقصد [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] مان بيلجيم جي فوجن جي واپسي کي يقيني بڻائڻ هو، جيڪي [[فورس پبليڪ]] جي بغاوت کان پوءِ بيلجيم جي شهرين ۽ اقتصادي مفادن جي تحفظ لاءِ ٻيهر داخل ٿي ويون هيون. هن مشن کي قانون ۽ امن امان بحال ڪرڻ، بغاوت ۽ نسلي تشدد کي ختم ڪرڻ، ڪانگولي سلامتي فورسن کي فني مدد ۽ تربيت ڏيڻ، ۽ ملڪ جي علائقائي سالميت ۽ سياسي خودمختياري کي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/onuc.htm|title=ONUC|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي ذميواري خاص طور تي [[ڪتانگا]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪاسائي]] جهڙن معدني وسيلن سان مالامال صوبن جي علحدگيءَ واري تحريڪ جي پسمنظر ۾ شامل ڪئي وئي. ان دور ۾ گڏيل قومن جون فوجون، ڪجهه تڪراري انداز ۾، ڪانگو جي حڪومت جي مدد ڪندي ٻنهي صوبن جي علحدگي ختم ڪرائڻ ۾ به ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

1960ع ۽ 1970ع واري ڏهاڪن دوران گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف علائقن ۾ ڪيترائي مختصر مدي وارا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن قائم ڪيا، جن ۾ [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريه ۾ سيڪريٽري جنرل جي نمائندي جو مشن]] (DOMREP)، [[اولهه نيو گني ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي فورس]] (UNSF) ۽ [[يمن ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مبصر مشن]] (UNYOM) شامل هئا. ساڳئي وقت ڪجهه ڊگهي مدي وارا مشن پڻ جاري رهيا، جهڙوڪ [[قبرص ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج]] (UNFICYP)، [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج II]] (UNEF II)، [[گڏيل قومن جي ڌرين جي الڳ ٿيڻ جي نگراني ڪندڙ فوج]] (UNDOF)، ۽ [[لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن جي عبوري فوج]] (UNIFIL).&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;/&gt;

=== 1991ع کان پوءِ ===

[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-un-holds-head.jpg|thumb|[[سراييوو جو گهيرو|سراييوو جي گهيري]] (1992ع–1993ع) دوران هڪ [[ناروي]] جو امن قائم رکڻ وارو اهلڪار؛ تصوير: [[ميخائل اِوستافيئف]].]]

[[يوگوسلاو جنگين]] دوران امن قائم رکڻ جي تجربن، خاص طور تي [[سربرينيتسا قتلِ عام]] جهڙين ناڪامين، جزوي طور [[گڏيل قومن جي امن تعمير ڪميشن]] (يونائيٽيڊ نيشنز پيس بلڊنگ ڪميشن) جي قيام جو سبب بڻيا. هي ڪميشن چونڊن ۽ ٻين شهري ادارن جي مضبوطي جهڙين سرگرمين وسيلي پائيدار امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ انجام ڏيندا آهن. هن وقت اها ڪميشن آفريڪا جي ڇهن ملڪن سان ڪم ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/projects/africa/beyond-peace-deals-united-nations-experiment-peacebuilding |title=Beyond Peace Deals: The United Nations Experiment in &quot;Peacebuilding&quot;|date=June 22, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ڳالهين سان گڏ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، ۾ عورتن جي وڌيڪ مؤثر شرڪت، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهرن جي مقرري، هٿياربند تڪرارن جا عورتن تي پوندڙ اثرن بابت وڌيڪ معلومات، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |title=UN Security Council Takes a Historic Stand Supporting Abortion Access for Women Raped in War / Library / Homepage |publisher=AWID |access-date=October 28, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203101025/http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |archive-date=December 3, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن سان امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW)، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن بابت ڪميٽي آهي، هڪ عام سفارش جاري ڪئي، جنهن موجب اهي رياستون، جيڪي گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جون ڌريون آهن، پابند آهن ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌيءَ طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ فوجون موڪلين، يا تڪرارن جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مالي يا ٻئي قسم جي مدد فراهم ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=13885&amp;LangID=E|title=OHCHR -|website=www.ohchr.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪميٽي اهو پڻ واضح ڪيو ته اهڙين رياستن کي مناسب احتياط اختيار ڪرڻ گهرجي ته جيئن [[غير رياستي ڌريون]]، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي سلامتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ٿيندڙ ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

[[پيج فورٽنا]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي مقرري بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍيو ته ''&quot;امن قائم رکڻ رسد ۽ طلب جو معاملو آهي.&quot;'' رسد جي لحاظ کان سندس مشاهدو آهي ته سلامتي ڪائونسل جي مستقل ميمبرن مان ڪنهن هڪ جي ويجهن ملڪن ۾ هلندڙ گهرو ويڙهن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن مقرر ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن. جڏهن ته طلب جي لحاظ کان مختلف تحقيقون ظاهر ڪن ٿيون ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن گهڻو ڪري انهن ملڪن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن، جتي انهن جي ضرورت سڀ کان وڌيڪ هوندي آهي، يعني جتي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تمام گهڻو هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot; /&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي جوڙجڪ ==

=== اهي ملڪ جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺن ٿا ===
{{See also|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي تعداد موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Irish troops UNMIL.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|جولاءِ 2006ع ۾ [[لائبيريا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو مشن لائبيريا]] (UNMIL) سان مقرر آئرش فوجي گشت ڪندي.]]

[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] موجب، دنيا ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ ۾ مدد ڏيڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا سڀئي ميمبر ملڪ سلامتي ڪائونسل کي ضرورت موجب فوجي دستا ۽ ٻيون سهولتون فراهم ڪندا. 1948ع کان وٺي لڳ ڀڳ 130 ملڪن امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن لاءِ فوجي اهلڪار، شهري پوليس ۽ ٻيو عملو فراهم ڪيو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ 1948ع کان وٺي سڀني امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏيندڙ اهلڪارن جو مڪمل رڪارڊ موجود ناهي، پر اندازو آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي 71 مشنن ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه لک فوجين، پوليس اهلڪارن ۽ شهرين گڏيل قومن جي جهنڊي هيٺ خدمتون انجام ڏنيون آهن. سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين 122 ملڪ گڏيل طور لڳ ڀڳ 76,000 فوجي مبصر، پوليس اهلڪار ۽ فوجي مهيا ڪري رهيا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Troop and police contributors|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/troop-and-police-contributors|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

شرڪت ڪندڙ ملڪن جو تعداد گهڻو هجڻ باوجود، امن قائم رکڻ جو وڏو بار اڃا تائين [[ترقي پذير ملڪ|ترقي پذير ملڪن]] جي هڪ بنيادي گروهه تي آهي. آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي، پوليس ۽ فوجي ماهر موڪليندڙ ڏهه ملڪ [[بنگلاديش]] (6,447)، [[نيپال]] (5,536)، [[ڀارت]] (5,481)، [[روانڊا]] (5,263)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (4,856)، [[پاڪستان]] (3,949)، [[مصر]] (2,818)، [[انڊونيشيا]] (2,818)، [[گهانا]] (2,296) ۽ [[چين]] (2,248) هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين 14,000 کان وڌيڪ شهري اهلڪار به امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ قانوني يا طبي ماهرن، استادن، مواصلاتي ٽيڪنالاجي جي ماهرن ۽ انتظامي عملي طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/civilians|title=Civilians|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

30 سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن دوران 100 کان وڌيڪ ملڪن سان تعلق رکندڙ 4,147 ماڻهو پنهنجون حياتيون وڃائي چڪا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/fatalities|title=Fatalities|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان وڌيڪ جاني نقصان [[ڀارت]] جو ٿيو، جنهن جا 174 امن اهلڪار مارجي ويا، ان کان پوءِ [[بنگلاديش]] (159)، [[پاڪستان]] (159)، [[نائيجيريا]] (157)، [[گهانا]] (145)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (138)، [[ڪينيڊا]] (123)، [[فرانس]] (115) ۽ [[برطانيه]] (106) شامل آهن. 1948ع کان وٺي سراسري طور هر سال 56 امن اهلڪار ماريا ويا، پر 2001ع کان پوءِ هي انگ لڳ ڀڳ ٻيڻو ٿي هر سال 110 تائين پهچي ويو. گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي پهرين 55 سالن دوران ٿيل ڪل جاني نقصان جو 30 سيڪڙو حصو صرف 1993ع کان 1995ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جي شعبي ۾ عالمي اتر ۽ عالمي ڏکڻ (Global North ۽ Global South) جي وچ ۾ واضح فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي وڏي اڪثريت [[عالمي ڏکڻ]] جي ترقي پذير ملڪن مان ايندي آهي. [[ٿامس جي. وائيس]] ۽ جيووانا ڪيولي موجب، ان جا ٽي اهم سبب علائقائي مفاد، بين الاقوامي وقار ۽ مالي فائدا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=February 3, 2019|title=The Global South and UN Peace Operations|url=https://www.e-ir.info/2019/02/03/the-global-south-and-un-peace-operations/|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=E-International Relations|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آفريقي ملڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا سڀ کان وڌيڪ اهلڪار فراهم ڪن ٿا، پر ساڳئي وقت آفريڪا ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جو تعداد به سڀ کان وڌيڪ آهي، ۽ گهڻا آفريقي امن اهلڪار آفريڪا جي اندر ئي مقرر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، ايٿوپيا جا لڳ ڀڳ سڀئي 4,800 امن اهلڪار پاڙيسري ملڪن [[سوڊان]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ مقرر هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺڻ سان ترقي پذير ملڪن کي بين الاقوامي وقار پڻ حاصل ٿيندو آهي، ۽ اهو [[عظيم طاقت]] طور پنهنجون دعوائون مضبوط ڪرڻ ۾ مددگار ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيئن [[برازيل]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جي صورت ۾ ڏٺو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، غريب ملڪن لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين کي موڪلڻ مالي لحاظ کان به فائديمند هوندو آهي. هر امن اهلڪار لاءِ ماهوار واپسيءَ جي رقم ۾ پگهار ۽ الائونس لاءِ 1,028 آمريڪي ڊالر، ماهرن لاءِ اضافي 303 آمريڪي ڊالر، ذاتي لباس، سامان ۽ اوزارن لاءِ 68 آمريڪي ڊالر، ۽ ذاتي هٿيار لاءِ 5 آمريڪي ڊالر شامل هوندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/faq/q10.htm|title=United Nations Peacekeepers - How are peacekeepers compensated?|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; گڏيل قومن طرفان فراهم ڪيل اهي ادائيگيون، تربيت ۽ سامان، انفرادي فوجين سان گڏ ترقي پذير ملڪن لاءِ به مالي طور پرڪشش هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ مقرر ڪيل فوجي ۽ شهري پوليس اهلڪارن مان لڳ ڀڳ 4.5 سيڪڙو [[يورپي يونين]] مان ايندا آهن، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو حصو هڪ سيڪڙو کان به گهٽ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;factsheet&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/overview.shtml |title=Peacekeeping Fact Sheet |publisher=United Nations|access-date=December 20, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

مشنن جي قيادت بابت عام طور تي فوجي ڪمانڊر انهن ملڪن مان چونڊيا ويندا آهن، جيڪي سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي دستا فراهم ڪندا آهن، جڏهن ته سيڪريٽري جنرل جا خاص نمائندا گهڻو ڪري ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Oksamytna |first1= Kseniya|last2= Bove |first2= Vincenzo|last3= Lundgren |first3= Magnus|date= 2021 |title=Leadership selection in United Nations peacekeeping |journal= International Studies Quarterly|volume= 65|pages= 16–28|doi= 10.1093/isq/sqaa023 |doi-access= free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت ===
{{See also|امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتون}}

[[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 1325]] عورتن کي تڪرارن جي روڪٿام ۽ حل، امن ڳالهين، امن جي تعمير، امن قائم رکڻ، انساني امداد ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ ۾ سرگرم ۽ برابر ڌر طور شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو پهريون اهم قدم هو. هن قرارداد ۾ زور ڏنو ويو ته امن ۽ سلامتي جي قيام ۽ واڌاري لاءِ ٿيندڙ سڀني ڪوششن ۾ عورتن جي برابر شرڪت ۽ مڪمل شموليت کي يقيني بڻايو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and the Advancement of Women. &quot;[http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/wps/#resolution Landmark resolution on Women, Peace and Security]&quot;, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Security Council (October 31, 2000) &quot;Resolution 1325&quot;, S/RES/1325, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;

هن قرارداد تي هڪ تنقيد اها به ڪئي وئي آهي ته ان ۾ صنفي مرڪزي ڌارا (جينڊر مين اسٽريمنگ) کي لاڳو ڪرڻ جي ڳالهه ڪئي وئي، پر عملي طور گهڻو ڌيان صرف عورتن جي شموليت وڌائڻ تي ڏنو ويو، جڏهن ته مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي تي پاليسين جي اثرن جو مناسب جائزو نه ورتو ويو. 2010ع ۾ هن قرارداد جي ڏهن سالن جي اثرن بابت هڪ جامع جائزو ورتو ويو، جنهن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ان تي عملدرآمد محدود حد تائين ڪامياب رهيو، خاص طور تي امن ڳالهين ۽ امن معاهدن ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت وڌائڻ جي حوالي سان، جڏهن ته جنسي ۽ صنفي بنياد تي تشدد گهٽائڻ جي ڪوششن باوجود اهو مسئلو برقرار رهيو.&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations and Department of Field Support (2010). &quot;Ten-year Impact Study on Implementation of UN Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) on Women, Peace and Security in Peacekeeping&quot;, United Nations, p. 9-10. https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/documents/10year_impact_study_1325.pdf.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Ghana IntPeaceCorps 2016-05-29 B002a.jpg|thumb|گھانا جون عورتون گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏينديون.]]

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهريت، هٿياربند تڪرارن جي عورتن تي اثرن بابت بهتر ڄاڻ، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي وڌيڪ سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ مؤثر قدمن تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;/&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن خلاف امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW) پڻ پنهنجي هڪ عام سفارش ۾ چيو ته جن رياستن گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جي توثيق ڪئي آهي، انهن تي لازم آهي ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌي طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا، تڪرار جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مدد فراهم ڪري رهيون هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

ڪميٽي وڌيڪ چيو ته توثيق ڪندڙ رياستن کي مناسب احتياط سان اهو به يقيني بڻائڻ گهرجي ته غير رياستي ڌريون، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي حفاظتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

جولاءِ 2016ع تائين عورتون گڏيل قومن جي هر امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن ۾ فوجي، پوليس يا شهري عملي جي حيثيت سان خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيون هيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/resources/statistics/gender.shtml|title=Gender statistics. United Nations Peacekeeping|website=www.un.org|access-date=September 6, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

1993ع ۾ مقرر ٿيل يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن مان رڳو 1 سيڪڙو عورتون هيون. 2020ع تائين لڳ ڀڳ 95,000 امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن مان عورتون فوجي عملي جو 4.8 سيڪڙو، پوليس عملي جو 10.9 سيڪڙو، ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عملي جو 34 سيڪڙو هيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Women in peacekeeping|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/women-peacekeeping|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين اهڙو ڪو به ملڪ، جيڪو گڏيل قومن لاءِ 100 کان وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار موڪلي ٿو، پنهنجي دستي ۾ 25 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ عورتون نامزد نه ڪندو هو. حقيقي انگن اکرن موجب سڀ کان وڏا عورتن جا دستا [[ايٿوپيا]] (578 عورتون، يعني ان جي ڪل دستي جو 12 سيڪڙو)، [[روانڊا]] (500، يعني 10 سيڪڙو) ۽ [[گهانا]] (389، يعني 17 سيڪڙو) طرفان فراهم ڪيا ويا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

جيتوڻيڪ فوجي عملي ۾ عورتن جي مقرر تناسب بابت گڏيل قومن ڪو لازمي هدف مقرر نه ڪيو آهي، پر ميمبر رياستن کان درخواست ڪئي وئي آهي ته اهي پوليس آفيسرن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 20 سيڪڙو ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 30 سيڪڙو عورتون نامزد ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot; /&gt;

2024ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجي دستن ۾ عورتن جو ڪل انگ گهٽجي ويو، پر انهن جو تناسب وڌيو. يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن ۾ صنفي برابري واري حڪمت عملي (يونيفارمڊ جينڊر پئرٽي اسٽريٽجي) شروع ٿيڻ کان پوءِ عورتن جو تناسب مسلسل وڌندو رهيو آهي. عورتن جي ڪل تعداد ۾ گهٽتائي جو وڏو سبب [[گڏيل قومن جو مالي ۾ ڪثيرالجہتي مربوط استحڪامي مشن]] (MINUSMA) جو خاتمو هو. جون 2024ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن ۾ مقرر فوجي عملي مان عورتن جو تناسب 8.6 سيڪڙو هو، جيڪو گذريل سال جي ڀيٽ ۾ 1.3 سيڪڙو وڌيڪ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pfeifer Cruz |first=Claudia |title=Women in Multilateral Peace Operations in 2024: What is the State of Play? |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241031064944/https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |archive-date=October 31, 2024 |date=October 2024 |doi=10.55163/VYHM5282 |doi-access=free |location=Stockholm |publisher=SIPRI}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ جو نظرياتي بنياد ==


جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ ۽ امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي ڪردار بابت گهڻو ڪجهه لکيو ويو آهي، پر اهڙي تجرباتي تحقيق نسبتاً گهٽ ٿي آهي، جيڪا اهو واضح ڪري سگهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول ۾ ڪهڙي نموني اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. [[ڪولمبيا يونيورسٽي]] جي پروفيسر [[ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا]] چار اهڙن سببن (ڪيئيوئل ميڪينزم) جي سڃاڻپ ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي، جن جي ذريعي امن قائم رکڻ وارا پائيدار امن لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices After Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|location=Princeton|pages=175}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا موجب اهي چار بنيادي طريقا هي آهن:

# تازن ويڙهاڪن جي ترغيبي عنصرن ۾ تبديلي آڻڻ، جيئن امن وڌيڪ فائديمند ۽ جنگ وڌيڪ مهانگي محسوس ٿئي.
# غير يقيني صورتحال ۽ خوف کي گهٽائڻ، جيڪي سلامتي جي مخمصي (سڪيورٽي ڊليما) کي وڌائين ٿا.
# حادثاتي واقعن يا بي ضابطه هٿياربند گروهن جي ڪاررواين کي روڪڻ يا ضابطي ۾ آڻڻ، جيڪي ٻيهر جنگ جو سبب بڻجي سگهن.
# ڪنهن هڪ ڌر (خاص طور حڪومت) طرفان سياسي زيادتين کي روڪڻ، جيڪي امن کان محروم ڌرين کي ٻيهر هٿيار کڻڻ تي مجبور ڪري سگهن.

فورٽنا جو دليل آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا امن جي عمل تي مثبت اثر ڇڏين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ انهن کي اڪثر اهڙن هنڌن تي موڪليو ويندو آهي، جتي امن قائم رکڻ سڀ کان وڌيڪ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. امن قائم رکڻ تي تنقيد ڪندڙ اڪثر چوندا آهن ته اهي مشن غير مؤثر يا غير ضروري آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن ويڙهاڪ ڌريون پاڻ امن برقرار رکڻ ۾ دلچسپي رکن ٿيون ته امن قائم رهندو. تنهن هوندي به، فورٽنا جو خيال آهي ته مٿي بيان ڪيل سبب ڏيکارين ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا پائيدار امن کي يقيني بڻائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، خاص طور تي انهن حالتن جي ڀيٽ ۾ جتي ويڙهاڪ ڌريون مڪمل طور پنهنجي حال تي ڇڏيل هجن. اهي سبب اهو به واضح ڪن ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ جي ضرورت ڇو آهي ۽ اهو تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول تي ڪيئن اثرانداز ٿي سگهي ٿو.

جنگ جي ترغيبن کي گهٽائڻ ۽ امن کي وڌيڪ پرڪشش بڻائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومون نفاذي اختيارن (انفورسمينٽ مينڊيٽ) تحت فوجي قوت مقرر ڪري سگهي ٿي، جيڪا امن خراب ڪندڙ ڌرين لاءِ روڪ جو سبب بڻجي. اهڙا دستا حالتن جي نگراني ڪري سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي اوچتي حملي جو امڪان گهٽجي وڃي ٿو يا اهڙو حملو ڪرڻ وڌيڪ ڏکيو ٿي وڃي ٿو. هلڪي هٿيارن سان ليس مشاهدي وارو مشن پڻ ابتدائي خبرداري واري قوت (ارلي-وارننگ فورس) يا &quot;ٽرپ وائر&quot; طور ڪم ڪري سگهي ٿو. بين الاقوامي برادري طرفان ڏني ويندڙ امداد ۽ سياسي سڃاڻپ کي به ان ڳالهه سان مشروط ڪيو وڃي ته ڌريون ڳالهين دوران طئي ٿيل شرطن تي عمل ڪن. ان سان گڏ، روزگار، عوامي ترقياتي منصوبن ۽ ٻين فائدن جي صورت ۾ &quot;امن جا فائدا&quot; (پيس ڊويڊينڊس) پڻ فراهم ڪيا وڃن.

غير يقيني صورتحال ۽ خوف کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري سگهن ٿا، ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رابطي کي آسان بڻائي سگهن ٿا ته جيئن سلامتي بابت خدشا گهٽجن، ۽ هر ڌر کي اها خاطري ملي ته ٻي ڌر پنهنجن واعدن کان نه ڦرندي. اهڙي طرح اهي ٻنهي ڌرين کي پنهنجي امن پسند ارادن کي واضح ۽ قابل اعتماد نموني ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ مؤثر ذريعو مهيا ڪن ٿا.

امن جي عمل کي پٽڙي تان لاهي ڇڏيندڙ حادثن يا بي ضابطه گروهن جي ڪاررواين کي روڪڻ لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهڙن گروهن کي روڪي سگهن ٿا. ويڙهاڪ قوتون اڪثر مضبوط قيادت ۽ [[حڪم ۽ ضابطي]] (ڪمانڊ اينڊ ڪنٽرول) کان محروم هونديون آهن، تنهنڪري امن ڳالهين دوران ڪنهن بي ضابطه گروهه جي معاهدي کان انڪار ڪرڻ يا امن جي عمل کي ناڪام بڻائڻ جو خطرو موجود هوندو آهي. گڏيل قومن جا دستا اهڙين حالتن کي روڪڻ سان گڏ ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ثالثي ۽ رابطي کي پڻ آسان بڻائي سگهن ٿا ۽ سياسي اعتدال پسند قوتن کي اڳتي آڻي سگهن ٿا. قانون ۽ امن امان برقرار رکندي اهي عارضي طور رياستي حفاظتي ادارن جي ذميواري سنڀالي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي مبينا ڀڃڪڙي تي غيرجانبدار رويو اختيار ڪيو وڃي ۽ تشدد جي ٻيهر شروعات کان بچي سگهجي.

سياسي زيادتين جي روڪٿام لاءِ حڪومت سان لاڳاپيل ادارن ۾ سڌارا آندا وڃن ٿا. فوج ۽ پوليس جهڙن حفاظتي ادارن کي تربيت ڏيڻ ۽ انهن جي نگراني ڪرڻ سان کين حڪمرانن جي دٻاءَ جو اوزار بڻجڻ بدران عوام جا غيرجانبدار محافظ بڻائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. اهڙي تربيت عوام جو اعتماد وڌائڻ ۾ مددگار ثابت ٿي سگهي ٿي. گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا آزاد ۽ منصفاڻي چونڊون ڪرائڻ ۽ انهن جي نگراني پڻ ڪري سگهن ٿا. ڪجهه حالتن ۾ گڏيل قومون عبوري دور دوران غيرجانبدار عبوري حڪومت پڻ قائم ڪري سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ملڪ جو انتظام سنڀالي، جڏهن ته سرڪاري ادارن کي ٻيهر منظم، سڌاريو يا وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪيو وڃي. ان کان سواءِ هٿياربند باغي گروهن کي هٿيار ڦٽا ڪرڻ، انهن کي سياسي تنظيمن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ ۽ پرامن جمهوري عمل وسيلي پنهنجا مطالبا پيش ڪرڻ لاءِ همٿايو وڃي ٿو. اهو خاص طور اهم آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي باغي گروهه حڪومت جي اهم مخالف قوت هوندا آهن، پر سياسي تنظيم طور مؤثر نموني ڪم ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت کان محروم هوندا آهن.

مختلف امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن مختلف سببن ۽ ضرورتن جي بنياد تي قائم ڪيا ويندا آهن. [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VII]] تحت هلندڙ مشنن ۾ فوجي روڪ ۽ نفاذ تي وڌيڪ زور هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VI]] تحت مشن بنيادي طور نگراني ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ غيرجانبدار موجودگي برقرار رکڻ لاءِ هوندا آهن. سياسي زيادتين جي روڪٿام لاءِ قائم ڪيل مشن گهڻ رخي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ واري سياسي عمل ۾ سرگرم ڪردار ادا ڪندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|chapter=4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي اثرائتي ==

علمي تحقيق جي جائزي مان مضبوط ثبوت مليا آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن امن جي استحڪام ۾ واڌارو آڻين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Walter|first1=Barbara F.|last2=Howard|first2=Lise Morje|last3=Fortna|first3=V. Page|date=2020|title=The Extraordinary Relationship between Peacekeeping and Peace|journal=British Journal of Political Science|volume=51|issue=4|language=en|pages=1705–1722|doi=10.1017/S000712342000023X|s2cid=229469021 |issn=0007-1234|doi-access=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hoeffler|first=Anke|date=March 11, 2014|title=Can international interventions secure the peace?|journal=International Area Studies Review|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=75–94|doi=10.1177/2233865914525380|s2cid=16303210|url=http://www.econrsa.org/node/700|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا]] موجب مضبوط ثبوت موجود آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي نمايان طور گهٽائي ٿي. امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين جو تعداد جيترو وڌيڪ هوندو، اوترا ئي جنگي محاذ تي مارجي ويل ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽ ٿيندو، ۽ عام شهرين جي جاني نقصان ۾ به گهٽتائي ايندي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://politicalviolenceataglance.org/2015/09/24/enough-with-the-pessimism-about-peacekeeping/|title=Enough with the Pessimism about Peacekeeping|date=September 24, 2015|website=Political Violence at a Glance|access-date=January 26, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[اپسالا يونيورسٽي]] ۽ [[اوسلو امن تحقيقاتي اداري]] جي سياسي سائنسدانن جي هڪ مطالعي موجب، جيڪڏهن گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري پاليسي کي وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪيو وڃي، امن قائم رکڻ وارن دستن جو تعداد ٻيڻو ڪيو وڃي ۽ انهن کي وڌيڪ وسيع اختيار ڏنا وڃن، ته هٿياربند تڪرارن جي عالمي شرح، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي غير موجودگي واري صورتحال جي ڀيٽ ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ٻه ٽيون حصو گهٽجي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Hegre|first1=Håvard|last2=Hultman|first2=Lisa|last3=Nygård|first3=Håvard Mokleiv|date=November 28, 2018|title=Evaluating the Conflict-Reducing Effect of UN Peacekeeping Operations|journal=The Journal of Politics|volume=81|language=en|pages=215–232|doi=10.1086/700203|s2cid=13894244|issn=0022-3816|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فورڊهم يونيورسٽي]] جي سياسي سائنسدان [[انجلي ديال]] موجب، تحقيق مان ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن جنگ کي سرحدن کان ٻاهر پکڙجڻ کان روڪين ٿا. زمين تي وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار هجڻ سان عام شهرين خلاف تشدد جا واقعا پڻ گهٽ ٿيندا آهن، ۽ ڪيترين حالتن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ڪاميابي سان عبوري انتظاميا جو ڪردار ادا ڪندي اقتدار ٻيهر مقامي اختيارين حوالي ڪيو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ هاڻي اهڙو عمل اڳ جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ڏسڻ ۾ اچي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/02/01/is-u-n-peacekeeping-under-fire-heres-what-you-need-to-know/|title=Is U.N. peacekeeping under fire? Here's what you need to know.|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=February 1, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2018ع جي هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پنهنجي سر به گهرو ويڙهه جي شدت کي گهٽائين ٿا، پر جڏهن انهن کي ثالثي سان گڏ استعمال ڪيو وڃي ٿو ته انهن جو اثر وڌيڪ نمايان ٿي وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Mediation, Peacekeeping, and the Severity of Civil War|journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution|volume=63|issue=7|pages=1682–1709|language=en|doi=10.1177/0022002718817092|year=2018|last1=Beardsley|first1=Kyle|last2=Cunningham|first2=David E.|last3=White|first3=Peter B.|s2cid=202164361}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهڙا به ثبوت موجود آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا موڪلڻ جو واعدو ئي ويڙهاڪ ڌرين کي ڳالهين جي ميز تي آڻڻ ۽ جنگبندي تي راضي ٿيڻ جا امڪان وڌائي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lundgren|first=Magnus|year=2016|title=Which international organizations can settle civil wars?|journal=Review of International Organizations|volume=DOI 10.1007/s11558-016-9253-0|issue=4|pages=613–641|doi=10.1007/s11558-016-9253-0|s2cid=152898046}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي شمارياتي تحقيق ۾ انهن عنصرن کي به نظر ۾ رکيو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ڪٿي مقرر ڪيا وڃن ۽ ڪٿي امن قائم ٿيڻ جا امڪان ڪيترا آهن. هن جي نتيجن موجب، امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ۽ پائيدار امن جي وچ ۾ شمارياتي طور اهم لاڳاپو موجود آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن عام طور تي انهن علائقن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن جتي امن قائم ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن، فورٽنا جو اندازو آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 55 کان 60 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽائي ٿي، جڏهن ته ڪجهه وڌيڪ پراميد اندازن موجب اها گهٽتائي 75 کان 85 سيڪڙو تائين ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 116&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=116}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا جي تجزيي موجب [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VI]] تحت رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل مشنن ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VII]] تحت نفاذي مشنن جي اثرائتي ۾ گهڻو فرق نظر نٿو اچي. البته نفاذي مشن تڏهن ئي اثرائتا ثابت ٿين ٿا، جڏهن امن قائم رکڻ واري قوت طاقت جي استعمال بابت پنهنجي اعتبار ۽ صلاحيت برقرار رکي سگهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=109, 116, 125}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهو ان ڳالهه جي اهميت کي اجاگر ڪري ٿو ته گڏيل قومن جا مشن مقامي ڌرين جي رضامندي برقرار رکن. مجموعي طور فورٽنا جو نتيجو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ويڙهاڪ ڌريون مڪمل طور پنهنجي حال تي نه ڇڏيون وڃن، ته امن قائم رکڻ پائيدار امن کي يقيني بڻائڻ جو هڪ مؤثر اوزار آهي. هن اڳ بيان ڪيل سببن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول ۾ امن جي استحڪام تي نمايان اثر وجهي سگهن ٿا. فورٽنا ۽ [[ليز مورجي هاورڊ]] جو چوڻ آهي ته هاڻي تحقيق جو ڌيان امن قائم رکڻ جي بنيادي اثرائتي کان اڳتي وڌي، مختلف قسمن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن، عبوري انتظاميائن، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ جمهوريت جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن، ۽ انهن ماڻهن جي نظرين ڏانهن منتقل ٿي رهيو آهي، جن جي لاءِ امن قائم رکيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Pitfalls and Prospects in the Peacekeeping Literature*|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|volume=11|pages=283–301|last1=Fortna|first1=Virginia Page|last2=Howard|first2=Lise Morjé|date=May 20, 2008|language=en|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.9.041205.103022|s2cid=15740415|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[مائيڪل ڊبليو ڊائل]] ۽ [[نيڪولس سامبانس]] جي تجزيي موجب، انهن ملڪن ۾، جتي نسلي بنيادن تي جنگ نه هجي، معاشي ترقي جو سطح نسبتاً بهتر هجي ۽ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا ۽ مالي امداد موجود هجن، اتي پائيدار امن قائم رهڻ جا امڪان وڌيڪ هوندا آهن. انهن جو نتيجو آهي ته مختصر مدي ۾ پائيدار امن جو دارومدار گڏيل قومن جي مضبوط موجودگي ۽ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ گهٽ دشمني تي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ڊگهي مدي ۾ معاشي صلاحيت وڌيڪ اهم عنصر بڻجي ويندي آهي ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ دشمني جي شدت نسبتاً گهٽ اهم رهندي آهي. سندن خيال ۾، جيتوڻيڪ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ڪافي حد تائين ڪامياب رهيا آهن، پر اهي مداخلت هيٺ آيل ملڪن ۾ خودمختيار معاشي ترقي کي ڪافي حد تائين هٿي نه ڏئي سگهيا آهن. تنهنڪري گڏيل قومون امن برقرار رکڻ ۾ هڪ مضبوط پر اڻ سڌو ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿيون، جڏهن ته پائيدار امن جو اصل دارومدار اهڙن ادارن جي قيام تي هوندو آهي، جيڪي امن کي ڊگهي عرصي تائين برقرار رکي سگهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Making War and Building Peace : United Nations Peace Operations|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2010|pages=336–337}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ٻين علمي تحقيقن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي ڪاميابيءَ بابت مختلف نتيجا سامهون آيا آهن، جن موجب انهن جي ڪاميابيءَ جي شرح تقريباً 31 سيڪڙو کان 85 سيڪڙو تائين رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Autesserre|first1=Severine|title=Peaceland: Conflict Resolution and the Everyday Politics of International Intervention|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2020ع جي هڪ مطالعي موجب، گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر هلندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن به اثرائتي جي لحاظ کان گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جيترا ئي مؤثر آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Bara|first1=Corinne|last2=Hultman|first2=Lisa|date=March 20, 2020|title=Just Different Hats? Comparing UN and Non-UN Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=27|issue=3|pages=341–368|doi=10.1080/13533312.2020.1737023|issn=1353-3312|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; ساڳئي سال شايع ٿيل هڪ ٻي تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن عام شهرين جي تحفظ ۾ به ڪامياب رهيا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Carnegie|first1=Allison|last2=Mikulaschek|first2=Christoph|date=2020|title=The Promise of Peacekeeping: Protecting Civilians in Civil Wars|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-organization/article/promise-of-peacekeeping-protecting-civilians-in-civil-wars/2BA3A91C26CF29480409B1FFB64F7E40|journal=International Organization|volume=74|issue=4|language=en|pages=810–832|doi=10.1017/S0020818320000442|s2cid=232253107|issn=0020-8183|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2021ع ۾ ''[[آمريڪن جرنل آف پوليٽيڪل سائنس]]'' ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن مقامي معيشت تي مثبت اثر وڌو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Bove|first1=Vincenzo|last2=Salvatore|first2=Jessica Di|last3=Elia|first3=Leandro|date=2021|title=UN Peacekeeping and Households' Well-Being in Civil Wars|journal=American Journal of Political Science|volume=66|issue=2|pages=402–417|language=en|doi=10.1111/ajps.12644|issn=1540-5907|doi-access=free|hdl=10281/458537|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== پائيدار امن تي اثرانداز ٿيندڙ عنصر ===

ڪيترائي عنصر پائيدار امن تي منفي اثر وجهي سگهن ٿا. انهن ۾ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي حقيقي فوجي طاقت بابت لڪل معلومات، باغي گروهن جي هيرن، ٻين معدنيات يا غيرقانوني واپار وسيلي مالي وسيلا حاصل ڪرڻ، منشيات، هٿيارن ۽ انساني اسمگلنگ ۾ سندن شموليت، ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي فوجي فتح يا شڪست، جنگ جو عرصو ۽ ان جي قيمت، ٻنهي ڌرين کي درپيش واعدن تي عملدرآمد جا مسئلا (ڪمٽمينٽ پرابلم) ۽ سلامتي جو مخمصو (سڪيورٽي ڊليما)، جنگبندي يا امن معاهدي جي موجودگي، تڪرار ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ ڌرين جي ارادن ۽ ڪاررواين بابت شفافيت جي کوٽ، امن کي نقصان پهچائيندڙ انتهاپسند گروهه، اهڙا ڌر يا فرد جيڪي جنگ جاري رهڻ مان فائدو حاصل ڪن، ۽ اهڙا تڪراري مسئلا جيڪي ورهائي يا سمجهوتي ذريعي حل نٿا ٿي سگهن شامل آهن.

فورٽنا جي تحقيق موجب، پائيدار امن جو سڀ کان اهم شمارياتي عنصر اهو آهي ته ڇا جنگ ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي فوجي فتح تي ختم ٿي آهي يا نه. جيڪڏهن گهرو ويڙهه ۾ هڪ ڌر واضح فوجي فتح حاصل ڪري ۽ ان کان پوءِ جنگبندي يا صلح جو معاهدو ٿئي، ته ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تقريباً 85 کان 90 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽجي ويندو آهي. ان کان علاوه، رسمي امن معاهدا ٻيهر تڪرار جي خطري کي لڳ ڀڳ 60 کان 70 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 116&quot;/&gt;

جيڪڏهن ڪو هٿياربند گروهه منشيات، هيرن يا ٻين غيرقانوني واپاري ذريعن مان مالي مدد حاصل ڪري ٿو، ته ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان نمايان طور وڌي وڃن ٿا. فورٽنا موجب اهڙين حالتن ۾ جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو 100 کان 250 سيڪڙو تائين وڌي سگهي ٿو، يعني اهڙي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان عام حالتن جي ڀيٽ ۾ ٻه کان ساڍا ٽي ڀيرا وڌيڪ هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choice after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=117}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا جو خيال آهي ته جن جنگين ۾ ڪيترائي ڌر شامل هجن، اهي ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان نسبتاً گهٽ رکن ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; ان جي ابتڙ، [[مائيڪل ڊبليو ڊائل]] ۽ [[نيڪولس سامبانس]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ نتيجو ڪڍيو ته گهڻ ڌرين وارا تڪرار ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان وڌيڪ رکن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Making War and Building Peace : United Nations Peace Operations|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2010|pages=336}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڊگهي عرصي تائين هلندڙ جنگين ۽ سڃاڻپ يا قومي/نسلي بنيادن تي وڙهيل جنگين ۾ ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. بهرحال، ڊگهيون جنگيون ۽ اهي امن معاهدا جيڪي فوجي فتح کان پوءِ وجود ۾ اچن، عام طور تي مستقبل ۾ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽائين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=117–119}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪاررواين جا حصو وٺندڙ فوجن تي اثر ==

=== فوجي معمول تي آڻڻ ===

ڪجهه محققن جو خيال آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون فوج جي &quot;معمول تي آڻڻ&quot; (مليٽري نارملائيزيشن) کي اڳتي وڌائڻ جو هڪ ذريعو بڻجي سگهن ٿيون. مائيڪل ايڊورڊ والش ۽ جيريمي ٽيلر دليل ڏين ٿا ته [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ [[جاپان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون انهن حلقن لاءِ هڪ منفرد موقعو فراهم ڪن ٿيون، جيڪي جاپان جي فوجي ڪردار کي عام ۽ معمول مطابق بڻائڻ چاهين ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهڙي عمل سان ملڪ جي امن پسند آئين کي تدريجي طور ڪمزور ڪرڻ جو امڪان پيدا ٿئي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;nbr.org&quot;&gt;Jeremy Taylor and Michael Edward Walsh (January 7, 2014), ''[http://www.nbr.org/downloads/pdfs/psa/taylor-walsh_commentary_010714.pdf UN Operations in Africa Provide a Mechanism for Japan’s Military Normalization Agenda]'', {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303010649/http://www.nbr.org/downloads/pdfs/psa/taylor-walsh_commentary_010714.pdf |date=March 3, 2014 }}, retrieved February 7, 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;

سندن خيال موجب، بنيادي سياسي، قانوني ۽ سماجي سڌارن کان سواءِ جاپان جون امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون اهڙين سنگين حالتن کي منهن ڏيڻ لاءِ مڪمل طور تي تيار ناهن، جتي جان ليوا طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ ضروري بڻجي وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Edward Walsh and Jeremy Taylor (December 23, 2013), ''[http://africanarguments.org/2013/12/23/time-to-reconsider-the-japanese-peacekeeping-mission-in-south-sudan-by-michael-edward-walsh-jeremy-taylor/ Time to Reconsider the Japanese Peacekeeping Mission in South Sudan]'', retrieved February 7, 2014.&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن ڪري، اهي دليل ڏين ٿا ته گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين ۾ جاپان جي مسلسل شرڪت آخرڪار اهڙين پاليسي تبديلين جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿي، جن کان پوءِ جاپان جي فوج کي معمول مطابق فوجي حيثيت ڏيڻ ئي واحد ممڪن نتيجو رهجي وڃي.&lt;ref name=&quot;nbr.org&quot;/&gt;

=== فوج موڪليندڙ ملڪن تي سياسي اثر ===

[[ڊيانا ميور ايپل بام]] خدشو ظاهر ڪيو آهي ته [[فجي]] ۾ عالمي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين لاءِ فوج تيار ڪرڻ جي نتيجي ۾ فوج ايتري طاقتور بڻجي وئي، جو هن 1987ع، 1999–2000ع، 2006ع ۽ 2009ع ۾ چار فوجي بغاوتون ڪيون ۽ ويهن سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين فجي تي فوجي آمريت قائم رکي.&lt;ref&gt;Appelbaum, Diana Muir (August 27, 2012), ''[http://www.jewishideasdaily.com/4867/features/how-the-sinai-peacekeeping-force-staged-a-military-coup-in-fiji/ How the Sinai Peacekeeping Force Staged a Military Coup in Fiji]'', retrieved September 7, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt;

بهرحال، ''جرنل آف پيس ريسرچ'' ۾ 2018ع ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ مطالعي موجب، اهي ملڪ جن جون فوجون گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين مان حاصل ٿيندڙ مالي وسيلن تي وڌيڪ ڀاڙين ٿيون، انهن ۾ فوجي بغاوتن جا امڪان انهن ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهڙن مالي وسيلن تي گهٽ ڀاڙين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lundgren|first=Magnus|date=2018|title=Backdoor peacekeeping: Does participation in UN peacekeeping reduce coups at home?|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume=55|issue=4|pages=508–523|doi=10.1177/0022343317747668|s2cid=116168984}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ وارن فردن تي اثر ===

[[File:UNAMIR Blue Berets memorial Kigali (4).jpg|thumb|[[روانڊا]] جي شهر [[ڪيگالي]] ۾ [[يو اين اي ايم آء آر]] (UNAMIR) جي ڏهن بيلجيمي امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي يادگار، جيڪي 1994ع ۾ هوتو نيم فوجي گروهن هٿان مارجي ويا.]]

امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين بابت ٿيل تحقيق مان معلوم ٿئي ٿو ته انهن تي مثبت ۽ منفي، ٻئي قسم جا اثر پون ٿا. بوسنيا ۾ مقرر آمريڪي فوج جي 951 سپاهين تي ٿيل هڪ مطالعي مطابق، 77 سيڪڙو فوجين مثبت اثرن جي نشاندهي ڪئي، 63 سيڪڙو منفي اثرن جو ذڪر ڪيو، جڏهن ته 47 سيڪڙو ٻنهي قسمن جي تجربن بابت ٻڌايو.&lt;ref&gt;Newby, John H., et al. &quot;Positive and negative consequences of a military deployment.&quot; ''Military Medicine'' (2005) 170#10 pp: 815-819.&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار گهڻو ڪري ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي حملن جي خطري ۽ اڻڄاتل موسمي حالتن کي منهن ڏيندا آهن. انهن سببن ڪري ذهني صحت جا مسئلا، خودڪشي جا واقعا ۽ منشيات جي استعمال جا خطرا وڌي سگهن ٿا. ڊگهي عرصي تائين ٻاهرين ملڪن ۾ مقرر رهڻ امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي خاندانن، خاص طور تي سندن ٻارن ۽ گهروارن، لاءِ پڻ ذهني دٻاءُ جو سبب بڻجي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1 = Fernandes Souza | first1 = Wanderson |display-authors=etal  | year = 2011 | title = Posttraumatic stress disorder in peacekeepers: a meta-analysis | journal = The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease | volume = 199 | issue = 5| pages = 309–312 | doi=10.1097/nmd.0b013e3182175180| pmid = 21543949 | s2cid = 28713512 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

هڪ ٻيو نقطه نظر اهو به آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون ذميواريون فوجين جي جنگي صلاحيتن کي ڪمزور ڪري سگهن ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ امن قائم رکڻ واري دستي جون ذميواريون مڪمل جنگ وڙهندڙ فوجي يونٽ کان ڪافي مختلف هونديون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20070926001502/http://www.usafa.af.mil/jscope/ISME2007/Papers/Prof%20Paulin%20Kaurin%20War%20Stories.doc Kaurin, P. M. (2007) War Stories: Narrative, Identity and (Recasting) Military Ethics Pedagogy. Pacific Lutheran University. ISME 2007. Retrieved 9-3-2007].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Liu, H. C. K., The war that could destroy both armies, ''Asia Times'', October 23, 2003. Retrieved March 9, 2007.&lt;/ref&gt;

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:امن]]
[[زمرو:تنظيمون]]
[[زمرو:گڏيل قومون]]
[[زمرو:عالمي سياست]]
[[زمرو:بين الاقوامي لاڳاپا]]</text>
      <sha1>t8rzrc9xxxeoe3vypu9dnfotu2zt96x</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399328</id>
      <parentid>399327</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T21:54:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399328</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="99859" sha1="4zjh0mrx8z4pd4e18j53vvmvr1ds5az" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|دائمي امن لاءِ سازگار حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ خاطر ڪيل سرگرميون}}


[[File:Italian Soldier UNIFIL 2 Lebanon 2007.jpg|thumb|[[اطالوي فوج]] جو هڪ [[سپاهي]] لبنان ۾ [[يونيفل]] مشن دوران پهرو ڏئي رهيو آهي.]]

'''امن قائم رکندڙ فوج''' (Peacekeeping Force) انهن سرگرمين، خاص طور فوجي سرگرمين،&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Peacekeeping&quot;. Oxford Languages. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جن جو مقصد اهڙيون حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ هوندو آهي جيڪي پائيدار [[امن]] جي قيام لاءِ سازگار هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/|title=United Nations Peacekeeping|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; تحقيق مان عام طور اهو ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون [[شهري جاني نقصان|شهري]] ۽ جنگي ميدان ۾ ٿيندڙ جاني نقصان کي گهٽائين ٿيون ۽ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي پڻ گهٽائين ٿيون.

[[گڏيل قومون]] (UN) ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل [[قومي رياست]]ن جي حڪومتن ۽ [[تنظيم]]ن جي وچ ۾ عام طور اهو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو ته عالمي سطح تي امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا جنگ کان پوءِ وارن علائقن ۾ امن جي عمل جي نگراني ۽ مشاهدو ڪندا آهن، ۽ اڳوڻن ويڙهاڪن کي انهن امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ ۾ مدد ڏيندا آهن، جن جا هو پابند بڻيل هوندا آهن. اهڙي مدد ڪيترين ئي صورتن ۾ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ اعتماد سازي جا قدم، اقتدار جي ورهاست جا انتظام، چونڊن ۾ مدد، [[قانون جي حڪمراني]] کي مضبوط بڻائڻ، ۽ معاشي ۽ سماجي ترقي کي هٿي ڏيڻ. ان ڪري [[گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا]] (جن کي سندن هلڪي نيري [[بيريٽ]] يا هيلمٽ سبب اڪثر '''نيري بيريٽ''' يا '''نيرا هيلمٽ''' چيو ويندو آهي) ۾ فوجي، [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس آفيسر]] ۽ شهري عملي جا ميمبر شامل ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dpko/ |title=Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dfs/ |title=Department of Field Support (DFS) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جا مشن هلائيندڙ واحد تنظيم گڏيل قومون نه آهن. گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم ڪندڙ قوتن ۾ [[ڪوسوو فورس]] جي [[نيٽو]] مشن (گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان)، [[سينا ٻيٽ نما]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]]، ۽ [[يورپي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[EUFOR RCA]]، گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان) ۽ [[آفريقي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[سوڊان ۾ آفريقي يونين مشن]]) پاران منظم ڪيل امن مشن شامل آهن.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

[[بين الاقوامي قانون]] موجب، امن قائم ڪندڙ پنهنجي غيرجانبدار حيثيت سبب [[غير جنگجو]] (non-combatants) شمار ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي ٻن يا وڌيڪ [[جنگ ڪندڙ ڌر]]ن جي وچ ۾ تڪرار ۾ غيرجانبدار هوندا آهن (بلڪل اهڙيءَ طرح جيئن امن قائم رکڻ جي ذميوارين کان ٻاهر موجود غيرجانبدار ماڻهو ۽ ملڪيت). تنهنڪري انهن کي هر حال ۾ حملن کان تحفظ حاصل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule33 |title=Rule 33. Personnel and Objects Involved in a Peacekeeping Mission|publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]|access-date=April 7, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فائل:UN Soldiers in Eritrea.jpeg|thumb|right|upright=1.00|نيدرلينڊز جا ڊچ فوجي اقوام متحده جي امن جي قيام جي فورس ۾ ايٿوپيا ۽ ايريٽيريا جي سرحد تي گڏيل قومن پاران چوڪسي ڪندي]]

'''امن جي بحالي واري فوج'''{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي=Peace Keeping Force}}
ٻن ملڪن ياڌرين جي وچ ۾ ڪو به تڪرار ايترو زور وٺي وڃي، جو ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت کانسواءِ اهو ٽري نه سگهي، ته ٽين ڌر امن قائم ڪرڻ (Peace Keeping) لاءِ مُختلف اُپاءُ وٺندي آهي. ڪنهن به تڪرار جي حل لاءِ ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت جو مقصد ٻن ڌُرين ۾ رڳو صُلح ڪرائڻ هوندو آهي، جنهن لاءِ فوجي ۽ سُفارتي طريقا ڪتب آندا ويندا آهن. ان کان سواءِ گھُرج پوڻ تي ٽين ڌر (يا وچين ڌر) جهيڙو ڪندڙ ڌرين تي مُختلف قسمن جو دٻاءُ رکندي آهي، جيڪڏهن ڌريون پوءِ به جهيڙي کي نه ٿيون ختم ڪن، ته مٿانئن فوجي قدم کڻڻ لاءِ به اڳڀرائي ڪئي ويندي آهي. جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جو عالمي ادارو|گڏيل قومن]] جو ادارو قائم ڪيو ويو هيو ته ان وقت ٻي عالمي جنگ ختم ٿي هئي، پر ملڪن جا پاڻ ۾ تڪرار پوءِ به هلي رهيا هئا ۽ ”سرد جنگ“ به شروع ٿي چڪي هئي، دُنيا جي امن کي گهڻن قسمن جا خطرا پيدا ٿي چڪا هئا. 1950ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل بين الاقوامي جهيڙن کي پاسيرو ڪرڻ ۽ امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ”احتياطي سفارتڪاري“ (Preventive Diplomacy) جو اصطلاح اڳيان آندو هو. انهيءَ قسم جي حڪمت عملي ۾ ڪنهن به تڪرار کي رڳو ٺارڻ جو حل ڏنل هيو، پر جهيڙي کي مستقل طور ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪجهه واڌو قدم به گهربل هئا. انهيءَ ڪري اهڙي صورتحال ۾ اڳتي هلي ”مشن ڪريپ“ (Mission Creep) جو اصطلاح ڪتب آندو ويو، جنهن ۾ جهيڙي کي مڪمل طور ختم ڪرڻ جي تجويز ڏني وئي. انهيءَ حوالي سان 1956ع ۾ ڪئناڊا جي پرڏيهي معاملن جي وزير ۽ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”ڊگ هئمرشولڊ“ گڏيل قومن جي اداري جي پلئٽفارم تان ”امن قائم ڪرڻ واري فوج“ (Peace Keeping Force) قائم ڪئي، جنهن جي شعبا بندي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ان جي ورديءَ کانسواءِ خاص قسم جي ٽوپي به تيار ڪرائي وئي ۽ ان خاص ٽوپيءَ جو رنگ ”نيرو“ مقرر ڪيو ويو. ٽوپيءَ کي ٻين فوجي ٽوپين کان الڳ رنگ ڏيڻ جو مقصد، بين الاقوامي امن فوج جي انفراديت کي ظاهر ڪرڻ آهي. ان هوندي به ”امن فوج“ جي طريقيڪار ۽ اختيارن کي اڃا تائين چڱيءَ ريت گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر ۾ بيان نه ڪيو ويو آهي. گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر جي 6 ۽ 7 باب ۾، امن جي ڪوشش وٺڻ لاءِ جيڪي تفصيل بيان ڪيا ويا آهن، انهن سان امن جي بحاليءَ واري عمل کي به جوڙيو ويو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن جي بحاليءَ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي پڌرنامي جي روح مطابق جوڙجڪ ضروري آهي. انهن کوٽن جي باوجود، گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج، دُنيا ۾ امن ۽ صلح جي لاءِ گھڻن هنڌن مثال طور؛ ڪمبوڊيا، نميبيا، انگولا، لبنان، ايراني نار ۽ [[سوماليا|صوماليا]] وغيره ۾ ڪاميابيءَ سان پنهنجون ذميواريون پوريون ڪري چڪي آهي. امن فوج جي اهڙي اهميت کي محسوس ڪندي، گڏيل قومن جي اداري ڪيترن مُتاثر ملڪن جي داخلي معاملن ۾ به هن فوج جو استعمال مُناسب ۽ بهتر سمجهيو. منڍ ۾ اها فوج ٻن تڪراري ڌُر جي وچ ۾ هلندڙ جهيِڙو ٽارڻ لاءِ ڪتب آندي ويندي هئي، پر 1988ع کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جي اداري اهڙن ملڪن ۾ به کيس ذميواري سونپيون، جتي گهرو ويڙھ ۾ اَڙيل مُختلف ڌرين ۾ جنگ جاري هُئي ۽ اُتي انتظامي معاملا هيٺ مٿي لڳا پيا هُئا. اهڙن مُلڪن ۾ امن فوج کي گڏيل قومن طرفان چونڊون ڪرائڻ، انتظامي معاملن کي سُڌارڻ، عوام کي تحفظ ڏيڻ ۽ جهيڙن کان تنگ اچي ملڪ ڇڏي ويل ماڻهن کي واپس پنهنجي اباڻي وطن ۾ ٻيهر آباد ڪرائڻ جا اختيار به ڏنا ويا. ٻئي طرف اها به حقيقت آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج کي گھڻن معاملن ۽ هنڌن تي ڪن ملڪن پنهنجن خاص مقصدن لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو. ان کانسواءِ گھڻن علائقن (جهڙوڪ ڪشمير) ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن فوج پنهنجي مقصد حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام وئي آهي. سندس مُقابلي ۾ اولھ جي مُلڪن جي فوجي اتحاد نيٽو امن فوج جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ متحرڪ ۽ اثرائتي رهي آهي. 1992ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”بترس غالي“، امن جي آڻڻ لاءِ خاص علائقي ۽ خاص حالتن آهر مداخلت ڪرڻ ۽ نون اختيار ڏيڻ لاءِ اداري آڏو تجويزون پيش ڪيون، پر ان ڏس ۾ مڪمل سوڀاري ٿيڻ لاءِ ”پيس ڪيپگ“ جو عمل نون ضابطن، اختيارن ۽ قانونن جي انتظار ۾ آهي. 
&lt;ref&gt;[http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/define/Peace%20Keeping%20Force.php سنڌي آنلائين ڊڪشنري]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} پاران [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد&lt;/ref&gt;

== وصفون ۽ امن قائم رکڻ جي عمل جا قسم ==

=== گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ===
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن}}

==== ڇهون باب ۽ ستون باب وارا مشن ====

امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن جا ڪيترائي مختلف قسم آهن. مثال طور، پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي ڪتاب ''Does Peacekeeping Work?'' ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن کي چئن مختلف قسمن ۾ ورهايو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=Chapter 7}}&lt;/ref&gt; انهن مشنن جو قسم ۽ انهن تي عملدرآمد جو طريقو گهڻي حد تائين ان اختيارنامي (mandate) تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، جنهن تحت انهن کي اختيار ڏنو ويندو آهي.

فورٽنا جي بيان ڪيل چئن قسمن مان ٽي اهڙا آهن، جيڪي ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن ۽ انهن کي عام طور ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ڇهون باب|ڇهين باب]]'' وارا مشن چيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته چوٿون قسم ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]]'' وارو مشن هوندو آهي.

ڇهين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشنن لاءِ جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي لازمي هوندي آهي؛ جيڪڏهن اها رضامندي ختم ٿي وڃي ته امن قائم ڪندڙ دستن کي علائقو ڇڏڻو پوندو. ان جي ابتڙ، ستين باب وارن مشنن کي قانوني طور رضامندي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي، جيتوڻيڪ عملي طور اها موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي. جيڪڏهن رضامندي بعد ۾ ختم به ٿي وڃي ته به اهڙن مشنن کي واپس وڃڻ ضروري نه هوندو.

# '''مشاهدي وارا مشن''' (Observation Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي يا شهري مبصرن جا ننڍا دستا شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي جنگبندي، فوجن جي واپسي يا جنگبندي واري معاهدي ۾ ڄاڻايل ٻين شرطن جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. اهي عام طور بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا آهن ۽ سندن بنيادي ذميواري رڳو مشاهدو ڪرڻ ۽ رپورٽون تيار ڪرڻ هوندي آهي؛ تنهن ڪري جيڪڏهن ڪا ڌر معاهدي جي ڀڃڪڙي ڪري ته اهي مداخلت ڪرڻ جا مجاز نه هوندا آهن. مثال طور [[انگولا]] ۾ 1991ع وارو [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن II]] (UNAVEM II) ۽ [[اولهه صحارا]] ۾ [[اولهه صحارا بابت راءِ شماري لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو مشن]] (MINURSO).

# '''وچٿري مشن''' (Interpositional Missions)، جن کي روايتي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، نسبتاً وڏن ۽ هلڪي هٿياربند فوجي دستن تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جيڪي تڪرار کان پوءِ ٻن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ طور مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهي ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ بفر زون جو ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. مثال طور 1994ع ۾ [[انگولا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن III]] (UNAVEM III) ۽ 1996ع ۾ [[گوئٽي مالا]] ۾ [[MINUGUA]].

# '''گهڻ رخا مشن''' (Multidimensional Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس]] عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو جامع امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندو آهي. اهي رڳو مشاهدو يا ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رڪاوٽ بڻجڻ تائين محدود نه هوندا آهن، پر چونڊن جي نگراني، پوليس ۽ سلامتي ادارن جي سڌارن، ادارن جي تعمير، معاشي ترقي ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي شعبن ۾ پڻ حصو وٺندا آهن. مثال طور [[نيميبيا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو عبوري امدادي گروهه]] (UNTAG)، [[ايل سلواڊور]] ۾ [[ONUSAL]] ۽ [[موزمبيق]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUMOZ).

# '''[[امن لاڳو ڪندڙ]] مشن''' (Peace Enforcement Missions): اهي ستين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشن هوندا آهن ۽ اڳين ٽن قسمن جي ابتڙ، جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ جا پابند نه هوندا آهن. اهي شهري ۽ فوجي ٻنهي قسمن جي عملي تي مشتمل گهڻ رخا مشن هوندا آهن. انهن وٽ نسبتاً وڏي ۽ بهتر هٿياربند فوج هوندي آهي ۽ انهن کي صرف پنهنجي بچاءَ کان وڌيڪ مقصدن لاءِ به طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل هوندو آهي. مثال طور [[اولهه آفريڪا]] ۾ [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري جو نگراني گروهه]] (ECOMOG)، 1999ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو سيرا ليون مشن]] (UNAMSIL)، ۽ [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ [[نيٽو]] جا [[IFOR]] ۽ [[SFOR]] آپريشن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;/&gt;

==== سرد جنگ دوران ۽ ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ====

[[سرد جنگ]] جي دور ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جا اڪثر مشن روايتي نوعيت جا هئا، جن ۾ امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا ملڪن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ جنگن کان پوءِ مقرر ڪيا ويندا هئا ته جيئن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ بڻجن ۽ امن معاهدن تي عملدرآمد کي يقيني بڻائين. اهي مشن رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا هئا ۽ گهڻو ڪري مبصر بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا هئا، جيئن [[وچ اوڀر]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) ۽ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] بابت [[ڪشمير بابت گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP). ڪجهه مشن هٿياربند به هئا، جهڙوڪ [[سوئيز بحران]] دوران قائم ڪيل [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I). مجموعي طور اهي مشن پنهنجي مقرر ڪيل ڪردار ۾ ڪامياب رهيا.

[[سرد جنگ کان پوءِ وارو دور|سرد جنگ کان پوءِ]] گڏيل قومن امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ جامع ۽ گهڻ رخي طريقيڪار اختيار ڪيو. 1992ع ۾ ان وقت جي [[گڏيل قومن جو سيڪريٽري جنرل|سيڪريٽري جنرل]] [[بوتروس بوتروس غالي]] هڪ رپورٽ تيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ امن قائم رکڻ بابت پنهنجو جامع تصور پيش ڪيو. ''[[امن لاءِ ايجنڊا]]'' (An Agenda for Peace) نالي هن رپورٽ ۾ هن احتياطي سفارتڪاري، امن لاڳو ڪرڻ، امن ڪرائڻ، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ بحاليءَ کي هڪ ٻئي سان ڳنڍيل قدمن طور بيان ڪيو، جن جي ذريعي سرد جنگ کان پوءِ واري عالمي سياست ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ڪردار وڌيڪ اثرائتو بڻجي سگهي.

==== گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جا وسيع مقصد ====

[[مائيڪل ڊوئل]] ۽ نڪولس سامبانس پنهنجي ڪتاب ''The UN Record on Peacekeeping Operations'' ۾ بوتروس غالي جي رپورٽ جو خلاصو پيش ڪندي احتياطي سفارتڪاري، اعتماد سازي جي قدمن (جهڙوڪ حقيقت معلوم ڪرڻ وارا مشن)، مبصر مشن، ۽ تشدد جي خطري کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي اختيار هيٺ فوج مقرر ڪرڻ کي پائيدار امن لاءِ اهم ذريعا قرار ڏين ٿا. سندن بيان موجب:

# '''امن لاڳو ڪرڻ''' (Peace Enforcement): گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي منظور ڪيل جنگبندي يا معاهدي تي عمل ڪرائڻ لاءِ، ضرورت پوڻ تي ڌرين جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به فوجي طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ. اهڙا مشن عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]] تحت هلندا آهن ۽ انهن ۾ مقرر فوجون نسبتاً وڌيڪ هٿياربند هونديون آهن.

# '''امن ڪرائڻ''' (Peacemaking): گڏيل قومن جي سرپرستي هيٺ ثالثي ۽ ڳالهين ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين کي پرامن حل تي راضي ڪرڻ. هي عمل عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] جي ڇهين باب تحت ڪيو ويندو آهي.

# '''امن قائم رکڻ''' (Peacekeeping): جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي سان هلڪي هٿياربند گڏيل قومن جي موجودگي قائم ڪرڻ، اعتماد پيدا ڪرڻ ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ٿيل معاهدن جي نگراني ڪرڻ. ان سان گڏ سفارتي ڪوششون پڻ جاري رهنديون آهن ته جيئن جامع ۽ پائيدار امن حاصل ڪري سگهجي.

# '''تڪرار کان پوءِ بحالي''' (Post-Conflict Reconstruction): معاشي ۽ سماجي سهڪار ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي بحال ڪرڻ، سياسي، سماجي ۽ معاشي ادارن کي مضبوط ڪرڻ، مستقبل ۾ تشدد جي امڪان کي گهٽائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|date=2007|title=The UN Record On Peacekeeping Operations|journal=International Journal|volume=63|issue=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ ۾ غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) سان گڏجي [[ثقافتي ورثو|ثقافتي ورثي]] جي تحفظ لاءِ ڪم ڪرڻ پڻ شامل آهي. ثقافتي ورثي جي حفاظت بابت گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري وابستگي 2012ع کان جاري آهي ۽ ان کي آهستي آهستي وڌايو پيو وڃي. ان سلسلي ۾ 2019ع ۾ [[يونيفل]] ۽ [[بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل]] جو لبنان ۾ [[يونيسڪو عالمي ورثو]] جي تحفظ لاءِ گڏيل مشن نمايان مثال آهي. فوجي ۽ شهري ماهرن پاران مقامي آباديءَ سان گڏجي ثقافتي ورثي جو تحفظ ڪيترن ئي تڪراري علائقن ۾ مستقبل جي پرامن ۽ معاشي ترقيءَ جو بنياد بڻجي ٿو. بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل جي صدر [[ڪارل فون هيبسبرگ]]، اپريل 2019ع ۾ لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ [[يونيسڪو]] جي مشن دوران چيو: ''&quot;ثقافتي ورثو ڪنهن به علائقي ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جي سڃاڻپ جو حصو هوندو آهي. جيڪڏهن توهان انهن جي ثقافت تباهه ڪريو ٿا ته سندن سڃاڻپ به ختم ٿي وڃي ٿي. نتيجي ۾ ڪيترائي ماڻهو بي گهر ٿي وڃن ٿا، سندن مستقبل بابت اميدون ختم ٿي وڃن ٿيون ۽ هو آخرڪار پنهنجو وطن ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ٿين ٿا.&quot;''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Karl von Habsburg auf Mission im Libanon|date=April 28, 2019 |url=https://www.krone.at/1911689|language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Jyot Hosagrahar: ''Culture: at the heart of SDGs.'' UNESCO-Kurier, April-Juni 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rick Szostak: ''The Causes of Economic Growth: Interdisciplinary Perspectives.'' Springer Science &amp; Business Media, 2009, {{ISBN|9783540922827}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bundesheer.at/cms/artikel.php?ID=10118 &quot;Blue Helmet Forum 2019 - Protection of Cultural Heritage in Peace Operations&quot;, Austrian Armed Forces].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017nian-di-3qi/historic-resolution-protect-cultural-heritage|title=A historic resolution to protect cultural heritage, The UNESCO Courier}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/action-plan-to-preserve-heritage-sites-during-conflict|title=Action plan to preserve heritage sites during conflict|website=United Nations Peacekeeping}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''UNESCO Director-General calls for stronger cooperation for heritage protection at the Blue Shield International General Assembly.'' UNESCO, September 13, 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم رکڻ ===
{{See also|غير گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي فهرست|نيٽو امن قائم رکڻ|يورپي يونين جي فوجي ۽ شهري مشنن جي فهرست|آفريقي يونين جي فوجي مداخلتن جي فهرست}}

[[File:En-MFO1.JPG|thumb|right|1989ع ۾ [[مصر]] جي [[سنائي اپٻيٽ|سنائي]] واري علائقي جي [[ايل گوراح]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) جي غير گڏيل قومن واري امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن سان مقرر ڪيل ڪينيڊا جا [[CH135 ٽوئن هيوئي]] هيليڪاپٽر.]]

[[File:75Parad 04.jpg|thumb|[[آذربائيجان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جا ميمبر، [[2020 ماسڪو فتح پريڊ]] دوران مڪمل فوجي ورديءَ ۾.]]

سڀئي بين الاقوامي امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا سڌي طرح گڏيل قومن جي ڪنٽرول هيٺ ڪم نٿا ڪن. 1981ع ۾ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ [[مصر]] جي وچ ۾ ٿيل هڪ معاهدي تحت [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) قائم ڪئي وئي، جيڪا اڄ تائين [[سنائي اپٻيٽ]] ۾ امن معاهدي تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;10TAGpgA-1&quot;&gt;10 Tactical Air Group: ''Canadian Contingent Multinational Force and Observers Handbook'' (unclassified), page A-1. DND, Ottawa, 1986.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[آفريقي يونين]] (AU) آفريقي امن ۽ سلامتي جو اهڙو ڍانچو (آفريڪن پيس اينڊ سڪيورٽي آرڪيٽيڪچر) قائم ڪرڻ تي ڪم ڪري رهي آهي، جيڪو براعظم ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري نڀائي سگهي. جيڪڏهن ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ [[نسل ڪشي]] يا انساني حقن جون ٻيون سنگين ڀڃڪڙيون ٿين، ته آفريقي يونين جي جنرل اسيمبلي جي منظوري سان، ان ملڪ جي حڪومت جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن موڪلي سگهجي ٿو. هن نظام، جنهن ۾ [[آفريقي اسٽينڊ بائي فورس]] (ASF) پڻ شامل آهي، جي قيام جو منصوبو 2015ع کان اڳ نه هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/african-peace-and-security-architecture-already-proving-useful-even-though-it-still-work |title=The African Peace and Security Architecture is already proving useful even though it is still work in progress |publisher=dandc.eu |date=August 27, 2013 |access-date=November 14, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

علائقائي سطح تي [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري]] (ECOWAS) پنهنجي ڪجهه ميمبر ملڪن ۾ ڪيترائي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا آهن، ۽ ان کي &quot;آفريڪا جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ ترقي يافته علائقائي امن ۽ سلامتي وارو نظام&quot; قرار ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Oni|first1=Cyril I.|date=2009|journal=African Security|volume=2|pages=119–135|doi=10.1080/19362200903361945|title=Economic Community of West African States on the Ground: Comparing Peacekeeping in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea Bissau, and Côte D'Ivoire|issue=2–3|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''غير هٿياربند شهري امن قائم رکڻ''' (ان آرمڊ سويلين پيس ڪيپنگ، UCP) ۾ شهري عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو تڪراري علائقن ۾ شهرين کي تشدد کان بچائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن جي قيام جي ڪوششن جي سهائتا لاءِ غير تشدد، غير مداخلت ۽ غير جانبداريءَ تي ٻڌل حڪمت عمليون اختيار ڪندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ UCP جو اصطلاح سڀني غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) ۾ هڪجهڙو عام نه آهي، پر ڪيترائي ادارا ساڳين طريقن سان ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ امن بابت هڪجهڙا مقصد رکندا آهن. انهن طريقن ۾ متاثر ماڻهن سان گڏ رهڻ، مستقل موجودگي، افواهن تي ضابطو آڻڻ، برادريءَ جي سلامتي بابت گڏجاڻيون، محفوظ لنگهن جو بندوبست ڪرڻ ۽ نگراني ڪرڻ شامل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rachel|first1=Julian|last2=Schweitzer|first2=Christine|date=2015|title=The Origins And Development of Unarmed Civilian Peacekeeping|url=http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|journal=Peace Review|volume=27|issue=1|pages=1–8|doi=10.1080/10402659.2015.1000181|s2cid=144911738|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719124249/http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|archive-date=July 19, 2018|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== مختصر تاريخ ==
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي تاريخ}}

=== قيام ۽ شروعاتي سال ===

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري نظام جي شروعات 1948ع ۾ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] [[1948ع جي عرب-اسرائيل جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ ان جي عرب پاڙيسري ملڪن وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي واري معاهدي جي نگراني لاءِ وچ اوڀر ۾ گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن کي مقرر ڪرڻ جي منظوري ڏني. هن مشن کي [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) سڏيو ويو، جيڪو اڄ تائين جاري آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/history.shtml|title=History of Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آگسٽ 1949ع ۾ سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 73 (1949ع) منظور ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNTSO کي اسرائيل ۽ انهن عرب رياستن جي وچ ۾ ٿيل چئن جنگبندي معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني جي ذميواري ڏني وئي، جيڪي ان جنگ ۾ شامل هيون. نتيجي طور، UNTSO جون سرگرميون علائقي جي پنجن رياستن، يعني [[اسرائيل]]، [[مصر]]، [[اردن]]، [[لبنان]] ۽ [[شام]] تائين ڦهلجي ويون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/untso/background.shtml|title=UNTSO Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== سرد جنگ دوران امن قائم رکڻ ===

آگسٽ 1947ع ۾ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] جي آزادي ۽ ان کان پوءِ ٿيل وڏي پيماني تي خونريزيءَ کان پوءِ، سلامتي ڪائونسل جنوري 1948ع ۾ قرارداد 39 (1948ع) منظور ڪري [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP) قائم ڪيو، جنهن جو مقصد [[ڪشمير]] بابت ٻنهي ملڪن جي وچ ۾ پيدا ٿيل تڪرار ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل ويڙهه ۾ ثالثي ڪرڻ هو.

هي مشن غير مداخلتي نوعيت جو هو ۽ ان کي [[ڄمون ۽ ڪشمير]] ۾ ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان جي وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي جي نگراني جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي. جولاءِ 1949ع ۾ [[ڪراچي معاهدو]] ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNCIP جنگبندي واري لڪير جي نگراني شروع ڪئي، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن ۽ ٻنهي ڌرين جي مقامي فوجي ڪمانڊرن جي گڏيل نگراني هيٺ هئي. هن مشن جو تسلسل اڄ به [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان ۾ گڏيل قومن جو فوجي مبصر گروپ]] (UNMOGIP) جي نالي سان جاري آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unmogip/background.shtml|title=UNMOGIP Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف ملڪن ۾ ڪُل 69 امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي منظوري ڏني.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;/&gt; انهن مان گهڻا مشن سرد جنگ جي خاتمي کان پوءِ قائم ٿيا. 1988ع کان 1998ع جي وچ ۾ گڏيل قومن 35 نوان امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا، جڏهن ته 1948ع کان 1978ع تائين صرف 13 مشن قائم ٿيا هئا، ۽ 1978ع کان 1988ع جي وچ واري ڏهاڪي دوران ڪو به نئون مشن قائم نه ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Duffey|first=Tamara|date=2000|title=Cultural Issues in Contemporary Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=7|issue=1|pages=142–168|doi=10.1080/13533310008413823|s2cid=145210823}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|142–168}}

گڏيل قومن جي پهرين هٿياربند مداخلت 1956ع جي [[سوئيز بحران]] کان پوءِ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I) قائم ڪئي وئي. هي فوج نومبر 1956ع کان جون 1967ع تائين موجود رهي ۽ ان کي [[مصر]]، [[برطانيه]]، [[فرانس]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] جي وچ ۾ جنگبندي برقرار رکڻ، مصري علائقي مان برطانوي، فرينچ ۽ اسرائيلي فوجن جي واپسي جي نگراني ڪرڻ، ۽ پوءِ مصر ۽ اسرائيل جي فوجن جي وچ ۾ بفر فورس طور ڪم ڪندي جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ جو مينڊيٽ ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unef1mandate.html|title=UNEF Mandate|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان ٿوري ئي عرصي بعد 1960ع ۾ [[ڪانگو ۾ گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUC) شروع ڪيو ويو. پنهنجي عروج تي هن مشن ۾ ويهه هزار کان وڌيڪ فوجي اهلڪار شامل هئا، ۽ ان دوران 250 گڏيل قومن جا اهلڪار مارجي ويا، جن ۾ ان وقت جو سيڪريٽري جنرل [[ڊيگ هيملشولڊ]] پڻ شامل هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/early.shtml|title=The Early Years of UN Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ONUC جو مقصد [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] مان بيلجيم جي فوجن جي واپسي کي يقيني بڻائڻ هو، جيڪي [[فورس پبليڪ]] جي بغاوت کان پوءِ بيلجيم جي شهرين ۽ اقتصادي مفادن جي تحفظ لاءِ ٻيهر داخل ٿي ويون هيون. هن مشن کي قانون ۽ امن امان بحال ڪرڻ، بغاوت ۽ نسلي تشدد کي ختم ڪرڻ، ڪانگولي سلامتي فورسن کي فني مدد ۽ تربيت ڏيڻ، ۽ ملڪ جي علائقائي سالميت ۽ سياسي خودمختياري کي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/onuc.htm|title=ONUC|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي ذميواري خاص طور تي [[ڪتانگا]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪاسائي]] جهڙن معدني وسيلن سان مالامال صوبن جي علحدگيءَ واري تحريڪ جي پسمنظر ۾ شامل ڪئي وئي. ان دور ۾ گڏيل قومن جون فوجون، ڪجهه تڪراري انداز ۾، ڪانگو جي حڪومت جي مدد ڪندي ٻنهي صوبن جي علحدگي ختم ڪرائڻ ۾ به ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

1960ع ۽ 1970ع واري ڏهاڪن دوران گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف علائقن ۾ ڪيترائي مختصر مدي وارا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن قائم ڪيا، جن ۾ [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريه ۾ سيڪريٽري جنرل جي نمائندي جو مشن]] (DOMREP)، [[اولهه نيو گني ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي فورس]] (UNSF) ۽ [[يمن ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مبصر مشن]] (UNYOM) شامل هئا. ساڳئي وقت ڪجهه ڊگهي مدي وارا مشن پڻ جاري رهيا، جهڙوڪ [[قبرص ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج]] (UNFICYP)، [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج II]] (UNEF II)، [[گڏيل قومن جي ڌرين جي الڳ ٿيڻ جي نگراني ڪندڙ فوج]] (UNDOF)، ۽ [[لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن جي عبوري فوج]] (UNIFIL).&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;/&gt;

=== 1991ع کان پوءِ ===

[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-un-holds-head.jpg|thumb|[[سراييوو جو گهيرو|سراييوو جي گهيري]] (1992ع–1993ع) دوران هڪ [[ناروي]] جو امن قائم رکڻ وارو اهلڪار؛ تصوير: [[ميخائل اِوستافيئف]].]]

[[يوگوسلاو جنگين]] دوران امن قائم رکڻ جي تجربن، خاص طور تي [[سربرينيتسا قتلِ عام]] جهڙين ناڪامين، جزوي طور [[گڏيل قومن جي امن تعمير ڪميشن]] (يونائيٽيڊ نيشنز پيس بلڊنگ ڪميشن) جي قيام جو سبب بڻيا. هي ڪميشن چونڊن ۽ ٻين شهري ادارن جي مضبوطي جهڙين سرگرمين وسيلي پائيدار امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ انجام ڏيندا آهن. هن وقت اها ڪميشن آفريڪا جي ڇهن ملڪن سان ڪم ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/projects/africa/beyond-peace-deals-united-nations-experiment-peacebuilding |title=Beyond Peace Deals: The United Nations Experiment in &quot;Peacebuilding&quot;|date=June 22, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ڳالهين سان گڏ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، ۾ عورتن جي وڌيڪ مؤثر شرڪت، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهرن جي مقرري، هٿياربند تڪرارن جا عورتن تي پوندڙ اثرن بابت وڌيڪ معلومات، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |title=UN Security Council Takes a Historic Stand Supporting Abortion Access for Women Raped in War / Library / Homepage |publisher=AWID |access-date=October 28, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203101025/http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |archive-date=December 3, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن سان امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW)، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن بابت ڪميٽي آهي، هڪ عام سفارش جاري ڪئي، جنهن موجب اهي رياستون، جيڪي گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جون ڌريون آهن، پابند آهن ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌيءَ طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ فوجون موڪلين، يا تڪرارن جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مالي يا ٻئي قسم جي مدد فراهم ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=13885&amp;LangID=E|title=OHCHR -|website=www.ohchr.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪميٽي اهو پڻ واضح ڪيو ته اهڙين رياستن کي مناسب احتياط اختيار ڪرڻ گهرجي ته جيئن [[غير رياستي ڌريون]]، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي سلامتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ٿيندڙ ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

[[پيج فورٽنا]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي مقرري بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍيو ته ''&quot;امن قائم رکڻ رسد ۽ طلب جو معاملو آهي.&quot;'' رسد جي لحاظ کان سندس مشاهدو آهي ته سلامتي ڪائونسل جي مستقل ميمبرن مان ڪنهن هڪ جي ويجهن ملڪن ۾ هلندڙ گهرو ويڙهن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن مقرر ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن. جڏهن ته طلب جي لحاظ کان مختلف تحقيقون ظاهر ڪن ٿيون ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن گهڻو ڪري انهن ملڪن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن، جتي انهن جي ضرورت سڀ کان وڌيڪ هوندي آهي، يعني جتي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تمام گهڻو هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot; /&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي جوڙجڪ ==

=== اهي ملڪ جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺن ٿا ===
{{See also|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي تعداد موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Irish troops UNMIL.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|جولاءِ 2006ع ۾ [[لائبيريا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو مشن لائبيريا]] (UNMIL) سان مقرر آئرش فوجي گشت ڪندي.]]

[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] موجب، دنيا ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ ۾ مدد ڏيڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا سڀئي ميمبر ملڪ سلامتي ڪائونسل کي ضرورت موجب فوجي دستا ۽ ٻيون سهولتون فراهم ڪندا. 1948ع کان وٺي لڳ ڀڳ 130 ملڪن امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن لاءِ فوجي اهلڪار، شهري پوليس ۽ ٻيو عملو فراهم ڪيو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ 1948ع کان وٺي سڀني امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏيندڙ اهلڪارن جو مڪمل رڪارڊ موجود ناهي، پر اندازو آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي 71 مشنن ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه لک فوجين، پوليس اهلڪارن ۽ شهرين گڏيل قومن جي جهنڊي هيٺ خدمتون انجام ڏنيون آهن. سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين 122 ملڪ گڏيل طور لڳ ڀڳ 76,000 فوجي مبصر، پوليس اهلڪار ۽ فوجي مهيا ڪري رهيا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Troop and police contributors|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/troop-and-police-contributors|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

شرڪت ڪندڙ ملڪن جو تعداد گهڻو هجڻ باوجود، امن قائم رکڻ جو وڏو بار اڃا تائين [[ترقي پذير ملڪ|ترقي پذير ملڪن]] جي هڪ بنيادي گروهه تي آهي. آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي، پوليس ۽ فوجي ماهر موڪليندڙ ڏهه ملڪ [[بنگلاديش]] (6,447)، [[نيپال]] (5,536)، [[ڀارت]] (5,481)، [[روانڊا]] (5,263)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (4,856)، [[پاڪستان]] (3,949)، [[مصر]] (2,818)، [[انڊونيشيا]] (2,818)، [[گهانا]] (2,296) ۽ [[چين]] (2,248) هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين 14,000 کان وڌيڪ شهري اهلڪار به امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ قانوني يا طبي ماهرن، استادن، مواصلاتي ٽيڪنالاجي جي ماهرن ۽ انتظامي عملي طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/civilians|title=Civilians|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

30 سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن دوران 100 کان وڌيڪ ملڪن سان تعلق رکندڙ 4,147 ماڻهو پنهنجون حياتيون وڃائي چڪا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/fatalities|title=Fatalities|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان وڌيڪ جاني نقصان [[ڀارت]] جو ٿيو، جنهن جا 174 امن اهلڪار مارجي ويا، ان کان پوءِ [[بنگلاديش]] (159)، [[پاڪستان]] (159)، [[نائيجيريا]] (157)، [[گهانا]] (145)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (138)، [[ڪينيڊا]] (123)، [[فرانس]] (115) ۽ [[برطانيه]] (106) شامل آهن. 1948ع کان وٺي سراسري طور هر سال 56 امن اهلڪار ماريا ويا، پر 2001ع کان پوءِ هي انگ لڳ ڀڳ ٻيڻو ٿي هر سال 110 تائين پهچي ويو. گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي پهرين 55 سالن دوران ٿيل ڪل جاني نقصان جو 30 سيڪڙو حصو صرف 1993ع کان 1995ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جي شعبي ۾ عالمي اتر ۽ عالمي ڏکڻ (Global North ۽ Global South) جي وچ ۾ واضح فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي وڏي اڪثريت [[عالمي ڏکڻ]] جي ترقي پذير ملڪن مان ايندي آهي. [[ٿامس جي. وائيس]] ۽ جيووانا ڪيولي موجب، ان جا ٽي اهم سبب علائقائي مفاد، بين الاقوامي وقار ۽ مالي فائدا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=February 3, 2019|title=The Global South and UN Peace Operations|url=https://www.e-ir.info/2019/02/03/the-global-south-and-un-peace-operations/|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=E-International Relations|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آفريقي ملڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا سڀ کان وڌيڪ اهلڪار فراهم ڪن ٿا، پر ساڳئي وقت آفريڪا ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جو تعداد به سڀ کان وڌيڪ آهي، ۽ گهڻا آفريقي امن اهلڪار آفريڪا جي اندر ئي مقرر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، ايٿوپيا جا لڳ ڀڳ سڀئي 4,800 امن اهلڪار پاڙيسري ملڪن [[سوڊان]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ مقرر هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺڻ سان ترقي پذير ملڪن کي بين الاقوامي وقار پڻ حاصل ٿيندو آهي، ۽ اهو [[عظيم طاقت]] طور پنهنجون دعوائون مضبوط ڪرڻ ۾ مددگار ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيئن [[برازيل]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جي صورت ۾ ڏٺو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، غريب ملڪن لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين کي موڪلڻ مالي لحاظ کان به فائديمند هوندو آهي. هر امن اهلڪار لاءِ ماهوار واپسيءَ جي رقم ۾ پگهار ۽ الائونس لاءِ 1,028 آمريڪي ڊالر، ماهرن لاءِ اضافي 303 آمريڪي ڊالر، ذاتي لباس، سامان ۽ اوزارن لاءِ 68 آمريڪي ڊالر، ۽ ذاتي هٿيار لاءِ 5 آمريڪي ڊالر شامل هوندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/faq/q10.htm|title=United Nations Peacekeepers - How are peacekeepers compensated?|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; گڏيل قومن طرفان فراهم ڪيل اهي ادائيگيون، تربيت ۽ سامان، انفرادي فوجين سان گڏ ترقي پذير ملڪن لاءِ به مالي طور پرڪشش هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ مقرر ڪيل فوجي ۽ شهري پوليس اهلڪارن مان لڳ ڀڳ 4.5 سيڪڙو [[يورپي يونين]] مان ايندا آهن، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو حصو هڪ سيڪڙو کان به گهٽ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;factsheet&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/overview.shtml |title=Peacekeeping Fact Sheet |publisher=United Nations|access-date=December 20, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

مشنن جي قيادت بابت عام طور تي فوجي ڪمانڊر انهن ملڪن مان چونڊيا ويندا آهن، جيڪي سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي دستا فراهم ڪندا آهن، جڏهن ته سيڪريٽري جنرل جا خاص نمائندا گهڻو ڪري ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Oksamytna |first1= Kseniya|last2= Bove |first2= Vincenzo|last3= Lundgren |first3= Magnus|date= 2021 |title=Leadership selection in United Nations peacekeeping |journal= International Studies Quarterly|volume= 65|pages= 16–28|doi= 10.1093/isq/sqaa023 |doi-access= free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت ===
{{See also|امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتون}}

[[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 1325]] عورتن کي تڪرارن جي روڪٿام ۽ حل، امن ڳالهين، امن جي تعمير، امن قائم رکڻ، انساني امداد ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ ۾ سرگرم ۽ برابر ڌر طور شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو پهريون اهم قدم هو. هن قرارداد ۾ زور ڏنو ويو ته امن ۽ سلامتي جي قيام ۽ واڌاري لاءِ ٿيندڙ سڀني ڪوششن ۾ عورتن جي برابر شرڪت ۽ مڪمل شموليت کي يقيني بڻايو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and the Advancement of Women. &quot;[http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/wps/#resolution Landmark resolution on Women, Peace and Security]&quot;, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Security Council (October 31, 2000) &quot;Resolution 1325&quot;, S/RES/1325, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;

هن قرارداد تي هڪ تنقيد اها به ڪئي وئي آهي ته ان ۾ صنفي مرڪزي ڌارا (جينڊر مين اسٽريمنگ) کي لاڳو ڪرڻ جي ڳالهه ڪئي وئي، پر عملي طور گهڻو ڌيان صرف عورتن جي شموليت وڌائڻ تي ڏنو ويو، جڏهن ته مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي تي پاليسين جي اثرن جو مناسب جائزو نه ورتو ويو. 2010ع ۾ هن قرارداد جي ڏهن سالن جي اثرن بابت هڪ جامع جائزو ورتو ويو، جنهن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ان تي عملدرآمد محدود حد تائين ڪامياب رهيو، خاص طور تي امن ڳالهين ۽ امن معاهدن ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت وڌائڻ جي حوالي سان، جڏهن ته جنسي ۽ صنفي بنياد تي تشدد گهٽائڻ جي ڪوششن باوجود اهو مسئلو برقرار رهيو.&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations and Department of Field Support (2010). &quot;Ten-year Impact Study on Implementation of UN Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) on Women, Peace and Security in Peacekeeping&quot;, United Nations, p. 9-10. https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/documents/10year_impact_study_1325.pdf.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Ghana IntPeaceCorps 2016-05-29 B002a.jpg|thumb|گھانا جون عورتون گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏينديون.]]

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهريت، هٿياربند تڪرارن جي عورتن تي اثرن بابت بهتر ڄاڻ، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي وڌيڪ سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ مؤثر قدمن تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;/&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن خلاف امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW) پڻ پنهنجي هڪ عام سفارش ۾ چيو ته جن رياستن گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جي توثيق ڪئي آهي، انهن تي لازم آهي ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌي طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا، تڪرار جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مدد فراهم ڪري رهيون هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

ڪميٽي وڌيڪ چيو ته توثيق ڪندڙ رياستن کي مناسب احتياط سان اهو به يقيني بڻائڻ گهرجي ته غير رياستي ڌريون، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي حفاظتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

جولاءِ 2016ع تائين عورتون گڏيل قومن جي هر امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن ۾ فوجي، پوليس يا شهري عملي جي حيثيت سان خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيون هيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/resources/statistics/gender.shtml|title=Gender statistics. United Nations Peacekeeping|website=www.un.org|access-date=September 6, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

1993ع ۾ مقرر ٿيل يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن مان رڳو 1 سيڪڙو عورتون هيون. 2020ع تائين لڳ ڀڳ 95,000 امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن مان عورتون فوجي عملي جو 4.8 سيڪڙو، پوليس عملي جو 10.9 سيڪڙو، ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عملي جو 34 سيڪڙو هيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Women in peacekeeping|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/women-peacekeeping|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين اهڙو ڪو به ملڪ، جيڪو گڏيل قومن لاءِ 100 کان وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار موڪلي ٿو، پنهنجي دستي ۾ 25 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ عورتون نامزد نه ڪندو هو. حقيقي انگن اکرن موجب سڀ کان وڏا عورتن جا دستا [[ايٿوپيا]] (578 عورتون، يعني ان جي ڪل دستي جو 12 سيڪڙو)، [[روانڊا]] (500، يعني 10 سيڪڙو) ۽ [[گهانا]] (389، يعني 17 سيڪڙو) طرفان فراهم ڪيا ويا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

جيتوڻيڪ فوجي عملي ۾ عورتن جي مقرر تناسب بابت گڏيل قومن ڪو لازمي هدف مقرر نه ڪيو آهي، پر ميمبر رياستن کان درخواست ڪئي وئي آهي ته اهي پوليس آفيسرن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 20 سيڪڙو ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 30 سيڪڙو عورتون نامزد ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot; /&gt;

2024ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجي دستن ۾ عورتن جو ڪل انگ گهٽجي ويو، پر انهن جو تناسب وڌيو. يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن ۾ صنفي برابري واري حڪمت عملي (يونيفارمڊ جينڊر پئرٽي اسٽريٽجي) شروع ٿيڻ کان پوءِ عورتن جو تناسب مسلسل وڌندو رهيو آهي. عورتن جي ڪل تعداد ۾ گهٽتائي جو وڏو سبب [[گڏيل قومن جو مالي ۾ ڪثيرالجہتي مربوط استحڪامي مشن]] (MINUSMA) جو خاتمو هو. جون 2024ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن ۾ مقرر فوجي عملي مان عورتن جو تناسب 8.6 سيڪڙو هو، جيڪو گذريل سال جي ڀيٽ ۾ 1.3 سيڪڙو وڌيڪ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pfeifer Cruz |first=Claudia |title=Women in Multilateral Peace Operations in 2024: What is the State of Play? |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241031064944/https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |archive-date=October 31, 2024 |date=October 2024 |doi=10.55163/VYHM5282 |doi-access=free |location=Stockholm |publisher=SIPRI}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ جو نظرياتي بنياد ==


جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ ۽ امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي ڪردار بابت گهڻو ڪجهه لکيو ويو آهي، پر اهڙي تجرباتي تحقيق نسبتاً گهٽ ٿي آهي، جيڪا اهو واضح ڪري سگهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول ۾ ڪهڙي نموني اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. [[ڪولمبيا يونيورسٽي]] جي پروفيسر [[ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا]] چار اهڙن سببن (ڪيئيوئل ميڪينزم) جي سڃاڻپ ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي، جن جي ذريعي امن قائم رکڻ وارا پائيدار امن لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices After Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|location=Princeton|pages=175}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا موجب اهي چار بنيادي طريقا هي آهن:

# تازن ويڙهاڪن جي ترغيبي عنصرن ۾ تبديلي آڻڻ، جيئن امن وڌيڪ فائديمند ۽ جنگ وڌيڪ مهانگي محسوس ٿئي.
# غير يقيني صورتحال ۽ خوف کي گهٽائڻ، جيڪي سلامتي جي مخمصي (سڪيورٽي ڊليما) کي وڌائين ٿا.
# حادثاتي واقعن يا بي ضابطه هٿياربند گروهن جي ڪاررواين کي روڪڻ يا ضابطي ۾ آڻڻ، جيڪي ٻيهر جنگ جو سبب بڻجي سگهن.
# ڪنهن هڪ ڌر (خاص طور حڪومت) طرفان سياسي زيادتين کي روڪڻ، جيڪي امن کان محروم ڌرين کي ٻيهر هٿيار کڻڻ تي مجبور ڪري سگهن.

فورٽنا جو دليل آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا امن جي عمل تي مثبت اثر ڇڏين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ انهن کي اڪثر اهڙن هنڌن تي موڪليو ويندو آهي، جتي امن قائم رکڻ سڀ کان وڌيڪ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. امن قائم رکڻ تي تنقيد ڪندڙ اڪثر چوندا آهن ته اهي مشن غير مؤثر يا غير ضروري آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن ويڙهاڪ ڌريون پاڻ امن برقرار رکڻ ۾ دلچسپي رکن ٿيون ته امن قائم رهندو. تنهن هوندي به، فورٽنا جو خيال آهي ته مٿي بيان ڪيل سبب ڏيکارين ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا پائيدار امن کي يقيني بڻائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، خاص طور تي انهن حالتن جي ڀيٽ ۾ جتي ويڙهاڪ ڌريون مڪمل طور پنهنجي حال تي ڇڏيل هجن. اهي سبب اهو به واضح ڪن ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ جي ضرورت ڇو آهي ۽ اهو تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول تي ڪيئن اثرانداز ٿي سگهي ٿو.

جنگ جي ترغيبن کي گهٽائڻ ۽ امن کي وڌيڪ پرڪشش بڻائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومون نفاذي اختيارن (انفورسمينٽ مينڊيٽ) تحت فوجي قوت مقرر ڪري سگهي ٿي، جيڪا امن خراب ڪندڙ ڌرين لاءِ روڪ جو سبب بڻجي. اهڙا دستا حالتن جي نگراني ڪري سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي اوچتي حملي جو امڪان گهٽجي وڃي ٿو يا اهڙو حملو ڪرڻ وڌيڪ ڏکيو ٿي وڃي ٿو. هلڪي هٿيارن سان ليس مشاهدي وارو مشن پڻ ابتدائي خبرداري واري قوت (ارلي-وارننگ فورس) يا &quot;ٽرپ وائر&quot; طور ڪم ڪري سگهي ٿو. بين الاقوامي برادري طرفان ڏني ويندڙ امداد ۽ سياسي سڃاڻپ کي به ان ڳالهه سان مشروط ڪيو وڃي ته ڌريون ڳالهين دوران طئي ٿيل شرطن تي عمل ڪن. ان سان گڏ، روزگار، عوامي ترقياتي منصوبن ۽ ٻين فائدن جي صورت ۾ &quot;امن جا فائدا&quot; (پيس ڊويڊينڊس) پڻ فراهم ڪيا وڃن.

غير يقيني صورتحال ۽ خوف کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري سگهن ٿا، ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رابطي کي آسان بڻائي سگهن ٿا ته جيئن سلامتي بابت خدشا گهٽجن، ۽ هر ڌر کي اها خاطري ملي ته ٻي ڌر پنهنجن واعدن کان نه ڦرندي. اهڙي طرح اهي ٻنهي ڌرين کي پنهنجي امن پسند ارادن کي واضح ۽ قابل اعتماد نموني ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ مؤثر ذريعو مهيا ڪن ٿا.

امن جي عمل کي پٽڙي تان لاهي ڇڏيندڙ حادثن يا بي ضابطه گروهن جي ڪاررواين کي روڪڻ لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهڙن گروهن کي روڪي سگهن ٿا. ويڙهاڪ قوتون اڪثر مضبوط قيادت ۽ [[حڪم ۽ ضابطي]] (ڪمانڊ اينڊ ڪنٽرول) کان محروم هونديون آهن، تنهنڪري امن ڳالهين دوران ڪنهن بي ضابطه گروهه جي معاهدي کان انڪار ڪرڻ يا امن جي عمل کي ناڪام بڻائڻ جو خطرو موجود هوندو آهي. گڏيل قومن جا دستا اهڙين حالتن کي روڪڻ سان گڏ ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ثالثي ۽ رابطي کي پڻ آسان بڻائي سگهن ٿا ۽ سياسي اعتدال پسند قوتن کي اڳتي آڻي سگهن ٿا. قانون ۽ امن امان برقرار رکندي اهي عارضي طور رياستي حفاظتي ادارن جي ذميواري سنڀالي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي مبينا ڀڃڪڙي تي غيرجانبدار رويو اختيار ڪيو وڃي ۽ تشدد جي ٻيهر شروعات کان بچي سگهجي.

سياسي زيادتين جي روڪٿام لاءِ حڪومت سان لاڳاپيل ادارن ۾ سڌارا آندا وڃن ٿا. فوج ۽ پوليس جهڙن حفاظتي ادارن کي تربيت ڏيڻ ۽ انهن جي نگراني ڪرڻ سان کين حڪمرانن جي دٻاءَ جو اوزار بڻجڻ بدران عوام جا غيرجانبدار محافظ بڻائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. اهڙي تربيت عوام جو اعتماد وڌائڻ ۾ مددگار ثابت ٿي سگهي ٿي. گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا آزاد ۽ منصفاڻي چونڊون ڪرائڻ ۽ انهن جي نگراني پڻ ڪري سگهن ٿا. ڪجهه حالتن ۾ گڏيل قومون عبوري دور دوران غيرجانبدار عبوري حڪومت پڻ قائم ڪري سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ملڪ جو انتظام سنڀالي، جڏهن ته سرڪاري ادارن کي ٻيهر منظم، سڌاريو يا وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪيو وڃي. ان کان سواءِ هٿياربند باغي گروهن کي هٿيار ڦٽا ڪرڻ، انهن کي سياسي تنظيمن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ ۽ پرامن جمهوري عمل وسيلي پنهنجا مطالبا پيش ڪرڻ لاءِ همٿايو وڃي ٿو. اهو خاص طور اهم آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي باغي گروهه حڪومت جي اهم مخالف قوت هوندا آهن، پر سياسي تنظيم طور مؤثر نموني ڪم ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت کان محروم هوندا آهن.

مختلف امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن مختلف سببن ۽ ضرورتن جي بنياد تي قائم ڪيا ويندا آهن. [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VII]] تحت هلندڙ مشنن ۾ فوجي روڪ ۽ نفاذ تي وڌيڪ زور هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VI]] تحت مشن بنيادي طور نگراني ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ غيرجانبدار موجودگي برقرار رکڻ لاءِ هوندا آهن. سياسي زيادتين جي روڪٿام لاءِ قائم ڪيل مشن گهڻ رخي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ واري سياسي عمل ۾ سرگرم ڪردار ادا ڪندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|chapter=4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي اثرائتي ==

علمي تحقيق جي جائزي مان مضبوط ثبوت مليا آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن امن جي استحڪام ۾ واڌارو آڻين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Walter|first1=Barbara F.|last2=Howard|first2=Lise Morje|last3=Fortna|first3=V. Page|date=2020|title=The Extraordinary Relationship between Peacekeeping and Peace|journal=British Journal of Political Science|volume=51|issue=4|language=en|pages=1705–1722|doi=10.1017/S000712342000023X|s2cid=229469021 |issn=0007-1234|doi-access=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hoeffler|first=Anke|date=March 11, 2014|title=Can international interventions secure the peace?|journal=International Area Studies Review|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=75–94|doi=10.1177/2233865914525380|s2cid=16303210|url=http://www.econrsa.org/node/700|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا]] موجب مضبوط ثبوت موجود آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي نمايان طور گهٽائي ٿي. امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين جو تعداد جيترو وڌيڪ هوندو، اوترا ئي جنگي محاذ تي مارجي ويل ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽ ٿيندو، ۽ عام شهرين جي جاني نقصان ۾ به گهٽتائي ايندي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://politicalviolenceataglance.org/2015/09/24/enough-with-the-pessimism-about-peacekeeping/|title=Enough with the Pessimism about Peacekeeping|date=September 24, 2015|website=Political Violence at a Glance|access-date=January 26, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[اپسالا يونيورسٽي]] ۽ [[اوسلو امن تحقيقاتي اداري]] جي سياسي سائنسدانن جي هڪ مطالعي موجب، جيڪڏهن گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري پاليسي کي وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪيو وڃي، امن قائم رکڻ وارن دستن جو تعداد ٻيڻو ڪيو وڃي ۽ انهن کي وڌيڪ وسيع اختيار ڏنا وڃن، ته هٿياربند تڪرارن جي عالمي شرح، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي غير موجودگي واري صورتحال جي ڀيٽ ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ٻه ٽيون حصو گهٽجي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Hegre|first1=Håvard|last2=Hultman|first2=Lisa|last3=Nygård|first3=Håvard Mokleiv|date=November 28, 2018|title=Evaluating the Conflict-Reducing Effect of UN Peacekeeping Operations|journal=The Journal of Politics|volume=81|language=en|pages=215–232|doi=10.1086/700203|s2cid=13894244|issn=0022-3816|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فورڊهم يونيورسٽي]] جي سياسي سائنسدان [[انجلي ديال]] موجب، تحقيق مان ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن جنگ کي سرحدن کان ٻاهر پکڙجڻ کان روڪين ٿا. زمين تي وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار هجڻ سان عام شهرين خلاف تشدد جا واقعا پڻ گهٽ ٿيندا آهن، ۽ ڪيترين حالتن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ڪاميابي سان عبوري انتظاميا جو ڪردار ادا ڪندي اقتدار ٻيهر مقامي اختيارين حوالي ڪيو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ هاڻي اهڙو عمل اڳ جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ڏسڻ ۾ اچي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/02/01/is-u-n-peacekeeping-under-fire-heres-what-you-need-to-know/|title=Is U.N. peacekeeping under fire? Here's what you need to know.|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=February 1, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2018ع جي هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پنهنجي سر به گهرو ويڙهه جي شدت کي گهٽائين ٿا، پر جڏهن انهن کي ثالثي سان گڏ استعمال ڪيو وڃي ٿو ته انهن جو اثر وڌيڪ نمايان ٿي وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Mediation, Peacekeeping, and the Severity of Civil War|journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution|volume=63|issue=7|pages=1682–1709|language=en|doi=10.1177/0022002718817092|year=2018|last1=Beardsley|first1=Kyle|last2=Cunningham|first2=David E.|last3=White|first3=Peter B.|s2cid=202164361}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهڙا به ثبوت موجود آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا موڪلڻ جو واعدو ئي ويڙهاڪ ڌرين کي ڳالهين جي ميز تي آڻڻ ۽ جنگبندي تي راضي ٿيڻ جا امڪان وڌائي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lundgren|first=Magnus|year=2016|title=Which international organizations can settle civil wars?|journal=Review of International Organizations|volume=DOI 10.1007/s11558-016-9253-0|issue=4|pages=613–641|doi=10.1007/s11558-016-9253-0|s2cid=152898046}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي شمارياتي تحقيق ۾ انهن عنصرن کي به نظر ۾ رکيو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ڪٿي مقرر ڪيا وڃن ۽ ڪٿي امن قائم ٿيڻ جا امڪان ڪيترا آهن. هن جي نتيجن موجب، امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ۽ پائيدار امن جي وچ ۾ شمارياتي طور اهم لاڳاپو موجود آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن عام طور تي انهن علائقن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن جتي امن قائم ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن، فورٽنا جو اندازو آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 55 کان 60 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽائي ٿي، جڏهن ته ڪجهه وڌيڪ پراميد اندازن موجب اها گهٽتائي 75 کان 85 سيڪڙو تائين ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 116&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=116}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا جي تجزيي موجب [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VI]] تحت رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل مشنن ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VII]] تحت نفاذي مشنن جي اثرائتي ۾ گهڻو فرق نظر نٿو اچي. البته نفاذي مشن تڏهن ئي اثرائتا ثابت ٿين ٿا، جڏهن امن قائم رکڻ واري قوت طاقت جي استعمال بابت پنهنجي اعتبار ۽ صلاحيت برقرار رکي سگهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=109, 116, 125}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهو ان ڳالهه جي اهميت کي اجاگر ڪري ٿو ته گڏيل قومن جا مشن مقامي ڌرين جي رضامندي برقرار رکن. مجموعي طور فورٽنا جو نتيجو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ويڙهاڪ ڌريون مڪمل طور پنهنجي حال تي نه ڇڏيون وڃن، ته امن قائم رکڻ پائيدار امن کي يقيني بڻائڻ جو هڪ مؤثر اوزار آهي. هن اڳ بيان ڪيل سببن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول ۾ امن جي استحڪام تي نمايان اثر وجهي سگهن ٿا. فورٽنا ۽ [[ليز مورجي هاورڊ]] جو چوڻ آهي ته هاڻي تحقيق جو ڌيان امن قائم رکڻ جي بنيادي اثرائتي کان اڳتي وڌي، مختلف قسمن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن، عبوري انتظاميائن، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ جمهوريت جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن، ۽ انهن ماڻهن جي نظرين ڏانهن منتقل ٿي رهيو آهي، جن جي لاءِ امن قائم رکيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Pitfalls and Prospects in the Peacekeeping Literature*|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|volume=11|pages=283–301|last1=Fortna|first1=Virginia Page|last2=Howard|first2=Lise Morjé|date=May 20, 2008|language=en|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.9.041205.103022|s2cid=15740415|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[مائيڪل ڊبليو ڊائل]] ۽ [[نيڪولس سامبانس]] جي تجزيي موجب، انهن ملڪن ۾، جتي نسلي بنيادن تي جنگ نه هجي، معاشي ترقي جو سطح نسبتاً بهتر هجي ۽ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا ۽ مالي امداد موجود هجن، اتي پائيدار امن قائم رهڻ جا امڪان وڌيڪ هوندا آهن. انهن جو نتيجو آهي ته مختصر مدي ۾ پائيدار امن جو دارومدار گڏيل قومن جي مضبوط موجودگي ۽ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ گهٽ دشمني تي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ڊگهي مدي ۾ معاشي صلاحيت وڌيڪ اهم عنصر بڻجي ويندي آهي ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ دشمني جي شدت نسبتاً گهٽ اهم رهندي آهي. سندن خيال ۾، جيتوڻيڪ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ڪافي حد تائين ڪامياب رهيا آهن، پر اهي مداخلت هيٺ آيل ملڪن ۾ خودمختيار معاشي ترقي کي ڪافي حد تائين هٿي نه ڏئي سگهيا آهن. تنهنڪري گڏيل قومون امن برقرار رکڻ ۾ هڪ مضبوط پر اڻ سڌو ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿيون، جڏهن ته پائيدار امن جو اصل دارومدار اهڙن ادارن جي قيام تي هوندو آهي، جيڪي امن کي ڊگهي عرصي تائين برقرار رکي سگهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Making War and Building Peace : United Nations Peace Operations|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2010|pages=336–337}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ٻين علمي تحقيقن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي ڪاميابيءَ بابت مختلف نتيجا سامهون آيا آهن، جن موجب انهن جي ڪاميابيءَ جي شرح تقريباً 31 سيڪڙو کان 85 سيڪڙو تائين رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Autesserre|first1=Severine|title=Peaceland: Conflict Resolution and the Everyday Politics of International Intervention|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2020ع جي هڪ مطالعي موجب، گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر هلندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن به اثرائتي جي لحاظ کان گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جيترا ئي مؤثر آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Bara|first1=Corinne|last2=Hultman|first2=Lisa|date=March 20, 2020|title=Just Different Hats? Comparing UN and Non-UN Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=27|issue=3|pages=341–368|doi=10.1080/13533312.2020.1737023|issn=1353-3312|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; ساڳئي سال شايع ٿيل هڪ ٻي تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن عام شهرين جي تحفظ ۾ به ڪامياب رهيا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Carnegie|first1=Allison|last2=Mikulaschek|first2=Christoph|date=2020|title=The Promise of Peacekeeping: Protecting Civilians in Civil Wars|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-organization/article/promise-of-peacekeeping-protecting-civilians-in-civil-wars/2BA3A91C26CF29480409B1FFB64F7E40|journal=International Organization|volume=74|issue=4|language=en|pages=810–832|doi=10.1017/S0020818320000442|s2cid=232253107|issn=0020-8183|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2021ع ۾ ''[[آمريڪن جرنل آف پوليٽيڪل سائنس]]'' ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن مقامي معيشت تي مثبت اثر وڌو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Bove|first1=Vincenzo|last2=Salvatore|first2=Jessica Di|last3=Elia|first3=Leandro|date=2021|title=UN Peacekeeping and Households' Well-Being in Civil Wars|journal=American Journal of Political Science|volume=66|issue=2|pages=402–417|language=en|doi=10.1111/ajps.12644|issn=1540-5907|doi-access=free|hdl=10281/458537|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== پائيدار امن تي اثرانداز ٿيندڙ عنصر ===

ڪيترائي عنصر پائيدار امن تي منفي اثر وجهي سگهن ٿا. انهن ۾ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي حقيقي فوجي طاقت بابت لڪل معلومات، باغي گروهن جي هيرن، ٻين معدنيات يا غيرقانوني واپار وسيلي مالي وسيلا حاصل ڪرڻ، منشيات، هٿيارن ۽ انساني اسمگلنگ ۾ سندن شموليت، ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي فوجي فتح يا شڪست، جنگ جو عرصو ۽ ان جي قيمت، ٻنهي ڌرين کي درپيش واعدن تي عملدرآمد جا مسئلا (ڪمٽمينٽ پرابلم) ۽ سلامتي جو مخمصو (سڪيورٽي ڊليما)، جنگبندي يا امن معاهدي جي موجودگي، تڪرار ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ ڌرين جي ارادن ۽ ڪاررواين بابت شفافيت جي کوٽ، امن کي نقصان پهچائيندڙ انتهاپسند گروهه، اهڙا ڌر يا فرد جيڪي جنگ جاري رهڻ مان فائدو حاصل ڪن، ۽ اهڙا تڪراري مسئلا جيڪي ورهائي يا سمجهوتي ذريعي حل نٿا ٿي سگهن شامل آهن.

فورٽنا جي تحقيق موجب، پائيدار امن جو سڀ کان اهم شمارياتي عنصر اهو آهي ته ڇا جنگ ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي فوجي فتح تي ختم ٿي آهي يا نه. جيڪڏهن گهرو ويڙهه ۾ هڪ ڌر واضح فوجي فتح حاصل ڪري ۽ ان کان پوءِ جنگبندي يا صلح جو معاهدو ٿئي، ته ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تقريباً 85 کان 90 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽجي ويندو آهي. ان کان علاوه، رسمي امن معاهدا ٻيهر تڪرار جي خطري کي لڳ ڀڳ 60 کان 70 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 116&quot;/&gt;

جيڪڏهن ڪو هٿياربند گروهه منشيات، هيرن يا ٻين غيرقانوني واپاري ذريعن مان مالي مدد حاصل ڪري ٿو، ته ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان نمايان طور وڌي وڃن ٿا. فورٽنا موجب اهڙين حالتن ۾ جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو 100 کان 250 سيڪڙو تائين وڌي سگهي ٿو، يعني اهڙي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان عام حالتن جي ڀيٽ ۾ ٻه کان ساڍا ٽي ڀيرا وڌيڪ هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choice after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=117}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا جو خيال آهي ته جن جنگين ۾ ڪيترائي ڌر شامل هجن، اهي ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان نسبتاً گهٽ رکن ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; ان جي ابتڙ، [[مائيڪل ڊبليو ڊائل]] ۽ [[نيڪولس سامبانس]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ نتيجو ڪڍيو ته گهڻ ڌرين وارا تڪرار ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان وڌيڪ رکن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Making War and Building Peace : United Nations Peace Operations|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2010|pages=336}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڊگهي عرصي تائين هلندڙ جنگين ۽ سڃاڻپ يا قومي/نسلي بنيادن تي وڙهيل جنگين ۾ ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. بهرحال، ڊگهيون جنگيون ۽ اهي امن معاهدا جيڪي فوجي فتح کان پوءِ وجود ۾ اچن، عام طور تي مستقبل ۾ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽائين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=117–119}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪاررواين جا حصو وٺندڙ فوجن تي اثر ==

=== فوجي معمول تي آڻڻ ===

ڪجهه محققن جو خيال آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون فوج جي &quot;معمول تي آڻڻ&quot; (مليٽري نارملائيزيشن) کي اڳتي وڌائڻ جو هڪ ذريعو بڻجي سگهن ٿيون. مائيڪل ايڊورڊ والش ۽ جيريمي ٽيلر دليل ڏين ٿا ته [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ [[جاپان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون انهن حلقن لاءِ هڪ منفرد موقعو فراهم ڪن ٿيون، جيڪي جاپان جي فوجي ڪردار کي عام ۽ معمول مطابق بڻائڻ چاهين ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهڙي عمل سان ملڪ جي امن پسند آئين کي تدريجي طور ڪمزور ڪرڻ جو امڪان پيدا ٿئي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;nbr.org&quot;&gt;Jeremy Taylor and Michael Edward Walsh (January 7, 2014), ''[http://www.nbr.org/downloads/pdfs/psa/taylor-walsh_commentary_010714.pdf UN Operations in Africa Provide a Mechanism for Japan’s Military Normalization Agenda]'', {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303010649/http://www.nbr.org/downloads/pdfs/psa/taylor-walsh_commentary_010714.pdf |date=March 3, 2014 }}, retrieved February 7, 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;

سندن خيال موجب، بنيادي سياسي، قانوني ۽ سماجي سڌارن کان سواءِ جاپان جون امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون اهڙين سنگين حالتن کي منهن ڏيڻ لاءِ مڪمل طور تي تيار ناهن، جتي جان ليوا طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ ضروري بڻجي وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Edward Walsh and Jeremy Taylor (December 23, 2013), ''[http://africanarguments.org/2013/12/23/time-to-reconsider-the-japanese-peacekeeping-mission-in-south-sudan-by-michael-edward-walsh-jeremy-taylor/ Time to Reconsider the Japanese Peacekeeping Mission in South Sudan]'', retrieved February 7, 2014.&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن ڪري، اهي دليل ڏين ٿا ته گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين ۾ جاپان جي مسلسل شرڪت آخرڪار اهڙين پاليسي تبديلين جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿي، جن کان پوءِ جاپان جي فوج کي معمول مطابق فوجي حيثيت ڏيڻ ئي واحد ممڪن نتيجو رهجي وڃي.&lt;ref name=&quot;nbr.org&quot;/&gt;

=== فوج موڪليندڙ ملڪن تي سياسي اثر ===

[[ڊيانا ميور ايپل بام]] خدشو ظاهر ڪيو آهي ته [[فجي]] ۾ عالمي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين لاءِ فوج تيار ڪرڻ جي نتيجي ۾ فوج ايتري طاقتور بڻجي وئي، جو هن 1987ع، 1999–2000ع، 2006ع ۽ 2009ع ۾ چار فوجي بغاوتون ڪيون ۽ ويهن سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين فجي تي فوجي آمريت قائم رکي.&lt;ref&gt;Appelbaum, Diana Muir (August 27, 2012), ''[http://www.jewishideasdaily.com/4867/features/how-the-sinai-peacekeeping-force-staged-a-military-coup-in-fiji/ How the Sinai Peacekeeping Force Staged a Military Coup in Fiji]'', retrieved September 7, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt;

بهرحال، ''جرنل آف پيس ريسرچ'' ۾ 2018ع ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ مطالعي موجب، اهي ملڪ جن جون فوجون گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين مان حاصل ٿيندڙ مالي وسيلن تي وڌيڪ ڀاڙين ٿيون، انهن ۾ فوجي بغاوتن جا امڪان انهن ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهڙن مالي وسيلن تي گهٽ ڀاڙين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lundgren|first=Magnus|date=2018|title=Backdoor peacekeeping: Does participation in UN peacekeeping reduce coups at home?|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume=55|issue=4|pages=508–523|doi=10.1177/0022343317747668|s2cid=116168984}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ وارن فردن تي اثر ===

[[File:UNAMIR Blue Berets memorial Kigali (4).jpg|thumb|[[روانڊا]] جي شهر [[ڪيگالي]] ۾ [[يو اين اي ايم آء آر]] (UNAMIR) جي ڏهن بيلجيمي امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي يادگار، جيڪي 1994ع ۾ هوتو نيم فوجي گروهن هٿان مارجي ويا.]]

امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين بابت ٿيل تحقيق مان معلوم ٿئي ٿو ته انهن تي مثبت ۽ منفي، ٻئي قسم جا اثر پون ٿا. بوسنيا ۾ مقرر آمريڪي فوج جي 951 سپاهين تي ٿيل هڪ مطالعي مطابق، 77 سيڪڙو فوجين مثبت اثرن جي نشاندهي ڪئي، 63 سيڪڙو منفي اثرن جو ذڪر ڪيو، جڏهن ته 47 سيڪڙو ٻنهي قسمن جي تجربن بابت ٻڌايو.&lt;ref&gt;Newby, John H., et al. &quot;Positive and negative consequences of a military deployment.&quot; ''Military Medicine'' (2005) 170#10 pp: 815-819.&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار گهڻو ڪري ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي حملن جي خطري ۽ اڻڄاتل موسمي حالتن کي منهن ڏيندا آهن. انهن سببن ڪري ذهني صحت جا مسئلا، خودڪشي جا واقعا ۽ منشيات جي استعمال جا خطرا وڌي سگهن ٿا. ڊگهي عرصي تائين ٻاهرين ملڪن ۾ مقرر رهڻ امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي خاندانن، خاص طور تي سندن ٻارن ۽ گهروارن، لاءِ پڻ ذهني دٻاءُ جو سبب بڻجي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1 = Fernandes Souza | first1 = Wanderson |display-authors=etal  | year = 2011 | title = Posttraumatic stress disorder in peacekeepers: a meta-analysis | journal = The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease | volume = 199 | issue = 5| pages = 309–312 | doi=10.1097/nmd.0b013e3182175180| pmid = 21543949 | s2cid = 28713512 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

هڪ ٻيو نقطه نظر اهو به آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون ذميواريون فوجين جي جنگي صلاحيتن کي ڪمزور ڪري سگهن ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ امن قائم رکڻ واري دستي جون ذميواريون مڪمل جنگ وڙهندڙ فوجي يونٽ کان ڪافي مختلف هونديون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20070926001502/http://www.usafa.af.mil/jscope/ISME2007/Papers/Prof%20Paulin%20Kaurin%20War%20Stories.doc Kaurin, P. M. (2007) War Stories: Narrative, Identity and (Recasting) Military Ethics Pedagogy. Pacific Lutheran University. ISME 2007. Retrieved 9-3-2007].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Liu, H. C. K., The war that could destroy both armies, ''Asia Times'', October 23, 2003. Retrieved March 9, 2007.&lt;/ref&gt;

== تنقيد ==

=== امن قائم رکڻ، انساني اسمگلنگ ۽ جبري جسم فروشي ===
{{Main|امن قائم رکڻ وارن پاران ٻارن سان جنسي زيادتي جو اسڪينڊل}}

1990ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن تي مختلف قسمن جي زيادتين جا ڪيترائي الزام لڳندا رهيا آهن، جن ۾ [[زنا بالجبر]]، [[جنسي زيادتي]]، [[ٻارن سان جنسي زيادتي]] ۽ [[انساني اسمگلنگ]] شامل آهن. اهڙيون شڪايتون [[ڪمبوڊيا]]، [[اوڀر تيمور]] ۽ [[اولهه آفريڪا]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علائقن مان سامهون آيون آهن.

[[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ اسمگل ٿيل عورتن سان لاڳاپيل جسم فروشي ۾ تيزي سان واڌ آئي، ۽ ڪيترائي اهڙا اڏا گڏيل قومن جي ڪئمپن جي ويجهو قائم ٿيا. بوسنيا ۾ 2000ع کان 2001ع تائين علائقائي انساني حقن جي آفيسر ڊيوڊ ليمب جو چوڻ هو ته، &quot;بوسنيا ۾ جنسي غلاميءَ جي واپار جو وڏو سبب گڏيل قومن جون امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون آهن. جيڪڏهن اهي فوجون نه هجن ها ته بوسنيا ۾ جبري جسم فروشي تمام گهٽ يا بلڪل نه هجي ها.&quot; ان کان علاوه، 2002ع ۾ [[آمريڪا جي ايوانِ نمائندگان]] ۾ ٿيل ٻڌڻي دوران اهو به سامهون آيو ته SFOR جا ڪجهه اهلڪار بوسنيا جي جسم فروشي جي مرڪزن تي ويندا هئا ۽ اسمگل ٿيل عورتن ۽ نابالغ ڇوڪرين سان جنسي لاڳاپا رکندا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Allred2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Allred|first=KJ|date=2006|title=Peacekeepers And Prostitutes: How Deployed Forces Fuel the Demand for Trafficked Women and New Hope for Stopping It|journal=Armed Forces &amp; Society|volume=33|issue=1|page=7|doi=10.1177/0095327X06288803|s2cid=71430076}}&lt;/ref&gt;

صحافين پڻ رپورٽ ڪيو ته گڏيل قومن يا، بوسنيا ۽ [[ڪوسوو]] جي صورت ۾، [[نيٽو]] جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي اچڻ کان پوءِ [[ڪمبوڊيا]]، [[موزمبيق]]، [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۽ [[ڪوسوو]] ۾ جسم فروشي ۾ تيزي سان اضافو ٿيو. 1996ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي رپورٽ ''دي امپيڪٽ آف آرمڊ ڪنفلڪٽ آن چلڊرين'' ۾ موزمبيق جي اڳوڻي خاتون اول [[گراسا ماچيل]] لکيو ته هن رپورٽ لاءِ تيار ڪيل 12 ملڪن مان 6 مطالعي ۾ هٿياربند تڪرارن دوران ٻارن جي جنسي استحصال ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي اچڻ کان پوءِ [[ٻارن جي جسم فروشي]] ۾ تيز واڌ ڏٺي وئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;unicef.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/graca/a51-306_en.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030316210918/http://www.unicef.org/graca/a51-306_en.pdf|url-status=dead|title=The Impact of Armed Conflict on Children|archive-date=March 16, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گيتا سهگل]] 2004ع ۾ چيو ته جتي به [[انساني همدرديءَ واري مداخلت]] يا امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون ٿين ٿيون، اتي جسم فروشي ۽ [[جنسي استحصال]] جا مسئلا به ظاهر ٿين ٿا. سندس خيال هو ته گڏيل قومن بابت بنيادي مسئلو اهو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون به ٻين فوجن وانگر ساڳين مسئلن ۾ ملوث ٿي سگهن ٿيون، تنهنڪري &quot;نگهبانن جي به نگراني ڪرڻي پوي ٿي&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.csmonitor.com/2004/1126/p06s02-wogi.html Sex charges haunt UN forces; In places like Congo and Kosovo, peacekeepers have been accused of abusing the people they're protecting,&quot;] ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'', November 26, 2004, accessed February 16, 2010.&lt;/ref&gt;

2006ع ۾ گڏيل قومن ۾ [[اردن]] جي مستقل نمائندي [[شهزادو زيد رعد زيد الحسين]] جي سربراهيءَ ۾ ٿيل جاچ جي نتيجي ۾ هڪ تفصيلي رپورٽ جاري ٿي، جنهن ۾ خاص طور تي [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] ۾ ٿيل جنسي استحصال جي ڪيترن ئي واقعن کي بيان ڪيو ويو. رپورٽ موجب، جنسي استحصال گهڻو ڪري جسم فروشي جي صورت ۾ ٿيندو هو، جتي جنسي لاڳاپن جي بدلي اوسطاً هڪ کان ٽي آمريڪي ڊالر ادا ڪيا ويندا هئا. ڪن حالتن ۾ عورتن کي کاڌي يا روزگار جو لالچ ڏئي جنسي لاڳاپن تي مجبور ڪيو ويندو هو، جڏهن ته ڪجهه نوجوان عورتن ٻڌايو ته کين زبردستي جنسي زيادتي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ڪجهه رقم يا کاڌو ڏنو ويندو هو ته جيئن اهو عمل رضامنديءَ وارو لڳي.&lt;ref&gt;al-Hussein, Prince Zeid Ra'ad Zeid. (2005) &quot;A Comprehensive Strategy to Eliminate Future Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations.&quot; Report to the UN Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations: 8.&lt;/ref&gt;

مئي کان سيپٽمبر 2004ع تائين جنسي استحصال جا 72 الزام سامهون آيا، جن مان 68 فوجي اهلڪارن ۽ 4 شهري عملي خلاف هئا. سال جي آخر تائين اهڙن الزامن جو انگ 105 تائين پهچي ويو. انهن مان 45 سيڪڙو الزام 18 سالن کان گهٽ عمر وارن سان جنسي لاڳاپن بابت هئا، جڏهن ته 31 سيڪڙو بالغ جسم فروش عورتن سان لاڳاپيل هئا. زنا بالجبر تقريباً 13 سيڪڙو ۽ جنسي زيادتي 5 سيڪڙو الزامن تي مشتمل هئي، جڏهن ته باقي 6 سيڪڙو ٻئي قسم جي جنسي استحصال سان واسطو رکندا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;al-Hussein, Prince Zeid Ra'ad Zeid. (2005) &quot;A Comprehensive Strategy to Eliminate Future Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations.&quot; Report to the UN Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations: 8-9.&lt;/ref&gt; گهڻا الزام [[پاڪستان]]، [[يوراگوئي]]، [[مراڪش]]، [[تيونس]]، [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] ۽ [[نيپال]] سان تعلق رکندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Allred2006&quot;/&gt;

[[يوراگوئي]] جي صدر [[خوسي موخيڪا]]، گڏيل قومن جي يوراگوئي فوجين تي 18 سالن جي هڪ هيٽي نوجوان سان مبينا زنا بالجبر جي واقعي تي [[هيٽي]] جي صدر [[ميشيل مارٽيلي]] کان معافي ورتي. مارٽيلي چيو ته &quot;هڪ نوجوان هيٽي شهري سان ٿيل اجتماعي زنا بالجبر کي بنا سزا نه ڇڏيو ويندو.&quot; واقعي ۾ ملوث هجڻ جي شڪ ۾ چار فوجين کي حراست ۾ ورتو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-haiti-uruguay-un-idUSTRE78603I20110907|title=Uruguay apologises over alleged rape by U.N. peacekeepers|newspaper=Reuters|access-date=October 23, 2014|date=September 7, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/Headlines/Article.aspx?id=236953|title=Uruguay to apologise over alleged rape by UN peacekeepers|date=September 21, 2010 |access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جولاءِ 2007ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي [[امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون کاتو]] (DPKO) [[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]] ۾ مقرر 734 مراڪشي فوجين جي پوري دستي کي الزام سامهون اچڻ کان پوءِ ڪئمپن تائين محدود ڪري ڇڏيو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن مان ڪجهه تي نابالغ ڇوڪرين سان جنسي زيادتي جا الزام هئا. ايندڙ سالن دوران گڏيل قومن جي [[گڏيل قومن جي اندروني نگراني جون خدمتون کاتو]] (OIOS) اهڙن 80 ڪيسن جي جاچ ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Simic|first=Olivera|title=Regulation of Sexual Conduct in UN Peacekeeping Operations |chapter=UN Peacekeeping Operations: The Emerging Problem of Sexual Exploitation |date=2012|pages=13–38|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-28484-7_2|isbn=978-3-642-28483-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ [[مرڪزي آفريقي جمهوريه]] ۾ ڪم ڪندڙ [[فرانس]]، [[گيبون]] ۽ [[برونڊي]] جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف پڻ الزام لڳا. انهن ۾ [[ڪيمو صوبو|ڪيمو صوبي]] ۾ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 108 ماڻهن سان جنسي استحصال ۽ جنسي زيادتي جا الزام شامل هئا، جن مان اڪثريت نابالغ هئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/01/world/africa/un-peacekeeping-hit-by-new-allegations-of-sickening-sex-abuse.html?_r=0|title=U.N. Peacekeeping Hit By New Allegations of 'Sickening' Sex Abuse|last=Gladstone|first=Rick|date=2016|access-date=April 17, 2016|newspaper=The New York Times}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2016ع ۾ [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] جي اوڀر واري [[اتر ڪيئو]] صوبي ۾ مقرر امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف به نوان الزام لڳا. [[تنزانيا]] ۽ گڏيل قومن گڏيل جاچ شروع ڪئي، جنهن ۾ تنزاني فوجين تي جنسي استحصال جا 18 الزام شامل هئا، جن مان اٺ نابالغن سان لاڳاپيل هئا. انهن الزامن ۾ 16 تنزاني، هڪ [[ملاوي]] ۽ هڪ ڏکڻ آفريقي فوجي جو نالو آيو. گڏيل قومن مارچ 2016ع ۾ ٻڌايو ته جنسي استحصال بابت الزامن ۾ نمايان واڌ ٿي آهي، جنهن ۾ 21 ملڪن جا فوجي شامل هئا. انهن مان گهڻا الزام آفريقي ملڪن جهڙوڪ [[ڪيمرون]]، [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]]، [[تنزانيا]]، [[بينن]]، [[برڪينا فاسو]]، [[برونڊي]]، [[گھانا]]، [[مڊگاسڪر]]، [[نائيجر]]، [[نائيجيريا]]، [[روانڊا]]، [[سينيگال]] ۽ [[ٽوگو]] سان تعلق رکندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/probe-opens-un-troops-alleged-sex-abuse-dr-155023758.html|title=Probe Opens into UN Troops' Alleged Sex Abuse in DR Congo|date=2016|access-date=April 17, 2016|via=Yahoo News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:امن]]
[[زمرو:تنظيمون]]
[[زمرو:گڏيل قومون]]
[[زمرو:عالمي سياست]]
[[زمرو:بين الاقوامي لاڳاپا]]</text>
      <sha1>4zjh0mrx8z4pd4e18j53vvmvr1ds5az</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399329</id>
      <parentid>399328</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T21:55:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399329</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="106467" sha1="32flyrzcj3hv51kuiqz6irkxbrzqyln" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|دائمي امن لاءِ سازگار حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ خاطر ڪيل سرگرميون}}


[[File:Italian Soldier UNIFIL 2 Lebanon 2007.jpg|thumb|[[اطالوي فوج]] جو هڪ [[سپاهي]] لبنان ۾ [[يونيفل]] مشن دوران پهرو ڏئي رهيو آهي.]]

'''امن قائم رکندڙ فوج''' (Peacekeeping Force) انهن سرگرمين، خاص طور فوجي سرگرمين،&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Peacekeeping&quot;. Oxford Languages. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جن جو مقصد اهڙيون حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ هوندو آهي جيڪي پائيدار [[امن]] جي قيام لاءِ سازگار هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/|title=United Nations Peacekeeping|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; تحقيق مان عام طور اهو ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون [[شهري جاني نقصان|شهري]] ۽ جنگي ميدان ۾ ٿيندڙ جاني نقصان کي گهٽائين ٿيون ۽ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي پڻ گهٽائين ٿيون.

[[گڏيل قومون]] (UN) ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل [[قومي رياست]]ن جي حڪومتن ۽ [[تنظيم]]ن جي وچ ۾ عام طور اهو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو ته عالمي سطح تي امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا جنگ کان پوءِ وارن علائقن ۾ امن جي عمل جي نگراني ۽ مشاهدو ڪندا آهن، ۽ اڳوڻن ويڙهاڪن کي انهن امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ ۾ مدد ڏيندا آهن، جن جا هو پابند بڻيل هوندا آهن. اهڙي مدد ڪيترين ئي صورتن ۾ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ اعتماد سازي جا قدم، اقتدار جي ورهاست جا انتظام، چونڊن ۾ مدد، [[قانون جي حڪمراني]] کي مضبوط بڻائڻ، ۽ معاشي ۽ سماجي ترقي کي هٿي ڏيڻ. ان ڪري [[گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا]] (جن کي سندن هلڪي نيري [[بيريٽ]] يا هيلمٽ سبب اڪثر '''نيري بيريٽ''' يا '''نيرا هيلمٽ''' چيو ويندو آهي) ۾ فوجي، [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس آفيسر]] ۽ شهري عملي جا ميمبر شامل ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dpko/ |title=Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dfs/ |title=Department of Field Support (DFS) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جا مشن هلائيندڙ واحد تنظيم گڏيل قومون نه آهن. گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم ڪندڙ قوتن ۾ [[ڪوسوو فورس]] جي [[نيٽو]] مشن (گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان)، [[سينا ٻيٽ نما]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]]، ۽ [[يورپي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[EUFOR RCA]]، گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان) ۽ [[آفريقي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[سوڊان ۾ آفريقي يونين مشن]]) پاران منظم ڪيل امن مشن شامل آهن.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

[[بين الاقوامي قانون]] موجب، امن قائم ڪندڙ پنهنجي غيرجانبدار حيثيت سبب [[غير جنگجو]] (non-combatants) شمار ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي ٻن يا وڌيڪ [[جنگ ڪندڙ ڌر]]ن جي وچ ۾ تڪرار ۾ غيرجانبدار هوندا آهن (بلڪل اهڙيءَ طرح جيئن امن قائم رکڻ جي ذميوارين کان ٻاهر موجود غيرجانبدار ماڻهو ۽ ملڪيت). تنهنڪري انهن کي هر حال ۾ حملن کان تحفظ حاصل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule33 |title=Rule 33. Personnel and Objects Involved in a Peacekeeping Mission|publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]|access-date=April 7, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فائل:UN Soldiers in Eritrea.jpeg|thumb|right|upright=1.00|نيدرلينڊز جا ڊچ فوجي اقوام متحده جي امن جي قيام جي فورس ۾ ايٿوپيا ۽ ايريٽيريا جي سرحد تي گڏيل قومن پاران چوڪسي ڪندي]]

'''امن جي بحالي واري فوج'''{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي=Peace Keeping Force}}
ٻن ملڪن ياڌرين جي وچ ۾ ڪو به تڪرار ايترو زور وٺي وڃي، جو ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت کانسواءِ اهو ٽري نه سگهي، ته ٽين ڌر امن قائم ڪرڻ (Peace Keeping) لاءِ مُختلف اُپاءُ وٺندي آهي. ڪنهن به تڪرار جي حل لاءِ ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت جو مقصد ٻن ڌُرين ۾ رڳو صُلح ڪرائڻ هوندو آهي، جنهن لاءِ فوجي ۽ سُفارتي طريقا ڪتب آندا ويندا آهن. ان کان سواءِ گھُرج پوڻ تي ٽين ڌر (يا وچين ڌر) جهيڙو ڪندڙ ڌرين تي مُختلف قسمن جو دٻاءُ رکندي آهي، جيڪڏهن ڌريون پوءِ به جهيڙي کي نه ٿيون ختم ڪن، ته مٿانئن فوجي قدم کڻڻ لاءِ به اڳڀرائي ڪئي ويندي آهي. جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جو عالمي ادارو|گڏيل قومن]] جو ادارو قائم ڪيو ويو هيو ته ان وقت ٻي عالمي جنگ ختم ٿي هئي، پر ملڪن جا پاڻ ۾ تڪرار پوءِ به هلي رهيا هئا ۽ ”سرد جنگ“ به شروع ٿي چڪي هئي، دُنيا جي امن کي گهڻن قسمن جا خطرا پيدا ٿي چڪا هئا. 1950ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل بين الاقوامي جهيڙن کي پاسيرو ڪرڻ ۽ امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ”احتياطي سفارتڪاري“ (Preventive Diplomacy) جو اصطلاح اڳيان آندو هو. انهيءَ قسم جي حڪمت عملي ۾ ڪنهن به تڪرار کي رڳو ٺارڻ جو حل ڏنل هيو، پر جهيڙي کي مستقل طور ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪجهه واڌو قدم به گهربل هئا. انهيءَ ڪري اهڙي صورتحال ۾ اڳتي هلي ”مشن ڪريپ“ (Mission Creep) جو اصطلاح ڪتب آندو ويو، جنهن ۾ جهيڙي کي مڪمل طور ختم ڪرڻ جي تجويز ڏني وئي. انهيءَ حوالي سان 1956ع ۾ ڪئناڊا جي پرڏيهي معاملن جي وزير ۽ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”ڊگ هئمرشولڊ“ گڏيل قومن جي اداري جي پلئٽفارم تان ”امن قائم ڪرڻ واري فوج“ (Peace Keeping Force) قائم ڪئي، جنهن جي شعبا بندي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ان جي ورديءَ کانسواءِ خاص قسم جي ٽوپي به تيار ڪرائي وئي ۽ ان خاص ٽوپيءَ جو رنگ ”نيرو“ مقرر ڪيو ويو. ٽوپيءَ کي ٻين فوجي ٽوپين کان الڳ رنگ ڏيڻ جو مقصد، بين الاقوامي امن فوج جي انفراديت کي ظاهر ڪرڻ آهي. ان هوندي به ”امن فوج“ جي طريقيڪار ۽ اختيارن کي اڃا تائين چڱيءَ ريت گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر ۾ بيان نه ڪيو ويو آهي. گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر جي 6 ۽ 7 باب ۾، امن جي ڪوشش وٺڻ لاءِ جيڪي تفصيل بيان ڪيا ويا آهن، انهن سان امن جي بحاليءَ واري عمل کي به جوڙيو ويو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن جي بحاليءَ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي پڌرنامي جي روح مطابق جوڙجڪ ضروري آهي. انهن کوٽن جي باوجود، گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج، دُنيا ۾ امن ۽ صلح جي لاءِ گھڻن هنڌن مثال طور؛ ڪمبوڊيا، نميبيا، انگولا، لبنان، ايراني نار ۽ [[سوماليا|صوماليا]] وغيره ۾ ڪاميابيءَ سان پنهنجون ذميواريون پوريون ڪري چڪي آهي. امن فوج جي اهڙي اهميت کي محسوس ڪندي، گڏيل قومن جي اداري ڪيترن مُتاثر ملڪن جي داخلي معاملن ۾ به هن فوج جو استعمال مُناسب ۽ بهتر سمجهيو. منڍ ۾ اها فوج ٻن تڪراري ڌُر جي وچ ۾ هلندڙ جهيِڙو ٽارڻ لاءِ ڪتب آندي ويندي هئي، پر 1988ع کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جي اداري اهڙن ملڪن ۾ به کيس ذميواري سونپيون، جتي گهرو ويڙھ ۾ اَڙيل مُختلف ڌرين ۾ جنگ جاري هُئي ۽ اُتي انتظامي معاملا هيٺ مٿي لڳا پيا هُئا. اهڙن مُلڪن ۾ امن فوج کي گڏيل قومن طرفان چونڊون ڪرائڻ، انتظامي معاملن کي سُڌارڻ، عوام کي تحفظ ڏيڻ ۽ جهيڙن کان تنگ اچي ملڪ ڇڏي ويل ماڻهن کي واپس پنهنجي اباڻي وطن ۾ ٻيهر آباد ڪرائڻ جا اختيار به ڏنا ويا. ٻئي طرف اها به حقيقت آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج کي گھڻن معاملن ۽ هنڌن تي ڪن ملڪن پنهنجن خاص مقصدن لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو. ان کانسواءِ گھڻن علائقن (جهڙوڪ ڪشمير) ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن فوج پنهنجي مقصد حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام وئي آهي. سندس مُقابلي ۾ اولھ جي مُلڪن جي فوجي اتحاد نيٽو امن فوج جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ متحرڪ ۽ اثرائتي رهي آهي. 1992ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”بترس غالي“، امن جي آڻڻ لاءِ خاص علائقي ۽ خاص حالتن آهر مداخلت ڪرڻ ۽ نون اختيار ڏيڻ لاءِ اداري آڏو تجويزون پيش ڪيون، پر ان ڏس ۾ مڪمل سوڀاري ٿيڻ لاءِ ”پيس ڪيپگ“ جو عمل نون ضابطن، اختيارن ۽ قانونن جي انتظار ۾ آهي. 
&lt;ref&gt;[http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/define/Peace%20Keeping%20Force.php سنڌي آنلائين ڊڪشنري]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} پاران [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد&lt;/ref&gt;

== وصفون ۽ امن قائم رکڻ جي عمل جا قسم ==

=== گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ===
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن}}

==== ڇهون باب ۽ ستون باب وارا مشن ====

امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن جا ڪيترائي مختلف قسم آهن. مثال طور، پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي ڪتاب ''Does Peacekeeping Work?'' ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن کي چئن مختلف قسمن ۾ ورهايو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=Chapter 7}}&lt;/ref&gt; انهن مشنن جو قسم ۽ انهن تي عملدرآمد جو طريقو گهڻي حد تائين ان اختيارنامي (mandate) تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، جنهن تحت انهن کي اختيار ڏنو ويندو آهي.

فورٽنا جي بيان ڪيل چئن قسمن مان ٽي اهڙا آهن، جيڪي ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن ۽ انهن کي عام طور ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ڇهون باب|ڇهين باب]]'' وارا مشن چيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته چوٿون قسم ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]]'' وارو مشن هوندو آهي.

ڇهين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشنن لاءِ جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي لازمي هوندي آهي؛ جيڪڏهن اها رضامندي ختم ٿي وڃي ته امن قائم ڪندڙ دستن کي علائقو ڇڏڻو پوندو. ان جي ابتڙ، ستين باب وارن مشنن کي قانوني طور رضامندي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي، جيتوڻيڪ عملي طور اها موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي. جيڪڏهن رضامندي بعد ۾ ختم به ٿي وڃي ته به اهڙن مشنن کي واپس وڃڻ ضروري نه هوندو.

# '''مشاهدي وارا مشن''' (Observation Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي يا شهري مبصرن جا ننڍا دستا شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي جنگبندي، فوجن جي واپسي يا جنگبندي واري معاهدي ۾ ڄاڻايل ٻين شرطن جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. اهي عام طور بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا آهن ۽ سندن بنيادي ذميواري رڳو مشاهدو ڪرڻ ۽ رپورٽون تيار ڪرڻ هوندي آهي؛ تنهن ڪري جيڪڏهن ڪا ڌر معاهدي جي ڀڃڪڙي ڪري ته اهي مداخلت ڪرڻ جا مجاز نه هوندا آهن. مثال طور [[انگولا]] ۾ 1991ع وارو [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن II]] (UNAVEM II) ۽ [[اولهه صحارا]] ۾ [[اولهه صحارا بابت راءِ شماري لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو مشن]] (MINURSO).

# '''وچٿري مشن''' (Interpositional Missions)، جن کي روايتي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، نسبتاً وڏن ۽ هلڪي هٿياربند فوجي دستن تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جيڪي تڪرار کان پوءِ ٻن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ طور مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهي ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ بفر زون جو ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. مثال طور 1994ع ۾ [[انگولا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن III]] (UNAVEM III) ۽ 1996ع ۾ [[گوئٽي مالا]] ۾ [[MINUGUA]].

# '''گهڻ رخا مشن''' (Multidimensional Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس]] عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو جامع امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندو آهي. اهي رڳو مشاهدو يا ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رڪاوٽ بڻجڻ تائين محدود نه هوندا آهن، پر چونڊن جي نگراني، پوليس ۽ سلامتي ادارن جي سڌارن، ادارن جي تعمير، معاشي ترقي ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي شعبن ۾ پڻ حصو وٺندا آهن. مثال طور [[نيميبيا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو عبوري امدادي گروهه]] (UNTAG)، [[ايل سلواڊور]] ۾ [[ONUSAL]] ۽ [[موزمبيق]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUMOZ).

# '''[[امن لاڳو ڪندڙ]] مشن''' (Peace Enforcement Missions): اهي ستين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشن هوندا آهن ۽ اڳين ٽن قسمن جي ابتڙ، جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ جا پابند نه هوندا آهن. اهي شهري ۽ فوجي ٻنهي قسمن جي عملي تي مشتمل گهڻ رخا مشن هوندا آهن. انهن وٽ نسبتاً وڏي ۽ بهتر هٿياربند فوج هوندي آهي ۽ انهن کي صرف پنهنجي بچاءَ کان وڌيڪ مقصدن لاءِ به طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل هوندو آهي. مثال طور [[اولهه آفريڪا]] ۾ [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري جو نگراني گروهه]] (ECOMOG)، 1999ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو سيرا ليون مشن]] (UNAMSIL)، ۽ [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ [[نيٽو]] جا [[IFOR]] ۽ [[SFOR]] آپريشن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;/&gt;

==== سرد جنگ دوران ۽ ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ====

[[سرد جنگ]] جي دور ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جا اڪثر مشن روايتي نوعيت جا هئا، جن ۾ امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا ملڪن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ جنگن کان پوءِ مقرر ڪيا ويندا هئا ته جيئن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ بڻجن ۽ امن معاهدن تي عملدرآمد کي يقيني بڻائين. اهي مشن رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا هئا ۽ گهڻو ڪري مبصر بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا هئا، جيئن [[وچ اوڀر]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) ۽ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] بابت [[ڪشمير بابت گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP). ڪجهه مشن هٿياربند به هئا، جهڙوڪ [[سوئيز بحران]] دوران قائم ڪيل [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I). مجموعي طور اهي مشن پنهنجي مقرر ڪيل ڪردار ۾ ڪامياب رهيا.

[[سرد جنگ کان پوءِ وارو دور|سرد جنگ کان پوءِ]] گڏيل قومن امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ جامع ۽ گهڻ رخي طريقيڪار اختيار ڪيو. 1992ع ۾ ان وقت جي [[گڏيل قومن جو سيڪريٽري جنرل|سيڪريٽري جنرل]] [[بوتروس بوتروس غالي]] هڪ رپورٽ تيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ امن قائم رکڻ بابت پنهنجو جامع تصور پيش ڪيو. ''[[امن لاءِ ايجنڊا]]'' (An Agenda for Peace) نالي هن رپورٽ ۾ هن احتياطي سفارتڪاري، امن لاڳو ڪرڻ، امن ڪرائڻ، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ بحاليءَ کي هڪ ٻئي سان ڳنڍيل قدمن طور بيان ڪيو، جن جي ذريعي سرد جنگ کان پوءِ واري عالمي سياست ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ڪردار وڌيڪ اثرائتو بڻجي سگهي.

==== گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جا وسيع مقصد ====

[[مائيڪل ڊوئل]] ۽ نڪولس سامبانس پنهنجي ڪتاب ''The UN Record on Peacekeeping Operations'' ۾ بوتروس غالي جي رپورٽ جو خلاصو پيش ڪندي احتياطي سفارتڪاري، اعتماد سازي جي قدمن (جهڙوڪ حقيقت معلوم ڪرڻ وارا مشن)، مبصر مشن، ۽ تشدد جي خطري کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي اختيار هيٺ فوج مقرر ڪرڻ کي پائيدار امن لاءِ اهم ذريعا قرار ڏين ٿا. سندن بيان موجب:

# '''امن لاڳو ڪرڻ''' (Peace Enforcement): گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي منظور ڪيل جنگبندي يا معاهدي تي عمل ڪرائڻ لاءِ، ضرورت پوڻ تي ڌرين جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به فوجي طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ. اهڙا مشن عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]] تحت هلندا آهن ۽ انهن ۾ مقرر فوجون نسبتاً وڌيڪ هٿياربند هونديون آهن.

# '''امن ڪرائڻ''' (Peacemaking): گڏيل قومن جي سرپرستي هيٺ ثالثي ۽ ڳالهين ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين کي پرامن حل تي راضي ڪرڻ. هي عمل عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] جي ڇهين باب تحت ڪيو ويندو آهي.

# '''امن قائم رکڻ''' (Peacekeeping): جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي سان هلڪي هٿياربند گڏيل قومن جي موجودگي قائم ڪرڻ، اعتماد پيدا ڪرڻ ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ٿيل معاهدن جي نگراني ڪرڻ. ان سان گڏ سفارتي ڪوششون پڻ جاري رهنديون آهن ته جيئن جامع ۽ پائيدار امن حاصل ڪري سگهجي.

# '''تڪرار کان پوءِ بحالي''' (Post-Conflict Reconstruction): معاشي ۽ سماجي سهڪار ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي بحال ڪرڻ، سياسي، سماجي ۽ معاشي ادارن کي مضبوط ڪرڻ، مستقبل ۾ تشدد جي امڪان کي گهٽائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|date=2007|title=The UN Record On Peacekeeping Operations|journal=International Journal|volume=63|issue=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ ۾ غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) سان گڏجي [[ثقافتي ورثو|ثقافتي ورثي]] جي تحفظ لاءِ ڪم ڪرڻ پڻ شامل آهي. ثقافتي ورثي جي حفاظت بابت گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري وابستگي 2012ع کان جاري آهي ۽ ان کي آهستي آهستي وڌايو پيو وڃي. ان سلسلي ۾ 2019ع ۾ [[يونيفل]] ۽ [[بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل]] جو لبنان ۾ [[يونيسڪو عالمي ورثو]] جي تحفظ لاءِ گڏيل مشن نمايان مثال آهي. فوجي ۽ شهري ماهرن پاران مقامي آباديءَ سان گڏجي ثقافتي ورثي جو تحفظ ڪيترن ئي تڪراري علائقن ۾ مستقبل جي پرامن ۽ معاشي ترقيءَ جو بنياد بڻجي ٿو. بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل جي صدر [[ڪارل فون هيبسبرگ]]، اپريل 2019ع ۾ لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ [[يونيسڪو]] جي مشن دوران چيو: ''&quot;ثقافتي ورثو ڪنهن به علائقي ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جي سڃاڻپ جو حصو هوندو آهي. جيڪڏهن توهان انهن جي ثقافت تباهه ڪريو ٿا ته سندن سڃاڻپ به ختم ٿي وڃي ٿي. نتيجي ۾ ڪيترائي ماڻهو بي گهر ٿي وڃن ٿا، سندن مستقبل بابت اميدون ختم ٿي وڃن ٿيون ۽ هو آخرڪار پنهنجو وطن ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ٿين ٿا.&quot;''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Karl von Habsburg auf Mission im Libanon|date=April 28, 2019 |url=https://www.krone.at/1911689|language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Jyot Hosagrahar: ''Culture: at the heart of SDGs.'' UNESCO-Kurier, April-Juni 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rick Szostak: ''The Causes of Economic Growth: Interdisciplinary Perspectives.'' Springer Science &amp; Business Media, 2009, {{ISBN|9783540922827}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bundesheer.at/cms/artikel.php?ID=10118 &quot;Blue Helmet Forum 2019 - Protection of Cultural Heritage in Peace Operations&quot;, Austrian Armed Forces].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017nian-di-3qi/historic-resolution-protect-cultural-heritage|title=A historic resolution to protect cultural heritage, The UNESCO Courier}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/action-plan-to-preserve-heritage-sites-during-conflict|title=Action plan to preserve heritage sites during conflict|website=United Nations Peacekeeping}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''UNESCO Director-General calls for stronger cooperation for heritage protection at the Blue Shield International General Assembly.'' UNESCO, September 13, 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم رکڻ ===
{{See also|غير گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي فهرست|نيٽو امن قائم رکڻ|يورپي يونين جي فوجي ۽ شهري مشنن جي فهرست|آفريقي يونين جي فوجي مداخلتن جي فهرست}}

[[File:En-MFO1.JPG|thumb|right|1989ع ۾ [[مصر]] جي [[سنائي اپٻيٽ|سنائي]] واري علائقي جي [[ايل گوراح]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) جي غير گڏيل قومن واري امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن سان مقرر ڪيل ڪينيڊا جا [[CH135 ٽوئن هيوئي]] هيليڪاپٽر.]]

[[File:75Parad 04.jpg|thumb|[[آذربائيجان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جا ميمبر، [[2020 ماسڪو فتح پريڊ]] دوران مڪمل فوجي ورديءَ ۾.]]

سڀئي بين الاقوامي امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا سڌي طرح گڏيل قومن جي ڪنٽرول هيٺ ڪم نٿا ڪن. 1981ع ۾ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ [[مصر]] جي وچ ۾ ٿيل هڪ معاهدي تحت [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) قائم ڪئي وئي، جيڪا اڄ تائين [[سنائي اپٻيٽ]] ۾ امن معاهدي تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;10TAGpgA-1&quot;&gt;10 Tactical Air Group: ''Canadian Contingent Multinational Force and Observers Handbook'' (unclassified), page A-1. DND, Ottawa, 1986.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[آفريقي يونين]] (AU) آفريقي امن ۽ سلامتي جو اهڙو ڍانچو (آفريڪن پيس اينڊ سڪيورٽي آرڪيٽيڪچر) قائم ڪرڻ تي ڪم ڪري رهي آهي، جيڪو براعظم ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري نڀائي سگهي. جيڪڏهن ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ [[نسل ڪشي]] يا انساني حقن جون ٻيون سنگين ڀڃڪڙيون ٿين، ته آفريقي يونين جي جنرل اسيمبلي جي منظوري سان، ان ملڪ جي حڪومت جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن موڪلي سگهجي ٿو. هن نظام، جنهن ۾ [[آفريقي اسٽينڊ بائي فورس]] (ASF) پڻ شامل آهي، جي قيام جو منصوبو 2015ع کان اڳ نه هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/african-peace-and-security-architecture-already-proving-useful-even-though-it-still-work |title=The African Peace and Security Architecture is already proving useful even though it is still work in progress |publisher=dandc.eu |date=August 27, 2013 |access-date=November 14, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

علائقائي سطح تي [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري]] (ECOWAS) پنهنجي ڪجهه ميمبر ملڪن ۾ ڪيترائي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا آهن، ۽ ان کي &quot;آفريڪا جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ ترقي يافته علائقائي امن ۽ سلامتي وارو نظام&quot; قرار ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Oni|first1=Cyril I.|date=2009|journal=African Security|volume=2|pages=119–135|doi=10.1080/19362200903361945|title=Economic Community of West African States on the Ground: Comparing Peacekeeping in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea Bissau, and Côte D'Ivoire|issue=2–3|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''غير هٿياربند شهري امن قائم رکڻ''' (ان آرمڊ سويلين پيس ڪيپنگ، UCP) ۾ شهري عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو تڪراري علائقن ۾ شهرين کي تشدد کان بچائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن جي قيام جي ڪوششن جي سهائتا لاءِ غير تشدد، غير مداخلت ۽ غير جانبداريءَ تي ٻڌل حڪمت عمليون اختيار ڪندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ UCP جو اصطلاح سڀني غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) ۾ هڪجهڙو عام نه آهي، پر ڪيترائي ادارا ساڳين طريقن سان ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ امن بابت هڪجهڙا مقصد رکندا آهن. انهن طريقن ۾ متاثر ماڻهن سان گڏ رهڻ، مستقل موجودگي، افواهن تي ضابطو آڻڻ، برادريءَ جي سلامتي بابت گڏجاڻيون، محفوظ لنگهن جو بندوبست ڪرڻ ۽ نگراني ڪرڻ شامل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rachel|first1=Julian|last2=Schweitzer|first2=Christine|date=2015|title=The Origins And Development of Unarmed Civilian Peacekeeping|url=http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|journal=Peace Review|volume=27|issue=1|pages=1–8|doi=10.1080/10402659.2015.1000181|s2cid=144911738|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719124249/http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|archive-date=July 19, 2018|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== مختصر تاريخ ==
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي تاريخ}}

=== قيام ۽ شروعاتي سال ===

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري نظام جي شروعات 1948ع ۾ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] [[1948ع جي عرب-اسرائيل جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ ان جي عرب پاڙيسري ملڪن وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي واري معاهدي جي نگراني لاءِ وچ اوڀر ۾ گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن کي مقرر ڪرڻ جي منظوري ڏني. هن مشن کي [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) سڏيو ويو، جيڪو اڄ تائين جاري آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/history.shtml|title=History of Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آگسٽ 1949ع ۾ سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 73 (1949ع) منظور ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNTSO کي اسرائيل ۽ انهن عرب رياستن جي وچ ۾ ٿيل چئن جنگبندي معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني جي ذميواري ڏني وئي، جيڪي ان جنگ ۾ شامل هيون. نتيجي طور، UNTSO جون سرگرميون علائقي جي پنجن رياستن، يعني [[اسرائيل]]، [[مصر]]، [[اردن]]، [[لبنان]] ۽ [[شام]] تائين ڦهلجي ويون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/untso/background.shtml|title=UNTSO Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== سرد جنگ دوران امن قائم رکڻ ===

آگسٽ 1947ع ۾ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] جي آزادي ۽ ان کان پوءِ ٿيل وڏي پيماني تي خونريزيءَ کان پوءِ، سلامتي ڪائونسل جنوري 1948ع ۾ قرارداد 39 (1948ع) منظور ڪري [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP) قائم ڪيو، جنهن جو مقصد [[ڪشمير]] بابت ٻنهي ملڪن جي وچ ۾ پيدا ٿيل تڪرار ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل ويڙهه ۾ ثالثي ڪرڻ هو.

هي مشن غير مداخلتي نوعيت جو هو ۽ ان کي [[ڄمون ۽ ڪشمير]] ۾ ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان جي وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي جي نگراني جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي. جولاءِ 1949ع ۾ [[ڪراچي معاهدو]] ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNCIP جنگبندي واري لڪير جي نگراني شروع ڪئي، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن ۽ ٻنهي ڌرين جي مقامي فوجي ڪمانڊرن جي گڏيل نگراني هيٺ هئي. هن مشن جو تسلسل اڄ به [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان ۾ گڏيل قومن جو فوجي مبصر گروپ]] (UNMOGIP) جي نالي سان جاري آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unmogip/background.shtml|title=UNMOGIP Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف ملڪن ۾ ڪُل 69 امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي منظوري ڏني.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;/&gt; انهن مان گهڻا مشن سرد جنگ جي خاتمي کان پوءِ قائم ٿيا. 1988ع کان 1998ع جي وچ ۾ گڏيل قومن 35 نوان امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا، جڏهن ته 1948ع کان 1978ع تائين صرف 13 مشن قائم ٿيا هئا، ۽ 1978ع کان 1988ع جي وچ واري ڏهاڪي دوران ڪو به نئون مشن قائم نه ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Duffey|first=Tamara|date=2000|title=Cultural Issues in Contemporary Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=7|issue=1|pages=142–168|doi=10.1080/13533310008413823|s2cid=145210823}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|142–168}}

گڏيل قومن جي پهرين هٿياربند مداخلت 1956ع جي [[سوئيز بحران]] کان پوءِ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I) قائم ڪئي وئي. هي فوج نومبر 1956ع کان جون 1967ع تائين موجود رهي ۽ ان کي [[مصر]]، [[برطانيه]]، [[فرانس]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] جي وچ ۾ جنگبندي برقرار رکڻ، مصري علائقي مان برطانوي، فرينچ ۽ اسرائيلي فوجن جي واپسي جي نگراني ڪرڻ، ۽ پوءِ مصر ۽ اسرائيل جي فوجن جي وچ ۾ بفر فورس طور ڪم ڪندي جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ جو مينڊيٽ ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unef1mandate.html|title=UNEF Mandate|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان ٿوري ئي عرصي بعد 1960ع ۾ [[ڪانگو ۾ گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUC) شروع ڪيو ويو. پنهنجي عروج تي هن مشن ۾ ويهه هزار کان وڌيڪ فوجي اهلڪار شامل هئا، ۽ ان دوران 250 گڏيل قومن جا اهلڪار مارجي ويا، جن ۾ ان وقت جو سيڪريٽري جنرل [[ڊيگ هيملشولڊ]] پڻ شامل هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/early.shtml|title=The Early Years of UN Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ONUC جو مقصد [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] مان بيلجيم جي فوجن جي واپسي کي يقيني بڻائڻ هو، جيڪي [[فورس پبليڪ]] جي بغاوت کان پوءِ بيلجيم جي شهرين ۽ اقتصادي مفادن جي تحفظ لاءِ ٻيهر داخل ٿي ويون هيون. هن مشن کي قانون ۽ امن امان بحال ڪرڻ، بغاوت ۽ نسلي تشدد کي ختم ڪرڻ، ڪانگولي سلامتي فورسن کي فني مدد ۽ تربيت ڏيڻ، ۽ ملڪ جي علائقائي سالميت ۽ سياسي خودمختياري کي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/onuc.htm|title=ONUC|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي ذميواري خاص طور تي [[ڪتانگا]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪاسائي]] جهڙن معدني وسيلن سان مالامال صوبن جي علحدگيءَ واري تحريڪ جي پسمنظر ۾ شامل ڪئي وئي. ان دور ۾ گڏيل قومن جون فوجون، ڪجهه تڪراري انداز ۾، ڪانگو جي حڪومت جي مدد ڪندي ٻنهي صوبن جي علحدگي ختم ڪرائڻ ۾ به ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

1960ع ۽ 1970ع واري ڏهاڪن دوران گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف علائقن ۾ ڪيترائي مختصر مدي وارا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن قائم ڪيا، جن ۾ [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريه ۾ سيڪريٽري جنرل جي نمائندي جو مشن]] (DOMREP)، [[اولهه نيو گني ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي فورس]] (UNSF) ۽ [[يمن ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مبصر مشن]] (UNYOM) شامل هئا. ساڳئي وقت ڪجهه ڊگهي مدي وارا مشن پڻ جاري رهيا، جهڙوڪ [[قبرص ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج]] (UNFICYP)، [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج II]] (UNEF II)، [[گڏيل قومن جي ڌرين جي الڳ ٿيڻ جي نگراني ڪندڙ فوج]] (UNDOF)، ۽ [[لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن جي عبوري فوج]] (UNIFIL).&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;/&gt;

=== 1991ع کان پوءِ ===

[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-un-holds-head.jpg|thumb|[[سراييوو جو گهيرو|سراييوو جي گهيري]] (1992ع–1993ع) دوران هڪ [[ناروي]] جو امن قائم رکڻ وارو اهلڪار؛ تصوير: [[ميخائل اِوستافيئف]].]]

[[يوگوسلاو جنگين]] دوران امن قائم رکڻ جي تجربن، خاص طور تي [[سربرينيتسا قتلِ عام]] جهڙين ناڪامين، جزوي طور [[گڏيل قومن جي امن تعمير ڪميشن]] (يونائيٽيڊ نيشنز پيس بلڊنگ ڪميشن) جي قيام جو سبب بڻيا. هي ڪميشن چونڊن ۽ ٻين شهري ادارن جي مضبوطي جهڙين سرگرمين وسيلي پائيدار امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ انجام ڏيندا آهن. هن وقت اها ڪميشن آفريڪا جي ڇهن ملڪن سان ڪم ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/projects/africa/beyond-peace-deals-united-nations-experiment-peacebuilding |title=Beyond Peace Deals: The United Nations Experiment in &quot;Peacebuilding&quot;|date=June 22, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ڳالهين سان گڏ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، ۾ عورتن جي وڌيڪ مؤثر شرڪت، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهرن جي مقرري، هٿياربند تڪرارن جا عورتن تي پوندڙ اثرن بابت وڌيڪ معلومات، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |title=UN Security Council Takes a Historic Stand Supporting Abortion Access for Women Raped in War / Library / Homepage |publisher=AWID |access-date=October 28, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203101025/http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |archive-date=December 3, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن سان امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW)، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن بابت ڪميٽي آهي، هڪ عام سفارش جاري ڪئي، جنهن موجب اهي رياستون، جيڪي گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جون ڌريون آهن، پابند آهن ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌيءَ طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ فوجون موڪلين، يا تڪرارن جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مالي يا ٻئي قسم جي مدد فراهم ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=13885&amp;LangID=E|title=OHCHR -|website=www.ohchr.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪميٽي اهو پڻ واضح ڪيو ته اهڙين رياستن کي مناسب احتياط اختيار ڪرڻ گهرجي ته جيئن [[غير رياستي ڌريون]]، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي سلامتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ٿيندڙ ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

[[پيج فورٽنا]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي مقرري بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍيو ته ''&quot;امن قائم رکڻ رسد ۽ طلب جو معاملو آهي.&quot;'' رسد جي لحاظ کان سندس مشاهدو آهي ته سلامتي ڪائونسل جي مستقل ميمبرن مان ڪنهن هڪ جي ويجهن ملڪن ۾ هلندڙ گهرو ويڙهن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن مقرر ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن. جڏهن ته طلب جي لحاظ کان مختلف تحقيقون ظاهر ڪن ٿيون ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن گهڻو ڪري انهن ملڪن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن، جتي انهن جي ضرورت سڀ کان وڌيڪ هوندي آهي، يعني جتي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تمام گهڻو هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot; /&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي جوڙجڪ ==

=== اهي ملڪ جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺن ٿا ===
{{See also|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي تعداد موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Irish troops UNMIL.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|جولاءِ 2006ع ۾ [[لائبيريا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو مشن لائبيريا]] (UNMIL) سان مقرر آئرش فوجي گشت ڪندي.]]

[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] موجب، دنيا ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ ۾ مدد ڏيڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا سڀئي ميمبر ملڪ سلامتي ڪائونسل کي ضرورت موجب فوجي دستا ۽ ٻيون سهولتون فراهم ڪندا. 1948ع کان وٺي لڳ ڀڳ 130 ملڪن امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن لاءِ فوجي اهلڪار، شهري پوليس ۽ ٻيو عملو فراهم ڪيو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ 1948ع کان وٺي سڀني امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏيندڙ اهلڪارن جو مڪمل رڪارڊ موجود ناهي، پر اندازو آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي 71 مشنن ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه لک فوجين، پوليس اهلڪارن ۽ شهرين گڏيل قومن جي جهنڊي هيٺ خدمتون انجام ڏنيون آهن. سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين 122 ملڪ گڏيل طور لڳ ڀڳ 76,000 فوجي مبصر، پوليس اهلڪار ۽ فوجي مهيا ڪري رهيا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Troop and police contributors|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/troop-and-police-contributors|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

شرڪت ڪندڙ ملڪن جو تعداد گهڻو هجڻ باوجود، امن قائم رکڻ جو وڏو بار اڃا تائين [[ترقي پذير ملڪ|ترقي پذير ملڪن]] جي هڪ بنيادي گروهه تي آهي. آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي، پوليس ۽ فوجي ماهر موڪليندڙ ڏهه ملڪ [[بنگلاديش]] (6,447)، [[نيپال]] (5,536)، [[ڀارت]] (5,481)، [[روانڊا]] (5,263)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (4,856)، [[پاڪستان]] (3,949)، [[مصر]] (2,818)، [[انڊونيشيا]] (2,818)، [[گهانا]] (2,296) ۽ [[چين]] (2,248) هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين 14,000 کان وڌيڪ شهري اهلڪار به امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ قانوني يا طبي ماهرن، استادن، مواصلاتي ٽيڪنالاجي جي ماهرن ۽ انتظامي عملي طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/civilians|title=Civilians|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

30 سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن دوران 100 کان وڌيڪ ملڪن سان تعلق رکندڙ 4,147 ماڻهو پنهنجون حياتيون وڃائي چڪا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/fatalities|title=Fatalities|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان وڌيڪ جاني نقصان [[ڀارت]] جو ٿيو، جنهن جا 174 امن اهلڪار مارجي ويا، ان کان پوءِ [[بنگلاديش]] (159)، [[پاڪستان]] (159)، [[نائيجيريا]] (157)، [[گهانا]] (145)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (138)، [[ڪينيڊا]] (123)، [[فرانس]] (115) ۽ [[برطانيه]] (106) شامل آهن. 1948ع کان وٺي سراسري طور هر سال 56 امن اهلڪار ماريا ويا، پر 2001ع کان پوءِ هي انگ لڳ ڀڳ ٻيڻو ٿي هر سال 110 تائين پهچي ويو. گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي پهرين 55 سالن دوران ٿيل ڪل جاني نقصان جو 30 سيڪڙو حصو صرف 1993ع کان 1995ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جي شعبي ۾ عالمي اتر ۽ عالمي ڏکڻ (Global North ۽ Global South) جي وچ ۾ واضح فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي وڏي اڪثريت [[عالمي ڏکڻ]] جي ترقي پذير ملڪن مان ايندي آهي. [[ٿامس جي. وائيس]] ۽ جيووانا ڪيولي موجب، ان جا ٽي اهم سبب علائقائي مفاد، بين الاقوامي وقار ۽ مالي فائدا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=February 3, 2019|title=The Global South and UN Peace Operations|url=https://www.e-ir.info/2019/02/03/the-global-south-and-un-peace-operations/|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=E-International Relations|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آفريقي ملڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا سڀ کان وڌيڪ اهلڪار فراهم ڪن ٿا، پر ساڳئي وقت آفريڪا ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جو تعداد به سڀ کان وڌيڪ آهي، ۽ گهڻا آفريقي امن اهلڪار آفريڪا جي اندر ئي مقرر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، ايٿوپيا جا لڳ ڀڳ سڀئي 4,800 امن اهلڪار پاڙيسري ملڪن [[سوڊان]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ مقرر هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺڻ سان ترقي پذير ملڪن کي بين الاقوامي وقار پڻ حاصل ٿيندو آهي، ۽ اهو [[عظيم طاقت]] طور پنهنجون دعوائون مضبوط ڪرڻ ۾ مددگار ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيئن [[برازيل]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جي صورت ۾ ڏٺو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، غريب ملڪن لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين کي موڪلڻ مالي لحاظ کان به فائديمند هوندو آهي. هر امن اهلڪار لاءِ ماهوار واپسيءَ جي رقم ۾ پگهار ۽ الائونس لاءِ 1,028 آمريڪي ڊالر، ماهرن لاءِ اضافي 303 آمريڪي ڊالر، ذاتي لباس، سامان ۽ اوزارن لاءِ 68 آمريڪي ڊالر، ۽ ذاتي هٿيار لاءِ 5 آمريڪي ڊالر شامل هوندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/faq/q10.htm|title=United Nations Peacekeepers - How are peacekeepers compensated?|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; گڏيل قومن طرفان فراهم ڪيل اهي ادائيگيون، تربيت ۽ سامان، انفرادي فوجين سان گڏ ترقي پذير ملڪن لاءِ به مالي طور پرڪشش هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ مقرر ڪيل فوجي ۽ شهري پوليس اهلڪارن مان لڳ ڀڳ 4.5 سيڪڙو [[يورپي يونين]] مان ايندا آهن، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو حصو هڪ سيڪڙو کان به گهٽ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;factsheet&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/overview.shtml |title=Peacekeeping Fact Sheet |publisher=United Nations|access-date=December 20, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

مشنن جي قيادت بابت عام طور تي فوجي ڪمانڊر انهن ملڪن مان چونڊيا ويندا آهن، جيڪي سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي دستا فراهم ڪندا آهن، جڏهن ته سيڪريٽري جنرل جا خاص نمائندا گهڻو ڪري ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Oksamytna |first1= Kseniya|last2= Bove |first2= Vincenzo|last3= Lundgren |first3= Magnus|date= 2021 |title=Leadership selection in United Nations peacekeeping |journal= International Studies Quarterly|volume= 65|pages= 16–28|doi= 10.1093/isq/sqaa023 |doi-access= free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت ===
{{See also|امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتون}}

[[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 1325]] عورتن کي تڪرارن جي روڪٿام ۽ حل، امن ڳالهين، امن جي تعمير، امن قائم رکڻ، انساني امداد ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ ۾ سرگرم ۽ برابر ڌر طور شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو پهريون اهم قدم هو. هن قرارداد ۾ زور ڏنو ويو ته امن ۽ سلامتي جي قيام ۽ واڌاري لاءِ ٿيندڙ سڀني ڪوششن ۾ عورتن جي برابر شرڪت ۽ مڪمل شموليت کي يقيني بڻايو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and the Advancement of Women. &quot;[http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/wps/#resolution Landmark resolution on Women, Peace and Security]&quot;, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Security Council (October 31, 2000) &quot;Resolution 1325&quot;, S/RES/1325, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;

هن قرارداد تي هڪ تنقيد اها به ڪئي وئي آهي ته ان ۾ صنفي مرڪزي ڌارا (جينڊر مين اسٽريمنگ) کي لاڳو ڪرڻ جي ڳالهه ڪئي وئي، پر عملي طور گهڻو ڌيان صرف عورتن جي شموليت وڌائڻ تي ڏنو ويو، جڏهن ته مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي تي پاليسين جي اثرن جو مناسب جائزو نه ورتو ويو. 2010ع ۾ هن قرارداد جي ڏهن سالن جي اثرن بابت هڪ جامع جائزو ورتو ويو، جنهن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ان تي عملدرآمد محدود حد تائين ڪامياب رهيو، خاص طور تي امن ڳالهين ۽ امن معاهدن ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت وڌائڻ جي حوالي سان، جڏهن ته جنسي ۽ صنفي بنياد تي تشدد گهٽائڻ جي ڪوششن باوجود اهو مسئلو برقرار رهيو.&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations and Department of Field Support (2010). &quot;Ten-year Impact Study on Implementation of UN Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) on Women, Peace and Security in Peacekeeping&quot;, United Nations, p. 9-10. https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/documents/10year_impact_study_1325.pdf.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Ghana IntPeaceCorps 2016-05-29 B002a.jpg|thumb|گھانا جون عورتون گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏينديون.]]

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهريت، هٿياربند تڪرارن جي عورتن تي اثرن بابت بهتر ڄاڻ، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي وڌيڪ سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ مؤثر قدمن تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;/&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن خلاف امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW) پڻ پنهنجي هڪ عام سفارش ۾ چيو ته جن رياستن گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جي توثيق ڪئي آهي، انهن تي لازم آهي ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌي طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا، تڪرار جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مدد فراهم ڪري رهيون هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

ڪميٽي وڌيڪ چيو ته توثيق ڪندڙ رياستن کي مناسب احتياط سان اهو به يقيني بڻائڻ گهرجي ته غير رياستي ڌريون، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي حفاظتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

جولاءِ 2016ع تائين عورتون گڏيل قومن جي هر امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن ۾ فوجي، پوليس يا شهري عملي جي حيثيت سان خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيون هيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/resources/statistics/gender.shtml|title=Gender statistics. United Nations Peacekeeping|website=www.un.org|access-date=September 6, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

1993ع ۾ مقرر ٿيل يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن مان رڳو 1 سيڪڙو عورتون هيون. 2020ع تائين لڳ ڀڳ 95,000 امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن مان عورتون فوجي عملي جو 4.8 سيڪڙو، پوليس عملي جو 10.9 سيڪڙو، ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عملي جو 34 سيڪڙو هيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Women in peacekeeping|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/women-peacekeeping|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين اهڙو ڪو به ملڪ، جيڪو گڏيل قومن لاءِ 100 کان وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار موڪلي ٿو، پنهنجي دستي ۾ 25 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ عورتون نامزد نه ڪندو هو. حقيقي انگن اکرن موجب سڀ کان وڏا عورتن جا دستا [[ايٿوپيا]] (578 عورتون، يعني ان جي ڪل دستي جو 12 سيڪڙو)، [[روانڊا]] (500، يعني 10 سيڪڙو) ۽ [[گهانا]] (389، يعني 17 سيڪڙو) طرفان فراهم ڪيا ويا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

جيتوڻيڪ فوجي عملي ۾ عورتن جي مقرر تناسب بابت گڏيل قومن ڪو لازمي هدف مقرر نه ڪيو آهي، پر ميمبر رياستن کان درخواست ڪئي وئي آهي ته اهي پوليس آفيسرن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 20 سيڪڙو ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 30 سيڪڙو عورتون نامزد ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot; /&gt;

2024ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجي دستن ۾ عورتن جو ڪل انگ گهٽجي ويو، پر انهن جو تناسب وڌيو. يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن ۾ صنفي برابري واري حڪمت عملي (يونيفارمڊ جينڊر پئرٽي اسٽريٽجي) شروع ٿيڻ کان پوءِ عورتن جو تناسب مسلسل وڌندو رهيو آهي. عورتن جي ڪل تعداد ۾ گهٽتائي جو وڏو سبب [[گڏيل قومن جو مالي ۾ ڪثيرالجہتي مربوط استحڪامي مشن]] (MINUSMA) جو خاتمو هو. جون 2024ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن ۾ مقرر فوجي عملي مان عورتن جو تناسب 8.6 سيڪڙو هو، جيڪو گذريل سال جي ڀيٽ ۾ 1.3 سيڪڙو وڌيڪ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pfeifer Cruz |first=Claudia |title=Women in Multilateral Peace Operations in 2024: What is the State of Play? |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241031064944/https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |archive-date=October 31, 2024 |date=October 2024 |doi=10.55163/VYHM5282 |doi-access=free |location=Stockholm |publisher=SIPRI}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ جو نظرياتي بنياد ==


جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ ۽ امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي ڪردار بابت گهڻو ڪجهه لکيو ويو آهي، پر اهڙي تجرباتي تحقيق نسبتاً گهٽ ٿي آهي، جيڪا اهو واضح ڪري سگهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول ۾ ڪهڙي نموني اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. [[ڪولمبيا يونيورسٽي]] جي پروفيسر [[ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا]] چار اهڙن سببن (ڪيئيوئل ميڪينزم) جي سڃاڻپ ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي، جن جي ذريعي امن قائم رکڻ وارا پائيدار امن لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices After Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|location=Princeton|pages=175}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا موجب اهي چار بنيادي طريقا هي آهن:

# تازن ويڙهاڪن جي ترغيبي عنصرن ۾ تبديلي آڻڻ، جيئن امن وڌيڪ فائديمند ۽ جنگ وڌيڪ مهانگي محسوس ٿئي.
# غير يقيني صورتحال ۽ خوف کي گهٽائڻ، جيڪي سلامتي جي مخمصي (سڪيورٽي ڊليما) کي وڌائين ٿا.
# حادثاتي واقعن يا بي ضابطه هٿياربند گروهن جي ڪاررواين کي روڪڻ يا ضابطي ۾ آڻڻ، جيڪي ٻيهر جنگ جو سبب بڻجي سگهن.
# ڪنهن هڪ ڌر (خاص طور حڪومت) طرفان سياسي زيادتين کي روڪڻ، جيڪي امن کان محروم ڌرين کي ٻيهر هٿيار کڻڻ تي مجبور ڪري سگهن.

فورٽنا جو دليل آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا امن جي عمل تي مثبت اثر ڇڏين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ انهن کي اڪثر اهڙن هنڌن تي موڪليو ويندو آهي، جتي امن قائم رکڻ سڀ کان وڌيڪ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. امن قائم رکڻ تي تنقيد ڪندڙ اڪثر چوندا آهن ته اهي مشن غير مؤثر يا غير ضروري آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن ويڙهاڪ ڌريون پاڻ امن برقرار رکڻ ۾ دلچسپي رکن ٿيون ته امن قائم رهندو. تنهن هوندي به، فورٽنا جو خيال آهي ته مٿي بيان ڪيل سبب ڏيکارين ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا پائيدار امن کي يقيني بڻائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، خاص طور تي انهن حالتن جي ڀيٽ ۾ جتي ويڙهاڪ ڌريون مڪمل طور پنهنجي حال تي ڇڏيل هجن. اهي سبب اهو به واضح ڪن ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ جي ضرورت ڇو آهي ۽ اهو تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول تي ڪيئن اثرانداز ٿي سگهي ٿو.

جنگ جي ترغيبن کي گهٽائڻ ۽ امن کي وڌيڪ پرڪشش بڻائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومون نفاذي اختيارن (انفورسمينٽ مينڊيٽ) تحت فوجي قوت مقرر ڪري سگهي ٿي، جيڪا امن خراب ڪندڙ ڌرين لاءِ روڪ جو سبب بڻجي. اهڙا دستا حالتن جي نگراني ڪري سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي اوچتي حملي جو امڪان گهٽجي وڃي ٿو يا اهڙو حملو ڪرڻ وڌيڪ ڏکيو ٿي وڃي ٿو. هلڪي هٿيارن سان ليس مشاهدي وارو مشن پڻ ابتدائي خبرداري واري قوت (ارلي-وارننگ فورس) يا &quot;ٽرپ وائر&quot; طور ڪم ڪري سگهي ٿو. بين الاقوامي برادري طرفان ڏني ويندڙ امداد ۽ سياسي سڃاڻپ کي به ان ڳالهه سان مشروط ڪيو وڃي ته ڌريون ڳالهين دوران طئي ٿيل شرطن تي عمل ڪن. ان سان گڏ، روزگار، عوامي ترقياتي منصوبن ۽ ٻين فائدن جي صورت ۾ &quot;امن جا فائدا&quot; (پيس ڊويڊينڊس) پڻ فراهم ڪيا وڃن.

غير يقيني صورتحال ۽ خوف کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري سگهن ٿا، ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رابطي کي آسان بڻائي سگهن ٿا ته جيئن سلامتي بابت خدشا گهٽجن، ۽ هر ڌر کي اها خاطري ملي ته ٻي ڌر پنهنجن واعدن کان نه ڦرندي. اهڙي طرح اهي ٻنهي ڌرين کي پنهنجي امن پسند ارادن کي واضح ۽ قابل اعتماد نموني ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ مؤثر ذريعو مهيا ڪن ٿا.

امن جي عمل کي پٽڙي تان لاهي ڇڏيندڙ حادثن يا بي ضابطه گروهن جي ڪاررواين کي روڪڻ لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهڙن گروهن کي روڪي سگهن ٿا. ويڙهاڪ قوتون اڪثر مضبوط قيادت ۽ [[حڪم ۽ ضابطي]] (ڪمانڊ اينڊ ڪنٽرول) کان محروم هونديون آهن، تنهنڪري امن ڳالهين دوران ڪنهن بي ضابطه گروهه جي معاهدي کان انڪار ڪرڻ يا امن جي عمل کي ناڪام بڻائڻ جو خطرو موجود هوندو آهي. گڏيل قومن جا دستا اهڙين حالتن کي روڪڻ سان گڏ ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ثالثي ۽ رابطي کي پڻ آسان بڻائي سگهن ٿا ۽ سياسي اعتدال پسند قوتن کي اڳتي آڻي سگهن ٿا. قانون ۽ امن امان برقرار رکندي اهي عارضي طور رياستي حفاظتي ادارن جي ذميواري سنڀالي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي مبينا ڀڃڪڙي تي غيرجانبدار رويو اختيار ڪيو وڃي ۽ تشدد جي ٻيهر شروعات کان بچي سگهجي.

سياسي زيادتين جي روڪٿام لاءِ حڪومت سان لاڳاپيل ادارن ۾ سڌارا آندا وڃن ٿا. فوج ۽ پوليس جهڙن حفاظتي ادارن کي تربيت ڏيڻ ۽ انهن جي نگراني ڪرڻ سان کين حڪمرانن جي دٻاءَ جو اوزار بڻجڻ بدران عوام جا غيرجانبدار محافظ بڻائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. اهڙي تربيت عوام جو اعتماد وڌائڻ ۾ مددگار ثابت ٿي سگهي ٿي. گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا آزاد ۽ منصفاڻي چونڊون ڪرائڻ ۽ انهن جي نگراني پڻ ڪري سگهن ٿا. ڪجهه حالتن ۾ گڏيل قومون عبوري دور دوران غيرجانبدار عبوري حڪومت پڻ قائم ڪري سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ملڪ جو انتظام سنڀالي، جڏهن ته سرڪاري ادارن کي ٻيهر منظم، سڌاريو يا وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪيو وڃي. ان کان سواءِ هٿياربند باغي گروهن کي هٿيار ڦٽا ڪرڻ، انهن کي سياسي تنظيمن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ ۽ پرامن جمهوري عمل وسيلي پنهنجا مطالبا پيش ڪرڻ لاءِ همٿايو وڃي ٿو. اهو خاص طور اهم آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي باغي گروهه حڪومت جي اهم مخالف قوت هوندا آهن، پر سياسي تنظيم طور مؤثر نموني ڪم ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت کان محروم هوندا آهن.

مختلف امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن مختلف سببن ۽ ضرورتن جي بنياد تي قائم ڪيا ويندا آهن. [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VII]] تحت هلندڙ مشنن ۾ فوجي روڪ ۽ نفاذ تي وڌيڪ زور هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VI]] تحت مشن بنيادي طور نگراني ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ غيرجانبدار موجودگي برقرار رکڻ لاءِ هوندا آهن. سياسي زيادتين جي روڪٿام لاءِ قائم ڪيل مشن گهڻ رخي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ واري سياسي عمل ۾ سرگرم ڪردار ادا ڪندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|chapter=4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي اثرائتي ==

علمي تحقيق جي جائزي مان مضبوط ثبوت مليا آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن امن جي استحڪام ۾ واڌارو آڻين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Walter|first1=Barbara F.|last2=Howard|first2=Lise Morje|last3=Fortna|first3=V. Page|date=2020|title=The Extraordinary Relationship between Peacekeeping and Peace|journal=British Journal of Political Science|volume=51|issue=4|language=en|pages=1705–1722|doi=10.1017/S000712342000023X|s2cid=229469021 |issn=0007-1234|doi-access=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hoeffler|first=Anke|date=March 11, 2014|title=Can international interventions secure the peace?|journal=International Area Studies Review|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=75–94|doi=10.1177/2233865914525380|s2cid=16303210|url=http://www.econrsa.org/node/700|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا]] موجب مضبوط ثبوت موجود آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي نمايان طور گهٽائي ٿي. امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين جو تعداد جيترو وڌيڪ هوندو، اوترا ئي جنگي محاذ تي مارجي ويل ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽ ٿيندو، ۽ عام شهرين جي جاني نقصان ۾ به گهٽتائي ايندي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://politicalviolenceataglance.org/2015/09/24/enough-with-the-pessimism-about-peacekeeping/|title=Enough with the Pessimism about Peacekeeping|date=September 24, 2015|website=Political Violence at a Glance|access-date=January 26, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[اپسالا يونيورسٽي]] ۽ [[اوسلو امن تحقيقاتي اداري]] جي سياسي سائنسدانن جي هڪ مطالعي موجب، جيڪڏهن گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري پاليسي کي وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪيو وڃي، امن قائم رکڻ وارن دستن جو تعداد ٻيڻو ڪيو وڃي ۽ انهن کي وڌيڪ وسيع اختيار ڏنا وڃن، ته هٿياربند تڪرارن جي عالمي شرح، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي غير موجودگي واري صورتحال جي ڀيٽ ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ٻه ٽيون حصو گهٽجي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Hegre|first1=Håvard|last2=Hultman|first2=Lisa|last3=Nygård|first3=Håvard Mokleiv|date=November 28, 2018|title=Evaluating the Conflict-Reducing Effect of UN Peacekeeping Operations|journal=The Journal of Politics|volume=81|language=en|pages=215–232|doi=10.1086/700203|s2cid=13894244|issn=0022-3816|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فورڊهم يونيورسٽي]] جي سياسي سائنسدان [[انجلي ديال]] موجب، تحقيق مان ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن جنگ کي سرحدن کان ٻاهر پکڙجڻ کان روڪين ٿا. زمين تي وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار هجڻ سان عام شهرين خلاف تشدد جا واقعا پڻ گهٽ ٿيندا آهن، ۽ ڪيترين حالتن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ڪاميابي سان عبوري انتظاميا جو ڪردار ادا ڪندي اقتدار ٻيهر مقامي اختيارين حوالي ڪيو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ هاڻي اهڙو عمل اڳ جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ڏسڻ ۾ اچي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/02/01/is-u-n-peacekeeping-under-fire-heres-what-you-need-to-know/|title=Is U.N. peacekeeping under fire? Here's what you need to know.|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=February 1, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2018ع جي هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پنهنجي سر به گهرو ويڙهه جي شدت کي گهٽائين ٿا، پر جڏهن انهن کي ثالثي سان گڏ استعمال ڪيو وڃي ٿو ته انهن جو اثر وڌيڪ نمايان ٿي وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Mediation, Peacekeeping, and the Severity of Civil War|journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution|volume=63|issue=7|pages=1682–1709|language=en|doi=10.1177/0022002718817092|year=2018|last1=Beardsley|first1=Kyle|last2=Cunningham|first2=David E.|last3=White|first3=Peter B.|s2cid=202164361}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهڙا به ثبوت موجود آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا موڪلڻ جو واعدو ئي ويڙهاڪ ڌرين کي ڳالهين جي ميز تي آڻڻ ۽ جنگبندي تي راضي ٿيڻ جا امڪان وڌائي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lundgren|first=Magnus|year=2016|title=Which international organizations can settle civil wars?|journal=Review of International Organizations|volume=DOI 10.1007/s11558-016-9253-0|issue=4|pages=613–641|doi=10.1007/s11558-016-9253-0|s2cid=152898046}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي شمارياتي تحقيق ۾ انهن عنصرن کي به نظر ۾ رکيو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ڪٿي مقرر ڪيا وڃن ۽ ڪٿي امن قائم ٿيڻ جا امڪان ڪيترا آهن. هن جي نتيجن موجب، امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ۽ پائيدار امن جي وچ ۾ شمارياتي طور اهم لاڳاپو موجود آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن عام طور تي انهن علائقن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن جتي امن قائم ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن، فورٽنا جو اندازو آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 55 کان 60 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽائي ٿي، جڏهن ته ڪجهه وڌيڪ پراميد اندازن موجب اها گهٽتائي 75 کان 85 سيڪڙو تائين ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 116&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=116}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا جي تجزيي موجب [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VI]] تحت رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل مشنن ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VII]] تحت نفاذي مشنن جي اثرائتي ۾ گهڻو فرق نظر نٿو اچي. البته نفاذي مشن تڏهن ئي اثرائتا ثابت ٿين ٿا، جڏهن امن قائم رکڻ واري قوت طاقت جي استعمال بابت پنهنجي اعتبار ۽ صلاحيت برقرار رکي سگهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=109, 116, 125}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهو ان ڳالهه جي اهميت کي اجاگر ڪري ٿو ته گڏيل قومن جا مشن مقامي ڌرين جي رضامندي برقرار رکن. مجموعي طور فورٽنا جو نتيجو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ويڙهاڪ ڌريون مڪمل طور پنهنجي حال تي نه ڇڏيون وڃن، ته امن قائم رکڻ پائيدار امن کي يقيني بڻائڻ جو هڪ مؤثر اوزار آهي. هن اڳ بيان ڪيل سببن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول ۾ امن جي استحڪام تي نمايان اثر وجهي سگهن ٿا. فورٽنا ۽ [[ليز مورجي هاورڊ]] جو چوڻ آهي ته هاڻي تحقيق جو ڌيان امن قائم رکڻ جي بنيادي اثرائتي کان اڳتي وڌي، مختلف قسمن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن، عبوري انتظاميائن، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ جمهوريت جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن، ۽ انهن ماڻهن جي نظرين ڏانهن منتقل ٿي رهيو آهي، جن جي لاءِ امن قائم رکيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Pitfalls and Prospects in the Peacekeeping Literature*|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|volume=11|pages=283–301|last1=Fortna|first1=Virginia Page|last2=Howard|first2=Lise Morjé|date=May 20, 2008|language=en|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.9.041205.103022|s2cid=15740415|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[مائيڪل ڊبليو ڊائل]] ۽ [[نيڪولس سامبانس]] جي تجزيي موجب، انهن ملڪن ۾، جتي نسلي بنيادن تي جنگ نه هجي، معاشي ترقي جو سطح نسبتاً بهتر هجي ۽ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا ۽ مالي امداد موجود هجن، اتي پائيدار امن قائم رهڻ جا امڪان وڌيڪ هوندا آهن. انهن جو نتيجو آهي ته مختصر مدي ۾ پائيدار امن جو دارومدار گڏيل قومن جي مضبوط موجودگي ۽ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ گهٽ دشمني تي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ڊگهي مدي ۾ معاشي صلاحيت وڌيڪ اهم عنصر بڻجي ويندي آهي ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ دشمني جي شدت نسبتاً گهٽ اهم رهندي آهي. سندن خيال ۾، جيتوڻيڪ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ڪافي حد تائين ڪامياب رهيا آهن، پر اهي مداخلت هيٺ آيل ملڪن ۾ خودمختيار معاشي ترقي کي ڪافي حد تائين هٿي نه ڏئي سگهيا آهن. تنهنڪري گڏيل قومون امن برقرار رکڻ ۾ هڪ مضبوط پر اڻ سڌو ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿيون، جڏهن ته پائيدار امن جو اصل دارومدار اهڙن ادارن جي قيام تي هوندو آهي، جيڪي امن کي ڊگهي عرصي تائين برقرار رکي سگهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Making War and Building Peace : United Nations Peace Operations|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2010|pages=336–337}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ٻين علمي تحقيقن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي ڪاميابيءَ بابت مختلف نتيجا سامهون آيا آهن، جن موجب انهن جي ڪاميابيءَ جي شرح تقريباً 31 سيڪڙو کان 85 سيڪڙو تائين رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Autesserre|first1=Severine|title=Peaceland: Conflict Resolution and the Everyday Politics of International Intervention|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2020ع جي هڪ مطالعي موجب، گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر هلندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن به اثرائتي جي لحاظ کان گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جيترا ئي مؤثر آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Bara|first1=Corinne|last2=Hultman|first2=Lisa|date=March 20, 2020|title=Just Different Hats? Comparing UN and Non-UN Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=27|issue=3|pages=341–368|doi=10.1080/13533312.2020.1737023|issn=1353-3312|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; ساڳئي سال شايع ٿيل هڪ ٻي تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن عام شهرين جي تحفظ ۾ به ڪامياب رهيا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Carnegie|first1=Allison|last2=Mikulaschek|first2=Christoph|date=2020|title=The Promise of Peacekeeping: Protecting Civilians in Civil Wars|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-organization/article/promise-of-peacekeeping-protecting-civilians-in-civil-wars/2BA3A91C26CF29480409B1FFB64F7E40|journal=International Organization|volume=74|issue=4|language=en|pages=810–832|doi=10.1017/S0020818320000442|s2cid=232253107|issn=0020-8183|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2021ع ۾ ''[[آمريڪن جرنل آف پوليٽيڪل سائنس]]'' ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن مقامي معيشت تي مثبت اثر وڌو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Bove|first1=Vincenzo|last2=Salvatore|first2=Jessica Di|last3=Elia|first3=Leandro|date=2021|title=UN Peacekeeping and Households' Well-Being in Civil Wars|journal=American Journal of Political Science|volume=66|issue=2|pages=402–417|language=en|doi=10.1111/ajps.12644|issn=1540-5907|doi-access=free|hdl=10281/458537|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== پائيدار امن تي اثرانداز ٿيندڙ عنصر ===

ڪيترائي عنصر پائيدار امن تي منفي اثر وجهي سگهن ٿا. انهن ۾ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي حقيقي فوجي طاقت بابت لڪل معلومات، باغي گروهن جي هيرن، ٻين معدنيات يا غيرقانوني واپار وسيلي مالي وسيلا حاصل ڪرڻ، منشيات، هٿيارن ۽ انساني اسمگلنگ ۾ سندن شموليت، ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي فوجي فتح يا شڪست، جنگ جو عرصو ۽ ان جي قيمت، ٻنهي ڌرين کي درپيش واعدن تي عملدرآمد جا مسئلا (ڪمٽمينٽ پرابلم) ۽ سلامتي جو مخمصو (سڪيورٽي ڊليما)، جنگبندي يا امن معاهدي جي موجودگي، تڪرار ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ ڌرين جي ارادن ۽ ڪاررواين بابت شفافيت جي کوٽ، امن کي نقصان پهچائيندڙ انتهاپسند گروهه، اهڙا ڌر يا فرد جيڪي جنگ جاري رهڻ مان فائدو حاصل ڪن، ۽ اهڙا تڪراري مسئلا جيڪي ورهائي يا سمجهوتي ذريعي حل نٿا ٿي سگهن شامل آهن.

فورٽنا جي تحقيق موجب، پائيدار امن جو سڀ کان اهم شمارياتي عنصر اهو آهي ته ڇا جنگ ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي فوجي فتح تي ختم ٿي آهي يا نه. جيڪڏهن گهرو ويڙهه ۾ هڪ ڌر واضح فوجي فتح حاصل ڪري ۽ ان کان پوءِ جنگبندي يا صلح جو معاهدو ٿئي، ته ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تقريباً 85 کان 90 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽجي ويندو آهي. ان کان علاوه، رسمي امن معاهدا ٻيهر تڪرار جي خطري کي لڳ ڀڳ 60 کان 70 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 116&quot;/&gt;

جيڪڏهن ڪو هٿياربند گروهه منشيات، هيرن يا ٻين غيرقانوني واپاري ذريعن مان مالي مدد حاصل ڪري ٿو، ته ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان نمايان طور وڌي وڃن ٿا. فورٽنا موجب اهڙين حالتن ۾ جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو 100 کان 250 سيڪڙو تائين وڌي سگهي ٿو، يعني اهڙي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان عام حالتن جي ڀيٽ ۾ ٻه کان ساڍا ٽي ڀيرا وڌيڪ هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choice after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=117}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا جو خيال آهي ته جن جنگين ۾ ڪيترائي ڌر شامل هجن، اهي ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان نسبتاً گهٽ رکن ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; ان جي ابتڙ، [[مائيڪل ڊبليو ڊائل]] ۽ [[نيڪولس سامبانس]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ نتيجو ڪڍيو ته گهڻ ڌرين وارا تڪرار ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان وڌيڪ رکن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Making War and Building Peace : United Nations Peace Operations|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2010|pages=336}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڊگهي عرصي تائين هلندڙ جنگين ۽ سڃاڻپ يا قومي/نسلي بنيادن تي وڙهيل جنگين ۾ ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. بهرحال، ڊگهيون جنگيون ۽ اهي امن معاهدا جيڪي فوجي فتح کان پوءِ وجود ۾ اچن، عام طور تي مستقبل ۾ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽائين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=117–119}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪاررواين جا حصو وٺندڙ فوجن تي اثر ==

=== فوجي معمول تي آڻڻ ===

ڪجهه محققن جو خيال آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون فوج جي &quot;معمول تي آڻڻ&quot; (مليٽري نارملائيزيشن) کي اڳتي وڌائڻ جو هڪ ذريعو بڻجي سگهن ٿيون. مائيڪل ايڊورڊ والش ۽ جيريمي ٽيلر دليل ڏين ٿا ته [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ [[جاپان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون انهن حلقن لاءِ هڪ منفرد موقعو فراهم ڪن ٿيون، جيڪي جاپان جي فوجي ڪردار کي عام ۽ معمول مطابق بڻائڻ چاهين ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهڙي عمل سان ملڪ جي امن پسند آئين کي تدريجي طور ڪمزور ڪرڻ جو امڪان پيدا ٿئي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;nbr.org&quot;&gt;Jeremy Taylor and Michael Edward Walsh (January 7, 2014), ''[http://www.nbr.org/downloads/pdfs/psa/taylor-walsh_commentary_010714.pdf UN Operations in Africa Provide a Mechanism for Japan’s Military Normalization Agenda]'', {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303010649/http://www.nbr.org/downloads/pdfs/psa/taylor-walsh_commentary_010714.pdf |date=March 3, 2014 }}, retrieved February 7, 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;

سندن خيال موجب، بنيادي سياسي، قانوني ۽ سماجي سڌارن کان سواءِ جاپان جون امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون اهڙين سنگين حالتن کي منهن ڏيڻ لاءِ مڪمل طور تي تيار ناهن، جتي جان ليوا طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ ضروري بڻجي وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Edward Walsh and Jeremy Taylor (December 23, 2013), ''[http://africanarguments.org/2013/12/23/time-to-reconsider-the-japanese-peacekeeping-mission-in-south-sudan-by-michael-edward-walsh-jeremy-taylor/ Time to Reconsider the Japanese Peacekeeping Mission in South Sudan]'', retrieved February 7, 2014.&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن ڪري، اهي دليل ڏين ٿا ته گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين ۾ جاپان جي مسلسل شرڪت آخرڪار اهڙين پاليسي تبديلين جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿي، جن کان پوءِ جاپان جي فوج کي معمول مطابق فوجي حيثيت ڏيڻ ئي واحد ممڪن نتيجو رهجي وڃي.&lt;ref name=&quot;nbr.org&quot;/&gt;

=== فوج موڪليندڙ ملڪن تي سياسي اثر ===

[[ڊيانا ميور ايپل بام]] خدشو ظاهر ڪيو آهي ته [[فجي]] ۾ عالمي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين لاءِ فوج تيار ڪرڻ جي نتيجي ۾ فوج ايتري طاقتور بڻجي وئي، جو هن 1987ع، 1999–2000ع، 2006ع ۽ 2009ع ۾ چار فوجي بغاوتون ڪيون ۽ ويهن سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين فجي تي فوجي آمريت قائم رکي.&lt;ref&gt;Appelbaum, Diana Muir (August 27, 2012), ''[http://www.jewishideasdaily.com/4867/features/how-the-sinai-peacekeeping-force-staged-a-military-coup-in-fiji/ How the Sinai Peacekeeping Force Staged a Military Coup in Fiji]'', retrieved September 7, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt;

بهرحال، ''جرنل آف پيس ريسرچ'' ۾ 2018ع ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ مطالعي موجب، اهي ملڪ جن جون فوجون گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين مان حاصل ٿيندڙ مالي وسيلن تي وڌيڪ ڀاڙين ٿيون، انهن ۾ فوجي بغاوتن جا امڪان انهن ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهڙن مالي وسيلن تي گهٽ ڀاڙين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lundgren|first=Magnus|date=2018|title=Backdoor peacekeeping: Does participation in UN peacekeeping reduce coups at home?|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume=55|issue=4|pages=508–523|doi=10.1177/0022343317747668|s2cid=116168984}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ وارن فردن تي اثر ===

[[File:UNAMIR Blue Berets memorial Kigali (4).jpg|thumb|[[روانڊا]] جي شهر [[ڪيگالي]] ۾ [[يو اين اي ايم آء آر]] (UNAMIR) جي ڏهن بيلجيمي امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي يادگار، جيڪي 1994ع ۾ هوتو نيم فوجي گروهن هٿان مارجي ويا.]]

امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين بابت ٿيل تحقيق مان معلوم ٿئي ٿو ته انهن تي مثبت ۽ منفي، ٻئي قسم جا اثر پون ٿا. بوسنيا ۾ مقرر آمريڪي فوج جي 951 سپاهين تي ٿيل هڪ مطالعي مطابق، 77 سيڪڙو فوجين مثبت اثرن جي نشاندهي ڪئي، 63 سيڪڙو منفي اثرن جو ذڪر ڪيو، جڏهن ته 47 سيڪڙو ٻنهي قسمن جي تجربن بابت ٻڌايو.&lt;ref&gt;Newby, John H., et al. &quot;Positive and negative consequences of a military deployment.&quot; ''Military Medicine'' (2005) 170#10 pp: 815-819.&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار گهڻو ڪري ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي حملن جي خطري ۽ اڻڄاتل موسمي حالتن کي منهن ڏيندا آهن. انهن سببن ڪري ذهني صحت جا مسئلا، خودڪشي جا واقعا ۽ منشيات جي استعمال جا خطرا وڌي سگهن ٿا. ڊگهي عرصي تائين ٻاهرين ملڪن ۾ مقرر رهڻ امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي خاندانن، خاص طور تي سندن ٻارن ۽ گهروارن، لاءِ پڻ ذهني دٻاءُ جو سبب بڻجي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1 = Fernandes Souza | first1 = Wanderson |display-authors=etal  | year = 2011 | title = Posttraumatic stress disorder in peacekeepers: a meta-analysis | journal = The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease | volume = 199 | issue = 5| pages = 309–312 | doi=10.1097/nmd.0b013e3182175180| pmid = 21543949 | s2cid = 28713512 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

هڪ ٻيو نقطه نظر اهو به آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون ذميواريون فوجين جي جنگي صلاحيتن کي ڪمزور ڪري سگهن ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ امن قائم رکڻ واري دستي جون ذميواريون مڪمل جنگ وڙهندڙ فوجي يونٽ کان ڪافي مختلف هونديون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20070926001502/http://www.usafa.af.mil/jscope/ISME2007/Papers/Prof%20Paulin%20Kaurin%20War%20Stories.doc Kaurin, P. M. (2007) War Stories: Narrative, Identity and (Recasting) Military Ethics Pedagogy. Pacific Lutheran University. ISME 2007. Retrieved 9-3-2007].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Liu, H. C. K., The war that could destroy both armies, ''Asia Times'', October 23, 2003. Retrieved March 9, 2007.&lt;/ref&gt;

== تنقيد ==

=== امن قائم رکڻ، انساني اسمگلنگ ۽ جبري جسم فروشي ===
{{Main|امن قائم رکڻ وارن پاران ٻارن سان جنسي زيادتي جو اسڪينڊل}}

1990ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن تي مختلف قسمن جي زيادتين جا ڪيترائي الزام لڳندا رهيا آهن، جن ۾ [[زنا بالجبر]]، [[جنسي زيادتي]]، [[ٻارن سان جنسي زيادتي]] ۽ [[انساني اسمگلنگ]] شامل آهن. اهڙيون شڪايتون [[ڪمبوڊيا]]، [[اوڀر تيمور]] ۽ [[اولهه آفريڪا]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علائقن مان سامهون آيون آهن.

[[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ اسمگل ٿيل عورتن سان لاڳاپيل جسم فروشي ۾ تيزي سان واڌ آئي، ۽ ڪيترائي اهڙا اڏا گڏيل قومن جي ڪئمپن جي ويجهو قائم ٿيا. بوسنيا ۾ 2000ع کان 2001ع تائين علائقائي انساني حقن جي آفيسر ڊيوڊ ليمب جو چوڻ هو ته، &quot;بوسنيا ۾ جنسي غلاميءَ جي واپار جو وڏو سبب گڏيل قومن جون امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون آهن. جيڪڏهن اهي فوجون نه هجن ها ته بوسنيا ۾ جبري جسم فروشي تمام گهٽ يا بلڪل نه هجي ها.&quot; ان کان علاوه، 2002ع ۾ [[آمريڪا جي ايوانِ نمائندگان]] ۾ ٿيل ٻڌڻي دوران اهو به سامهون آيو ته SFOR جا ڪجهه اهلڪار بوسنيا جي جسم فروشي جي مرڪزن تي ويندا هئا ۽ اسمگل ٿيل عورتن ۽ نابالغ ڇوڪرين سان جنسي لاڳاپا رکندا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Allred2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Allred|first=KJ|date=2006|title=Peacekeepers And Prostitutes: How Deployed Forces Fuel the Demand for Trafficked Women and New Hope for Stopping It|journal=Armed Forces &amp; Society|volume=33|issue=1|page=7|doi=10.1177/0095327X06288803|s2cid=71430076}}&lt;/ref&gt;

صحافين پڻ رپورٽ ڪيو ته گڏيل قومن يا، بوسنيا ۽ [[ڪوسوو]] جي صورت ۾، [[نيٽو]] جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي اچڻ کان پوءِ [[ڪمبوڊيا]]، [[موزمبيق]]، [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۽ [[ڪوسوو]] ۾ جسم فروشي ۾ تيزي سان اضافو ٿيو. 1996ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي رپورٽ ''دي امپيڪٽ آف آرمڊ ڪنفلڪٽ آن چلڊرين'' ۾ موزمبيق جي اڳوڻي خاتون اول [[گراسا ماچيل]] لکيو ته هن رپورٽ لاءِ تيار ڪيل 12 ملڪن مان 6 مطالعي ۾ هٿياربند تڪرارن دوران ٻارن جي جنسي استحصال ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي اچڻ کان پوءِ [[ٻارن جي جسم فروشي]] ۾ تيز واڌ ڏٺي وئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;unicef.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/graca/a51-306_en.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030316210918/http://www.unicef.org/graca/a51-306_en.pdf|url-status=dead|title=The Impact of Armed Conflict on Children|archive-date=March 16, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گيتا سهگل]] 2004ع ۾ چيو ته جتي به [[انساني همدرديءَ واري مداخلت]] يا امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون ٿين ٿيون، اتي جسم فروشي ۽ [[جنسي استحصال]] جا مسئلا به ظاهر ٿين ٿا. سندس خيال هو ته گڏيل قومن بابت بنيادي مسئلو اهو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون به ٻين فوجن وانگر ساڳين مسئلن ۾ ملوث ٿي سگهن ٿيون، تنهنڪري &quot;نگهبانن جي به نگراني ڪرڻي پوي ٿي&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.csmonitor.com/2004/1126/p06s02-wogi.html Sex charges haunt UN forces; In places like Congo and Kosovo, peacekeepers have been accused of abusing the people they're protecting,&quot;] ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'', November 26, 2004, accessed February 16, 2010.&lt;/ref&gt;

2006ع ۾ گڏيل قومن ۾ [[اردن]] جي مستقل نمائندي [[شهزادو زيد رعد زيد الحسين]] جي سربراهيءَ ۾ ٿيل جاچ جي نتيجي ۾ هڪ تفصيلي رپورٽ جاري ٿي، جنهن ۾ خاص طور تي [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] ۾ ٿيل جنسي استحصال جي ڪيترن ئي واقعن کي بيان ڪيو ويو. رپورٽ موجب، جنسي استحصال گهڻو ڪري جسم فروشي جي صورت ۾ ٿيندو هو، جتي جنسي لاڳاپن جي بدلي اوسطاً هڪ کان ٽي آمريڪي ڊالر ادا ڪيا ويندا هئا. ڪن حالتن ۾ عورتن کي کاڌي يا روزگار جو لالچ ڏئي جنسي لاڳاپن تي مجبور ڪيو ويندو هو، جڏهن ته ڪجهه نوجوان عورتن ٻڌايو ته کين زبردستي جنسي زيادتي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ڪجهه رقم يا کاڌو ڏنو ويندو هو ته جيئن اهو عمل رضامنديءَ وارو لڳي.&lt;ref&gt;al-Hussein, Prince Zeid Ra'ad Zeid. (2005) &quot;A Comprehensive Strategy to Eliminate Future Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations.&quot; Report to the UN Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations: 8.&lt;/ref&gt;

مئي کان سيپٽمبر 2004ع تائين جنسي استحصال جا 72 الزام سامهون آيا، جن مان 68 فوجي اهلڪارن ۽ 4 شهري عملي خلاف هئا. سال جي آخر تائين اهڙن الزامن جو انگ 105 تائين پهچي ويو. انهن مان 45 سيڪڙو الزام 18 سالن کان گهٽ عمر وارن سان جنسي لاڳاپن بابت هئا، جڏهن ته 31 سيڪڙو بالغ جسم فروش عورتن سان لاڳاپيل هئا. زنا بالجبر تقريباً 13 سيڪڙو ۽ جنسي زيادتي 5 سيڪڙو الزامن تي مشتمل هئي، جڏهن ته باقي 6 سيڪڙو ٻئي قسم جي جنسي استحصال سان واسطو رکندا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;al-Hussein, Prince Zeid Ra'ad Zeid. (2005) &quot;A Comprehensive Strategy to Eliminate Future Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations.&quot; Report to the UN Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations: 8-9.&lt;/ref&gt; گهڻا الزام [[پاڪستان]]، [[يوراگوئي]]، [[مراڪش]]، [[تيونس]]، [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] ۽ [[نيپال]] سان تعلق رکندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Allred2006&quot;/&gt;

[[يوراگوئي]] جي صدر [[خوسي موخيڪا]]، گڏيل قومن جي يوراگوئي فوجين تي 18 سالن جي هڪ هيٽي نوجوان سان مبينا زنا بالجبر جي واقعي تي [[هيٽي]] جي صدر [[ميشيل مارٽيلي]] کان معافي ورتي. مارٽيلي چيو ته &quot;هڪ نوجوان هيٽي شهري سان ٿيل اجتماعي زنا بالجبر کي بنا سزا نه ڇڏيو ويندو.&quot; واقعي ۾ ملوث هجڻ جي شڪ ۾ چار فوجين کي حراست ۾ ورتو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-haiti-uruguay-un-idUSTRE78603I20110907|title=Uruguay apologises over alleged rape by U.N. peacekeepers|newspaper=Reuters|access-date=October 23, 2014|date=September 7, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/Headlines/Article.aspx?id=236953|title=Uruguay to apologise over alleged rape by UN peacekeepers|date=September 21, 2010 |access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جولاءِ 2007ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي [[امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون کاتو]] (DPKO) [[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]] ۾ مقرر 734 مراڪشي فوجين جي پوري دستي کي الزام سامهون اچڻ کان پوءِ ڪئمپن تائين محدود ڪري ڇڏيو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن مان ڪجهه تي نابالغ ڇوڪرين سان جنسي زيادتي جا الزام هئا. ايندڙ سالن دوران گڏيل قومن جي [[گڏيل قومن جي اندروني نگراني جون خدمتون کاتو]] (OIOS) اهڙن 80 ڪيسن جي جاچ ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Simic|first=Olivera|title=Regulation of Sexual Conduct in UN Peacekeeping Operations |chapter=UN Peacekeeping Operations: The Emerging Problem of Sexual Exploitation |date=2012|pages=13–38|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-28484-7_2|isbn=978-3-642-28483-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ [[مرڪزي آفريقي جمهوريه]] ۾ ڪم ڪندڙ [[فرانس]]، [[گيبون]] ۽ [[برونڊي]] جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف پڻ الزام لڳا. انهن ۾ [[ڪيمو صوبو|ڪيمو صوبي]] ۾ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 108 ماڻهن سان جنسي استحصال ۽ جنسي زيادتي جا الزام شامل هئا، جن مان اڪثريت نابالغ هئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/01/world/africa/un-peacekeeping-hit-by-new-allegations-of-sickening-sex-abuse.html?_r=0|title=U.N. Peacekeeping Hit By New Allegations of 'Sickening' Sex Abuse|last=Gladstone|first=Rick|date=2016|access-date=April 17, 2016|newspaper=The New York Times}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2016ع ۾ [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] جي اوڀر واري [[اتر ڪيئو]] صوبي ۾ مقرر امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف به نوان الزام لڳا. [[تنزانيا]] ۽ گڏيل قومن گڏيل جاچ شروع ڪئي، جنهن ۾ تنزاني فوجين تي جنسي استحصال جا 18 الزام شامل هئا، جن مان اٺ نابالغن سان لاڳاپيل هئا. انهن الزامن ۾ 16 تنزاني، هڪ [[ملاوي]] ۽ هڪ ڏکڻ آفريقي فوجي جو نالو آيو. گڏيل قومن مارچ 2016ع ۾ ٻڌايو ته جنسي استحصال بابت الزامن ۾ نمايان واڌ ٿي آهي، جنهن ۾ 21 ملڪن جا فوجي شامل هئا. انهن مان گهڻا الزام آفريقي ملڪن جهڙوڪ [[ڪيمرون]]، [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]]، [[تنزانيا]]، [[بينن]]، [[برڪينا فاسو]]، [[برونڊي]]، [[گھانا]]، [[مڊگاسڪر]]، [[نائيجر]]، [[نائيجيريا]]، [[روانڊا]]، [[سينيگال]] ۽ [[ٽوگو]] سان تعلق رکندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/probe-opens-un-troops-alleged-sex-abuse-dr-155023758.html|title=Probe Opens into UN Troops' Alleged Sex Abuse in DR Congo|date=2016|access-date=April 17, 2016|via=Yahoo News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ وارا ۽ هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جو بحران ===

پهرين [[ايسوسيئيٽيڊ پريس]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Katz |first=Jonathan M. |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/health/2013276274_apcbhaitidiseaseoutbreak.html |title=Nation &amp; World &amp;#124; UN probes base as source of Haiti cholera outbreak &amp;#124; Seattle Times Newspaper |publisher=Seattletimes.com |date=October 27, 2010 |access-date=July 28, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پوءِ ''[[نيو يارڪ ٽائيمز]]''،&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/01/world/americas/haitis-cholera-outraced-the-experts-and-tainted-the-un.html?pagewanted=all In Haiti, Global Failures on a Cholera Epidemic; In-depth New York Times piece investigating UN role in introducing cholera] ''[[New York Times]]'', March 31, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; ''[[الجزيره عربي]]''،&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.aljazeera.com/video/americas/2012/03/201237194798262.html UN likely to blame for Haiti Cholera Outbreak] ''[[الجزيره عربي]]'', March 7, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اي بي سي نيوز]]&lt;ref&gt;[https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/scientists-soldiers-brought-deadly-superbug-americas/story?id=15341129 Scientists: UN Soldiers Brought Deadly Superbug to Americas] ''[[اي بي سي نيوز]]'', January 12, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; پاران شايع ٿيل اهم سائنسي ثبوتن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته [[نيپال]] سان تعلق رکندڙ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا، جيڪي [[هيٽي]] جي [[ميريباليه]] واري علائقي ۾ هڪ ڏورانهين اڏي تي مقرر هئا، 2010ع جي آڪٽوبر کان ملڪ کي متاثر ڪندڙ خطرناڪ [[هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا (2010ع واري ڏهاڪي)|ڪالرا جي وبا]] جو سبب بڻيا.

[[ڪالرا]] پاڻيءَ وسيلي پکڙجندڙ بيماري آهي، جيڪا سخت دستن ۽ الٽين جو سبب بڻجي ٿي، ۽ جيڪڏهن مريض کي بروقت جسم ۾ پاڻي ۽ لوڻ جي کوٽ پوري ڪرڻ وارو علاج (rehydration) نه ملي ته ڪجهه ئي ڪلاڪن اندر موت جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿي. جولاءِ 2012ع تائين هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا دنيا جي سڀ کان وڏي وبا بڻجي چڪي هئي، جنهن ۾ لڳ ڀڳ 7,500 ماڻهو فوت ٿي چڪا هئا، جڏهن ته تقريباً 585,000 هيٽي وارا (يعني هر ويهن مان هڪ ماڻهو) هن بيماري ۾ مبتلا ٿي چڪا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.cdc.gov/haiticholera/haiti_cholera.htm Haiti Cholera: One Year Later], [[بيمارين جي ضابطي ۽ روڪٿام جا مرڪز]] October 25, 2011, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.mspp.gouv.ht/site/downloads/Rapport%20journalier%20MSPP%20du%2022%20juillet%202012.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407031228/http://www.mspp.gouv.ht/site/downloads/Rapport%20journalier%20MSPP%20du%2022%20juillet%202012.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Haitian Ministry of Public Health and Population Cholera Report of July 22, 2012, 22 July 2011, accessed 30 July 2012|archive-date=April 7, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا بابت گڏيل قومن پاران مقرر ڪيل آزاد ماهرن جي پينل موجب، امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جي اڏي تي صفائي ۽ نيڪال جا انتظام غير محفوظ هئا، جنهن سبب گهٽ ۾ گهٽ ٻن طريقن سان هيٽي جي دريائي نظام ۾ آلودگي پکڙجي. رپورٽ موجب، &quot;مکيه غسل خاني ۽ ٽوائليٽن واري حصي ۾ پاڻيءَ جي پائيپن جي جوڙجڪ بي ترتيب هئي، جنهن سبب آلودگي ملڻ جو وڏو خطرو موجود هو، خاص طور تي اهي پائيپ جيڪي هڪ کليل نيڪال واري نالي جي مٿان گذرندا هئا، جيڪو سڄي ڪئمپ مان وهي سڌو [[ميئي ندي]] جي معاون نديءَ ۾ ڇوڙ ڪندو هو.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;UNCholeraReport&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/haiti/UN-cholera-report-final.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110506001548/https://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/haiti/UN-cholera-report-final.pdf|url-status=live|title=Final Report of the Independent Panel of Experts on the Cholera Outbreak in Haiti, pages 21-22, July 2011, accessed 30 July 2012|archive-date=May 6, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

پينل اهو پڻ ٻڌايو ته ميريباليه واري اڏي ۽ ٻن ٻين اڏن مان نڪرندڙ گندو پاڻي باقاعدگي سان هڪ کليل، غير محفوظ سيپٽڪ کڏ ۾ وڌو ويندو هو، جيڪا ٻوڏ اچڻ وقت پاڻيءَ سان ڀرجي ويندي هئي ۽ برساتن دوران ان جو گندو پاڻي ميئي نديءَ جي معاون وهڪري ۾ داخل ٿي ويندو هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;UNCholeraReport&quot; /&gt;

نومبر 2011ع ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا کان متاثر ٿيل 5,000 کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن گڏيل قومن جي اندروني دعوائن واري نظام ۾ درخواست داخل ڪئي. هنن وبا تي ضابطو آڻڻ لاءِ صاف پاڻي ۽ صفائي جي بنيادي ڍانچي جي فراهمي، ذاتي نقصانن جو معاوضو ۽ گڏيل قومن کان باضابطه معافي جو مطالبو ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15648110|title=Haiti cholera demand against UN|date=November 9, 2011|work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جولاءِ 2012ع ۾ [[آمريڪا جي گڏيل رياستن جي ڪانگريس]] جي 104 ميمبرن هڪ خط تي صحيون ڪيون، جنهن ۾ چيو ويو ته &quot;گڏيل قومن جي قدمن&quot; سبب هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا پکڙيو، ۽ گڏيل قومن کي گهر ڪئي وئي ته هو پنهنجي ذميواري قبول ڪري ۽ وبا جي خاتمي لاءِ عملي قدم کڻي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18928405|title=Haiti cholera 'UN responsibility'|first=Mark|last=Doyle|date=July 20, 2012|work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ گڏيل قومن انهن دعوائن کي رد ڪري ڇڏيو، جنهن کان پوءِ متاثرن جي وڪيلن اعلان ڪيو ته هو گڏيل قومن خلاف عدالت ۾ مقدمو داخل ڪندا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ijdh.org/cholera-litigation/ |title=Institute for Justice and Democracy in Haiti: Cholera Litigation |publisher=Ijdh.org |date=October 21, 2010 |access-date=July 28, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:امن]]
[[زمرو:تنظيمون]]
[[زمرو:گڏيل قومون]]
[[زمرو:عالمي سياست]]
[[زمرو:بين الاقوامي لاڳاپا]]</text>
      <sha1>32flyrzcj3hv51kuiqz6irkxbrzqyln</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399330</id>
      <parentid>399329</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T21:56:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399330</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="115815" sha1="tbs59ue0o83w9ky9l71j9zarofquo3x" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|دائمي امن لاءِ سازگار حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ خاطر ڪيل سرگرميون}}


[[File:Italian Soldier UNIFIL 2 Lebanon 2007.jpg|thumb|[[اطالوي فوج]] جو هڪ [[سپاهي]] لبنان ۾ [[يونيفل]] مشن دوران پهرو ڏئي رهيو آهي.]]

'''امن قائم رکندڙ فوج''' (Peacekeeping Force) انهن سرگرمين، خاص طور فوجي سرگرمين،&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Peacekeeping&quot;. Oxford Languages. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جن جو مقصد اهڙيون حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ هوندو آهي جيڪي پائيدار [[امن]] جي قيام لاءِ سازگار هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/|title=United Nations Peacekeeping|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; تحقيق مان عام طور اهو ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون [[شهري جاني نقصان|شهري]] ۽ جنگي ميدان ۾ ٿيندڙ جاني نقصان کي گهٽائين ٿيون ۽ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي پڻ گهٽائين ٿيون.

[[گڏيل قومون]] (UN) ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل [[قومي رياست]]ن جي حڪومتن ۽ [[تنظيم]]ن جي وچ ۾ عام طور اهو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو ته عالمي سطح تي امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا جنگ کان پوءِ وارن علائقن ۾ امن جي عمل جي نگراني ۽ مشاهدو ڪندا آهن، ۽ اڳوڻن ويڙهاڪن کي انهن امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ ۾ مدد ڏيندا آهن، جن جا هو پابند بڻيل هوندا آهن. اهڙي مدد ڪيترين ئي صورتن ۾ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ اعتماد سازي جا قدم، اقتدار جي ورهاست جا انتظام، چونڊن ۾ مدد، [[قانون جي حڪمراني]] کي مضبوط بڻائڻ، ۽ معاشي ۽ سماجي ترقي کي هٿي ڏيڻ. ان ڪري [[گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا]] (جن کي سندن هلڪي نيري [[بيريٽ]] يا هيلمٽ سبب اڪثر '''نيري بيريٽ''' يا '''نيرا هيلمٽ''' چيو ويندو آهي) ۾ فوجي، [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس آفيسر]] ۽ شهري عملي جا ميمبر شامل ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dpko/ |title=Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dfs/ |title=Department of Field Support (DFS) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جا مشن هلائيندڙ واحد تنظيم گڏيل قومون نه آهن. گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم ڪندڙ قوتن ۾ [[ڪوسوو فورس]] جي [[نيٽو]] مشن (گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان)، [[سينا ٻيٽ نما]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]]، ۽ [[يورپي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[EUFOR RCA]]، گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان) ۽ [[آفريقي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[سوڊان ۾ آفريقي يونين مشن]]) پاران منظم ڪيل امن مشن شامل آهن.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

[[بين الاقوامي قانون]] موجب، امن قائم ڪندڙ پنهنجي غيرجانبدار حيثيت سبب [[غير جنگجو]] (non-combatants) شمار ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي ٻن يا وڌيڪ [[جنگ ڪندڙ ڌر]]ن جي وچ ۾ تڪرار ۾ غيرجانبدار هوندا آهن (بلڪل اهڙيءَ طرح جيئن امن قائم رکڻ جي ذميوارين کان ٻاهر موجود غيرجانبدار ماڻهو ۽ ملڪيت). تنهنڪري انهن کي هر حال ۾ حملن کان تحفظ حاصل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule33 |title=Rule 33. Personnel and Objects Involved in a Peacekeeping Mission|publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]|access-date=April 7, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فائل:UN Soldiers in Eritrea.jpeg|thumb|right|upright=1.00|نيدرلينڊز جا ڊچ فوجي اقوام متحده جي امن جي قيام جي فورس ۾ ايٿوپيا ۽ ايريٽيريا جي سرحد تي گڏيل قومن پاران چوڪسي ڪندي]]

'''امن جي بحالي واري فوج'''{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي=Peace Keeping Force}}
ٻن ملڪن ياڌرين جي وچ ۾ ڪو به تڪرار ايترو زور وٺي وڃي، جو ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت کانسواءِ اهو ٽري نه سگهي، ته ٽين ڌر امن قائم ڪرڻ (Peace Keeping) لاءِ مُختلف اُپاءُ وٺندي آهي. ڪنهن به تڪرار جي حل لاءِ ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت جو مقصد ٻن ڌُرين ۾ رڳو صُلح ڪرائڻ هوندو آهي، جنهن لاءِ فوجي ۽ سُفارتي طريقا ڪتب آندا ويندا آهن. ان کان سواءِ گھُرج پوڻ تي ٽين ڌر (يا وچين ڌر) جهيڙو ڪندڙ ڌرين تي مُختلف قسمن جو دٻاءُ رکندي آهي، جيڪڏهن ڌريون پوءِ به جهيڙي کي نه ٿيون ختم ڪن، ته مٿانئن فوجي قدم کڻڻ لاءِ به اڳڀرائي ڪئي ويندي آهي. جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جو عالمي ادارو|گڏيل قومن]] جو ادارو قائم ڪيو ويو هيو ته ان وقت ٻي عالمي جنگ ختم ٿي هئي، پر ملڪن جا پاڻ ۾ تڪرار پوءِ به هلي رهيا هئا ۽ ”سرد جنگ“ به شروع ٿي چڪي هئي، دُنيا جي امن کي گهڻن قسمن جا خطرا پيدا ٿي چڪا هئا. 1950ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل بين الاقوامي جهيڙن کي پاسيرو ڪرڻ ۽ امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ”احتياطي سفارتڪاري“ (Preventive Diplomacy) جو اصطلاح اڳيان آندو هو. انهيءَ قسم جي حڪمت عملي ۾ ڪنهن به تڪرار کي رڳو ٺارڻ جو حل ڏنل هيو، پر جهيڙي کي مستقل طور ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪجهه واڌو قدم به گهربل هئا. انهيءَ ڪري اهڙي صورتحال ۾ اڳتي هلي ”مشن ڪريپ“ (Mission Creep) جو اصطلاح ڪتب آندو ويو، جنهن ۾ جهيڙي کي مڪمل طور ختم ڪرڻ جي تجويز ڏني وئي. انهيءَ حوالي سان 1956ع ۾ ڪئناڊا جي پرڏيهي معاملن جي وزير ۽ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”ڊگ هئمرشولڊ“ گڏيل قومن جي اداري جي پلئٽفارم تان ”امن قائم ڪرڻ واري فوج“ (Peace Keeping Force) قائم ڪئي، جنهن جي شعبا بندي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ان جي ورديءَ کانسواءِ خاص قسم جي ٽوپي به تيار ڪرائي وئي ۽ ان خاص ٽوپيءَ جو رنگ ”نيرو“ مقرر ڪيو ويو. ٽوپيءَ کي ٻين فوجي ٽوپين کان الڳ رنگ ڏيڻ جو مقصد، بين الاقوامي امن فوج جي انفراديت کي ظاهر ڪرڻ آهي. ان هوندي به ”امن فوج“ جي طريقيڪار ۽ اختيارن کي اڃا تائين چڱيءَ ريت گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر ۾ بيان نه ڪيو ويو آهي. گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر جي 6 ۽ 7 باب ۾، امن جي ڪوشش وٺڻ لاءِ جيڪي تفصيل بيان ڪيا ويا آهن، انهن سان امن جي بحاليءَ واري عمل کي به جوڙيو ويو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن جي بحاليءَ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي پڌرنامي جي روح مطابق جوڙجڪ ضروري آهي. انهن کوٽن جي باوجود، گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج، دُنيا ۾ امن ۽ صلح جي لاءِ گھڻن هنڌن مثال طور؛ ڪمبوڊيا، نميبيا، انگولا، لبنان، ايراني نار ۽ [[سوماليا|صوماليا]] وغيره ۾ ڪاميابيءَ سان پنهنجون ذميواريون پوريون ڪري چڪي آهي. امن فوج جي اهڙي اهميت کي محسوس ڪندي، گڏيل قومن جي اداري ڪيترن مُتاثر ملڪن جي داخلي معاملن ۾ به هن فوج جو استعمال مُناسب ۽ بهتر سمجهيو. منڍ ۾ اها فوج ٻن تڪراري ڌُر جي وچ ۾ هلندڙ جهيِڙو ٽارڻ لاءِ ڪتب آندي ويندي هئي، پر 1988ع کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جي اداري اهڙن ملڪن ۾ به کيس ذميواري سونپيون، جتي گهرو ويڙھ ۾ اَڙيل مُختلف ڌرين ۾ جنگ جاري هُئي ۽ اُتي انتظامي معاملا هيٺ مٿي لڳا پيا هُئا. اهڙن مُلڪن ۾ امن فوج کي گڏيل قومن طرفان چونڊون ڪرائڻ، انتظامي معاملن کي سُڌارڻ، عوام کي تحفظ ڏيڻ ۽ جهيڙن کان تنگ اچي ملڪ ڇڏي ويل ماڻهن کي واپس پنهنجي اباڻي وطن ۾ ٻيهر آباد ڪرائڻ جا اختيار به ڏنا ويا. ٻئي طرف اها به حقيقت آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج کي گھڻن معاملن ۽ هنڌن تي ڪن ملڪن پنهنجن خاص مقصدن لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو. ان کانسواءِ گھڻن علائقن (جهڙوڪ ڪشمير) ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن فوج پنهنجي مقصد حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام وئي آهي. سندس مُقابلي ۾ اولھ جي مُلڪن جي فوجي اتحاد نيٽو امن فوج جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ متحرڪ ۽ اثرائتي رهي آهي. 1992ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”بترس غالي“، امن جي آڻڻ لاءِ خاص علائقي ۽ خاص حالتن آهر مداخلت ڪرڻ ۽ نون اختيار ڏيڻ لاءِ اداري آڏو تجويزون پيش ڪيون، پر ان ڏس ۾ مڪمل سوڀاري ٿيڻ لاءِ ”پيس ڪيپگ“ جو عمل نون ضابطن، اختيارن ۽ قانونن جي انتظار ۾ آهي. 
&lt;ref&gt;[http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/define/Peace%20Keeping%20Force.php سنڌي آنلائين ڊڪشنري]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} پاران [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد&lt;/ref&gt;

== وصفون ۽ امن قائم رکڻ جي عمل جا قسم ==

=== گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ===
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن}}

==== ڇهون باب ۽ ستون باب وارا مشن ====

امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن جا ڪيترائي مختلف قسم آهن. مثال طور، پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي ڪتاب ''Does Peacekeeping Work?'' ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن کي چئن مختلف قسمن ۾ ورهايو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=Chapter 7}}&lt;/ref&gt; انهن مشنن جو قسم ۽ انهن تي عملدرآمد جو طريقو گهڻي حد تائين ان اختيارنامي (mandate) تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، جنهن تحت انهن کي اختيار ڏنو ويندو آهي.

فورٽنا جي بيان ڪيل چئن قسمن مان ٽي اهڙا آهن، جيڪي ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن ۽ انهن کي عام طور ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ڇهون باب|ڇهين باب]]'' وارا مشن چيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته چوٿون قسم ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]]'' وارو مشن هوندو آهي.

ڇهين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشنن لاءِ جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي لازمي هوندي آهي؛ جيڪڏهن اها رضامندي ختم ٿي وڃي ته امن قائم ڪندڙ دستن کي علائقو ڇڏڻو پوندو. ان جي ابتڙ، ستين باب وارن مشنن کي قانوني طور رضامندي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي، جيتوڻيڪ عملي طور اها موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي. جيڪڏهن رضامندي بعد ۾ ختم به ٿي وڃي ته به اهڙن مشنن کي واپس وڃڻ ضروري نه هوندو.

# '''مشاهدي وارا مشن''' (Observation Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي يا شهري مبصرن جا ننڍا دستا شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي جنگبندي، فوجن جي واپسي يا جنگبندي واري معاهدي ۾ ڄاڻايل ٻين شرطن جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. اهي عام طور بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا آهن ۽ سندن بنيادي ذميواري رڳو مشاهدو ڪرڻ ۽ رپورٽون تيار ڪرڻ هوندي آهي؛ تنهن ڪري جيڪڏهن ڪا ڌر معاهدي جي ڀڃڪڙي ڪري ته اهي مداخلت ڪرڻ جا مجاز نه هوندا آهن. مثال طور [[انگولا]] ۾ 1991ع وارو [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن II]] (UNAVEM II) ۽ [[اولهه صحارا]] ۾ [[اولهه صحارا بابت راءِ شماري لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو مشن]] (MINURSO).

# '''وچٿري مشن''' (Interpositional Missions)، جن کي روايتي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، نسبتاً وڏن ۽ هلڪي هٿياربند فوجي دستن تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جيڪي تڪرار کان پوءِ ٻن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ طور مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهي ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ بفر زون جو ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. مثال طور 1994ع ۾ [[انگولا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن III]] (UNAVEM III) ۽ 1996ع ۾ [[گوئٽي مالا]] ۾ [[MINUGUA]].

# '''گهڻ رخا مشن''' (Multidimensional Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس]] عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو جامع امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندو آهي. اهي رڳو مشاهدو يا ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رڪاوٽ بڻجڻ تائين محدود نه هوندا آهن، پر چونڊن جي نگراني، پوليس ۽ سلامتي ادارن جي سڌارن، ادارن جي تعمير، معاشي ترقي ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي شعبن ۾ پڻ حصو وٺندا آهن. مثال طور [[نيميبيا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو عبوري امدادي گروهه]] (UNTAG)، [[ايل سلواڊور]] ۾ [[ONUSAL]] ۽ [[موزمبيق]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUMOZ).

# '''[[امن لاڳو ڪندڙ]] مشن''' (Peace Enforcement Missions): اهي ستين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشن هوندا آهن ۽ اڳين ٽن قسمن جي ابتڙ، جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ جا پابند نه هوندا آهن. اهي شهري ۽ فوجي ٻنهي قسمن جي عملي تي مشتمل گهڻ رخا مشن هوندا آهن. انهن وٽ نسبتاً وڏي ۽ بهتر هٿياربند فوج هوندي آهي ۽ انهن کي صرف پنهنجي بچاءَ کان وڌيڪ مقصدن لاءِ به طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل هوندو آهي. مثال طور [[اولهه آفريڪا]] ۾ [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري جو نگراني گروهه]] (ECOMOG)، 1999ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو سيرا ليون مشن]] (UNAMSIL)، ۽ [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ [[نيٽو]] جا [[IFOR]] ۽ [[SFOR]] آپريشن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;/&gt;

==== سرد جنگ دوران ۽ ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ====

[[سرد جنگ]] جي دور ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جا اڪثر مشن روايتي نوعيت جا هئا، جن ۾ امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا ملڪن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ جنگن کان پوءِ مقرر ڪيا ويندا هئا ته جيئن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ بڻجن ۽ امن معاهدن تي عملدرآمد کي يقيني بڻائين. اهي مشن رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا هئا ۽ گهڻو ڪري مبصر بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا هئا، جيئن [[وچ اوڀر]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) ۽ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] بابت [[ڪشمير بابت گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP). ڪجهه مشن هٿياربند به هئا، جهڙوڪ [[سوئيز بحران]] دوران قائم ڪيل [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I). مجموعي طور اهي مشن پنهنجي مقرر ڪيل ڪردار ۾ ڪامياب رهيا.

[[سرد جنگ کان پوءِ وارو دور|سرد جنگ کان پوءِ]] گڏيل قومن امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ جامع ۽ گهڻ رخي طريقيڪار اختيار ڪيو. 1992ع ۾ ان وقت جي [[گڏيل قومن جو سيڪريٽري جنرل|سيڪريٽري جنرل]] [[بوتروس بوتروس غالي]] هڪ رپورٽ تيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ امن قائم رکڻ بابت پنهنجو جامع تصور پيش ڪيو. ''[[امن لاءِ ايجنڊا]]'' (An Agenda for Peace) نالي هن رپورٽ ۾ هن احتياطي سفارتڪاري، امن لاڳو ڪرڻ، امن ڪرائڻ، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ بحاليءَ کي هڪ ٻئي سان ڳنڍيل قدمن طور بيان ڪيو، جن جي ذريعي سرد جنگ کان پوءِ واري عالمي سياست ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ڪردار وڌيڪ اثرائتو بڻجي سگهي.

==== گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جا وسيع مقصد ====

[[مائيڪل ڊوئل]] ۽ نڪولس سامبانس پنهنجي ڪتاب ''The UN Record on Peacekeeping Operations'' ۾ بوتروس غالي جي رپورٽ جو خلاصو پيش ڪندي احتياطي سفارتڪاري، اعتماد سازي جي قدمن (جهڙوڪ حقيقت معلوم ڪرڻ وارا مشن)، مبصر مشن، ۽ تشدد جي خطري کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي اختيار هيٺ فوج مقرر ڪرڻ کي پائيدار امن لاءِ اهم ذريعا قرار ڏين ٿا. سندن بيان موجب:

# '''امن لاڳو ڪرڻ''' (Peace Enforcement): گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي منظور ڪيل جنگبندي يا معاهدي تي عمل ڪرائڻ لاءِ، ضرورت پوڻ تي ڌرين جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به فوجي طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ. اهڙا مشن عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]] تحت هلندا آهن ۽ انهن ۾ مقرر فوجون نسبتاً وڌيڪ هٿياربند هونديون آهن.

# '''امن ڪرائڻ''' (Peacemaking): گڏيل قومن جي سرپرستي هيٺ ثالثي ۽ ڳالهين ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين کي پرامن حل تي راضي ڪرڻ. هي عمل عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] جي ڇهين باب تحت ڪيو ويندو آهي.

# '''امن قائم رکڻ''' (Peacekeeping): جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي سان هلڪي هٿياربند گڏيل قومن جي موجودگي قائم ڪرڻ، اعتماد پيدا ڪرڻ ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ٿيل معاهدن جي نگراني ڪرڻ. ان سان گڏ سفارتي ڪوششون پڻ جاري رهنديون آهن ته جيئن جامع ۽ پائيدار امن حاصل ڪري سگهجي.

# '''تڪرار کان پوءِ بحالي''' (Post-Conflict Reconstruction): معاشي ۽ سماجي سهڪار ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي بحال ڪرڻ، سياسي، سماجي ۽ معاشي ادارن کي مضبوط ڪرڻ، مستقبل ۾ تشدد جي امڪان کي گهٽائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|date=2007|title=The UN Record On Peacekeeping Operations|journal=International Journal|volume=63|issue=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ ۾ غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) سان گڏجي [[ثقافتي ورثو|ثقافتي ورثي]] جي تحفظ لاءِ ڪم ڪرڻ پڻ شامل آهي. ثقافتي ورثي جي حفاظت بابت گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري وابستگي 2012ع کان جاري آهي ۽ ان کي آهستي آهستي وڌايو پيو وڃي. ان سلسلي ۾ 2019ع ۾ [[يونيفل]] ۽ [[بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل]] جو لبنان ۾ [[يونيسڪو عالمي ورثو]] جي تحفظ لاءِ گڏيل مشن نمايان مثال آهي. فوجي ۽ شهري ماهرن پاران مقامي آباديءَ سان گڏجي ثقافتي ورثي جو تحفظ ڪيترن ئي تڪراري علائقن ۾ مستقبل جي پرامن ۽ معاشي ترقيءَ جو بنياد بڻجي ٿو. بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل جي صدر [[ڪارل فون هيبسبرگ]]، اپريل 2019ع ۾ لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ [[يونيسڪو]] جي مشن دوران چيو: ''&quot;ثقافتي ورثو ڪنهن به علائقي ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جي سڃاڻپ جو حصو هوندو آهي. جيڪڏهن توهان انهن جي ثقافت تباهه ڪريو ٿا ته سندن سڃاڻپ به ختم ٿي وڃي ٿي. نتيجي ۾ ڪيترائي ماڻهو بي گهر ٿي وڃن ٿا، سندن مستقبل بابت اميدون ختم ٿي وڃن ٿيون ۽ هو آخرڪار پنهنجو وطن ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ٿين ٿا.&quot;''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Karl von Habsburg auf Mission im Libanon|date=April 28, 2019 |url=https://www.krone.at/1911689|language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Jyot Hosagrahar: ''Culture: at the heart of SDGs.'' UNESCO-Kurier, April-Juni 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rick Szostak: ''The Causes of Economic Growth: Interdisciplinary Perspectives.'' Springer Science &amp; Business Media, 2009, {{ISBN|9783540922827}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bundesheer.at/cms/artikel.php?ID=10118 &quot;Blue Helmet Forum 2019 - Protection of Cultural Heritage in Peace Operations&quot;, Austrian Armed Forces].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017nian-di-3qi/historic-resolution-protect-cultural-heritage|title=A historic resolution to protect cultural heritage, The UNESCO Courier}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/action-plan-to-preserve-heritage-sites-during-conflict|title=Action plan to preserve heritage sites during conflict|website=United Nations Peacekeeping}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''UNESCO Director-General calls for stronger cooperation for heritage protection at the Blue Shield International General Assembly.'' UNESCO, September 13, 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم رکڻ ===
{{See also|غير گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي فهرست|نيٽو امن قائم رکڻ|يورپي يونين جي فوجي ۽ شهري مشنن جي فهرست|آفريقي يونين جي فوجي مداخلتن جي فهرست}}

[[File:En-MFO1.JPG|thumb|right|1989ع ۾ [[مصر]] جي [[سنائي اپٻيٽ|سنائي]] واري علائقي جي [[ايل گوراح]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) جي غير گڏيل قومن واري امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن سان مقرر ڪيل ڪينيڊا جا [[CH135 ٽوئن هيوئي]] هيليڪاپٽر.]]

[[File:75Parad 04.jpg|thumb|[[آذربائيجان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جا ميمبر، [[2020 ماسڪو فتح پريڊ]] دوران مڪمل فوجي ورديءَ ۾.]]

سڀئي بين الاقوامي امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا سڌي طرح گڏيل قومن جي ڪنٽرول هيٺ ڪم نٿا ڪن. 1981ع ۾ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ [[مصر]] جي وچ ۾ ٿيل هڪ معاهدي تحت [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) قائم ڪئي وئي، جيڪا اڄ تائين [[سنائي اپٻيٽ]] ۾ امن معاهدي تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;10TAGpgA-1&quot;&gt;10 Tactical Air Group: ''Canadian Contingent Multinational Force and Observers Handbook'' (unclassified), page A-1. DND, Ottawa, 1986.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[آفريقي يونين]] (AU) آفريقي امن ۽ سلامتي جو اهڙو ڍانچو (آفريڪن پيس اينڊ سڪيورٽي آرڪيٽيڪچر) قائم ڪرڻ تي ڪم ڪري رهي آهي، جيڪو براعظم ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري نڀائي سگهي. جيڪڏهن ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ [[نسل ڪشي]] يا انساني حقن جون ٻيون سنگين ڀڃڪڙيون ٿين، ته آفريقي يونين جي جنرل اسيمبلي جي منظوري سان، ان ملڪ جي حڪومت جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن موڪلي سگهجي ٿو. هن نظام، جنهن ۾ [[آفريقي اسٽينڊ بائي فورس]] (ASF) پڻ شامل آهي، جي قيام جو منصوبو 2015ع کان اڳ نه هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/african-peace-and-security-architecture-already-proving-useful-even-though-it-still-work |title=The African Peace and Security Architecture is already proving useful even though it is still work in progress |publisher=dandc.eu |date=August 27, 2013 |access-date=November 14, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

علائقائي سطح تي [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري]] (ECOWAS) پنهنجي ڪجهه ميمبر ملڪن ۾ ڪيترائي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا آهن، ۽ ان کي &quot;آفريڪا جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ ترقي يافته علائقائي امن ۽ سلامتي وارو نظام&quot; قرار ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Oni|first1=Cyril I.|date=2009|journal=African Security|volume=2|pages=119–135|doi=10.1080/19362200903361945|title=Economic Community of West African States on the Ground: Comparing Peacekeeping in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea Bissau, and Côte D'Ivoire|issue=2–3|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''غير هٿياربند شهري امن قائم رکڻ''' (ان آرمڊ سويلين پيس ڪيپنگ، UCP) ۾ شهري عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو تڪراري علائقن ۾ شهرين کي تشدد کان بچائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن جي قيام جي ڪوششن جي سهائتا لاءِ غير تشدد، غير مداخلت ۽ غير جانبداريءَ تي ٻڌل حڪمت عمليون اختيار ڪندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ UCP جو اصطلاح سڀني غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) ۾ هڪجهڙو عام نه آهي، پر ڪيترائي ادارا ساڳين طريقن سان ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ امن بابت هڪجهڙا مقصد رکندا آهن. انهن طريقن ۾ متاثر ماڻهن سان گڏ رهڻ، مستقل موجودگي، افواهن تي ضابطو آڻڻ، برادريءَ جي سلامتي بابت گڏجاڻيون، محفوظ لنگهن جو بندوبست ڪرڻ ۽ نگراني ڪرڻ شامل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rachel|first1=Julian|last2=Schweitzer|first2=Christine|date=2015|title=The Origins And Development of Unarmed Civilian Peacekeeping|url=http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|journal=Peace Review|volume=27|issue=1|pages=1–8|doi=10.1080/10402659.2015.1000181|s2cid=144911738|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719124249/http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|archive-date=July 19, 2018|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== مختصر تاريخ ==
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي تاريخ}}

=== قيام ۽ شروعاتي سال ===

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري نظام جي شروعات 1948ع ۾ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] [[1948ع جي عرب-اسرائيل جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ ان جي عرب پاڙيسري ملڪن وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي واري معاهدي جي نگراني لاءِ وچ اوڀر ۾ گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن کي مقرر ڪرڻ جي منظوري ڏني. هن مشن کي [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) سڏيو ويو، جيڪو اڄ تائين جاري آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/history.shtml|title=History of Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آگسٽ 1949ع ۾ سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 73 (1949ع) منظور ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNTSO کي اسرائيل ۽ انهن عرب رياستن جي وچ ۾ ٿيل چئن جنگبندي معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني جي ذميواري ڏني وئي، جيڪي ان جنگ ۾ شامل هيون. نتيجي طور، UNTSO جون سرگرميون علائقي جي پنجن رياستن، يعني [[اسرائيل]]، [[مصر]]، [[اردن]]، [[لبنان]] ۽ [[شام]] تائين ڦهلجي ويون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/untso/background.shtml|title=UNTSO Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== سرد جنگ دوران امن قائم رکڻ ===

آگسٽ 1947ع ۾ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] جي آزادي ۽ ان کان پوءِ ٿيل وڏي پيماني تي خونريزيءَ کان پوءِ، سلامتي ڪائونسل جنوري 1948ع ۾ قرارداد 39 (1948ع) منظور ڪري [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP) قائم ڪيو، جنهن جو مقصد [[ڪشمير]] بابت ٻنهي ملڪن جي وچ ۾ پيدا ٿيل تڪرار ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل ويڙهه ۾ ثالثي ڪرڻ هو.

هي مشن غير مداخلتي نوعيت جو هو ۽ ان کي [[ڄمون ۽ ڪشمير]] ۾ ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان جي وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي جي نگراني جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي. جولاءِ 1949ع ۾ [[ڪراچي معاهدو]] ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNCIP جنگبندي واري لڪير جي نگراني شروع ڪئي، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن ۽ ٻنهي ڌرين جي مقامي فوجي ڪمانڊرن جي گڏيل نگراني هيٺ هئي. هن مشن جو تسلسل اڄ به [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان ۾ گڏيل قومن جو فوجي مبصر گروپ]] (UNMOGIP) جي نالي سان جاري آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unmogip/background.shtml|title=UNMOGIP Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف ملڪن ۾ ڪُل 69 امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي منظوري ڏني.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;/&gt; انهن مان گهڻا مشن سرد جنگ جي خاتمي کان پوءِ قائم ٿيا. 1988ع کان 1998ع جي وچ ۾ گڏيل قومن 35 نوان امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا، جڏهن ته 1948ع کان 1978ع تائين صرف 13 مشن قائم ٿيا هئا، ۽ 1978ع کان 1988ع جي وچ واري ڏهاڪي دوران ڪو به نئون مشن قائم نه ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Duffey|first=Tamara|date=2000|title=Cultural Issues in Contemporary Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=7|issue=1|pages=142–168|doi=10.1080/13533310008413823|s2cid=145210823}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|142–168}}

گڏيل قومن جي پهرين هٿياربند مداخلت 1956ع جي [[سوئيز بحران]] کان پوءِ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I) قائم ڪئي وئي. هي فوج نومبر 1956ع کان جون 1967ع تائين موجود رهي ۽ ان کي [[مصر]]، [[برطانيه]]، [[فرانس]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] جي وچ ۾ جنگبندي برقرار رکڻ، مصري علائقي مان برطانوي، فرينچ ۽ اسرائيلي فوجن جي واپسي جي نگراني ڪرڻ، ۽ پوءِ مصر ۽ اسرائيل جي فوجن جي وچ ۾ بفر فورس طور ڪم ڪندي جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ جو مينڊيٽ ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unef1mandate.html|title=UNEF Mandate|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان ٿوري ئي عرصي بعد 1960ع ۾ [[ڪانگو ۾ گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUC) شروع ڪيو ويو. پنهنجي عروج تي هن مشن ۾ ويهه هزار کان وڌيڪ فوجي اهلڪار شامل هئا، ۽ ان دوران 250 گڏيل قومن جا اهلڪار مارجي ويا، جن ۾ ان وقت جو سيڪريٽري جنرل [[ڊيگ هيملشولڊ]] پڻ شامل هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/early.shtml|title=The Early Years of UN Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ONUC جو مقصد [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] مان بيلجيم جي فوجن جي واپسي کي يقيني بڻائڻ هو، جيڪي [[فورس پبليڪ]] جي بغاوت کان پوءِ بيلجيم جي شهرين ۽ اقتصادي مفادن جي تحفظ لاءِ ٻيهر داخل ٿي ويون هيون. هن مشن کي قانون ۽ امن امان بحال ڪرڻ، بغاوت ۽ نسلي تشدد کي ختم ڪرڻ، ڪانگولي سلامتي فورسن کي فني مدد ۽ تربيت ڏيڻ، ۽ ملڪ جي علائقائي سالميت ۽ سياسي خودمختياري کي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/onuc.htm|title=ONUC|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي ذميواري خاص طور تي [[ڪتانگا]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪاسائي]] جهڙن معدني وسيلن سان مالامال صوبن جي علحدگيءَ واري تحريڪ جي پسمنظر ۾ شامل ڪئي وئي. ان دور ۾ گڏيل قومن جون فوجون، ڪجهه تڪراري انداز ۾، ڪانگو جي حڪومت جي مدد ڪندي ٻنهي صوبن جي علحدگي ختم ڪرائڻ ۾ به ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

1960ع ۽ 1970ع واري ڏهاڪن دوران گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف علائقن ۾ ڪيترائي مختصر مدي وارا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن قائم ڪيا، جن ۾ [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريه ۾ سيڪريٽري جنرل جي نمائندي جو مشن]] (DOMREP)، [[اولهه نيو گني ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي فورس]] (UNSF) ۽ [[يمن ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مبصر مشن]] (UNYOM) شامل هئا. ساڳئي وقت ڪجهه ڊگهي مدي وارا مشن پڻ جاري رهيا، جهڙوڪ [[قبرص ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج]] (UNFICYP)، [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج II]] (UNEF II)، [[گڏيل قومن جي ڌرين جي الڳ ٿيڻ جي نگراني ڪندڙ فوج]] (UNDOF)، ۽ [[لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن جي عبوري فوج]] (UNIFIL).&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;/&gt;

=== 1991ع کان پوءِ ===

[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-un-holds-head.jpg|thumb|[[سراييوو جو گهيرو|سراييوو جي گهيري]] (1992ع–1993ع) دوران هڪ [[ناروي]] جو امن قائم رکڻ وارو اهلڪار؛ تصوير: [[ميخائل اِوستافيئف]].]]

[[يوگوسلاو جنگين]] دوران امن قائم رکڻ جي تجربن، خاص طور تي [[سربرينيتسا قتلِ عام]] جهڙين ناڪامين، جزوي طور [[گڏيل قومن جي امن تعمير ڪميشن]] (يونائيٽيڊ نيشنز پيس بلڊنگ ڪميشن) جي قيام جو سبب بڻيا. هي ڪميشن چونڊن ۽ ٻين شهري ادارن جي مضبوطي جهڙين سرگرمين وسيلي پائيدار امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ انجام ڏيندا آهن. هن وقت اها ڪميشن آفريڪا جي ڇهن ملڪن سان ڪم ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/projects/africa/beyond-peace-deals-united-nations-experiment-peacebuilding |title=Beyond Peace Deals: The United Nations Experiment in &quot;Peacebuilding&quot;|date=June 22, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ڳالهين سان گڏ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، ۾ عورتن جي وڌيڪ مؤثر شرڪت، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهرن جي مقرري، هٿياربند تڪرارن جا عورتن تي پوندڙ اثرن بابت وڌيڪ معلومات، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |title=UN Security Council Takes a Historic Stand Supporting Abortion Access for Women Raped in War / Library / Homepage |publisher=AWID |access-date=October 28, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203101025/http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |archive-date=December 3, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن سان امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW)، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن بابت ڪميٽي آهي، هڪ عام سفارش جاري ڪئي، جنهن موجب اهي رياستون، جيڪي گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جون ڌريون آهن، پابند آهن ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌيءَ طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ فوجون موڪلين، يا تڪرارن جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مالي يا ٻئي قسم جي مدد فراهم ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=13885&amp;LangID=E|title=OHCHR -|website=www.ohchr.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪميٽي اهو پڻ واضح ڪيو ته اهڙين رياستن کي مناسب احتياط اختيار ڪرڻ گهرجي ته جيئن [[غير رياستي ڌريون]]، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي سلامتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ٿيندڙ ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

[[پيج فورٽنا]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي مقرري بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍيو ته ''&quot;امن قائم رکڻ رسد ۽ طلب جو معاملو آهي.&quot;'' رسد جي لحاظ کان سندس مشاهدو آهي ته سلامتي ڪائونسل جي مستقل ميمبرن مان ڪنهن هڪ جي ويجهن ملڪن ۾ هلندڙ گهرو ويڙهن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن مقرر ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن. جڏهن ته طلب جي لحاظ کان مختلف تحقيقون ظاهر ڪن ٿيون ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن گهڻو ڪري انهن ملڪن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن، جتي انهن جي ضرورت سڀ کان وڌيڪ هوندي آهي، يعني جتي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تمام گهڻو هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot; /&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي جوڙجڪ ==

=== اهي ملڪ جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺن ٿا ===
{{See also|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي تعداد موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Irish troops UNMIL.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|جولاءِ 2006ع ۾ [[لائبيريا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو مشن لائبيريا]] (UNMIL) سان مقرر آئرش فوجي گشت ڪندي.]]

[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] موجب، دنيا ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ ۾ مدد ڏيڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا سڀئي ميمبر ملڪ سلامتي ڪائونسل کي ضرورت موجب فوجي دستا ۽ ٻيون سهولتون فراهم ڪندا. 1948ع کان وٺي لڳ ڀڳ 130 ملڪن امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن لاءِ فوجي اهلڪار، شهري پوليس ۽ ٻيو عملو فراهم ڪيو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ 1948ع کان وٺي سڀني امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏيندڙ اهلڪارن جو مڪمل رڪارڊ موجود ناهي، پر اندازو آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي 71 مشنن ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه لک فوجين، پوليس اهلڪارن ۽ شهرين گڏيل قومن جي جهنڊي هيٺ خدمتون انجام ڏنيون آهن. سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين 122 ملڪ گڏيل طور لڳ ڀڳ 76,000 فوجي مبصر، پوليس اهلڪار ۽ فوجي مهيا ڪري رهيا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Troop and police contributors|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/troop-and-police-contributors|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

شرڪت ڪندڙ ملڪن جو تعداد گهڻو هجڻ باوجود، امن قائم رکڻ جو وڏو بار اڃا تائين [[ترقي پذير ملڪ|ترقي پذير ملڪن]] جي هڪ بنيادي گروهه تي آهي. آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي، پوليس ۽ فوجي ماهر موڪليندڙ ڏهه ملڪ [[بنگلاديش]] (6,447)، [[نيپال]] (5,536)، [[ڀارت]] (5,481)، [[روانڊا]] (5,263)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (4,856)، [[پاڪستان]] (3,949)، [[مصر]] (2,818)، [[انڊونيشيا]] (2,818)، [[گهانا]] (2,296) ۽ [[چين]] (2,248) هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين 14,000 کان وڌيڪ شهري اهلڪار به امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ قانوني يا طبي ماهرن، استادن، مواصلاتي ٽيڪنالاجي جي ماهرن ۽ انتظامي عملي طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/civilians|title=Civilians|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

30 سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن دوران 100 کان وڌيڪ ملڪن سان تعلق رکندڙ 4,147 ماڻهو پنهنجون حياتيون وڃائي چڪا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/fatalities|title=Fatalities|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان وڌيڪ جاني نقصان [[ڀارت]] جو ٿيو، جنهن جا 174 امن اهلڪار مارجي ويا، ان کان پوءِ [[بنگلاديش]] (159)، [[پاڪستان]] (159)، [[نائيجيريا]] (157)، [[گهانا]] (145)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (138)، [[ڪينيڊا]] (123)، [[فرانس]] (115) ۽ [[برطانيه]] (106) شامل آهن. 1948ع کان وٺي سراسري طور هر سال 56 امن اهلڪار ماريا ويا، پر 2001ع کان پوءِ هي انگ لڳ ڀڳ ٻيڻو ٿي هر سال 110 تائين پهچي ويو. گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي پهرين 55 سالن دوران ٿيل ڪل جاني نقصان جو 30 سيڪڙو حصو صرف 1993ع کان 1995ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جي شعبي ۾ عالمي اتر ۽ عالمي ڏکڻ (Global North ۽ Global South) جي وچ ۾ واضح فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي وڏي اڪثريت [[عالمي ڏکڻ]] جي ترقي پذير ملڪن مان ايندي آهي. [[ٿامس جي. وائيس]] ۽ جيووانا ڪيولي موجب، ان جا ٽي اهم سبب علائقائي مفاد، بين الاقوامي وقار ۽ مالي فائدا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=February 3, 2019|title=The Global South and UN Peace Operations|url=https://www.e-ir.info/2019/02/03/the-global-south-and-un-peace-operations/|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=E-International Relations|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آفريقي ملڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا سڀ کان وڌيڪ اهلڪار فراهم ڪن ٿا، پر ساڳئي وقت آفريڪا ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جو تعداد به سڀ کان وڌيڪ آهي، ۽ گهڻا آفريقي امن اهلڪار آفريڪا جي اندر ئي مقرر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، ايٿوپيا جا لڳ ڀڳ سڀئي 4,800 امن اهلڪار پاڙيسري ملڪن [[سوڊان]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ مقرر هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺڻ سان ترقي پذير ملڪن کي بين الاقوامي وقار پڻ حاصل ٿيندو آهي، ۽ اهو [[عظيم طاقت]] طور پنهنجون دعوائون مضبوط ڪرڻ ۾ مددگار ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيئن [[برازيل]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جي صورت ۾ ڏٺو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، غريب ملڪن لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين کي موڪلڻ مالي لحاظ کان به فائديمند هوندو آهي. هر امن اهلڪار لاءِ ماهوار واپسيءَ جي رقم ۾ پگهار ۽ الائونس لاءِ 1,028 آمريڪي ڊالر، ماهرن لاءِ اضافي 303 آمريڪي ڊالر، ذاتي لباس، سامان ۽ اوزارن لاءِ 68 آمريڪي ڊالر، ۽ ذاتي هٿيار لاءِ 5 آمريڪي ڊالر شامل هوندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/faq/q10.htm|title=United Nations Peacekeepers - How are peacekeepers compensated?|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; گڏيل قومن طرفان فراهم ڪيل اهي ادائيگيون، تربيت ۽ سامان، انفرادي فوجين سان گڏ ترقي پذير ملڪن لاءِ به مالي طور پرڪشش هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ مقرر ڪيل فوجي ۽ شهري پوليس اهلڪارن مان لڳ ڀڳ 4.5 سيڪڙو [[يورپي يونين]] مان ايندا آهن، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو حصو هڪ سيڪڙو کان به گهٽ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;factsheet&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/overview.shtml |title=Peacekeeping Fact Sheet |publisher=United Nations|access-date=December 20, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

مشنن جي قيادت بابت عام طور تي فوجي ڪمانڊر انهن ملڪن مان چونڊيا ويندا آهن، جيڪي سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي دستا فراهم ڪندا آهن، جڏهن ته سيڪريٽري جنرل جا خاص نمائندا گهڻو ڪري ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Oksamytna |first1= Kseniya|last2= Bove |first2= Vincenzo|last3= Lundgren |first3= Magnus|date= 2021 |title=Leadership selection in United Nations peacekeeping |journal= International Studies Quarterly|volume= 65|pages= 16–28|doi= 10.1093/isq/sqaa023 |doi-access= free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت ===
{{See also|امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتون}}

[[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 1325]] عورتن کي تڪرارن جي روڪٿام ۽ حل، امن ڳالهين، امن جي تعمير، امن قائم رکڻ، انساني امداد ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ ۾ سرگرم ۽ برابر ڌر طور شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو پهريون اهم قدم هو. هن قرارداد ۾ زور ڏنو ويو ته امن ۽ سلامتي جي قيام ۽ واڌاري لاءِ ٿيندڙ سڀني ڪوششن ۾ عورتن جي برابر شرڪت ۽ مڪمل شموليت کي يقيني بڻايو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and the Advancement of Women. &quot;[http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/wps/#resolution Landmark resolution on Women, Peace and Security]&quot;, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Security Council (October 31, 2000) &quot;Resolution 1325&quot;, S/RES/1325, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;

هن قرارداد تي هڪ تنقيد اها به ڪئي وئي آهي ته ان ۾ صنفي مرڪزي ڌارا (جينڊر مين اسٽريمنگ) کي لاڳو ڪرڻ جي ڳالهه ڪئي وئي، پر عملي طور گهڻو ڌيان صرف عورتن جي شموليت وڌائڻ تي ڏنو ويو، جڏهن ته مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي تي پاليسين جي اثرن جو مناسب جائزو نه ورتو ويو. 2010ع ۾ هن قرارداد جي ڏهن سالن جي اثرن بابت هڪ جامع جائزو ورتو ويو، جنهن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ان تي عملدرآمد محدود حد تائين ڪامياب رهيو، خاص طور تي امن ڳالهين ۽ امن معاهدن ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت وڌائڻ جي حوالي سان، جڏهن ته جنسي ۽ صنفي بنياد تي تشدد گهٽائڻ جي ڪوششن باوجود اهو مسئلو برقرار رهيو.&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations and Department of Field Support (2010). &quot;Ten-year Impact Study on Implementation of UN Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) on Women, Peace and Security in Peacekeeping&quot;, United Nations, p. 9-10. https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/documents/10year_impact_study_1325.pdf.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Ghana IntPeaceCorps 2016-05-29 B002a.jpg|thumb|گھانا جون عورتون گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏينديون.]]

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهريت، هٿياربند تڪرارن جي عورتن تي اثرن بابت بهتر ڄاڻ، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي وڌيڪ سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ مؤثر قدمن تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;/&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن خلاف امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW) پڻ پنهنجي هڪ عام سفارش ۾ چيو ته جن رياستن گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جي توثيق ڪئي آهي، انهن تي لازم آهي ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌي طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا، تڪرار جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مدد فراهم ڪري رهيون هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

ڪميٽي وڌيڪ چيو ته توثيق ڪندڙ رياستن کي مناسب احتياط سان اهو به يقيني بڻائڻ گهرجي ته غير رياستي ڌريون، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي حفاظتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

جولاءِ 2016ع تائين عورتون گڏيل قومن جي هر امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن ۾ فوجي، پوليس يا شهري عملي جي حيثيت سان خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيون هيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/resources/statistics/gender.shtml|title=Gender statistics. United Nations Peacekeeping|website=www.un.org|access-date=September 6, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

1993ع ۾ مقرر ٿيل يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن مان رڳو 1 سيڪڙو عورتون هيون. 2020ع تائين لڳ ڀڳ 95,000 امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن مان عورتون فوجي عملي جو 4.8 سيڪڙو، پوليس عملي جو 10.9 سيڪڙو، ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عملي جو 34 سيڪڙو هيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Women in peacekeeping|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/women-peacekeeping|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين اهڙو ڪو به ملڪ، جيڪو گڏيل قومن لاءِ 100 کان وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار موڪلي ٿو، پنهنجي دستي ۾ 25 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ عورتون نامزد نه ڪندو هو. حقيقي انگن اکرن موجب سڀ کان وڏا عورتن جا دستا [[ايٿوپيا]] (578 عورتون، يعني ان جي ڪل دستي جو 12 سيڪڙو)، [[روانڊا]] (500، يعني 10 سيڪڙو) ۽ [[گهانا]] (389، يعني 17 سيڪڙو) طرفان فراهم ڪيا ويا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

جيتوڻيڪ فوجي عملي ۾ عورتن جي مقرر تناسب بابت گڏيل قومن ڪو لازمي هدف مقرر نه ڪيو آهي، پر ميمبر رياستن کان درخواست ڪئي وئي آهي ته اهي پوليس آفيسرن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 20 سيڪڙو ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 30 سيڪڙو عورتون نامزد ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot; /&gt;

2024ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجي دستن ۾ عورتن جو ڪل انگ گهٽجي ويو، پر انهن جو تناسب وڌيو. يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن ۾ صنفي برابري واري حڪمت عملي (يونيفارمڊ جينڊر پئرٽي اسٽريٽجي) شروع ٿيڻ کان پوءِ عورتن جو تناسب مسلسل وڌندو رهيو آهي. عورتن جي ڪل تعداد ۾ گهٽتائي جو وڏو سبب [[گڏيل قومن جو مالي ۾ ڪثيرالجہتي مربوط استحڪامي مشن]] (MINUSMA) جو خاتمو هو. جون 2024ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن ۾ مقرر فوجي عملي مان عورتن جو تناسب 8.6 سيڪڙو هو، جيڪو گذريل سال جي ڀيٽ ۾ 1.3 سيڪڙو وڌيڪ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pfeifer Cruz |first=Claudia |title=Women in Multilateral Peace Operations in 2024: What is the State of Play? |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241031064944/https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |archive-date=October 31, 2024 |date=October 2024 |doi=10.55163/VYHM5282 |doi-access=free |location=Stockholm |publisher=SIPRI}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ جو نظرياتي بنياد ==


جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ ۽ امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي ڪردار بابت گهڻو ڪجهه لکيو ويو آهي، پر اهڙي تجرباتي تحقيق نسبتاً گهٽ ٿي آهي، جيڪا اهو واضح ڪري سگهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول ۾ ڪهڙي نموني اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. [[ڪولمبيا يونيورسٽي]] جي پروفيسر [[ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا]] چار اهڙن سببن (ڪيئيوئل ميڪينزم) جي سڃاڻپ ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي، جن جي ذريعي امن قائم رکڻ وارا پائيدار امن لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices After Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|location=Princeton|pages=175}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا موجب اهي چار بنيادي طريقا هي آهن:

# تازن ويڙهاڪن جي ترغيبي عنصرن ۾ تبديلي آڻڻ، جيئن امن وڌيڪ فائديمند ۽ جنگ وڌيڪ مهانگي محسوس ٿئي.
# غير يقيني صورتحال ۽ خوف کي گهٽائڻ، جيڪي سلامتي جي مخمصي (سڪيورٽي ڊليما) کي وڌائين ٿا.
# حادثاتي واقعن يا بي ضابطه هٿياربند گروهن جي ڪاررواين کي روڪڻ يا ضابطي ۾ آڻڻ، جيڪي ٻيهر جنگ جو سبب بڻجي سگهن.
# ڪنهن هڪ ڌر (خاص طور حڪومت) طرفان سياسي زيادتين کي روڪڻ، جيڪي امن کان محروم ڌرين کي ٻيهر هٿيار کڻڻ تي مجبور ڪري سگهن.

فورٽنا جو دليل آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا امن جي عمل تي مثبت اثر ڇڏين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ انهن کي اڪثر اهڙن هنڌن تي موڪليو ويندو آهي، جتي امن قائم رکڻ سڀ کان وڌيڪ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. امن قائم رکڻ تي تنقيد ڪندڙ اڪثر چوندا آهن ته اهي مشن غير مؤثر يا غير ضروري آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن ويڙهاڪ ڌريون پاڻ امن برقرار رکڻ ۾ دلچسپي رکن ٿيون ته امن قائم رهندو. تنهن هوندي به، فورٽنا جو خيال آهي ته مٿي بيان ڪيل سبب ڏيکارين ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا پائيدار امن کي يقيني بڻائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، خاص طور تي انهن حالتن جي ڀيٽ ۾ جتي ويڙهاڪ ڌريون مڪمل طور پنهنجي حال تي ڇڏيل هجن. اهي سبب اهو به واضح ڪن ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ جي ضرورت ڇو آهي ۽ اهو تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول تي ڪيئن اثرانداز ٿي سگهي ٿو.

جنگ جي ترغيبن کي گهٽائڻ ۽ امن کي وڌيڪ پرڪشش بڻائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومون نفاذي اختيارن (انفورسمينٽ مينڊيٽ) تحت فوجي قوت مقرر ڪري سگهي ٿي، جيڪا امن خراب ڪندڙ ڌرين لاءِ روڪ جو سبب بڻجي. اهڙا دستا حالتن جي نگراني ڪري سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي اوچتي حملي جو امڪان گهٽجي وڃي ٿو يا اهڙو حملو ڪرڻ وڌيڪ ڏکيو ٿي وڃي ٿو. هلڪي هٿيارن سان ليس مشاهدي وارو مشن پڻ ابتدائي خبرداري واري قوت (ارلي-وارننگ فورس) يا &quot;ٽرپ وائر&quot; طور ڪم ڪري سگهي ٿو. بين الاقوامي برادري طرفان ڏني ويندڙ امداد ۽ سياسي سڃاڻپ کي به ان ڳالهه سان مشروط ڪيو وڃي ته ڌريون ڳالهين دوران طئي ٿيل شرطن تي عمل ڪن. ان سان گڏ، روزگار، عوامي ترقياتي منصوبن ۽ ٻين فائدن جي صورت ۾ &quot;امن جا فائدا&quot; (پيس ڊويڊينڊس) پڻ فراهم ڪيا وڃن.

غير يقيني صورتحال ۽ خوف کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري سگهن ٿا، ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رابطي کي آسان بڻائي سگهن ٿا ته جيئن سلامتي بابت خدشا گهٽجن، ۽ هر ڌر کي اها خاطري ملي ته ٻي ڌر پنهنجن واعدن کان نه ڦرندي. اهڙي طرح اهي ٻنهي ڌرين کي پنهنجي امن پسند ارادن کي واضح ۽ قابل اعتماد نموني ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ مؤثر ذريعو مهيا ڪن ٿا.

امن جي عمل کي پٽڙي تان لاهي ڇڏيندڙ حادثن يا بي ضابطه گروهن جي ڪاررواين کي روڪڻ لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهڙن گروهن کي روڪي سگهن ٿا. ويڙهاڪ قوتون اڪثر مضبوط قيادت ۽ [[حڪم ۽ ضابطي]] (ڪمانڊ اينڊ ڪنٽرول) کان محروم هونديون آهن، تنهنڪري امن ڳالهين دوران ڪنهن بي ضابطه گروهه جي معاهدي کان انڪار ڪرڻ يا امن جي عمل کي ناڪام بڻائڻ جو خطرو موجود هوندو آهي. گڏيل قومن جا دستا اهڙين حالتن کي روڪڻ سان گڏ ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ثالثي ۽ رابطي کي پڻ آسان بڻائي سگهن ٿا ۽ سياسي اعتدال پسند قوتن کي اڳتي آڻي سگهن ٿا. قانون ۽ امن امان برقرار رکندي اهي عارضي طور رياستي حفاظتي ادارن جي ذميواري سنڀالي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي مبينا ڀڃڪڙي تي غيرجانبدار رويو اختيار ڪيو وڃي ۽ تشدد جي ٻيهر شروعات کان بچي سگهجي.

سياسي زيادتين جي روڪٿام لاءِ حڪومت سان لاڳاپيل ادارن ۾ سڌارا آندا وڃن ٿا. فوج ۽ پوليس جهڙن حفاظتي ادارن کي تربيت ڏيڻ ۽ انهن جي نگراني ڪرڻ سان کين حڪمرانن جي دٻاءَ جو اوزار بڻجڻ بدران عوام جا غيرجانبدار محافظ بڻائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. اهڙي تربيت عوام جو اعتماد وڌائڻ ۾ مددگار ثابت ٿي سگهي ٿي. گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا آزاد ۽ منصفاڻي چونڊون ڪرائڻ ۽ انهن جي نگراني پڻ ڪري سگهن ٿا. ڪجهه حالتن ۾ گڏيل قومون عبوري دور دوران غيرجانبدار عبوري حڪومت پڻ قائم ڪري سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ملڪ جو انتظام سنڀالي، جڏهن ته سرڪاري ادارن کي ٻيهر منظم، سڌاريو يا وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪيو وڃي. ان کان سواءِ هٿياربند باغي گروهن کي هٿيار ڦٽا ڪرڻ، انهن کي سياسي تنظيمن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ ۽ پرامن جمهوري عمل وسيلي پنهنجا مطالبا پيش ڪرڻ لاءِ همٿايو وڃي ٿو. اهو خاص طور اهم آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي باغي گروهه حڪومت جي اهم مخالف قوت هوندا آهن، پر سياسي تنظيم طور مؤثر نموني ڪم ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت کان محروم هوندا آهن.

مختلف امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن مختلف سببن ۽ ضرورتن جي بنياد تي قائم ڪيا ويندا آهن. [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VII]] تحت هلندڙ مشنن ۾ فوجي روڪ ۽ نفاذ تي وڌيڪ زور هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VI]] تحت مشن بنيادي طور نگراني ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ غيرجانبدار موجودگي برقرار رکڻ لاءِ هوندا آهن. سياسي زيادتين جي روڪٿام لاءِ قائم ڪيل مشن گهڻ رخي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ واري سياسي عمل ۾ سرگرم ڪردار ادا ڪندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|chapter=4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي اثرائتي ==

علمي تحقيق جي جائزي مان مضبوط ثبوت مليا آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن امن جي استحڪام ۾ واڌارو آڻين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Walter|first1=Barbara F.|last2=Howard|first2=Lise Morje|last3=Fortna|first3=V. Page|date=2020|title=The Extraordinary Relationship between Peacekeeping and Peace|journal=British Journal of Political Science|volume=51|issue=4|language=en|pages=1705–1722|doi=10.1017/S000712342000023X|s2cid=229469021 |issn=0007-1234|doi-access=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hoeffler|first=Anke|date=March 11, 2014|title=Can international interventions secure the peace?|journal=International Area Studies Review|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=75–94|doi=10.1177/2233865914525380|s2cid=16303210|url=http://www.econrsa.org/node/700|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا]] موجب مضبوط ثبوت موجود آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي نمايان طور گهٽائي ٿي. امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين جو تعداد جيترو وڌيڪ هوندو، اوترا ئي جنگي محاذ تي مارجي ويل ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽ ٿيندو، ۽ عام شهرين جي جاني نقصان ۾ به گهٽتائي ايندي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://politicalviolenceataglance.org/2015/09/24/enough-with-the-pessimism-about-peacekeeping/|title=Enough with the Pessimism about Peacekeeping|date=September 24, 2015|website=Political Violence at a Glance|access-date=January 26, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[اپسالا يونيورسٽي]] ۽ [[اوسلو امن تحقيقاتي اداري]] جي سياسي سائنسدانن جي هڪ مطالعي موجب، جيڪڏهن گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري پاليسي کي وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪيو وڃي، امن قائم رکڻ وارن دستن جو تعداد ٻيڻو ڪيو وڃي ۽ انهن کي وڌيڪ وسيع اختيار ڏنا وڃن، ته هٿياربند تڪرارن جي عالمي شرح، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي غير موجودگي واري صورتحال جي ڀيٽ ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ٻه ٽيون حصو گهٽجي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Hegre|first1=Håvard|last2=Hultman|first2=Lisa|last3=Nygård|first3=Håvard Mokleiv|date=November 28, 2018|title=Evaluating the Conflict-Reducing Effect of UN Peacekeeping Operations|journal=The Journal of Politics|volume=81|language=en|pages=215–232|doi=10.1086/700203|s2cid=13894244|issn=0022-3816|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فورڊهم يونيورسٽي]] جي سياسي سائنسدان [[انجلي ديال]] موجب، تحقيق مان ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن جنگ کي سرحدن کان ٻاهر پکڙجڻ کان روڪين ٿا. زمين تي وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار هجڻ سان عام شهرين خلاف تشدد جا واقعا پڻ گهٽ ٿيندا آهن، ۽ ڪيترين حالتن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ڪاميابي سان عبوري انتظاميا جو ڪردار ادا ڪندي اقتدار ٻيهر مقامي اختيارين حوالي ڪيو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ هاڻي اهڙو عمل اڳ جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ڏسڻ ۾ اچي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/02/01/is-u-n-peacekeeping-under-fire-heres-what-you-need-to-know/|title=Is U.N. peacekeeping under fire? Here's what you need to know.|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=February 1, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2018ع جي هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پنهنجي سر به گهرو ويڙهه جي شدت کي گهٽائين ٿا، پر جڏهن انهن کي ثالثي سان گڏ استعمال ڪيو وڃي ٿو ته انهن جو اثر وڌيڪ نمايان ٿي وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Mediation, Peacekeeping, and the Severity of Civil War|journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution|volume=63|issue=7|pages=1682–1709|language=en|doi=10.1177/0022002718817092|year=2018|last1=Beardsley|first1=Kyle|last2=Cunningham|first2=David E.|last3=White|first3=Peter B.|s2cid=202164361}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهڙا به ثبوت موجود آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا موڪلڻ جو واعدو ئي ويڙهاڪ ڌرين کي ڳالهين جي ميز تي آڻڻ ۽ جنگبندي تي راضي ٿيڻ جا امڪان وڌائي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lundgren|first=Magnus|year=2016|title=Which international organizations can settle civil wars?|journal=Review of International Organizations|volume=DOI 10.1007/s11558-016-9253-0|issue=4|pages=613–641|doi=10.1007/s11558-016-9253-0|s2cid=152898046}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي شمارياتي تحقيق ۾ انهن عنصرن کي به نظر ۾ رکيو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ڪٿي مقرر ڪيا وڃن ۽ ڪٿي امن قائم ٿيڻ جا امڪان ڪيترا آهن. هن جي نتيجن موجب، امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ۽ پائيدار امن جي وچ ۾ شمارياتي طور اهم لاڳاپو موجود آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن عام طور تي انهن علائقن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن جتي امن قائم ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن، فورٽنا جو اندازو آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 55 کان 60 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽائي ٿي، جڏهن ته ڪجهه وڌيڪ پراميد اندازن موجب اها گهٽتائي 75 کان 85 سيڪڙو تائين ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 116&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=116}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا جي تجزيي موجب [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VI]] تحت رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل مشنن ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VII]] تحت نفاذي مشنن جي اثرائتي ۾ گهڻو فرق نظر نٿو اچي. البته نفاذي مشن تڏهن ئي اثرائتا ثابت ٿين ٿا، جڏهن امن قائم رکڻ واري قوت طاقت جي استعمال بابت پنهنجي اعتبار ۽ صلاحيت برقرار رکي سگهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=109, 116, 125}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهو ان ڳالهه جي اهميت کي اجاگر ڪري ٿو ته گڏيل قومن جا مشن مقامي ڌرين جي رضامندي برقرار رکن. مجموعي طور فورٽنا جو نتيجو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ويڙهاڪ ڌريون مڪمل طور پنهنجي حال تي نه ڇڏيون وڃن، ته امن قائم رکڻ پائيدار امن کي يقيني بڻائڻ جو هڪ مؤثر اوزار آهي. هن اڳ بيان ڪيل سببن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول ۾ امن جي استحڪام تي نمايان اثر وجهي سگهن ٿا. فورٽنا ۽ [[ليز مورجي هاورڊ]] جو چوڻ آهي ته هاڻي تحقيق جو ڌيان امن قائم رکڻ جي بنيادي اثرائتي کان اڳتي وڌي، مختلف قسمن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن، عبوري انتظاميائن، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ جمهوريت جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن، ۽ انهن ماڻهن جي نظرين ڏانهن منتقل ٿي رهيو آهي، جن جي لاءِ امن قائم رکيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Pitfalls and Prospects in the Peacekeeping Literature*|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|volume=11|pages=283–301|last1=Fortna|first1=Virginia Page|last2=Howard|first2=Lise Morjé|date=May 20, 2008|language=en|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.9.041205.103022|s2cid=15740415|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[مائيڪل ڊبليو ڊائل]] ۽ [[نيڪولس سامبانس]] جي تجزيي موجب، انهن ملڪن ۾، جتي نسلي بنيادن تي جنگ نه هجي، معاشي ترقي جو سطح نسبتاً بهتر هجي ۽ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا ۽ مالي امداد موجود هجن، اتي پائيدار امن قائم رهڻ جا امڪان وڌيڪ هوندا آهن. انهن جو نتيجو آهي ته مختصر مدي ۾ پائيدار امن جو دارومدار گڏيل قومن جي مضبوط موجودگي ۽ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ گهٽ دشمني تي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ڊگهي مدي ۾ معاشي صلاحيت وڌيڪ اهم عنصر بڻجي ويندي آهي ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ دشمني جي شدت نسبتاً گهٽ اهم رهندي آهي. سندن خيال ۾، جيتوڻيڪ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ڪافي حد تائين ڪامياب رهيا آهن، پر اهي مداخلت هيٺ آيل ملڪن ۾ خودمختيار معاشي ترقي کي ڪافي حد تائين هٿي نه ڏئي سگهيا آهن. تنهنڪري گڏيل قومون امن برقرار رکڻ ۾ هڪ مضبوط پر اڻ سڌو ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿيون، جڏهن ته پائيدار امن جو اصل دارومدار اهڙن ادارن جي قيام تي هوندو آهي، جيڪي امن کي ڊگهي عرصي تائين برقرار رکي سگهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Making War and Building Peace : United Nations Peace Operations|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2010|pages=336–337}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ٻين علمي تحقيقن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي ڪاميابيءَ بابت مختلف نتيجا سامهون آيا آهن، جن موجب انهن جي ڪاميابيءَ جي شرح تقريباً 31 سيڪڙو کان 85 سيڪڙو تائين رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Autesserre|first1=Severine|title=Peaceland: Conflict Resolution and the Everyday Politics of International Intervention|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2020ع جي هڪ مطالعي موجب، گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر هلندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن به اثرائتي جي لحاظ کان گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جيترا ئي مؤثر آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Bara|first1=Corinne|last2=Hultman|first2=Lisa|date=March 20, 2020|title=Just Different Hats? Comparing UN and Non-UN Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=27|issue=3|pages=341–368|doi=10.1080/13533312.2020.1737023|issn=1353-3312|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; ساڳئي سال شايع ٿيل هڪ ٻي تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن عام شهرين جي تحفظ ۾ به ڪامياب رهيا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Carnegie|first1=Allison|last2=Mikulaschek|first2=Christoph|date=2020|title=The Promise of Peacekeeping: Protecting Civilians in Civil Wars|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-organization/article/promise-of-peacekeeping-protecting-civilians-in-civil-wars/2BA3A91C26CF29480409B1FFB64F7E40|journal=International Organization|volume=74|issue=4|language=en|pages=810–832|doi=10.1017/S0020818320000442|s2cid=232253107|issn=0020-8183|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2021ع ۾ ''[[آمريڪن جرنل آف پوليٽيڪل سائنس]]'' ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن مقامي معيشت تي مثبت اثر وڌو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Bove|first1=Vincenzo|last2=Salvatore|first2=Jessica Di|last3=Elia|first3=Leandro|date=2021|title=UN Peacekeeping and Households' Well-Being in Civil Wars|journal=American Journal of Political Science|volume=66|issue=2|pages=402–417|language=en|doi=10.1111/ajps.12644|issn=1540-5907|doi-access=free|hdl=10281/458537|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== پائيدار امن تي اثرانداز ٿيندڙ عنصر ===

ڪيترائي عنصر پائيدار امن تي منفي اثر وجهي سگهن ٿا. انهن ۾ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي حقيقي فوجي طاقت بابت لڪل معلومات، باغي گروهن جي هيرن، ٻين معدنيات يا غيرقانوني واپار وسيلي مالي وسيلا حاصل ڪرڻ، منشيات، هٿيارن ۽ انساني اسمگلنگ ۾ سندن شموليت، ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي فوجي فتح يا شڪست، جنگ جو عرصو ۽ ان جي قيمت، ٻنهي ڌرين کي درپيش واعدن تي عملدرآمد جا مسئلا (ڪمٽمينٽ پرابلم) ۽ سلامتي جو مخمصو (سڪيورٽي ڊليما)، جنگبندي يا امن معاهدي جي موجودگي، تڪرار ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ ڌرين جي ارادن ۽ ڪاررواين بابت شفافيت جي کوٽ، امن کي نقصان پهچائيندڙ انتهاپسند گروهه، اهڙا ڌر يا فرد جيڪي جنگ جاري رهڻ مان فائدو حاصل ڪن، ۽ اهڙا تڪراري مسئلا جيڪي ورهائي يا سمجهوتي ذريعي حل نٿا ٿي سگهن شامل آهن.

فورٽنا جي تحقيق موجب، پائيدار امن جو سڀ کان اهم شمارياتي عنصر اهو آهي ته ڇا جنگ ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي فوجي فتح تي ختم ٿي آهي يا نه. جيڪڏهن گهرو ويڙهه ۾ هڪ ڌر واضح فوجي فتح حاصل ڪري ۽ ان کان پوءِ جنگبندي يا صلح جو معاهدو ٿئي، ته ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تقريباً 85 کان 90 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽجي ويندو آهي. ان کان علاوه، رسمي امن معاهدا ٻيهر تڪرار جي خطري کي لڳ ڀڳ 60 کان 70 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 116&quot;/&gt;

جيڪڏهن ڪو هٿياربند گروهه منشيات، هيرن يا ٻين غيرقانوني واپاري ذريعن مان مالي مدد حاصل ڪري ٿو، ته ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان نمايان طور وڌي وڃن ٿا. فورٽنا موجب اهڙين حالتن ۾ جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو 100 کان 250 سيڪڙو تائين وڌي سگهي ٿو، يعني اهڙي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان عام حالتن جي ڀيٽ ۾ ٻه کان ساڍا ٽي ڀيرا وڌيڪ هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choice after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=117}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا جو خيال آهي ته جن جنگين ۾ ڪيترائي ڌر شامل هجن، اهي ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان نسبتاً گهٽ رکن ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; ان جي ابتڙ، [[مائيڪل ڊبليو ڊائل]] ۽ [[نيڪولس سامبانس]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ نتيجو ڪڍيو ته گهڻ ڌرين وارا تڪرار ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان وڌيڪ رکن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Making War and Building Peace : United Nations Peace Operations|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2010|pages=336}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڊگهي عرصي تائين هلندڙ جنگين ۽ سڃاڻپ يا قومي/نسلي بنيادن تي وڙهيل جنگين ۾ ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. بهرحال، ڊگهيون جنگيون ۽ اهي امن معاهدا جيڪي فوجي فتح کان پوءِ وجود ۾ اچن، عام طور تي مستقبل ۾ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽائين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=117–119}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪاررواين جا حصو وٺندڙ فوجن تي اثر ==

=== فوجي معمول تي آڻڻ ===

ڪجهه محققن جو خيال آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون فوج جي &quot;معمول تي آڻڻ&quot; (مليٽري نارملائيزيشن) کي اڳتي وڌائڻ جو هڪ ذريعو بڻجي سگهن ٿيون. مائيڪل ايڊورڊ والش ۽ جيريمي ٽيلر دليل ڏين ٿا ته [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ [[جاپان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون انهن حلقن لاءِ هڪ منفرد موقعو فراهم ڪن ٿيون، جيڪي جاپان جي فوجي ڪردار کي عام ۽ معمول مطابق بڻائڻ چاهين ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهڙي عمل سان ملڪ جي امن پسند آئين کي تدريجي طور ڪمزور ڪرڻ جو امڪان پيدا ٿئي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;nbr.org&quot;&gt;Jeremy Taylor and Michael Edward Walsh (January 7, 2014), ''[http://www.nbr.org/downloads/pdfs/psa/taylor-walsh_commentary_010714.pdf UN Operations in Africa Provide a Mechanism for Japan’s Military Normalization Agenda]'', {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303010649/http://www.nbr.org/downloads/pdfs/psa/taylor-walsh_commentary_010714.pdf |date=March 3, 2014 }}, retrieved February 7, 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;

سندن خيال موجب، بنيادي سياسي، قانوني ۽ سماجي سڌارن کان سواءِ جاپان جون امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون اهڙين سنگين حالتن کي منهن ڏيڻ لاءِ مڪمل طور تي تيار ناهن، جتي جان ليوا طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ ضروري بڻجي وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Edward Walsh and Jeremy Taylor (December 23, 2013), ''[http://africanarguments.org/2013/12/23/time-to-reconsider-the-japanese-peacekeeping-mission-in-south-sudan-by-michael-edward-walsh-jeremy-taylor/ Time to Reconsider the Japanese Peacekeeping Mission in South Sudan]'', retrieved February 7, 2014.&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن ڪري، اهي دليل ڏين ٿا ته گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين ۾ جاپان جي مسلسل شرڪت آخرڪار اهڙين پاليسي تبديلين جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿي، جن کان پوءِ جاپان جي فوج کي معمول مطابق فوجي حيثيت ڏيڻ ئي واحد ممڪن نتيجو رهجي وڃي.&lt;ref name=&quot;nbr.org&quot;/&gt;

=== فوج موڪليندڙ ملڪن تي سياسي اثر ===

[[ڊيانا ميور ايپل بام]] خدشو ظاهر ڪيو آهي ته [[فجي]] ۾ عالمي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين لاءِ فوج تيار ڪرڻ جي نتيجي ۾ فوج ايتري طاقتور بڻجي وئي، جو هن 1987ع، 1999–2000ع، 2006ع ۽ 2009ع ۾ چار فوجي بغاوتون ڪيون ۽ ويهن سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين فجي تي فوجي آمريت قائم رکي.&lt;ref&gt;Appelbaum, Diana Muir (August 27, 2012), ''[http://www.jewishideasdaily.com/4867/features/how-the-sinai-peacekeeping-force-staged-a-military-coup-in-fiji/ How the Sinai Peacekeeping Force Staged a Military Coup in Fiji]'', retrieved September 7, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt;

بهرحال، ''جرنل آف پيس ريسرچ'' ۾ 2018ع ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ مطالعي موجب، اهي ملڪ جن جون فوجون گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين مان حاصل ٿيندڙ مالي وسيلن تي وڌيڪ ڀاڙين ٿيون، انهن ۾ فوجي بغاوتن جا امڪان انهن ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهڙن مالي وسيلن تي گهٽ ڀاڙين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lundgren|first=Magnus|date=2018|title=Backdoor peacekeeping: Does participation in UN peacekeeping reduce coups at home?|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume=55|issue=4|pages=508–523|doi=10.1177/0022343317747668|s2cid=116168984}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ وارن فردن تي اثر ===

[[File:UNAMIR Blue Berets memorial Kigali (4).jpg|thumb|[[روانڊا]] جي شهر [[ڪيگالي]] ۾ [[يو اين اي ايم آء آر]] (UNAMIR) جي ڏهن بيلجيمي امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي يادگار، جيڪي 1994ع ۾ هوتو نيم فوجي گروهن هٿان مارجي ويا.]]

امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين بابت ٿيل تحقيق مان معلوم ٿئي ٿو ته انهن تي مثبت ۽ منفي، ٻئي قسم جا اثر پون ٿا. بوسنيا ۾ مقرر آمريڪي فوج جي 951 سپاهين تي ٿيل هڪ مطالعي مطابق، 77 سيڪڙو فوجين مثبت اثرن جي نشاندهي ڪئي، 63 سيڪڙو منفي اثرن جو ذڪر ڪيو، جڏهن ته 47 سيڪڙو ٻنهي قسمن جي تجربن بابت ٻڌايو.&lt;ref&gt;Newby, John H., et al. &quot;Positive and negative consequences of a military deployment.&quot; ''Military Medicine'' (2005) 170#10 pp: 815-819.&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار گهڻو ڪري ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي حملن جي خطري ۽ اڻڄاتل موسمي حالتن کي منهن ڏيندا آهن. انهن سببن ڪري ذهني صحت جا مسئلا، خودڪشي جا واقعا ۽ منشيات جي استعمال جا خطرا وڌي سگهن ٿا. ڊگهي عرصي تائين ٻاهرين ملڪن ۾ مقرر رهڻ امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي خاندانن، خاص طور تي سندن ٻارن ۽ گهروارن، لاءِ پڻ ذهني دٻاءُ جو سبب بڻجي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1 = Fernandes Souza | first1 = Wanderson |display-authors=etal  | year = 2011 | title = Posttraumatic stress disorder in peacekeepers: a meta-analysis | journal = The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease | volume = 199 | issue = 5| pages = 309–312 | doi=10.1097/nmd.0b013e3182175180| pmid = 21543949 | s2cid = 28713512 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

هڪ ٻيو نقطه نظر اهو به آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون ذميواريون فوجين جي جنگي صلاحيتن کي ڪمزور ڪري سگهن ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ امن قائم رکڻ واري دستي جون ذميواريون مڪمل جنگ وڙهندڙ فوجي يونٽ کان ڪافي مختلف هونديون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20070926001502/http://www.usafa.af.mil/jscope/ISME2007/Papers/Prof%20Paulin%20Kaurin%20War%20Stories.doc Kaurin, P. M. (2007) War Stories: Narrative, Identity and (Recasting) Military Ethics Pedagogy. Pacific Lutheran University. ISME 2007. Retrieved 9-3-2007].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Liu, H. C. K., The war that could destroy both armies, ''Asia Times'', October 23, 2003. Retrieved March 9, 2007.&lt;/ref&gt;

== تنقيد ==

=== امن قائم رکڻ، انساني اسمگلنگ ۽ جبري جسم فروشي ===
{{Main|امن قائم رکڻ وارن پاران ٻارن سان جنسي زيادتي جو اسڪينڊل}}

1990ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن تي مختلف قسمن جي زيادتين جا ڪيترائي الزام لڳندا رهيا آهن، جن ۾ [[زنا بالجبر]]، [[جنسي زيادتي]]، [[ٻارن سان جنسي زيادتي]] ۽ [[انساني اسمگلنگ]] شامل آهن. اهڙيون شڪايتون [[ڪمبوڊيا]]، [[اوڀر تيمور]] ۽ [[اولهه آفريڪا]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علائقن مان سامهون آيون آهن.

[[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ اسمگل ٿيل عورتن سان لاڳاپيل جسم فروشي ۾ تيزي سان واڌ آئي، ۽ ڪيترائي اهڙا اڏا گڏيل قومن جي ڪئمپن جي ويجهو قائم ٿيا. بوسنيا ۾ 2000ع کان 2001ع تائين علائقائي انساني حقن جي آفيسر ڊيوڊ ليمب جو چوڻ هو ته، &quot;بوسنيا ۾ جنسي غلاميءَ جي واپار جو وڏو سبب گڏيل قومن جون امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون آهن. جيڪڏهن اهي فوجون نه هجن ها ته بوسنيا ۾ جبري جسم فروشي تمام گهٽ يا بلڪل نه هجي ها.&quot; ان کان علاوه، 2002ع ۾ [[آمريڪا جي ايوانِ نمائندگان]] ۾ ٿيل ٻڌڻي دوران اهو به سامهون آيو ته SFOR جا ڪجهه اهلڪار بوسنيا جي جسم فروشي جي مرڪزن تي ويندا هئا ۽ اسمگل ٿيل عورتن ۽ نابالغ ڇوڪرين سان جنسي لاڳاپا رکندا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Allred2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Allred|first=KJ|date=2006|title=Peacekeepers And Prostitutes: How Deployed Forces Fuel the Demand for Trafficked Women and New Hope for Stopping It|journal=Armed Forces &amp; Society|volume=33|issue=1|page=7|doi=10.1177/0095327X06288803|s2cid=71430076}}&lt;/ref&gt;

صحافين پڻ رپورٽ ڪيو ته گڏيل قومن يا، بوسنيا ۽ [[ڪوسوو]] جي صورت ۾، [[نيٽو]] جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي اچڻ کان پوءِ [[ڪمبوڊيا]]، [[موزمبيق]]، [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۽ [[ڪوسوو]] ۾ جسم فروشي ۾ تيزي سان اضافو ٿيو. 1996ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي رپورٽ ''دي امپيڪٽ آف آرمڊ ڪنفلڪٽ آن چلڊرين'' ۾ موزمبيق جي اڳوڻي خاتون اول [[گراسا ماچيل]] لکيو ته هن رپورٽ لاءِ تيار ڪيل 12 ملڪن مان 6 مطالعي ۾ هٿياربند تڪرارن دوران ٻارن جي جنسي استحصال ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي اچڻ کان پوءِ [[ٻارن جي جسم فروشي]] ۾ تيز واڌ ڏٺي وئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;unicef.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/graca/a51-306_en.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030316210918/http://www.unicef.org/graca/a51-306_en.pdf|url-status=dead|title=The Impact of Armed Conflict on Children|archive-date=March 16, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گيتا سهگل]] 2004ع ۾ چيو ته جتي به [[انساني همدرديءَ واري مداخلت]] يا امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون ٿين ٿيون، اتي جسم فروشي ۽ [[جنسي استحصال]] جا مسئلا به ظاهر ٿين ٿا. سندس خيال هو ته گڏيل قومن بابت بنيادي مسئلو اهو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون به ٻين فوجن وانگر ساڳين مسئلن ۾ ملوث ٿي سگهن ٿيون، تنهنڪري &quot;نگهبانن جي به نگراني ڪرڻي پوي ٿي&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.csmonitor.com/2004/1126/p06s02-wogi.html Sex charges haunt UN forces; In places like Congo and Kosovo, peacekeepers have been accused of abusing the people they're protecting,&quot;] ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'', November 26, 2004, accessed February 16, 2010.&lt;/ref&gt;

2006ع ۾ گڏيل قومن ۾ [[اردن]] جي مستقل نمائندي [[شهزادو زيد رعد زيد الحسين]] جي سربراهيءَ ۾ ٿيل جاچ جي نتيجي ۾ هڪ تفصيلي رپورٽ جاري ٿي، جنهن ۾ خاص طور تي [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] ۾ ٿيل جنسي استحصال جي ڪيترن ئي واقعن کي بيان ڪيو ويو. رپورٽ موجب، جنسي استحصال گهڻو ڪري جسم فروشي جي صورت ۾ ٿيندو هو، جتي جنسي لاڳاپن جي بدلي اوسطاً هڪ کان ٽي آمريڪي ڊالر ادا ڪيا ويندا هئا. ڪن حالتن ۾ عورتن کي کاڌي يا روزگار جو لالچ ڏئي جنسي لاڳاپن تي مجبور ڪيو ويندو هو، جڏهن ته ڪجهه نوجوان عورتن ٻڌايو ته کين زبردستي جنسي زيادتي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ڪجهه رقم يا کاڌو ڏنو ويندو هو ته جيئن اهو عمل رضامنديءَ وارو لڳي.&lt;ref&gt;al-Hussein, Prince Zeid Ra'ad Zeid. (2005) &quot;A Comprehensive Strategy to Eliminate Future Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations.&quot; Report to the UN Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations: 8.&lt;/ref&gt;

مئي کان سيپٽمبر 2004ع تائين جنسي استحصال جا 72 الزام سامهون آيا، جن مان 68 فوجي اهلڪارن ۽ 4 شهري عملي خلاف هئا. سال جي آخر تائين اهڙن الزامن جو انگ 105 تائين پهچي ويو. انهن مان 45 سيڪڙو الزام 18 سالن کان گهٽ عمر وارن سان جنسي لاڳاپن بابت هئا، جڏهن ته 31 سيڪڙو بالغ جسم فروش عورتن سان لاڳاپيل هئا. زنا بالجبر تقريباً 13 سيڪڙو ۽ جنسي زيادتي 5 سيڪڙو الزامن تي مشتمل هئي، جڏهن ته باقي 6 سيڪڙو ٻئي قسم جي جنسي استحصال سان واسطو رکندا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;al-Hussein, Prince Zeid Ra'ad Zeid. (2005) &quot;A Comprehensive Strategy to Eliminate Future Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations.&quot; Report to the UN Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations: 8-9.&lt;/ref&gt; گهڻا الزام [[پاڪستان]]، [[يوراگوئي]]، [[مراڪش]]، [[تيونس]]، [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] ۽ [[نيپال]] سان تعلق رکندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Allred2006&quot;/&gt;

[[يوراگوئي]] جي صدر [[خوسي موخيڪا]]، گڏيل قومن جي يوراگوئي فوجين تي 18 سالن جي هڪ هيٽي نوجوان سان مبينا زنا بالجبر جي واقعي تي [[هيٽي]] جي صدر [[ميشيل مارٽيلي]] کان معافي ورتي. مارٽيلي چيو ته &quot;هڪ نوجوان هيٽي شهري سان ٿيل اجتماعي زنا بالجبر کي بنا سزا نه ڇڏيو ويندو.&quot; واقعي ۾ ملوث هجڻ جي شڪ ۾ چار فوجين کي حراست ۾ ورتو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-haiti-uruguay-un-idUSTRE78603I20110907|title=Uruguay apologises over alleged rape by U.N. peacekeepers|newspaper=Reuters|access-date=October 23, 2014|date=September 7, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/Headlines/Article.aspx?id=236953|title=Uruguay to apologise over alleged rape by UN peacekeepers|date=September 21, 2010 |access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جولاءِ 2007ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي [[امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون کاتو]] (DPKO) [[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]] ۾ مقرر 734 مراڪشي فوجين جي پوري دستي کي الزام سامهون اچڻ کان پوءِ ڪئمپن تائين محدود ڪري ڇڏيو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن مان ڪجهه تي نابالغ ڇوڪرين سان جنسي زيادتي جا الزام هئا. ايندڙ سالن دوران گڏيل قومن جي [[گڏيل قومن جي اندروني نگراني جون خدمتون کاتو]] (OIOS) اهڙن 80 ڪيسن جي جاچ ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Simic|first=Olivera|title=Regulation of Sexual Conduct in UN Peacekeeping Operations |chapter=UN Peacekeeping Operations: The Emerging Problem of Sexual Exploitation |date=2012|pages=13–38|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-28484-7_2|isbn=978-3-642-28483-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ [[مرڪزي آفريقي جمهوريه]] ۾ ڪم ڪندڙ [[فرانس]]، [[گيبون]] ۽ [[برونڊي]] جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف پڻ الزام لڳا. انهن ۾ [[ڪيمو صوبو|ڪيمو صوبي]] ۾ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 108 ماڻهن سان جنسي استحصال ۽ جنسي زيادتي جا الزام شامل هئا، جن مان اڪثريت نابالغ هئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/01/world/africa/un-peacekeeping-hit-by-new-allegations-of-sickening-sex-abuse.html?_r=0|title=U.N. Peacekeeping Hit By New Allegations of 'Sickening' Sex Abuse|last=Gladstone|first=Rick|date=2016|access-date=April 17, 2016|newspaper=The New York Times}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2016ع ۾ [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] جي اوڀر واري [[اتر ڪيئو]] صوبي ۾ مقرر امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف به نوان الزام لڳا. [[تنزانيا]] ۽ گڏيل قومن گڏيل جاچ شروع ڪئي، جنهن ۾ تنزاني فوجين تي جنسي استحصال جا 18 الزام شامل هئا، جن مان اٺ نابالغن سان لاڳاپيل هئا. انهن الزامن ۾ 16 تنزاني، هڪ [[ملاوي]] ۽ هڪ ڏکڻ آفريقي فوجي جو نالو آيو. گڏيل قومن مارچ 2016ع ۾ ٻڌايو ته جنسي استحصال بابت الزامن ۾ نمايان واڌ ٿي آهي، جنهن ۾ 21 ملڪن جا فوجي شامل هئا. انهن مان گهڻا الزام آفريقي ملڪن جهڙوڪ [[ڪيمرون]]، [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]]، [[تنزانيا]]، [[بينن]]، [[برڪينا فاسو]]، [[برونڊي]]، [[گھانا]]، [[مڊگاسڪر]]، [[نائيجر]]، [[نائيجيريا]]، [[روانڊا]]، [[سينيگال]] ۽ [[ٽوگو]] سان تعلق رکندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/probe-opens-un-troops-alleged-sex-abuse-dr-155023758.html|title=Probe Opens into UN Troops' Alleged Sex Abuse in DR Congo|date=2016|access-date=April 17, 2016|via=Yahoo News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ وارا ۽ هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جو بحران ===

پهرين [[ايسوسيئيٽيڊ پريس]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Katz |first=Jonathan M. |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/health/2013276274_apcbhaitidiseaseoutbreak.html |title=Nation &amp; World &amp;#124; UN probes base as source of Haiti cholera outbreak &amp;#124; Seattle Times Newspaper |publisher=Seattletimes.com |date=October 27, 2010 |access-date=July 28, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پوءِ ''[[نيو يارڪ ٽائيمز]]''،&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/01/world/americas/haitis-cholera-outraced-the-experts-and-tainted-the-un.html?pagewanted=all In Haiti, Global Failures on a Cholera Epidemic; In-depth New York Times piece investigating UN role in introducing cholera] ''[[New York Times]]'', March 31, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; ''[[الجزيره عربي]]''،&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.aljazeera.com/video/americas/2012/03/201237194798262.html UN likely to blame for Haiti Cholera Outbreak] ''[[الجزيره عربي]]'', March 7, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اي بي سي نيوز]]&lt;ref&gt;[https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/scientists-soldiers-brought-deadly-superbug-americas/story?id=15341129 Scientists: UN Soldiers Brought Deadly Superbug to Americas] ''[[اي بي سي نيوز]]'', January 12, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; پاران شايع ٿيل اهم سائنسي ثبوتن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته [[نيپال]] سان تعلق رکندڙ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا، جيڪي [[هيٽي]] جي [[ميريباليه]] واري علائقي ۾ هڪ ڏورانهين اڏي تي مقرر هئا، 2010ع جي آڪٽوبر کان ملڪ کي متاثر ڪندڙ خطرناڪ [[هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا (2010ع واري ڏهاڪي)|ڪالرا جي وبا]] جو سبب بڻيا.

[[ڪالرا]] پاڻيءَ وسيلي پکڙجندڙ بيماري آهي، جيڪا سخت دستن ۽ الٽين جو سبب بڻجي ٿي، ۽ جيڪڏهن مريض کي بروقت جسم ۾ پاڻي ۽ لوڻ جي کوٽ پوري ڪرڻ وارو علاج (rehydration) نه ملي ته ڪجهه ئي ڪلاڪن اندر موت جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿي. جولاءِ 2012ع تائين هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا دنيا جي سڀ کان وڏي وبا بڻجي چڪي هئي، جنهن ۾ لڳ ڀڳ 7,500 ماڻهو فوت ٿي چڪا هئا، جڏهن ته تقريباً 585,000 هيٽي وارا (يعني هر ويهن مان هڪ ماڻهو) هن بيماري ۾ مبتلا ٿي چڪا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.cdc.gov/haiticholera/haiti_cholera.htm Haiti Cholera: One Year Later], [[بيمارين جي ضابطي ۽ روڪٿام جا مرڪز]] October 25, 2011, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.mspp.gouv.ht/site/downloads/Rapport%20journalier%20MSPP%20du%2022%20juillet%202012.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407031228/http://www.mspp.gouv.ht/site/downloads/Rapport%20journalier%20MSPP%20du%2022%20juillet%202012.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Haitian Ministry of Public Health and Population Cholera Report of July 22, 2012, 22 July 2011, accessed 30 July 2012|archive-date=April 7, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا بابت گڏيل قومن پاران مقرر ڪيل آزاد ماهرن جي پينل موجب، امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جي اڏي تي صفائي ۽ نيڪال جا انتظام غير محفوظ هئا، جنهن سبب گهٽ ۾ گهٽ ٻن طريقن سان هيٽي جي دريائي نظام ۾ آلودگي پکڙجي. رپورٽ موجب، &quot;مکيه غسل خاني ۽ ٽوائليٽن واري حصي ۾ پاڻيءَ جي پائيپن جي جوڙجڪ بي ترتيب هئي، جنهن سبب آلودگي ملڻ جو وڏو خطرو موجود هو، خاص طور تي اهي پائيپ جيڪي هڪ کليل نيڪال واري نالي جي مٿان گذرندا هئا، جيڪو سڄي ڪئمپ مان وهي سڌو [[ميئي ندي]] جي معاون نديءَ ۾ ڇوڙ ڪندو هو.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;UNCholeraReport&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/haiti/UN-cholera-report-final.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110506001548/https://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/haiti/UN-cholera-report-final.pdf|url-status=live|title=Final Report of the Independent Panel of Experts on the Cholera Outbreak in Haiti, pages 21-22, July 2011, accessed 30 July 2012|archive-date=May 6, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

پينل اهو پڻ ٻڌايو ته ميريباليه واري اڏي ۽ ٻن ٻين اڏن مان نڪرندڙ گندو پاڻي باقاعدگي سان هڪ کليل، غير محفوظ سيپٽڪ کڏ ۾ وڌو ويندو هو، جيڪا ٻوڏ اچڻ وقت پاڻيءَ سان ڀرجي ويندي هئي ۽ برساتن دوران ان جو گندو پاڻي ميئي نديءَ جي معاون وهڪري ۾ داخل ٿي ويندو هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;UNCholeraReport&quot; /&gt;

نومبر 2011ع ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا کان متاثر ٿيل 5,000 کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن گڏيل قومن جي اندروني دعوائن واري نظام ۾ درخواست داخل ڪئي. هنن وبا تي ضابطو آڻڻ لاءِ صاف پاڻي ۽ صفائي جي بنيادي ڍانچي جي فراهمي، ذاتي نقصانن جو معاوضو ۽ گڏيل قومن کان باضابطه معافي جو مطالبو ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15648110|title=Haiti cholera demand against UN|date=November 9, 2011|work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جولاءِ 2012ع ۾ [[آمريڪا جي گڏيل رياستن جي ڪانگريس]] جي 104 ميمبرن هڪ خط تي صحيون ڪيون، جنهن ۾ چيو ويو ته &quot;گڏيل قومن جي قدمن&quot; سبب هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا پکڙيو، ۽ گڏيل قومن کي گهر ڪئي وئي ته هو پنهنجي ذميواري قبول ڪري ۽ وبا جي خاتمي لاءِ عملي قدم کڻي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18928405|title=Haiti cholera 'UN responsibility'|first=Mark|last=Doyle|date=July 20, 2012|work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ گڏيل قومن انهن دعوائن کي رد ڪري ڇڏيو، جنهن کان پوءِ متاثرن جي وڪيلن اعلان ڪيو ته هو گڏيل قومن خلاف عدالت ۾ مقدمو داخل ڪندا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ijdh.org/cholera-litigation/ |title=Institute for Justice and Democracy in Haiti: Cholera Litigation |publisher=Ijdh.org |date=October 21, 2010 |access-date=July 28, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== جديد امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائين سان لاڳاپيل ثقافتي خدشا ===

امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائين ۾ مختلف ثقافتن جو پاڻ ۾ گهرو ميل جول هوندو آهي. ان جو سبب اهو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون، پوليس ۽ ٻيو عملو دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي ملڪن مان اچي گڏ ٿيندو آهي، جڏهن ته اهي اڪثر انهن علائقن ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن، جتي نسلي ۽ ثقافتي تنوع تمام گهڻو هوندو آهي. اهڙي صورتحال ۾ مختلف ثقافتن جي وچ ۾ پيچيده لاڳاپا پيدا ٿيندا آهن، جيڪي نه رڳو مشن جي اثرائتي تي اثر انداز ٿيندا آهن، پر ڪڏهن ڪڏهن انهن مقامي ماڻهن سان به تڪرار جو سبب بڻجندا آهن، جن جي مدد لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارا موڪليا ويندا آهن.

1988ع کان اڳ اڪثر امن قائم رکڻ وارا هڪ محدود تعداد وارن ملڪن مان ايندا هئا. ان وقت تائين رڳو 26 ملڪن پنهنجو عملو امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون ۾ موڪليو هو، پر هاڻي اهو انگ 80 کان وڌيڪ ملڪن تائين پهچي ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=146–147}} نتيجي طور، گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون انتهائي گهڻ ثقافتي بڻجي ويون آهن. اهڙي صورتحال ۾ انهن کي نه رڳو ٻولين جي فرق سان منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، پر سماجي ۽ ثقافتي اختلافن سان به، جيڪي اهڙيون عملي مشڪلاتون پيدا ڪن ٿا، جن تي ضابطو آڻڻ آسان نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Pendlebury |first1=Jarrod |last2=Stott |first2=Neil |last3=Tracey |first3=Paul |date=2025 |title=The peacekeeper's challenge: innovation in meta-organisations |journal=Peacebuiding |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1080/21647259.2025.2501873|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; اهي اختلاف ذاتي يا اداري سطح جي رابطن، غلط فهمين، اڻڄاتل طور تي توهين جو سبب بڻجندڙ روين ۽ مخصوص ملڪن جي دستن بابت اڳواٽ قائم ٿيل تعصبن کي جنم ڏئي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=146–147}}

عملياتي لحاظ کان به مشن جي اثرائتي متاثر ٿي سگهي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ مختلف ملڪن جي فوجي ۽ پوليس اهلڪار پنهنجا پنهنجا طريقا، حڪمت عمليون ۽ ضابطا استعمال ڪندا آهن. گڏيل قومن جون فوجون مختلف ذريعن مان گڏ ڪيون وينديون آهن، جنهن سبب انهن جي صلاحيت، تربيت، سامان، معيارن ۽ ڪارروائي جي طريقن ۾ نمايان فرق موجود هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot; /&gt; ان کان علاوه، حصو وٺندڙ ملڪن جي ڪمان ۽ ڪنٽرول جي نظام ۾ به وڏا فرق هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot; /&gt; ڪجهه ملڪ ٻين ملڪن جي ماتحت ڪم ڪرڻ کان به ڪيٻائيندا آهن، جنهن سبب [[ڪمان جي وحدت]] برقرار رکڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي. اهڙي صورتحال گڏيل قومن جي مختلف دستن جي وچ ۾ اختلاف پيدا ڪري سگهي ٿي، جنهن جو نتيجو ميدان ۾ هڪ ٻئي جي سهڪار جي کوٽ جي صورت ۾ نڪري سگهي ٿو. ان جو مثال [[اوڀر تيمور]] ۾ گڏيل قومن جي مشن دوران ڏٺو ويو، جتي آسٽريليا جي فوج [[اوڀر تيمور ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مشن]] تحت پنهنجي فوجين جي تحفظ تي زور ڏيندي سخت فوجي حڪمت عملي اختيار ڪئي، جڏهن ته برطانيا جي [[گورکا]] فوجين مقامي ماڻهن سان ويجها لاڳاپا قائم ڪرڻ واري پاليسي تي عمل ڪيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=146–147}}

جديد امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائين ۾ مقامي آبادي ۽ حڪومت جي رضامندي برقرار رکڻ بنيادي اهميت رکي ٿي. خاص طور تي [[بوسنيا ۾ گڏيل قومن جي تحفظ واري فوج]]، [[سوماليا ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ٻيون آپريشن]] ۽ [[روانڊا ۾ گڏيل قومن جو امدادي مشن]] دوران انسانيت جي بنياد تي مداخلت جي نالي ۾ هن اصول کي نظرانداز ڪيو ويو، جيڪو گڏيل قومن جي منشور جي باب ستين هيٺ ٿيندڙ مداخلتن جي نوعيت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو. بهرحال، اهڙين ڪارروائين جي قانوني حيثيت ۽ مقبوليت برقرار رکڻ لاءِ ضروري آهي ته گڏيل قومن جون فوجون انهيءَ ملڪ جي عوام ۽ حڪومت جي رضامندي حاصل ڪن، جتي اهي مقرر ٿيل هجن. ان لاءِ ضروري آهي ته مقامي ماڻهن کي امن قائم رکڻ واري عمل جو حصو محسوس ڪرايو وڃي ۽ امن قائم رکڻ وارن کي مقامي ثقافت بابت مناسب ڄاڻ هجي، جيئن مقامي آبادي سان ڇڪتاڻ گهٽجي ۽ مشن ڪامياب بڻجي سگهي.

امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج ۽ مقامي آبادي جي ثقافتي لاڳاپن بابت اڃا تائين گهڻي تحقيق نه ٿي آهي. 1976ع ۾ [[يوهان گالٽونگ]] ۽ [[هيلگه هويم]] انهن نارويجي اهلڪارن جو مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (غزه) ۽ [[ڪانگو ۾ گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيا هئا. هنن جو نتيجو هو ته ڪنهن ملڪ جي ثقافت ۽ اتان جي ماڻهن بابت ڄاڻ صرف مفيد نه، پر مشن جي ڪاميابي لاءِ لازمي آهي. مطالعي موجب نارويجي اهلڪارن مقامي ثقافت ۽ تڪرار بابت وڌيڪ ڄاڻ حاصل ڪرڻ جي خواهش ظاهر ڪئي ۽ ٻين ملڪن جي اهلڪارن سان گڏ ڪم ڪرڻ بابت وڌيڪ تربيت به گهربل سمجهي. بهرحال، کين اهڙي تربيت تمام محدود ملي، ۽ تڪرار بابت گهڻي ڄاڻ کين خبرن، ڪتابن يا ٻين گڏيل قومن جي اهلڪارن کان ملي، نه ڪي گڏيل قومن جي ڪنهن منظم تربيتي پروگرام مان.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=150–151}}

لبنان ۾ [[لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن جي عبوري فوج]] (UNIFIL) ۽ مقامي آبادي جي لاڳاپن بابت هيبرگ ۽ هولسٽ جي مطالعي به ساڳيا نتيجا ظاهر ڪيا. هنن ڏٺو ته جيڪي ملڪ مقامي آباديءَ سان وڌيڪ ويجها لاڳاپا قائم ڪرڻ ۽ مقامي ثقافت کي سمجهڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿيا، انهن جا مشن وڌيڪ اثرائتا ثابت ٿيا؛ جڏهن ته جيڪي دستا مقامي سماج کان الڳ رهيا، اهي انهن ماڻهن کان به پري رهيا، جن سان کين ڪم ڪرڻو هو، ۽ ان جو اثر سندن ڪاميابي تي پيو.

{{Quote|
صرف اٽليءَ جو لڳ ڀڳ 2,200 اهلڪارن تي ٻڌل دستو مقامي سماج جو حصو بڻجي ويو ۽ معمول جي زندگي بحال ڪرڻ ۾ سرگرم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. انهن جي فوجين کي مقامي ماڻهن جي ثقافتي، سياسي ۽ سماجي حالتن بابت مناسب تربيت ڏني وئي هئي. لڳ ڀڳ 600,000 آبادي واري علائقي، جنهن ۾ اڪثريت شيعن جي هئي، ۾ اٽليءَ جي فوجين عام ماڻهن ۽ سياسي اڳواڻن سان ويجها لاڳاپا قائم رکيا. ان جي ابتڙ آمريڪي فوجين اهو سمجهيو ته هو لبناني سياست ۾ شامل ٿي رهيا آهن، پر انهن وٽ لبناني ثقافت ۽ تاريخ بابت تمام محدود ڄاڻ هئي. گهڻن آمريڪن کي مختصر مدي وارن اتحادين، پراڻين دشمنيُن، عرب سماج ۾ خانداني لاڳاپن جي اهميت ۽ مذهبي اختلافن جي نزاڪتن جي صحيح سمجهه نه هئي.
|&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=150–151}}
}}

هي مثال ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته ڪامياب امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائي لاءِ مقامي ثقافت جي ڄاڻ انتهائي اهم آهي. جيتوڻيڪ گڏيل قومن وٽ هڪ تربيتي رهنما موجود آهي، جيڪو امن قائم رکڻ وارن کي ضروري طريقن بابت هدايتون ڏئي ٿو، پر مختلف دستن لاءِ ڪو گڏيل نظريو يا معياري ڪارروائي جو طريقو موجود ناهي، جيڪو آخرڪار امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن جي ڪاميابيءَ ۾ رڪاوٽ بڻجي سگهي ٿو.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:امن]]
[[زمرو:تنظيمون]]
[[زمرو:گڏيل قومون]]
[[زمرو:عالمي سياست]]
[[زمرو:بين الاقوامي لاڳاپا]]</text>
      <sha1>tbs59ue0o83w9ky9l71j9zarofquo3x</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399331</id>
      <parentid>399330</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T22:00:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399331</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="135643" sha1="hy5ax70knzgpzlusch2mfmh1nsd4m4u" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|دائمي امن لاءِ سازگار حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ خاطر ڪيل سرگرميون}}


[[File:Italian Soldier UNIFIL 2 Lebanon 2007.jpg|thumb|[[اطالوي فوج]] جو هڪ [[سپاهي]] لبنان ۾ [[يونيفل]] مشن دوران پهرو ڏئي رهيو آهي.]]

'''امن قائم رکندڙ فوج''' (Peacekeeping Force) انهن سرگرمين، خاص طور فوجي سرگرمين،&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Peacekeeping&quot;. Oxford Languages. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جن جو مقصد اهڙيون حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ هوندو آهي جيڪي پائيدار [[امن]] جي قيام لاءِ سازگار هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/|title=United Nations Peacekeeping|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; تحقيق مان عام طور اهو ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون [[شهري جاني نقصان|شهري]] ۽ جنگي ميدان ۾ ٿيندڙ جاني نقصان کي گهٽائين ٿيون ۽ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي پڻ گهٽائين ٿيون.

[[گڏيل قومون]] (UN) ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل [[قومي رياست]]ن جي حڪومتن ۽ [[تنظيم]]ن جي وچ ۾ عام طور اهو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو ته عالمي سطح تي امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا جنگ کان پوءِ وارن علائقن ۾ امن جي عمل جي نگراني ۽ مشاهدو ڪندا آهن، ۽ اڳوڻن ويڙهاڪن کي انهن امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ ۾ مدد ڏيندا آهن، جن جا هو پابند بڻيل هوندا آهن. اهڙي مدد ڪيترين ئي صورتن ۾ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ اعتماد سازي جا قدم، اقتدار جي ورهاست جا انتظام، چونڊن ۾ مدد، [[قانون جي حڪمراني]] کي مضبوط بڻائڻ، ۽ معاشي ۽ سماجي ترقي کي هٿي ڏيڻ. ان ڪري [[گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا]] (جن کي سندن هلڪي نيري [[بيريٽ]] يا هيلمٽ سبب اڪثر '''نيري بيريٽ''' يا '''نيرا هيلمٽ''' چيو ويندو آهي) ۾ فوجي، [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس آفيسر]] ۽ شهري عملي جا ميمبر شامل ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dpko/ |title=Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dfs/ |title=Department of Field Support (DFS) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جا مشن هلائيندڙ واحد تنظيم گڏيل قومون نه آهن. گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم ڪندڙ قوتن ۾ [[ڪوسوو فورس]] جي [[نيٽو]] مشن (گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان)، [[سينا ٻيٽ نما]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]]، ۽ [[يورپي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[EUFOR RCA]]، گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان) ۽ [[آفريقي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[سوڊان ۾ آفريقي يونين مشن]]) پاران منظم ڪيل امن مشن شامل آهن.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

[[بين الاقوامي قانون]] موجب، امن قائم ڪندڙ پنهنجي غيرجانبدار حيثيت سبب [[غير جنگجو]] (non-combatants) شمار ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي ٻن يا وڌيڪ [[جنگ ڪندڙ ڌر]]ن جي وچ ۾ تڪرار ۾ غيرجانبدار هوندا آهن (بلڪل اهڙيءَ طرح جيئن امن قائم رکڻ جي ذميوارين کان ٻاهر موجود غيرجانبدار ماڻهو ۽ ملڪيت). تنهنڪري انهن کي هر حال ۾ حملن کان تحفظ حاصل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule33 |title=Rule 33. Personnel and Objects Involved in a Peacekeeping Mission|publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]|access-date=April 7, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فائل:UN Soldiers in Eritrea.jpeg|thumb|right|upright=1.00|نيدرلينڊز جا ڊچ فوجي اقوام متحده جي امن جي قيام جي فورس ۾ ايٿوپيا ۽ ايريٽيريا جي سرحد تي گڏيل قومن پاران چوڪسي ڪندي]]

'''امن جي بحالي واري فوج'''{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي=Peace Keeping Force}}
ٻن ملڪن ياڌرين جي وچ ۾ ڪو به تڪرار ايترو زور وٺي وڃي، جو ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت کانسواءِ اهو ٽري نه سگهي، ته ٽين ڌر امن قائم ڪرڻ (Peace Keeping) لاءِ مُختلف اُپاءُ وٺندي آهي. ڪنهن به تڪرار جي حل لاءِ ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت جو مقصد ٻن ڌُرين ۾ رڳو صُلح ڪرائڻ هوندو آهي، جنهن لاءِ فوجي ۽ سُفارتي طريقا ڪتب آندا ويندا آهن. ان کان سواءِ گھُرج پوڻ تي ٽين ڌر (يا وچين ڌر) جهيڙو ڪندڙ ڌرين تي مُختلف قسمن جو دٻاءُ رکندي آهي، جيڪڏهن ڌريون پوءِ به جهيڙي کي نه ٿيون ختم ڪن، ته مٿانئن فوجي قدم کڻڻ لاءِ به اڳڀرائي ڪئي ويندي آهي. جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جو عالمي ادارو|گڏيل قومن]] جو ادارو قائم ڪيو ويو هيو ته ان وقت ٻي عالمي جنگ ختم ٿي هئي، پر ملڪن جا پاڻ ۾ تڪرار پوءِ به هلي رهيا هئا ۽ ”سرد جنگ“ به شروع ٿي چڪي هئي، دُنيا جي امن کي گهڻن قسمن جا خطرا پيدا ٿي چڪا هئا. 1950ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل بين الاقوامي جهيڙن کي پاسيرو ڪرڻ ۽ امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ”احتياطي سفارتڪاري“ (Preventive Diplomacy) جو اصطلاح اڳيان آندو هو. انهيءَ قسم جي حڪمت عملي ۾ ڪنهن به تڪرار کي رڳو ٺارڻ جو حل ڏنل هيو، پر جهيڙي کي مستقل طور ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪجهه واڌو قدم به گهربل هئا. انهيءَ ڪري اهڙي صورتحال ۾ اڳتي هلي ”مشن ڪريپ“ (Mission Creep) جو اصطلاح ڪتب آندو ويو، جنهن ۾ جهيڙي کي مڪمل طور ختم ڪرڻ جي تجويز ڏني وئي. انهيءَ حوالي سان 1956ع ۾ ڪئناڊا جي پرڏيهي معاملن جي وزير ۽ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”ڊگ هئمرشولڊ“ گڏيل قومن جي اداري جي پلئٽفارم تان ”امن قائم ڪرڻ واري فوج“ (Peace Keeping Force) قائم ڪئي، جنهن جي شعبا بندي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ان جي ورديءَ کانسواءِ خاص قسم جي ٽوپي به تيار ڪرائي وئي ۽ ان خاص ٽوپيءَ جو رنگ ”نيرو“ مقرر ڪيو ويو. ٽوپيءَ کي ٻين فوجي ٽوپين کان الڳ رنگ ڏيڻ جو مقصد، بين الاقوامي امن فوج جي انفراديت کي ظاهر ڪرڻ آهي. ان هوندي به ”امن فوج“ جي طريقيڪار ۽ اختيارن کي اڃا تائين چڱيءَ ريت گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر ۾ بيان نه ڪيو ويو آهي. گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر جي 6 ۽ 7 باب ۾، امن جي ڪوشش وٺڻ لاءِ جيڪي تفصيل بيان ڪيا ويا آهن، انهن سان امن جي بحاليءَ واري عمل کي به جوڙيو ويو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن جي بحاليءَ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي پڌرنامي جي روح مطابق جوڙجڪ ضروري آهي. انهن کوٽن جي باوجود، گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج، دُنيا ۾ امن ۽ صلح جي لاءِ گھڻن هنڌن مثال طور؛ ڪمبوڊيا، نميبيا، انگولا، لبنان، ايراني نار ۽ [[سوماليا|صوماليا]] وغيره ۾ ڪاميابيءَ سان پنهنجون ذميواريون پوريون ڪري چڪي آهي. امن فوج جي اهڙي اهميت کي محسوس ڪندي، گڏيل قومن جي اداري ڪيترن مُتاثر ملڪن جي داخلي معاملن ۾ به هن فوج جو استعمال مُناسب ۽ بهتر سمجهيو. منڍ ۾ اها فوج ٻن تڪراري ڌُر جي وچ ۾ هلندڙ جهيِڙو ٽارڻ لاءِ ڪتب آندي ويندي هئي، پر 1988ع کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جي اداري اهڙن ملڪن ۾ به کيس ذميواري سونپيون، جتي گهرو ويڙھ ۾ اَڙيل مُختلف ڌرين ۾ جنگ جاري هُئي ۽ اُتي انتظامي معاملا هيٺ مٿي لڳا پيا هُئا. اهڙن مُلڪن ۾ امن فوج کي گڏيل قومن طرفان چونڊون ڪرائڻ، انتظامي معاملن کي سُڌارڻ، عوام کي تحفظ ڏيڻ ۽ جهيڙن کان تنگ اچي ملڪ ڇڏي ويل ماڻهن کي واپس پنهنجي اباڻي وطن ۾ ٻيهر آباد ڪرائڻ جا اختيار به ڏنا ويا. ٻئي طرف اها به حقيقت آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج کي گھڻن معاملن ۽ هنڌن تي ڪن ملڪن پنهنجن خاص مقصدن لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو. ان کانسواءِ گھڻن علائقن (جهڙوڪ ڪشمير) ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن فوج پنهنجي مقصد حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام وئي آهي. سندس مُقابلي ۾ اولھ جي مُلڪن جي فوجي اتحاد نيٽو امن فوج جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ متحرڪ ۽ اثرائتي رهي آهي. 1992ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”بترس غالي“، امن جي آڻڻ لاءِ خاص علائقي ۽ خاص حالتن آهر مداخلت ڪرڻ ۽ نون اختيار ڏيڻ لاءِ اداري آڏو تجويزون پيش ڪيون، پر ان ڏس ۾ مڪمل سوڀاري ٿيڻ لاءِ ”پيس ڪيپگ“ جو عمل نون ضابطن، اختيارن ۽ قانونن جي انتظار ۾ آهي. 
&lt;ref&gt;[http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/define/Peace%20Keeping%20Force.php سنڌي آنلائين ڊڪشنري]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} پاران [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد&lt;/ref&gt;

== وصفون ۽ امن قائم رکڻ جي عمل جا قسم ==

=== گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ===
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن}}

==== ڇهون باب ۽ ستون باب وارا مشن ====

امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن جا ڪيترائي مختلف قسم آهن. مثال طور، پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي ڪتاب ''Does Peacekeeping Work?'' ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن کي چئن مختلف قسمن ۾ ورهايو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=Chapter 7}}&lt;/ref&gt; انهن مشنن جو قسم ۽ انهن تي عملدرآمد جو طريقو گهڻي حد تائين ان اختيارنامي (mandate) تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، جنهن تحت انهن کي اختيار ڏنو ويندو آهي.

فورٽنا جي بيان ڪيل چئن قسمن مان ٽي اهڙا آهن، جيڪي ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن ۽ انهن کي عام طور ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ڇهون باب|ڇهين باب]]'' وارا مشن چيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته چوٿون قسم ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]]'' وارو مشن هوندو آهي.

ڇهين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشنن لاءِ جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي لازمي هوندي آهي؛ جيڪڏهن اها رضامندي ختم ٿي وڃي ته امن قائم ڪندڙ دستن کي علائقو ڇڏڻو پوندو. ان جي ابتڙ، ستين باب وارن مشنن کي قانوني طور رضامندي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي، جيتوڻيڪ عملي طور اها موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي. جيڪڏهن رضامندي بعد ۾ ختم به ٿي وڃي ته به اهڙن مشنن کي واپس وڃڻ ضروري نه هوندو.

# '''مشاهدي وارا مشن''' (Observation Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي يا شهري مبصرن جا ننڍا دستا شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي جنگبندي، فوجن جي واپسي يا جنگبندي واري معاهدي ۾ ڄاڻايل ٻين شرطن جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. اهي عام طور بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا آهن ۽ سندن بنيادي ذميواري رڳو مشاهدو ڪرڻ ۽ رپورٽون تيار ڪرڻ هوندي آهي؛ تنهن ڪري جيڪڏهن ڪا ڌر معاهدي جي ڀڃڪڙي ڪري ته اهي مداخلت ڪرڻ جا مجاز نه هوندا آهن. مثال طور [[انگولا]] ۾ 1991ع وارو [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن II]] (UNAVEM II) ۽ [[اولهه صحارا]] ۾ [[اولهه صحارا بابت راءِ شماري لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو مشن]] (MINURSO).

# '''وچٿري مشن''' (Interpositional Missions)، جن کي روايتي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، نسبتاً وڏن ۽ هلڪي هٿياربند فوجي دستن تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جيڪي تڪرار کان پوءِ ٻن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ طور مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهي ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ بفر زون جو ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. مثال طور 1994ع ۾ [[انگولا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن III]] (UNAVEM III) ۽ 1996ع ۾ [[گوئٽي مالا]] ۾ [[MINUGUA]].

# '''گهڻ رخا مشن''' (Multidimensional Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس]] عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو جامع امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندو آهي. اهي رڳو مشاهدو يا ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رڪاوٽ بڻجڻ تائين محدود نه هوندا آهن، پر چونڊن جي نگراني، پوليس ۽ سلامتي ادارن جي سڌارن، ادارن جي تعمير، معاشي ترقي ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي شعبن ۾ پڻ حصو وٺندا آهن. مثال طور [[نيميبيا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو عبوري امدادي گروهه]] (UNTAG)، [[ايل سلواڊور]] ۾ [[ONUSAL]] ۽ [[موزمبيق]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUMOZ).

# '''[[امن لاڳو ڪندڙ]] مشن''' (Peace Enforcement Missions): اهي ستين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشن هوندا آهن ۽ اڳين ٽن قسمن جي ابتڙ، جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ جا پابند نه هوندا آهن. اهي شهري ۽ فوجي ٻنهي قسمن جي عملي تي مشتمل گهڻ رخا مشن هوندا آهن. انهن وٽ نسبتاً وڏي ۽ بهتر هٿياربند فوج هوندي آهي ۽ انهن کي صرف پنهنجي بچاءَ کان وڌيڪ مقصدن لاءِ به طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل هوندو آهي. مثال طور [[اولهه آفريڪا]] ۾ [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري جو نگراني گروهه]] (ECOMOG)، 1999ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو سيرا ليون مشن]] (UNAMSIL)، ۽ [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ [[نيٽو]] جا [[IFOR]] ۽ [[SFOR]] آپريشن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;/&gt;

==== سرد جنگ دوران ۽ ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ====

[[سرد جنگ]] جي دور ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جا اڪثر مشن روايتي نوعيت جا هئا، جن ۾ امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا ملڪن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ جنگن کان پوءِ مقرر ڪيا ويندا هئا ته جيئن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ بڻجن ۽ امن معاهدن تي عملدرآمد کي يقيني بڻائين. اهي مشن رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا هئا ۽ گهڻو ڪري مبصر بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا هئا، جيئن [[وچ اوڀر]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) ۽ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] بابت [[ڪشمير بابت گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP). ڪجهه مشن هٿياربند به هئا، جهڙوڪ [[سوئيز بحران]] دوران قائم ڪيل [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I). مجموعي طور اهي مشن پنهنجي مقرر ڪيل ڪردار ۾ ڪامياب رهيا.

[[سرد جنگ کان پوءِ وارو دور|سرد جنگ کان پوءِ]] گڏيل قومن امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ جامع ۽ گهڻ رخي طريقيڪار اختيار ڪيو. 1992ع ۾ ان وقت جي [[گڏيل قومن جو سيڪريٽري جنرل|سيڪريٽري جنرل]] [[بوتروس بوتروس غالي]] هڪ رپورٽ تيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ امن قائم رکڻ بابت پنهنجو جامع تصور پيش ڪيو. ''[[امن لاءِ ايجنڊا]]'' (An Agenda for Peace) نالي هن رپورٽ ۾ هن احتياطي سفارتڪاري، امن لاڳو ڪرڻ، امن ڪرائڻ، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ بحاليءَ کي هڪ ٻئي سان ڳنڍيل قدمن طور بيان ڪيو، جن جي ذريعي سرد جنگ کان پوءِ واري عالمي سياست ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ڪردار وڌيڪ اثرائتو بڻجي سگهي.

==== گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جا وسيع مقصد ====

[[مائيڪل ڊوئل]] ۽ نڪولس سامبانس پنهنجي ڪتاب ''The UN Record on Peacekeeping Operations'' ۾ بوتروس غالي جي رپورٽ جو خلاصو پيش ڪندي احتياطي سفارتڪاري، اعتماد سازي جي قدمن (جهڙوڪ حقيقت معلوم ڪرڻ وارا مشن)، مبصر مشن، ۽ تشدد جي خطري کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي اختيار هيٺ فوج مقرر ڪرڻ کي پائيدار امن لاءِ اهم ذريعا قرار ڏين ٿا. سندن بيان موجب:

# '''امن لاڳو ڪرڻ''' (Peace Enforcement): گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي منظور ڪيل جنگبندي يا معاهدي تي عمل ڪرائڻ لاءِ، ضرورت پوڻ تي ڌرين جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به فوجي طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ. اهڙا مشن عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]] تحت هلندا آهن ۽ انهن ۾ مقرر فوجون نسبتاً وڌيڪ هٿياربند هونديون آهن.

# '''امن ڪرائڻ''' (Peacemaking): گڏيل قومن جي سرپرستي هيٺ ثالثي ۽ ڳالهين ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين کي پرامن حل تي راضي ڪرڻ. هي عمل عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] جي ڇهين باب تحت ڪيو ويندو آهي.

# '''امن قائم رکڻ''' (Peacekeeping): جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي سان هلڪي هٿياربند گڏيل قومن جي موجودگي قائم ڪرڻ، اعتماد پيدا ڪرڻ ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ٿيل معاهدن جي نگراني ڪرڻ. ان سان گڏ سفارتي ڪوششون پڻ جاري رهنديون آهن ته جيئن جامع ۽ پائيدار امن حاصل ڪري سگهجي.

# '''تڪرار کان پوءِ بحالي''' (Post-Conflict Reconstruction): معاشي ۽ سماجي سهڪار ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي بحال ڪرڻ، سياسي، سماجي ۽ معاشي ادارن کي مضبوط ڪرڻ، مستقبل ۾ تشدد جي امڪان کي گهٽائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|date=2007|title=The UN Record On Peacekeeping Operations|journal=International Journal|volume=63|issue=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ ۾ غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) سان گڏجي [[ثقافتي ورثو|ثقافتي ورثي]] جي تحفظ لاءِ ڪم ڪرڻ پڻ شامل آهي. ثقافتي ورثي جي حفاظت بابت گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري وابستگي 2012ع کان جاري آهي ۽ ان کي آهستي آهستي وڌايو پيو وڃي. ان سلسلي ۾ 2019ع ۾ [[يونيفل]] ۽ [[بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل]] جو لبنان ۾ [[يونيسڪو عالمي ورثو]] جي تحفظ لاءِ گڏيل مشن نمايان مثال آهي. فوجي ۽ شهري ماهرن پاران مقامي آباديءَ سان گڏجي ثقافتي ورثي جو تحفظ ڪيترن ئي تڪراري علائقن ۾ مستقبل جي پرامن ۽ معاشي ترقيءَ جو بنياد بڻجي ٿو. بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل جي صدر [[ڪارل فون هيبسبرگ]]، اپريل 2019ع ۾ لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ [[يونيسڪو]] جي مشن دوران چيو: ''&quot;ثقافتي ورثو ڪنهن به علائقي ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جي سڃاڻپ جو حصو هوندو آهي. جيڪڏهن توهان انهن جي ثقافت تباهه ڪريو ٿا ته سندن سڃاڻپ به ختم ٿي وڃي ٿي. نتيجي ۾ ڪيترائي ماڻهو بي گهر ٿي وڃن ٿا، سندن مستقبل بابت اميدون ختم ٿي وڃن ٿيون ۽ هو آخرڪار پنهنجو وطن ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ٿين ٿا.&quot;''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Karl von Habsburg auf Mission im Libanon|date=April 28, 2019 |url=https://www.krone.at/1911689|language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Jyot Hosagrahar: ''Culture: at the heart of SDGs.'' UNESCO-Kurier, April-Juni 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rick Szostak: ''The Causes of Economic Growth: Interdisciplinary Perspectives.'' Springer Science &amp; Business Media, 2009, {{ISBN|9783540922827}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bundesheer.at/cms/artikel.php?ID=10118 &quot;Blue Helmet Forum 2019 - Protection of Cultural Heritage in Peace Operations&quot;, Austrian Armed Forces].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017nian-di-3qi/historic-resolution-protect-cultural-heritage|title=A historic resolution to protect cultural heritage, The UNESCO Courier}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/action-plan-to-preserve-heritage-sites-during-conflict|title=Action plan to preserve heritage sites during conflict|website=United Nations Peacekeeping}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''UNESCO Director-General calls for stronger cooperation for heritage protection at the Blue Shield International General Assembly.'' UNESCO, September 13, 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم رکڻ ===
{{See also|غير گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي فهرست|نيٽو امن قائم رکڻ|يورپي يونين جي فوجي ۽ شهري مشنن جي فهرست|آفريقي يونين جي فوجي مداخلتن جي فهرست}}

[[File:En-MFO1.JPG|thumb|right|1989ع ۾ [[مصر]] جي [[سنائي اپٻيٽ|سنائي]] واري علائقي جي [[ايل گوراح]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) جي غير گڏيل قومن واري امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن سان مقرر ڪيل ڪينيڊا جا [[CH135 ٽوئن هيوئي]] هيليڪاپٽر.]]

[[File:75Parad 04.jpg|thumb|[[آذربائيجان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جا ميمبر، [[2020 ماسڪو فتح پريڊ]] دوران مڪمل فوجي ورديءَ ۾.]]

سڀئي بين الاقوامي امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا سڌي طرح گڏيل قومن جي ڪنٽرول هيٺ ڪم نٿا ڪن. 1981ع ۾ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ [[مصر]] جي وچ ۾ ٿيل هڪ معاهدي تحت [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) قائم ڪئي وئي، جيڪا اڄ تائين [[سنائي اپٻيٽ]] ۾ امن معاهدي تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;10TAGpgA-1&quot;&gt;10 Tactical Air Group: ''Canadian Contingent Multinational Force and Observers Handbook'' (unclassified), page A-1. DND, Ottawa, 1986.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[آفريقي يونين]] (AU) آفريقي امن ۽ سلامتي جو اهڙو ڍانچو (آفريڪن پيس اينڊ سڪيورٽي آرڪيٽيڪچر) قائم ڪرڻ تي ڪم ڪري رهي آهي، جيڪو براعظم ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري نڀائي سگهي. جيڪڏهن ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ [[نسل ڪشي]] يا انساني حقن جون ٻيون سنگين ڀڃڪڙيون ٿين، ته آفريقي يونين جي جنرل اسيمبلي جي منظوري سان، ان ملڪ جي حڪومت جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن موڪلي سگهجي ٿو. هن نظام، جنهن ۾ [[آفريقي اسٽينڊ بائي فورس]] (ASF) پڻ شامل آهي، جي قيام جو منصوبو 2015ع کان اڳ نه هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/african-peace-and-security-architecture-already-proving-useful-even-though-it-still-work |title=The African Peace and Security Architecture is already proving useful even though it is still work in progress |publisher=dandc.eu |date=August 27, 2013 |access-date=November 14, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

علائقائي سطح تي [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري]] (ECOWAS) پنهنجي ڪجهه ميمبر ملڪن ۾ ڪيترائي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا آهن، ۽ ان کي &quot;آفريڪا جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ ترقي يافته علائقائي امن ۽ سلامتي وارو نظام&quot; قرار ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Oni|first1=Cyril I.|date=2009|journal=African Security|volume=2|pages=119–135|doi=10.1080/19362200903361945|title=Economic Community of West African States on the Ground: Comparing Peacekeeping in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea Bissau, and Côte D'Ivoire|issue=2–3|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''غير هٿياربند شهري امن قائم رکڻ''' (ان آرمڊ سويلين پيس ڪيپنگ، UCP) ۾ شهري عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو تڪراري علائقن ۾ شهرين کي تشدد کان بچائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن جي قيام جي ڪوششن جي سهائتا لاءِ غير تشدد، غير مداخلت ۽ غير جانبداريءَ تي ٻڌل حڪمت عمليون اختيار ڪندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ UCP جو اصطلاح سڀني غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) ۾ هڪجهڙو عام نه آهي، پر ڪيترائي ادارا ساڳين طريقن سان ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ امن بابت هڪجهڙا مقصد رکندا آهن. انهن طريقن ۾ متاثر ماڻهن سان گڏ رهڻ، مستقل موجودگي، افواهن تي ضابطو آڻڻ، برادريءَ جي سلامتي بابت گڏجاڻيون، محفوظ لنگهن جو بندوبست ڪرڻ ۽ نگراني ڪرڻ شامل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rachel|first1=Julian|last2=Schweitzer|first2=Christine|date=2015|title=The Origins And Development of Unarmed Civilian Peacekeeping|url=http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|journal=Peace Review|volume=27|issue=1|pages=1–8|doi=10.1080/10402659.2015.1000181|s2cid=144911738|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719124249/http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|archive-date=July 19, 2018|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== مختصر تاريخ ==
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي تاريخ}}

=== قيام ۽ شروعاتي سال ===

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري نظام جي شروعات 1948ع ۾ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] [[1948ع جي عرب-اسرائيل جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ ان جي عرب پاڙيسري ملڪن وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي واري معاهدي جي نگراني لاءِ وچ اوڀر ۾ گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن کي مقرر ڪرڻ جي منظوري ڏني. هن مشن کي [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) سڏيو ويو، جيڪو اڄ تائين جاري آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/history.shtml|title=History of Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آگسٽ 1949ع ۾ سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 73 (1949ع) منظور ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNTSO کي اسرائيل ۽ انهن عرب رياستن جي وچ ۾ ٿيل چئن جنگبندي معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني جي ذميواري ڏني وئي، جيڪي ان جنگ ۾ شامل هيون. نتيجي طور، UNTSO جون سرگرميون علائقي جي پنجن رياستن، يعني [[اسرائيل]]، [[مصر]]، [[اردن]]، [[لبنان]] ۽ [[شام]] تائين ڦهلجي ويون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/untso/background.shtml|title=UNTSO Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== سرد جنگ دوران امن قائم رکڻ ===

آگسٽ 1947ع ۾ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] جي آزادي ۽ ان کان پوءِ ٿيل وڏي پيماني تي خونريزيءَ کان پوءِ، سلامتي ڪائونسل جنوري 1948ع ۾ قرارداد 39 (1948ع) منظور ڪري [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP) قائم ڪيو، جنهن جو مقصد [[ڪشمير]] بابت ٻنهي ملڪن جي وچ ۾ پيدا ٿيل تڪرار ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل ويڙهه ۾ ثالثي ڪرڻ هو.

هي مشن غير مداخلتي نوعيت جو هو ۽ ان کي [[ڄمون ۽ ڪشمير]] ۾ ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان جي وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي جي نگراني جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي. جولاءِ 1949ع ۾ [[ڪراچي معاهدو]] ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNCIP جنگبندي واري لڪير جي نگراني شروع ڪئي، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن ۽ ٻنهي ڌرين جي مقامي فوجي ڪمانڊرن جي گڏيل نگراني هيٺ هئي. هن مشن جو تسلسل اڄ به [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان ۾ گڏيل قومن جو فوجي مبصر گروپ]] (UNMOGIP) جي نالي سان جاري آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unmogip/background.shtml|title=UNMOGIP Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف ملڪن ۾ ڪُل 69 امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي منظوري ڏني.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;/&gt; انهن مان گهڻا مشن سرد جنگ جي خاتمي کان پوءِ قائم ٿيا. 1988ع کان 1998ع جي وچ ۾ گڏيل قومن 35 نوان امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا، جڏهن ته 1948ع کان 1978ع تائين صرف 13 مشن قائم ٿيا هئا، ۽ 1978ع کان 1988ع جي وچ واري ڏهاڪي دوران ڪو به نئون مشن قائم نه ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Duffey|first=Tamara|date=2000|title=Cultural Issues in Contemporary Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=7|issue=1|pages=142–168|doi=10.1080/13533310008413823|s2cid=145210823}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|142–168}}

گڏيل قومن جي پهرين هٿياربند مداخلت 1956ع جي [[سوئيز بحران]] کان پوءِ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I) قائم ڪئي وئي. هي فوج نومبر 1956ع کان جون 1967ع تائين موجود رهي ۽ ان کي [[مصر]]، [[برطانيه]]، [[فرانس]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] جي وچ ۾ جنگبندي برقرار رکڻ، مصري علائقي مان برطانوي، فرينچ ۽ اسرائيلي فوجن جي واپسي جي نگراني ڪرڻ، ۽ پوءِ مصر ۽ اسرائيل جي فوجن جي وچ ۾ بفر فورس طور ڪم ڪندي جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ جو مينڊيٽ ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unef1mandate.html|title=UNEF Mandate|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان ٿوري ئي عرصي بعد 1960ع ۾ [[ڪانگو ۾ گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUC) شروع ڪيو ويو. پنهنجي عروج تي هن مشن ۾ ويهه هزار کان وڌيڪ فوجي اهلڪار شامل هئا، ۽ ان دوران 250 گڏيل قومن جا اهلڪار مارجي ويا، جن ۾ ان وقت جو سيڪريٽري جنرل [[ڊيگ هيملشولڊ]] پڻ شامل هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/early.shtml|title=The Early Years of UN Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ONUC جو مقصد [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] مان بيلجيم جي فوجن جي واپسي کي يقيني بڻائڻ هو، جيڪي [[فورس پبليڪ]] جي بغاوت کان پوءِ بيلجيم جي شهرين ۽ اقتصادي مفادن جي تحفظ لاءِ ٻيهر داخل ٿي ويون هيون. هن مشن کي قانون ۽ امن امان بحال ڪرڻ، بغاوت ۽ نسلي تشدد کي ختم ڪرڻ، ڪانگولي سلامتي فورسن کي فني مدد ۽ تربيت ڏيڻ، ۽ ملڪ جي علائقائي سالميت ۽ سياسي خودمختياري کي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/onuc.htm|title=ONUC|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي ذميواري خاص طور تي [[ڪتانگا]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪاسائي]] جهڙن معدني وسيلن سان مالامال صوبن جي علحدگيءَ واري تحريڪ جي پسمنظر ۾ شامل ڪئي وئي. ان دور ۾ گڏيل قومن جون فوجون، ڪجهه تڪراري انداز ۾، ڪانگو جي حڪومت جي مدد ڪندي ٻنهي صوبن جي علحدگي ختم ڪرائڻ ۾ به ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

1960ع ۽ 1970ع واري ڏهاڪن دوران گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف علائقن ۾ ڪيترائي مختصر مدي وارا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن قائم ڪيا، جن ۾ [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريه ۾ سيڪريٽري جنرل جي نمائندي جو مشن]] (DOMREP)، [[اولهه نيو گني ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي فورس]] (UNSF) ۽ [[يمن ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مبصر مشن]] (UNYOM) شامل هئا. ساڳئي وقت ڪجهه ڊگهي مدي وارا مشن پڻ جاري رهيا، جهڙوڪ [[قبرص ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج]] (UNFICYP)، [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج II]] (UNEF II)، [[گڏيل قومن جي ڌرين جي الڳ ٿيڻ جي نگراني ڪندڙ فوج]] (UNDOF)، ۽ [[لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن جي عبوري فوج]] (UNIFIL).&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;/&gt;

=== 1991ع کان پوءِ ===

[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-un-holds-head.jpg|thumb|[[سراييوو جو گهيرو|سراييوو جي گهيري]] (1992ع–1993ع) دوران هڪ [[ناروي]] جو امن قائم رکڻ وارو اهلڪار؛ تصوير: [[ميخائل اِوستافيئف]].]]

[[يوگوسلاو جنگين]] دوران امن قائم رکڻ جي تجربن، خاص طور تي [[سربرينيتسا قتلِ عام]] جهڙين ناڪامين، جزوي طور [[گڏيل قومن جي امن تعمير ڪميشن]] (يونائيٽيڊ نيشنز پيس بلڊنگ ڪميشن) جي قيام جو سبب بڻيا. هي ڪميشن چونڊن ۽ ٻين شهري ادارن جي مضبوطي جهڙين سرگرمين وسيلي پائيدار امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ انجام ڏيندا آهن. هن وقت اها ڪميشن آفريڪا جي ڇهن ملڪن سان ڪم ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/projects/africa/beyond-peace-deals-united-nations-experiment-peacebuilding |title=Beyond Peace Deals: The United Nations Experiment in &quot;Peacebuilding&quot;|date=June 22, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ڳالهين سان گڏ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، ۾ عورتن جي وڌيڪ مؤثر شرڪت، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهرن جي مقرري، هٿياربند تڪرارن جا عورتن تي پوندڙ اثرن بابت وڌيڪ معلومات، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |title=UN Security Council Takes a Historic Stand Supporting Abortion Access for Women Raped in War / Library / Homepage |publisher=AWID |access-date=October 28, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203101025/http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |archive-date=December 3, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن سان امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW)، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن بابت ڪميٽي آهي، هڪ عام سفارش جاري ڪئي، جنهن موجب اهي رياستون، جيڪي گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جون ڌريون آهن، پابند آهن ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌيءَ طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ فوجون موڪلين، يا تڪرارن جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مالي يا ٻئي قسم جي مدد فراهم ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=13885&amp;LangID=E|title=OHCHR -|website=www.ohchr.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪميٽي اهو پڻ واضح ڪيو ته اهڙين رياستن کي مناسب احتياط اختيار ڪرڻ گهرجي ته جيئن [[غير رياستي ڌريون]]، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي سلامتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ٿيندڙ ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

[[پيج فورٽنا]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي مقرري بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍيو ته ''&quot;امن قائم رکڻ رسد ۽ طلب جو معاملو آهي.&quot;'' رسد جي لحاظ کان سندس مشاهدو آهي ته سلامتي ڪائونسل جي مستقل ميمبرن مان ڪنهن هڪ جي ويجهن ملڪن ۾ هلندڙ گهرو ويڙهن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن مقرر ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن. جڏهن ته طلب جي لحاظ کان مختلف تحقيقون ظاهر ڪن ٿيون ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن گهڻو ڪري انهن ملڪن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن، جتي انهن جي ضرورت سڀ کان وڌيڪ هوندي آهي، يعني جتي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تمام گهڻو هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot; /&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي جوڙجڪ ==

=== اهي ملڪ جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺن ٿا ===
{{See also|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي تعداد موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Irish troops UNMIL.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|جولاءِ 2006ع ۾ [[لائبيريا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو مشن لائبيريا]] (UNMIL) سان مقرر آئرش فوجي گشت ڪندي.]]

[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] موجب، دنيا ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ ۾ مدد ڏيڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا سڀئي ميمبر ملڪ سلامتي ڪائونسل کي ضرورت موجب فوجي دستا ۽ ٻيون سهولتون فراهم ڪندا. 1948ع کان وٺي لڳ ڀڳ 130 ملڪن امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن لاءِ فوجي اهلڪار، شهري پوليس ۽ ٻيو عملو فراهم ڪيو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ 1948ع کان وٺي سڀني امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏيندڙ اهلڪارن جو مڪمل رڪارڊ موجود ناهي، پر اندازو آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي 71 مشنن ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه لک فوجين، پوليس اهلڪارن ۽ شهرين گڏيل قومن جي جهنڊي هيٺ خدمتون انجام ڏنيون آهن. سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين 122 ملڪ گڏيل طور لڳ ڀڳ 76,000 فوجي مبصر، پوليس اهلڪار ۽ فوجي مهيا ڪري رهيا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Troop and police contributors|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/troop-and-police-contributors|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

شرڪت ڪندڙ ملڪن جو تعداد گهڻو هجڻ باوجود، امن قائم رکڻ جو وڏو بار اڃا تائين [[ترقي پذير ملڪ|ترقي پذير ملڪن]] جي هڪ بنيادي گروهه تي آهي. آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي، پوليس ۽ فوجي ماهر موڪليندڙ ڏهه ملڪ [[بنگلاديش]] (6,447)، [[نيپال]] (5,536)، [[ڀارت]] (5,481)، [[روانڊا]] (5,263)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (4,856)، [[پاڪستان]] (3,949)، [[مصر]] (2,818)، [[انڊونيشيا]] (2,818)، [[گهانا]] (2,296) ۽ [[چين]] (2,248) هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين 14,000 کان وڌيڪ شهري اهلڪار به امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ قانوني يا طبي ماهرن، استادن، مواصلاتي ٽيڪنالاجي جي ماهرن ۽ انتظامي عملي طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/civilians|title=Civilians|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

30 سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن دوران 100 کان وڌيڪ ملڪن سان تعلق رکندڙ 4,147 ماڻهو پنهنجون حياتيون وڃائي چڪا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/fatalities|title=Fatalities|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان وڌيڪ جاني نقصان [[ڀارت]] جو ٿيو، جنهن جا 174 امن اهلڪار مارجي ويا، ان کان پوءِ [[بنگلاديش]] (159)، [[پاڪستان]] (159)، [[نائيجيريا]] (157)، [[گهانا]] (145)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (138)، [[ڪينيڊا]] (123)، [[فرانس]] (115) ۽ [[برطانيه]] (106) شامل آهن. 1948ع کان وٺي سراسري طور هر سال 56 امن اهلڪار ماريا ويا، پر 2001ع کان پوءِ هي انگ لڳ ڀڳ ٻيڻو ٿي هر سال 110 تائين پهچي ويو. گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي پهرين 55 سالن دوران ٿيل ڪل جاني نقصان جو 30 سيڪڙو حصو صرف 1993ع کان 1995ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جي شعبي ۾ عالمي اتر ۽ عالمي ڏکڻ (Global North ۽ Global South) جي وچ ۾ واضح فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي وڏي اڪثريت [[عالمي ڏکڻ]] جي ترقي پذير ملڪن مان ايندي آهي. [[ٿامس جي. وائيس]] ۽ جيووانا ڪيولي موجب، ان جا ٽي اهم سبب علائقائي مفاد، بين الاقوامي وقار ۽ مالي فائدا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=February 3, 2019|title=The Global South and UN Peace Operations|url=https://www.e-ir.info/2019/02/03/the-global-south-and-un-peace-operations/|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=E-International Relations|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آفريقي ملڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا سڀ کان وڌيڪ اهلڪار فراهم ڪن ٿا، پر ساڳئي وقت آفريڪا ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جو تعداد به سڀ کان وڌيڪ آهي، ۽ گهڻا آفريقي امن اهلڪار آفريڪا جي اندر ئي مقرر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، ايٿوپيا جا لڳ ڀڳ سڀئي 4,800 امن اهلڪار پاڙيسري ملڪن [[سوڊان]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ مقرر هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺڻ سان ترقي پذير ملڪن کي بين الاقوامي وقار پڻ حاصل ٿيندو آهي، ۽ اهو [[عظيم طاقت]] طور پنهنجون دعوائون مضبوط ڪرڻ ۾ مددگار ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيئن [[برازيل]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جي صورت ۾ ڏٺو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، غريب ملڪن لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين کي موڪلڻ مالي لحاظ کان به فائديمند هوندو آهي. هر امن اهلڪار لاءِ ماهوار واپسيءَ جي رقم ۾ پگهار ۽ الائونس لاءِ 1,028 آمريڪي ڊالر، ماهرن لاءِ اضافي 303 آمريڪي ڊالر، ذاتي لباس، سامان ۽ اوزارن لاءِ 68 آمريڪي ڊالر، ۽ ذاتي هٿيار لاءِ 5 آمريڪي ڊالر شامل هوندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/faq/q10.htm|title=United Nations Peacekeepers - How are peacekeepers compensated?|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; گڏيل قومن طرفان فراهم ڪيل اهي ادائيگيون، تربيت ۽ سامان، انفرادي فوجين سان گڏ ترقي پذير ملڪن لاءِ به مالي طور پرڪشش هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ مقرر ڪيل فوجي ۽ شهري پوليس اهلڪارن مان لڳ ڀڳ 4.5 سيڪڙو [[يورپي يونين]] مان ايندا آهن، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو حصو هڪ سيڪڙو کان به گهٽ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;factsheet&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/overview.shtml |title=Peacekeeping Fact Sheet |publisher=United Nations|access-date=December 20, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

مشنن جي قيادت بابت عام طور تي فوجي ڪمانڊر انهن ملڪن مان چونڊيا ويندا آهن، جيڪي سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي دستا فراهم ڪندا آهن، جڏهن ته سيڪريٽري جنرل جا خاص نمائندا گهڻو ڪري ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Oksamytna |first1= Kseniya|last2= Bove |first2= Vincenzo|last3= Lundgren |first3= Magnus|date= 2021 |title=Leadership selection in United Nations peacekeeping |journal= International Studies Quarterly|volume= 65|pages= 16–28|doi= 10.1093/isq/sqaa023 |doi-access= free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت ===
{{See also|امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتون}}

[[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 1325]] عورتن کي تڪرارن جي روڪٿام ۽ حل، امن ڳالهين، امن جي تعمير، امن قائم رکڻ، انساني امداد ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ ۾ سرگرم ۽ برابر ڌر طور شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو پهريون اهم قدم هو. هن قرارداد ۾ زور ڏنو ويو ته امن ۽ سلامتي جي قيام ۽ واڌاري لاءِ ٿيندڙ سڀني ڪوششن ۾ عورتن جي برابر شرڪت ۽ مڪمل شموليت کي يقيني بڻايو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and the Advancement of Women. &quot;[http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/wps/#resolution Landmark resolution on Women, Peace and Security]&quot;, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Security Council (October 31, 2000) &quot;Resolution 1325&quot;, S/RES/1325, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;

هن قرارداد تي هڪ تنقيد اها به ڪئي وئي آهي ته ان ۾ صنفي مرڪزي ڌارا (جينڊر مين اسٽريمنگ) کي لاڳو ڪرڻ جي ڳالهه ڪئي وئي، پر عملي طور گهڻو ڌيان صرف عورتن جي شموليت وڌائڻ تي ڏنو ويو، جڏهن ته مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي تي پاليسين جي اثرن جو مناسب جائزو نه ورتو ويو. 2010ع ۾ هن قرارداد جي ڏهن سالن جي اثرن بابت هڪ جامع جائزو ورتو ويو، جنهن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ان تي عملدرآمد محدود حد تائين ڪامياب رهيو، خاص طور تي امن ڳالهين ۽ امن معاهدن ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت وڌائڻ جي حوالي سان، جڏهن ته جنسي ۽ صنفي بنياد تي تشدد گهٽائڻ جي ڪوششن باوجود اهو مسئلو برقرار رهيو.&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations and Department of Field Support (2010). &quot;Ten-year Impact Study on Implementation of UN Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) on Women, Peace and Security in Peacekeeping&quot;, United Nations, p. 9-10. https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/documents/10year_impact_study_1325.pdf.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Ghana IntPeaceCorps 2016-05-29 B002a.jpg|thumb|گھانا جون عورتون گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏينديون.]]

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهريت، هٿياربند تڪرارن جي عورتن تي اثرن بابت بهتر ڄاڻ، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي وڌيڪ سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ مؤثر قدمن تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;/&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن خلاف امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW) پڻ پنهنجي هڪ عام سفارش ۾ چيو ته جن رياستن گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جي توثيق ڪئي آهي، انهن تي لازم آهي ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌي طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا، تڪرار جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مدد فراهم ڪري رهيون هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

ڪميٽي وڌيڪ چيو ته توثيق ڪندڙ رياستن کي مناسب احتياط سان اهو به يقيني بڻائڻ گهرجي ته غير رياستي ڌريون، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي حفاظتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

جولاءِ 2016ع تائين عورتون گڏيل قومن جي هر امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن ۾ فوجي، پوليس يا شهري عملي جي حيثيت سان خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيون هيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/resources/statistics/gender.shtml|title=Gender statistics. United Nations Peacekeeping|website=www.un.org|access-date=September 6, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

1993ع ۾ مقرر ٿيل يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن مان رڳو 1 سيڪڙو عورتون هيون. 2020ع تائين لڳ ڀڳ 95,000 امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن مان عورتون فوجي عملي جو 4.8 سيڪڙو، پوليس عملي جو 10.9 سيڪڙو، ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عملي جو 34 سيڪڙو هيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Women in peacekeeping|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/women-peacekeeping|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين اهڙو ڪو به ملڪ، جيڪو گڏيل قومن لاءِ 100 کان وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار موڪلي ٿو، پنهنجي دستي ۾ 25 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ عورتون نامزد نه ڪندو هو. حقيقي انگن اکرن موجب سڀ کان وڏا عورتن جا دستا [[ايٿوپيا]] (578 عورتون، يعني ان جي ڪل دستي جو 12 سيڪڙو)، [[روانڊا]] (500، يعني 10 سيڪڙو) ۽ [[گهانا]] (389، يعني 17 سيڪڙو) طرفان فراهم ڪيا ويا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

جيتوڻيڪ فوجي عملي ۾ عورتن جي مقرر تناسب بابت گڏيل قومن ڪو لازمي هدف مقرر نه ڪيو آهي، پر ميمبر رياستن کان درخواست ڪئي وئي آهي ته اهي پوليس آفيسرن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 20 سيڪڙو ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 30 سيڪڙو عورتون نامزد ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot; /&gt;

2024ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجي دستن ۾ عورتن جو ڪل انگ گهٽجي ويو، پر انهن جو تناسب وڌيو. يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن ۾ صنفي برابري واري حڪمت عملي (يونيفارمڊ جينڊر پئرٽي اسٽريٽجي) شروع ٿيڻ کان پوءِ عورتن جو تناسب مسلسل وڌندو رهيو آهي. عورتن جي ڪل تعداد ۾ گهٽتائي جو وڏو سبب [[گڏيل قومن جو مالي ۾ ڪثيرالجہتي مربوط استحڪامي مشن]] (MINUSMA) جو خاتمو هو. جون 2024ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن ۾ مقرر فوجي عملي مان عورتن جو تناسب 8.6 سيڪڙو هو، جيڪو گذريل سال جي ڀيٽ ۾ 1.3 سيڪڙو وڌيڪ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pfeifer Cruz |first=Claudia |title=Women in Multilateral Peace Operations in 2024: What is the State of Play? |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241031064944/https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |archive-date=October 31, 2024 |date=October 2024 |doi=10.55163/VYHM5282 |doi-access=free |location=Stockholm |publisher=SIPRI}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ جو نظرياتي بنياد ==


جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ ۽ امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي ڪردار بابت گهڻو ڪجهه لکيو ويو آهي، پر اهڙي تجرباتي تحقيق نسبتاً گهٽ ٿي آهي، جيڪا اهو واضح ڪري سگهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول ۾ ڪهڙي نموني اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. [[ڪولمبيا يونيورسٽي]] جي پروفيسر [[ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا]] چار اهڙن سببن (ڪيئيوئل ميڪينزم) جي سڃاڻپ ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي، جن جي ذريعي امن قائم رکڻ وارا پائيدار امن لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices After Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|location=Princeton|pages=175}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا موجب اهي چار بنيادي طريقا هي آهن:

# تازن ويڙهاڪن جي ترغيبي عنصرن ۾ تبديلي آڻڻ، جيئن امن وڌيڪ فائديمند ۽ جنگ وڌيڪ مهانگي محسوس ٿئي.
# غير يقيني صورتحال ۽ خوف کي گهٽائڻ، جيڪي سلامتي جي مخمصي (سڪيورٽي ڊليما) کي وڌائين ٿا.
# حادثاتي واقعن يا بي ضابطه هٿياربند گروهن جي ڪاررواين کي روڪڻ يا ضابطي ۾ آڻڻ، جيڪي ٻيهر جنگ جو سبب بڻجي سگهن.
# ڪنهن هڪ ڌر (خاص طور حڪومت) طرفان سياسي زيادتين کي روڪڻ، جيڪي امن کان محروم ڌرين کي ٻيهر هٿيار کڻڻ تي مجبور ڪري سگهن.

فورٽنا جو دليل آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا امن جي عمل تي مثبت اثر ڇڏين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ انهن کي اڪثر اهڙن هنڌن تي موڪليو ويندو آهي، جتي امن قائم رکڻ سڀ کان وڌيڪ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. امن قائم رکڻ تي تنقيد ڪندڙ اڪثر چوندا آهن ته اهي مشن غير مؤثر يا غير ضروري آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن ويڙهاڪ ڌريون پاڻ امن برقرار رکڻ ۾ دلچسپي رکن ٿيون ته امن قائم رهندو. تنهن هوندي به، فورٽنا جو خيال آهي ته مٿي بيان ڪيل سبب ڏيکارين ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا پائيدار امن کي يقيني بڻائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، خاص طور تي انهن حالتن جي ڀيٽ ۾ جتي ويڙهاڪ ڌريون مڪمل طور پنهنجي حال تي ڇڏيل هجن. اهي سبب اهو به واضح ڪن ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ جي ضرورت ڇو آهي ۽ اهو تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول تي ڪيئن اثرانداز ٿي سگهي ٿو.

جنگ جي ترغيبن کي گهٽائڻ ۽ امن کي وڌيڪ پرڪشش بڻائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومون نفاذي اختيارن (انفورسمينٽ مينڊيٽ) تحت فوجي قوت مقرر ڪري سگهي ٿي، جيڪا امن خراب ڪندڙ ڌرين لاءِ روڪ جو سبب بڻجي. اهڙا دستا حالتن جي نگراني ڪري سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي اوچتي حملي جو امڪان گهٽجي وڃي ٿو يا اهڙو حملو ڪرڻ وڌيڪ ڏکيو ٿي وڃي ٿو. هلڪي هٿيارن سان ليس مشاهدي وارو مشن پڻ ابتدائي خبرداري واري قوت (ارلي-وارننگ فورس) يا &quot;ٽرپ وائر&quot; طور ڪم ڪري سگهي ٿو. بين الاقوامي برادري طرفان ڏني ويندڙ امداد ۽ سياسي سڃاڻپ کي به ان ڳالهه سان مشروط ڪيو وڃي ته ڌريون ڳالهين دوران طئي ٿيل شرطن تي عمل ڪن. ان سان گڏ، روزگار، عوامي ترقياتي منصوبن ۽ ٻين فائدن جي صورت ۾ &quot;امن جا فائدا&quot; (پيس ڊويڊينڊس) پڻ فراهم ڪيا وڃن.

غير يقيني صورتحال ۽ خوف کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري سگهن ٿا، ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رابطي کي آسان بڻائي سگهن ٿا ته جيئن سلامتي بابت خدشا گهٽجن، ۽ هر ڌر کي اها خاطري ملي ته ٻي ڌر پنهنجن واعدن کان نه ڦرندي. اهڙي طرح اهي ٻنهي ڌرين کي پنهنجي امن پسند ارادن کي واضح ۽ قابل اعتماد نموني ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ مؤثر ذريعو مهيا ڪن ٿا.

امن جي عمل کي پٽڙي تان لاهي ڇڏيندڙ حادثن يا بي ضابطه گروهن جي ڪاررواين کي روڪڻ لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهڙن گروهن کي روڪي سگهن ٿا. ويڙهاڪ قوتون اڪثر مضبوط قيادت ۽ [[حڪم ۽ ضابطي]] (ڪمانڊ اينڊ ڪنٽرول) کان محروم هونديون آهن، تنهنڪري امن ڳالهين دوران ڪنهن بي ضابطه گروهه جي معاهدي کان انڪار ڪرڻ يا امن جي عمل کي ناڪام بڻائڻ جو خطرو موجود هوندو آهي. گڏيل قومن جا دستا اهڙين حالتن کي روڪڻ سان گڏ ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ثالثي ۽ رابطي کي پڻ آسان بڻائي سگهن ٿا ۽ سياسي اعتدال پسند قوتن کي اڳتي آڻي سگهن ٿا. قانون ۽ امن امان برقرار رکندي اهي عارضي طور رياستي حفاظتي ادارن جي ذميواري سنڀالي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي مبينا ڀڃڪڙي تي غيرجانبدار رويو اختيار ڪيو وڃي ۽ تشدد جي ٻيهر شروعات کان بچي سگهجي.

سياسي زيادتين جي روڪٿام لاءِ حڪومت سان لاڳاپيل ادارن ۾ سڌارا آندا وڃن ٿا. فوج ۽ پوليس جهڙن حفاظتي ادارن کي تربيت ڏيڻ ۽ انهن جي نگراني ڪرڻ سان کين حڪمرانن جي دٻاءَ جو اوزار بڻجڻ بدران عوام جا غيرجانبدار محافظ بڻائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. اهڙي تربيت عوام جو اعتماد وڌائڻ ۾ مددگار ثابت ٿي سگهي ٿي. گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا آزاد ۽ منصفاڻي چونڊون ڪرائڻ ۽ انهن جي نگراني پڻ ڪري سگهن ٿا. ڪجهه حالتن ۾ گڏيل قومون عبوري دور دوران غيرجانبدار عبوري حڪومت پڻ قائم ڪري سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ملڪ جو انتظام سنڀالي، جڏهن ته سرڪاري ادارن کي ٻيهر منظم، سڌاريو يا وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪيو وڃي. ان کان سواءِ هٿياربند باغي گروهن کي هٿيار ڦٽا ڪرڻ، انهن کي سياسي تنظيمن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ ۽ پرامن جمهوري عمل وسيلي پنهنجا مطالبا پيش ڪرڻ لاءِ همٿايو وڃي ٿو. اهو خاص طور اهم آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي باغي گروهه حڪومت جي اهم مخالف قوت هوندا آهن، پر سياسي تنظيم طور مؤثر نموني ڪم ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت کان محروم هوندا آهن.

مختلف امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن مختلف سببن ۽ ضرورتن جي بنياد تي قائم ڪيا ويندا آهن. [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VII]] تحت هلندڙ مشنن ۾ فوجي روڪ ۽ نفاذ تي وڌيڪ زور هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VI]] تحت مشن بنيادي طور نگراني ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ غيرجانبدار موجودگي برقرار رکڻ لاءِ هوندا آهن. سياسي زيادتين جي روڪٿام لاءِ قائم ڪيل مشن گهڻ رخي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ واري سياسي عمل ۾ سرگرم ڪردار ادا ڪندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|chapter=4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي اثرائتي ==

علمي تحقيق جي جائزي مان مضبوط ثبوت مليا آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن امن جي استحڪام ۾ واڌارو آڻين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Walter|first1=Barbara F.|last2=Howard|first2=Lise Morje|last3=Fortna|first3=V. Page|date=2020|title=The Extraordinary Relationship between Peacekeeping and Peace|journal=British Journal of Political Science|volume=51|issue=4|language=en|pages=1705–1722|doi=10.1017/S000712342000023X|s2cid=229469021 |issn=0007-1234|doi-access=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hoeffler|first=Anke|date=March 11, 2014|title=Can international interventions secure the peace?|journal=International Area Studies Review|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=75–94|doi=10.1177/2233865914525380|s2cid=16303210|url=http://www.econrsa.org/node/700|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا]] موجب مضبوط ثبوت موجود آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي نمايان طور گهٽائي ٿي. امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين جو تعداد جيترو وڌيڪ هوندو، اوترا ئي جنگي محاذ تي مارجي ويل ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽ ٿيندو، ۽ عام شهرين جي جاني نقصان ۾ به گهٽتائي ايندي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://politicalviolenceataglance.org/2015/09/24/enough-with-the-pessimism-about-peacekeeping/|title=Enough with the Pessimism about Peacekeeping|date=September 24, 2015|website=Political Violence at a Glance|access-date=January 26, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[اپسالا يونيورسٽي]] ۽ [[اوسلو امن تحقيقاتي اداري]] جي سياسي سائنسدانن جي هڪ مطالعي موجب، جيڪڏهن گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري پاليسي کي وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪيو وڃي، امن قائم رکڻ وارن دستن جو تعداد ٻيڻو ڪيو وڃي ۽ انهن کي وڌيڪ وسيع اختيار ڏنا وڃن، ته هٿياربند تڪرارن جي عالمي شرح، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي غير موجودگي واري صورتحال جي ڀيٽ ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ٻه ٽيون حصو گهٽجي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Hegre|first1=Håvard|last2=Hultman|first2=Lisa|last3=Nygård|first3=Håvard Mokleiv|date=November 28, 2018|title=Evaluating the Conflict-Reducing Effect of UN Peacekeeping Operations|journal=The Journal of Politics|volume=81|language=en|pages=215–232|doi=10.1086/700203|s2cid=13894244|issn=0022-3816|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فورڊهم يونيورسٽي]] جي سياسي سائنسدان [[انجلي ديال]] موجب، تحقيق مان ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن جنگ کي سرحدن کان ٻاهر پکڙجڻ کان روڪين ٿا. زمين تي وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار هجڻ سان عام شهرين خلاف تشدد جا واقعا پڻ گهٽ ٿيندا آهن، ۽ ڪيترين حالتن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ڪاميابي سان عبوري انتظاميا جو ڪردار ادا ڪندي اقتدار ٻيهر مقامي اختيارين حوالي ڪيو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ هاڻي اهڙو عمل اڳ جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ڏسڻ ۾ اچي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/02/01/is-u-n-peacekeeping-under-fire-heres-what-you-need-to-know/|title=Is U.N. peacekeeping under fire? Here's what you need to know.|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=February 1, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2018ع جي هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پنهنجي سر به گهرو ويڙهه جي شدت کي گهٽائين ٿا، پر جڏهن انهن کي ثالثي سان گڏ استعمال ڪيو وڃي ٿو ته انهن جو اثر وڌيڪ نمايان ٿي وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Mediation, Peacekeeping, and the Severity of Civil War|journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution|volume=63|issue=7|pages=1682–1709|language=en|doi=10.1177/0022002718817092|year=2018|last1=Beardsley|first1=Kyle|last2=Cunningham|first2=David E.|last3=White|first3=Peter B.|s2cid=202164361}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهڙا به ثبوت موجود آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا موڪلڻ جو واعدو ئي ويڙهاڪ ڌرين کي ڳالهين جي ميز تي آڻڻ ۽ جنگبندي تي راضي ٿيڻ جا امڪان وڌائي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lundgren|first=Magnus|year=2016|title=Which international organizations can settle civil wars?|journal=Review of International Organizations|volume=DOI 10.1007/s11558-016-9253-0|issue=4|pages=613–641|doi=10.1007/s11558-016-9253-0|s2cid=152898046}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي شمارياتي تحقيق ۾ انهن عنصرن کي به نظر ۾ رکيو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ڪٿي مقرر ڪيا وڃن ۽ ڪٿي امن قائم ٿيڻ جا امڪان ڪيترا آهن. هن جي نتيجن موجب، امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ۽ پائيدار امن جي وچ ۾ شمارياتي طور اهم لاڳاپو موجود آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن عام طور تي انهن علائقن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن جتي امن قائم ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن، فورٽنا جو اندازو آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 55 کان 60 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽائي ٿي، جڏهن ته ڪجهه وڌيڪ پراميد اندازن موجب اها گهٽتائي 75 کان 85 سيڪڙو تائين ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 116&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=116}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا جي تجزيي موجب [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VI]] تحت رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل مشنن ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VII]] تحت نفاذي مشنن جي اثرائتي ۾ گهڻو فرق نظر نٿو اچي. البته نفاذي مشن تڏهن ئي اثرائتا ثابت ٿين ٿا، جڏهن امن قائم رکڻ واري قوت طاقت جي استعمال بابت پنهنجي اعتبار ۽ صلاحيت برقرار رکي سگهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=109, 116, 125}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهو ان ڳالهه جي اهميت کي اجاگر ڪري ٿو ته گڏيل قومن جا مشن مقامي ڌرين جي رضامندي برقرار رکن. مجموعي طور فورٽنا جو نتيجو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ويڙهاڪ ڌريون مڪمل طور پنهنجي حال تي نه ڇڏيون وڃن، ته امن قائم رکڻ پائيدار امن کي يقيني بڻائڻ جو هڪ مؤثر اوزار آهي. هن اڳ بيان ڪيل سببن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول ۾ امن جي استحڪام تي نمايان اثر وجهي سگهن ٿا. فورٽنا ۽ [[ليز مورجي هاورڊ]] جو چوڻ آهي ته هاڻي تحقيق جو ڌيان امن قائم رکڻ جي بنيادي اثرائتي کان اڳتي وڌي، مختلف قسمن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن، عبوري انتظاميائن، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ جمهوريت جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن، ۽ انهن ماڻهن جي نظرين ڏانهن منتقل ٿي رهيو آهي، جن جي لاءِ امن قائم رکيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Pitfalls and Prospects in the Peacekeeping Literature*|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|volume=11|pages=283–301|last1=Fortna|first1=Virginia Page|last2=Howard|first2=Lise Morjé|date=May 20, 2008|language=en|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.9.041205.103022|s2cid=15740415|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[مائيڪل ڊبليو ڊائل]] ۽ [[نيڪولس سامبانس]] جي تجزيي موجب، انهن ملڪن ۾، جتي نسلي بنيادن تي جنگ نه هجي، معاشي ترقي جو سطح نسبتاً بهتر هجي ۽ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا ۽ مالي امداد موجود هجن، اتي پائيدار امن قائم رهڻ جا امڪان وڌيڪ هوندا آهن. انهن جو نتيجو آهي ته مختصر مدي ۾ پائيدار امن جو دارومدار گڏيل قومن جي مضبوط موجودگي ۽ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ گهٽ دشمني تي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ڊگهي مدي ۾ معاشي صلاحيت وڌيڪ اهم عنصر بڻجي ويندي آهي ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ دشمني جي شدت نسبتاً گهٽ اهم رهندي آهي. سندن خيال ۾، جيتوڻيڪ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ڪافي حد تائين ڪامياب رهيا آهن، پر اهي مداخلت هيٺ آيل ملڪن ۾ خودمختيار معاشي ترقي کي ڪافي حد تائين هٿي نه ڏئي سگهيا آهن. تنهنڪري گڏيل قومون امن برقرار رکڻ ۾ هڪ مضبوط پر اڻ سڌو ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿيون، جڏهن ته پائيدار امن جو اصل دارومدار اهڙن ادارن جي قيام تي هوندو آهي، جيڪي امن کي ڊگهي عرصي تائين برقرار رکي سگهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Making War and Building Peace : United Nations Peace Operations|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2010|pages=336–337}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ٻين علمي تحقيقن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي ڪاميابيءَ بابت مختلف نتيجا سامهون آيا آهن، جن موجب انهن جي ڪاميابيءَ جي شرح تقريباً 31 سيڪڙو کان 85 سيڪڙو تائين رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Autesserre|first1=Severine|title=Peaceland: Conflict Resolution and the Everyday Politics of International Intervention|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2020ع جي هڪ مطالعي موجب، گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر هلندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن به اثرائتي جي لحاظ کان گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جيترا ئي مؤثر آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Bara|first1=Corinne|last2=Hultman|first2=Lisa|date=March 20, 2020|title=Just Different Hats? Comparing UN and Non-UN Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=27|issue=3|pages=341–368|doi=10.1080/13533312.2020.1737023|issn=1353-3312|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; ساڳئي سال شايع ٿيل هڪ ٻي تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن عام شهرين جي تحفظ ۾ به ڪامياب رهيا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Carnegie|first1=Allison|last2=Mikulaschek|first2=Christoph|date=2020|title=The Promise of Peacekeeping: Protecting Civilians in Civil Wars|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-organization/article/promise-of-peacekeeping-protecting-civilians-in-civil-wars/2BA3A91C26CF29480409B1FFB64F7E40|journal=International Organization|volume=74|issue=4|language=en|pages=810–832|doi=10.1017/S0020818320000442|s2cid=232253107|issn=0020-8183|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2021ع ۾ ''[[آمريڪن جرنل آف پوليٽيڪل سائنس]]'' ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن مقامي معيشت تي مثبت اثر وڌو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Bove|first1=Vincenzo|last2=Salvatore|first2=Jessica Di|last3=Elia|first3=Leandro|date=2021|title=UN Peacekeeping and Households' Well-Being in Civil Wars|journal=American Journal of Political Science|volume=66|issue=2|pages=402–417|language=en|doi=10.1111/ajps.12644|issn=1540-5907|doi-access=free|hdl=10281/458537|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== پائيدار امن تي اثرانداز ٿيندڙ عنصر ===

ڪيترائي عنصر پائيدار امن تي منفي اثر وجهي سگهن ٿا. انهن ۾ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي حقيقي فوجي طاقت بابت لڪل معلومات، باغي گروهن جي هيرن، ٻين معدنيات يا غيرقانوني واپار وسيلي مالي وسيلا حاصل ڪرڻ، منشيات، هٿيارن ۽ انساني اسمگلنگ ۾ سندن شموليت، ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي فوجي فتح يا شڪست، جنگ جو عرصو ۽ ان جي قيمت، ٻنهي ڌرين کي درپيش واعدن تي عملدرآمد جا مسئلا (ڪمٽمينٽ پرابلم) ۽ سلامتي جو مخمصو (سڪيورٽي ڊليما)، جنگبندي يا امن معاهدي جي موجودگي، تڪرار ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ ڌرين جي ارادن ۽ ڪاررواين بابت شفافيت جي کوٽ، امن کي نقصان پهچائيندڙ انتهاپسند گروهه، اهڙا ڌر يا فرد جيڪي جنگ جاري رهڻ مان فائدو حاصل ڪن، ۽ اهڙا تڪراري مسئلا جيڪي ورهائي يا سمجهوتي ذريعي حل نٿا ٿي سگهن شامل آهن.

فورٽنا جي تحقيق موجب، پائيدار امن جو سڀ کان اهم شمارياتي عنصر اهو آهي ته ڇا جنگ ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي فوجي فتح تي ختم ٿي آهي يا نه. جيڪڏهن گهرو ويڙهه ۾ هڪ ڌر واضح فوجي فتح حاصل ڪري ۽ ان کان پوءِ جنگبندي يا صلح جو معاهدو ٿئي، ته ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تقريباً 85 کان 90 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽجي ويندو آهي. ان کان علاوه، رسمي امن معاهدا ٻيهر تڪرار جي خطري کي لڳ ڀڳ 60 کان 70 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 116&quot;/&gt;

جيڪڏهن ڪو هٿياربند گروهه منشيات، هيرن يا ٻين غيرقانوني واپاري ذريعن مان مالي مدد حاصل ڪري ٿو، ته ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان نمايان طور وڌي وڃن ٿا. فورٽنا موجب اهڙين حالتن ۾ جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو 100 کان 250 سيڪڙو تائين وڌي سگهي ٿو، يعني اهڙي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان عام حالتن جي ڀيٽ ۾ ٻه کان ساڍا ٽي ڀيرا وڌيڪ هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choice after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=117}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا جو خيال آهي ته جن جنگين ۾ ڪيترائي ڌر شامل هجن، اهي ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان نسبتاً گهٽ رکن ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; ان جي ابتڙ، [[مائيڪل ڊبليو ڊائل]] ۽ [[نيڪولس سامبانس]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ نتيجو ڪڍيو ته گهڻ ڌرين وارا تڪرار ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان وڌيڪ رکن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Making War and Building Peace : United Nations Peace Operations|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2010|pages=336}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڊگهي عرصي تائين هلندڙ جنگين ۽ سڃاڻپ يا قومي/نسلي بنيادن تي وڙهيل جنگين ۾ ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. بهرحال، ڊگهيون جنگيون ۽ اهي امن معاهدا جيڪي فوجي فتح کان پوءِ وجود ۾ اچن، عام طور تي مستقبل ۾ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽائين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=117–119}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪاررواين جا حصو وٺندڙ فوجن تي اثر ==

=== فوجي معمول تي آڻڻ ===

ڪجهه محققن جو خيال آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون فوج جي &quot;معمول تي آڻڻ&quot; (مليٽري نارملائيزيشن) کي اڳتي وڌائڻ جو هڪ ذريعو بڻجي سگهن ٿيون. مائيڪل ايڊورڊ والش ۽ جيريمي ٽيلر دليل ڏين ٿا ته [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ [[جاپان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون انهن حلقن لاءِ هڪ منفرد موقعو فراهم ڪن ٿيون، جيڪي جاپان جي فوجي ڪردار کي عام ۽ معمول مطابق بڻائڻ چاهين ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهڙي عمل سان ملڪ جي امن پسند آئين کي تدريجي طور ڪمزور ڪرڻ جو امڪان پيدا ٿئي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;nbr.org&quot;&gt;Jeremy Taylor and Michael Edward Walsh (January 7, 2014), ''[http://www.nbr.org/downloads/pdfs/psa/taylor-walsh_commentary_010714.pdf UN Operations in Africa Provide a Mechanism for Japan’s Military Normalization Agenda]'', {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303010649/http://www.nbr.org/downloads/pdfs/psa/taylor-walsh_commentary_010714.pdf |date=March 3, 2014 }}, retrieved February 7, 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;

سندن خيال موجب، بنيادي سياسي، قانوني ۽ سماجي سڌارن کان سواءِ جاپان جون امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون اهڙين سنگين حالتن کي منهن ڏيڻ لاءِ مڪمل طور تي تيار ناهن، جتي جان ليوا طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ ضروري بڻجي وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Edward Walsh and Jeremy Taylor (December 23, 2013), ''[http://africanarguments.org/2013/12/23/time-to-reconsider-the-japanese-peacekeeping-mission-in-south-sudan-by-michael-edward-walsh-jeremy-taylor/ Time to Reconsider the Japanese Peacekeeping Mission in South Sudan]'', retrieved February 7, 2014.&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن ڪري، اهي دليل ڏين ٿا ته گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين ۾ جاپان جي مسلسل شرڪت آخرڪار اهڙين پاليسي تبديلين جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿي، جن کان پوءِ جاپان جي فوج کي معمول مطابق فوجي حيثيت ڏيڻ ئي واحد ممڪن نتيجو رهجي وڃي.&lt;ref name=&quot;nbr.org&quot;/&gt;

=== فوج موڪليندڙ ملڪن تي سياسي اثر ===

[[ڊيانا ميور ايپل بام]] خدشو ظاهر ڪيو آهي ته [[فجي]] ۾ عالمي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين لاءِ فوج تيار ڪرڻ جي نتيجي ۾ فوج ايتري طاقتور بڻجي وئي، جو هن 1987ع، 1999–2000ع، 2006ع ۽ 2009ع ۾ چار فوجي بغاوتون ڪيون ۽ ويهن سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين فجي تي فوجي آمريت قائم رکي.&lt;ref&gt;Appelbaum, Diana Muir (August 27, 2012), ''[http://www.jewishideasdaily.com/4867/features/how-the-sinai-peacekeeping-force-staged-a-military-coup-in-fiji/ How the Sinai Peacekeeping Force Staged a Military Coup in Fiji]'', retrieved September 7, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt;

بهرحال، ''جرنل آف پيس ريسرچ'' ۾ 2018ع ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ مطالعي موجب، اهي ملڪ جن جون فوجون گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين مان حاصل ٿيندڙ مالي وسيلن تي وڌيڪ ڀاڙين ٿيون، انهن ۾ فوجي بغاوتن جا امڪان انهن ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهڙن مالي وسيلن تي گهٽ ڀاڙين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lundgren|first=Magnus|date=2018|title=Backdoor peacekeeping: Does participation in UN peacekeeping reduce coups at home?|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume=55|issue=4|pages=508–523|doi=10.1177/0022343317747668|s2cid=116168984}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ وارن فردن تي اثر ===

[[File:UNAMIR Blue Berets memorial Kigali (4).jpg|thumb|[[روانڊا]] جي شهر [[ڪيگالي]] ۾ [[يو اين اي ايم آء آر]] (UNAMIR) جي ڏهن بيلجيمي امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي يادگار، جيڪي 1994ع ۾ هوتو نيم فوجي گروهن هٿان مارجي ويا.]]

امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين بابت ٿيل تحقيق مان معلوم ٿئي ٿو ته انهن تي مثبت ۽ منفي، ٻئي قسم جا اثر پون ٿا. بوسنيا ۾ مقرر آمريڪي فوج جي 951 سپاهين تي ٿيل هڪ مطالعي مطابق، 77 سيڪڙو فوجين مثبت اثرن جي نشاندهي ڪئي، 63 سيڪڙو منفي اثرن جو ذڪر ڪيو، جڏهن ته 47 سيڪڙو ٻنهي قسمن جي تجربن بابت ٻڌايو.&lt;ref&gt;Newby, John H., et al. &quot;Positive and negative consequences of a military deployment.&quot; ''Military Medicine'' (2005) 170#10 pp: 815-819.&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار گهڻو ڪري ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي حملن جي خطري ۽ اڻڄاتل موسمي حالتن کي منهن ڏيندا آهن. انهن سببن ڪري ذهني صحت جا مسئلا، خودڪشي جا واقعا ۽ منشيات جي استعمال جا خطرا وڌي سگهن ٿا. ڊگهي عرصي تائين ٻاهرين ملڪن ۾ مقرر رهڻ امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي خاندانن، خاص طور تي سندن ٻارن ۽ گهروارن، لاءِ پڻ ذهني دٻاءُ جو سبب بڻجي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1 = Fernandes Souza | first1 = Wanderson |display-authors=etal  | year = 2011 | title = Posttraumatic stress disorder in peacekeepers: a meta-analysis | journal = The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease | volume = 199 | issue = 5| pages = 309–312 | doi=10.1097/nmd.0b013e3182175180| pmid = 21543949 | s2cid = 28713512 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

هڪ ٻيو نقطه نظر اهو به آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون ذميواريون فوجين جي جنگي صلاحيتن کي ڪمزور ڪري سگهن ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ امن قائم رکڻ واري دستي جون ذميواريون مڪمل جنگ وڙهندڙ فوجي يونٽ کان ڪافي مختلف هونديون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20070926001502/http://www.usafa.af.mil/jscope/ISME2007/Papers/Prof%20Paulin%20Kaurin%20War%20Stories.doc Kaurin, P. M. (2007) War Stories: Narrative, Identity and (Recasting) Military Ethics Pedagogy. Pacific Lutheran University. ISME 2007. Retrieved 9-3-2007].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Liu, H. C. K., The war that could destroy both armies, ''Asia Times'', October 23, 2003. Retrieved March 9, 2007.&lt;/ref&gt;

== تنقيد ==

=== امن قائم رکڻ، انساني اسمگلنگ ۽ جبري جسم فروشي ===
{{Main|امن قائم رکڻ وارن پاران ٻارن سان جنسي زيادتي جو اسڪينڊل}}

1990ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن تي مختلف قسمن جي زيادتين جا ڪيترائي الزام لڳندا رهيا آهن، جن ۾ [[زنا بالجبر]]، [[جنسي زيادتي]]، [[ٻارن سان جنسي زيادتي]] ۽ [[انساني اسمگلنگ]] شامل آهن. اهڙيون شڪايتون [[ڪمبوڊيا]]، [[اوڀر تيمور]] ۽ [[اولهه آفريڪا]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علائقن مان سامهون آيون آهن.

[[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ اسمگل ٿيل عورتن سان لاڳاپيل جسم فروشي ۾ تيزي سان واڌ آئي، ۽ ڪيترائي اهڙا اڏا گڏيل قومن جي ڪئمپن جي ويجهو قائم ٿيا. بوسنيا ۾ 2000ع کان 2001ع تائين علائقائي انساني حقن جي آفيسر ڊيوڊ ليمب جو چوڻ هو ته، &quot;بوسنيا ۾ جنسي غلاميءَ جي واپار جو وڏو سبب گڏيل قومن جون امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون آهن. جيڪڏهن اهي فوجون نه هجن ها ته بوسنيا ۾ جبري جسم فروشي تمام گهٽ يا بلڪل نه هجي ها.&quot; ان کان علاوه، 2002ع ۾ [[آمريڪا جي ايوانِ نمائندگان]] ۾ ٿيل ٻڌڻي دوران اهو به سامهون آيو ته SFOR جا ڪجهه اهلڪار بوسنيا جي جسم فروشي جي مرڪزن تي ويندا هئا ۽ اسمگل ٿيل عورتن ۽ نابالغ ڇوڪرين سان جنسي لاڳاپا رکندا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Allred2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Allred|first=KJ|date=2006|title=Peacekeepers And Prostitutes: How Deployed Forces Fuel the Demand for Trafficked Women and New Hope for Stopping It|journal=Armed Forces &amp; Society|volume=33|issue=1|page=7|doi=10.1177/0095327X06288803|s2cid=71430076}}&lt;/ref&gt;

صحافين پڻ رپورٽ ڪيو ته گڏيل قومن يا، بوسنيا ۽ [[ڪوسوو]] جي صورت ۾، [[نيٽو]] جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي اچڻ کان پوءِ [[ڪمبوڊيا]]، [[موزمبيق]]، [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۽ [[ڪوسوو]] ۾ جسم فروشي ۾ تيزي سان اضافو ٿيو. 1996ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي رپورٽ ''دي امپيڪٽ آف آرمڊ ڪنفلڪٽ آن چلڊرين'' ۾ موزمبيق جي اڳوڻي خاتون اول [[گراسا ماچيل]] لکيو ته هن رپورٽ لاءِ تيار ڪيل 12 ملڪن مان 6 مطالعي ۾ هٿياربند تڪرارن دوران ٻارن جي جنسي استحصال ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي اچڻ کان پوءِ [[ٻارن جي جسم فروشي]] ۾ تيز واڌ ڏٺي وئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;unicef.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/graca/a51-306_en.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030316210918/http://www.unicef.org/graca/a51-306_en.pdf|url-status=dead|title=The Impact of Armed Conflict on Children|archive-date=March 16, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گيتا سهگل]] 2004ع ۾ چيو ته جتي به [[انساني همدرديءَ واري مداخلت]] يا امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون ٿين ٿيون، اتي جسم فروشي ۽ [[جنسي استحصال]] جا مسئلا به ظاهر ٿين ٿا. سندس خيال هو ته گڏيل قومن بابت بنيادي مسئلو اهو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون به ٻين فوجن وانگر ساڳين مسئلن ۾ ملوث ٿي سگهن ٿيون، تنهنڪري &quot;نگهبانن جي به نگراني ڪرڻي پوي ٿي&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.csmonitor.com/2004/1126/p06s02-wogi.html Sex charges haunt UN forces; In places like Congo and Kosovo, peacekeepers have been accused of abusing the people they're protecting,&quot;] ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'', November 26, 2004, accessed February 16, 2010.&lt;/ref&gt;

2006ع ۾ گڏيل قومن ۾ [[اردن]] جي مستقل نمائندي [[شهزادو زيد رعد زيد الحسين]] جي سربراهيءَ ۾ ٿيل جاچ جي نتيجي ۾ هڪ تفصيلي رپورٽ جاري ٿي، جنهن ۾ خاص طور تي [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] ۾ ٿيل جنسي استحصال جي ڪيترن ئي واقعن کي بيان ڪيو ويو. رپورٽ موجب، جنسي استحصال گهڻو ڪري جسم فروشي جي صورت ۾ ٿيندو هو، جتي جنسي لاڳاپن جي بدلي اوسطاً هڪ کان ٽي آمريڪي ڊالر ادا ڪيا ويندا هئا. ڪن حالتن ۾ عورتن کي کاڌي يا روزگار جو لالچ ڏئي جنسي لاڳاپن تي مجبور ڪيو ويندو هو، جڏهن ته ڪجهه نوجوان عورتن ٻڌايو ته کين زبردستي جنسي زيادتي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ڪجهه رقم يا کاڌو ڏنو ويندو هو ته جيئن اهو عمل رضامنديءَ وارو لڳي.&lt;ref&gt;al-Hussein, Prince Zeid Ra'ad Zeid. (2005) &quot;A Comprehensive Strategy to Eliminate Future Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations.&quot; Report to the UN Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations: 8.&lt;/ref&gt;

مئي کان سيپٽمبر 2004ع تائين جنسي استحصال جا 72 الزام سامهون آيا، جن مان 68 فوجي اهلڪارن ۽ 4 شهري عملي خلاف هئا. سال جي آخر تائين اهڙن الزامن جو انگ 105 تائين پهچي ويو. انهن مان 45 سيڪڙو الزام 18 سالن کان گهٽ عمر وارن سان جنسي لاڳاپن بابت هئا، جڏهن ته 31 سيڪڙو بالغ جسم فروش عورتن سان لاڳاپيل هئا. زنا بالجبر تقريباً 13 سيڪڙو ۽ جنسي زيادتي 5 سيڪڙو الزامن تي مشتمل هئي، جڏهن ته باقي 6 سيڪڙو ٻئي قسم جي جنسي استحصال سان واسطو رکندا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;al-Hussein, Prince Zeid Ra'ad Zeid. (2005) &quot;A Comprehensive Strategy to Eliminate Future Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations.&quot; Report to the UN Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations: 8-9.&lt;/ref&gt; گهڻا الزام [[پاڪستان]]، [[يوراگوئي]]، [[مراڪش]]، [[تيونس]]، [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] ۽ [[نيپال]] سان تعلق رکندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Allred2006&quot;/&gt;

[[يوراگوئي]] جي صدر [[خوسي موخيڪا]]، گڏيل قومن جي يوراگوئي فوجين تي 18 سالن جي هڪ هيٽي نوجوان سان مبينا زنا بالجبر جي واقعي تي [[هيٽي]] جي صدر [[ميشيل مارٽيلي]] کان معافي ورتي. مارٽيلي چيو ته &quot;هڪ نوجوان هيٽي شهري سان ٿيل اجتماعي زنا بالجبر کي بنا سزا نه ڇڏيو ويندو.&quot; واقعي ۾ ملوث هجڻ جي شڪ ۾ چار فوجين کي حراست ۾ ورتو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-haiti-uruguay-un-idUSTRE78603I20110907|title=Uruguay apologises over alleged rape by U.N. peacekeepers|newspaper=Reuters|access-date=October 23, 2014|date=September 7, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/Headlines/Article.aspx?id=236953|title=Uruguay to apologise over alleged rape by UN peacekeepers|date=September 21, 2010 |access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جولاءِ 2007ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي [[امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون کاتو]] (DPKO) [[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]] ۾ مقرر 734 مراڪشي فوجين جي پوري دستي کي الزام سامهون اچڻ کان پوءِ ڪئمپن تائين محدود ڪري ڇڏيو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن مان ڪجهه تي نابالغ ڇوڪرين سان جنسي زيادتي جا الزام هئا. ايندڙ سالن دوران گڏيل قومن جي [[گڏيل قومن جي اندروني نگراني جون خدمتون کاتو]] (OIOS) اهڙن 80 ڪيسن جي جاچ ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Simic|first=Olivera|title=Regulation of Sexual Conduct in UN Peacekeeping Operations |chapter=UN Peacekeeping Operations: The Emerging Problem of Sexual Exploitation |date=2012|pages=13–38|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-28484-7_2|isbn=978-3-642-28483-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ [[مرڪزي آفريقي جمهوريه]] ۾ ڪم ڪندڙ [[فرانس]]، [[گيبون]] ۽ [[برونڊي]] جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف پڻ الزام لڳا. انهن ۾ [[ڪيمو صوبو|ڪيمو صوبي]] ۾ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 108 ماڻهن سان جنسي استحصال ۽ جنسي زيادتي جا الزام شامل هئا، جن مان اڪثريت نابالغ هئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/01/world/africa/un-peacekeeping-hit-by-new-allegations-of-sickening-sex-abuse.html?_r=0|title=U.N. Peacekeeping Hit By New Allegations of 'Sickening' Sex Abuse|last=Gladstone|first=Rick|date=2016|access-date=April 17, 2016|newspaper=The New York Times}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2016ع ۾ [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] جي اوڀر واري [[اتر ڪيئو]] صوبي ۾ مقرر امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف به نوان الزام لڳا. [[تنزانيا]] ۽ گڏيل قومن گڏيل جاچ شروع ڪئي، جنهن ۾ تنزاني فوجين تي جنسي استحصال جا 18 الزام شامل هئا، جن مان اٺ نابالغن سان لاڳاپيل هئا. انهن الزامن ۾ 16 تنزاني، هڪ [[ملاوي]] ۽ هڪ ڏکڻ آفريقي فوجي جو نالو آيو. گڏيل قومن مارچ 2016ع ۾ ٻڌايو ته جنسي استحصال بابت الزامن ۾ نمايان واڌ ٿي آهي، جنهن ۾ 21 ملڪن جا فوجي شامل هئا. انهن مان گهڻا الزام آفريقي ملڪن جهڙوڪ [[ڪيمرون]]، [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]]، [[تنزانيا]]، [[بينن]]، [[برڪينا فاسو]]، [[برونڊي]]، [[گھانا]]، [[مڊگاسڪر]]، [[نائيجر]]، [[نائيجيريا]]، [[روانڊا]]، [[سينيگال]] ۽ [[ٽوگو]] سان تعلق رکندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/probe-opens-un-troops-alleged-sex-abuse-dr-155023758.html|title=Probe Opens into UN Troops' Alleged Sex Abuse in DR Congo|date=2016|access-date=April 17, 2016|via=Yahoo News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ وارا ۽ هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جو بحران ===

پهرين [[ايسوسيئيٽيڊ پريس]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Katz |first=Jonathan M. |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/health/2013276274_apcbhaitidiseaseoutbreak.html |title=Nation &amp; World &amp;#124; UN probes base as source of Haiti cholera outbreak &amp;#124; Seattle Times Newspaper |publisher=Seattletimes.com |date=October 27, 2010 |access-date=July 28, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پوءِ ''[[نيو يارڪ ٽائيمز]]''،&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/01/world/americas/haitis-cholera-outraced-the-experts-and-tainted-the-un.html?pagewanted=all In Haiti, Global Failures on a Cholera Epidemic; In-depth New York Times piece investigating UN role in introducing cholera] ''[[New York Times]]'', March 31, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; ''[[الجزيره عربي]]''،&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.aljazeera.com/video/americas/2012/03/201237194798262.html UN likely to blame for Haiti Cholera Outbreak] ''[[الجزيره عربي]]'', March 7, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اي بي سي نيوز]]&lt;ref&gt;[https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/scientists-soldiers-brought-deadly-superbug-americas/story?id=15341129 Scientists: UN Soldiers Brought Deadly Superbug to Americas] ''[[اي بي سي نيوز]]'', January 12, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; پاران شايع ٿيل اهم سائنسي ثبوتن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته [[نيپال]] سان تعلق رکندڙ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا، جيڪي [[هيٽي]] جي [[ميريباليه]] واري علائقي ۾ هڪ ڏورانهين اڏي تي مقرر هئا، 2010ع جي آڪٽوبر کان ملڪ کي متاثر ڪندڙ خطرناڪ [[هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا (2010ع واري ڏهاڪي)|ڪالرا جي وبا]] جو سبب بڻيا.

[[ڪالرا]] پاڻيءَ وسيلي پکڙجندڙ بيماري آهي، جيڪا سخت دستن ۽ الٽين جو سبب بڻجي ٿي، ۽ جيڪڏهن مريض کي بروقت جسم ۾ پاڻي ۽ لوڻ جي کوٽ پوري ڪرڻ وارو علاج (rehydration) نه ملي ته ڪجهه ئي ڪلاڪن اندر موت جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿي. جولاءِ 2012ع تائين هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا دنيا جي سڀ کان وڏي وبا بڻجي چڪي هئي، جنهن ۾ لڳ ڀڳ 7,500 ماڻهو فوت ٿي چڪا هئا، جڏهن ته تقريباً 585,000 هيٽي وارا (يعني هر ويهن مان هڪ ماڻهو) هن بيماري ۾ مبتلا ٿي چڪا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.cdc.gov/haiticholera/haiti_cholera.htm Haiti Cholera: One Year Later], [[بيمارين جي ضابطي ۽ روڪٿام جا مرڪز]] October 25, 2011, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.mspp.gouv.ht/site/downloads/Rapport%20journalier%20MSPP%20du%2022%20juillet%202012.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407031228/http://www.mspp.gouv.ht/site/downloads/Rapport%20journalier%20MSPP%20du%2022%20juillet%202012.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Haitian Ministry of Public Health and Population Cholera Report of July 22, 2012, 22 July 2011, accessed 30 July 2012|archive-date=April 7, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا بابت گڏيل قومن پاران مقرر ڪيل آزاد ماهرن جي پينل موجب، امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جي اڏي تي صفائي ۽ نيڪال جا انتظام غير محفوظ هئا، جنهن سبب گهٽ ۾ گهٽ ٻن طريقن سان هيٽي جي دريائي نظام ۾ آلودگي پکڙجي. رپورٽ موجب، &quot;مکيه غسل خاني ۽ ٽوائليٽن واري حصي ۾ پاڻيءَ جي پائيپن جي جوڙجڪ بي ترتيب هئي، جنهن سبب آلودگي ملڻ جو وڏو خطرو موجود هو، خاص طور تي اهي پائيپ جيڪي هڪ کليل نيڪال واري نالي جي مٿان گذرندا هئا، جيڪو سڄي ڪئمپ مان وهي سڌو [[ميئي ندي]] جي معاون نديءَ ۾ ڇوڙ ڪندو هو.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;UNCholeraReport&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/haiti/UN-cholera-report-final.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110506001548/https://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/haiti/UN-cholera-report-final.pdf|url-status=live|title=Final Report of the Independent Panel of Experts on the Cholera Outbreak in Haiti, pages 21-22, July 2011, accessed 30 July 2012|archive-date=May 6, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

پينل اهو پڻ ٻڌايو ته ميريباليه واري اڏي ۽ ٻن ٻين اڏن مان نڪرندڙ گندو پاڻي باقاعدگي سان هڪ کليل، غير محفوظ سيپٽڪ کڏ ۾ وڌو ويندو هو، جيڪا ٻوڏ اچڻ وقت پاڻيءَ سان ڀرجي ويندي هئي ۽ برساتن دوران ان جو گندو پاڻي ميئي نديءَ جي معاون وهڪري ۾ داخل ٿي ويندو هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;UNCholeraReport&quot; /&gt;

نومبر 2011ع ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا کان متاثر ٿيل 5,000 کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن گڏيل قومن جي اندروني دعوائن واري نظام ۾ درخواست داخل ڪئي. هنن وبا تي ضابطو آڻڻ لاءِ صاف پاڻي ۽ صفائي جي بنيادي ڍانچي جي فراهمي، ذاتي نقصانن جو معاوضو ۽ گڏيل قومن کان باضابطه معافي جو مطالبو ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15648110|title=Haiti cholera demand against UN|date=November 9, 2011|work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جولاءِ 2012ع ۾ [[آمريڪا جي گڏيل رياستن جي ڪانگريس]] جي 104 ميمبرن هڪ خط تي صحيون ڪيون، جنهن ۾ چيو ويو ته &quot;گڏيل قومن جي قدمن&quot; سبب هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا پکڙيو، ۽ گڏيل قومن کي گهر ڪئي وئي ته هو پنهنجي ذميواري قبول ڪري ۽ وبا جي خاتمي لاءِ عملي قدم کڻي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18928405|title=Haiti cholera 'UN responsibility'|first=Mark|last=Doyle|date=July 20, 2012|work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ گڏيل قومن انهن دعوائن کي رد ڪري ڇڏيو، جنهن کان پوءِ متاثرن جي وڪيلن اعلان ڪيو ته هو گڏيل قومن خلاف عدالت ۾ مقدمو داخل ڪندا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ijdh.org/cholera-litigation/ |title=Institute for Justice and Democracy in Haiti: Cholera Litigation |publisher=Ijdh.org |date=October 21, 2010 |access-date=July 28, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== جديد امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائين سان لاڳاپيل ثقافتي خدشا ===

امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائين ۾ مختلف ثقافتن جو پاڻ ۾ گهرو ميل جول هوندو آهي. ان جو سبب اهو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون، پوليس ۽ ٻيو عملو دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي ملڪن مان اچي گڏ ٿيندو آهي، جڏهن ته اهي اڪثر انهن علائقن ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن، جتي نسلي ۽ ثقافتي تنوع تمام گهڻو هوندو آهي. اهڙي صورتحال ۾ مختلف ثقافتن جي وچ ۾ پيچيده لاڳاپا پيدا ٿيندا آهن، جيڪي نه رڳو مشن جي اثرائتي تي اثر انداز ٿيندا آهن، پر ڪڏهن ڪڏهن انهن مقامي ماڻهن سان به تڪرار جو سبب بڻجندا آهن، جن جي مدد لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارا موڪليا ويندا آهن.

1988ع کان اڳ اڪثر امن قائم رکڻ وارا هڪ محدود تعداد وارن ملڪن مان ايندا هئا. ان وقت تائين رڳو 26 ملڪن پنهنجو عملو امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون ۾ موڪليو هو، پر هاڻي اهو انگ 80 کان وڌيڪ ملڪن تائين پهچي ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=146–147}} نتيجي طور، گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون انتهائي گهڻ ثقافتي بڻجي ويون آهن. اهڙي صورتحال ۾ انهن کي نه رڳو ٻولين جي فرق سان منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، پر سماجي ۽ ثقافتي اختلافن سان به، جيڪي اهڙيون عملي مشڪلاتون پيدا ڪن ٿا، جن تي ضابطو آڻڻ آسان نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Pendlebury |first1=Jarrod |last2=Stott |first2=Neil |last3=Tracey |first3=Paul |date=2025 |title=The peacekeeper's challenge: innovation in meta-organisations |journal=Peacebuiding |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1080/21647259.2025.2501873|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; اهي اختلاف ذاتي يا اداري سطح جي رابطن، غلط فهمين، اڻڄاتل طور تي توهين جو سبب بڻجندڙ روين ۽ مخصوص ملڪن جي دستن بابت اڳواٽ قائم ٿيل تعصبن کي جنم ڏئي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=146–147}}

عملياتي لحاظ کان به مشن جي اثرائتي متاثر ٿي سگهي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ مختلف ملڪن جي فوجي ۽ پوليس اهلڪار پنهنجا پنهنجا طريقا، حڪمت عمليون ۽ ضابطا استعمال ڪندا آهن. گڏيل قومن جون فوجون مختلف ذريعن مان گڏ ڪيون وينديون آهن، جنهن سبب انهن جي صلاحيت، تربيت، سامان، معيارن ۽ ڪارروائي جي طريقن ۾ نمايان فرق موجود هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot; /&gt; ان کان علاوه، حصو وٺندڙ ملڪن جي ڪمان ۽ ڪنٽرول جي نظام ۾ به وڏا فرق هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot; /&gt; ڪجهه ملڪ ٻين ملڪن جي ماتحت ڪم ڪرڻ کان به ڪيٻائيندا آهن، جنهن سبب [[ڪمان جي وحدت]] برقرار رکڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي. اهڙي صورتحال گڏيل قومن جي مختلف دستن جي وچ ۾ اختلاف پيدا ڪري سگهي ٿي، جنهن جو نتيجو ميدان ۾ هڪ ٻئي جي سهڪار جي کوٽ جي صورت ۾ نڪري سگهي ٿو. ان جو مثال [[اوڀر تيمور]] ۾ گڏيل قومن جي مشن دوران ڏٺو ويو، جتي آسٽريليا جي فوج [[اوڀر تيمور ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مشن]] تحت پنهنجي فوجين جي تحفظ تي زور ڏيندي سخت فوجي حڪمت عملي اختيار ڪئي، جڏهن ته برطانيا جي [[گورکا]] فوجين مقامي ماڻهن سان ويجها لاڳاپا قائم ڪرڻ واري پاليسي تي عمل ڪيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=146–147}}

جديد امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائين ۾ مقامي آبادي ۽ حڪومت جي رضامندي برقرار رکڻ بنيادي اهميت رکي ٿي. خاص طور تي [[بوسنيا ۾ گڏيل قومن جي تحفظ واري فوج]]، [[سوماليا ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ٻيون آپريشن]] ۽ [[روانڊا ۾ گڏيل قومن جو امدادي مشن]] دوران انسانيت جي بنياد تي مداخلت جي نالي ۾ هن اصول کي نظرانداز ڪيو ويو، جيڪو گڏيل قومن جي منشور جي باب ستين هيٺ ٿيندڙ مداخلتن جي نوعيت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو. بهرحال، اهڙين ڪارروائين جي قانوني حيثيت ۽ مقبوليت برقرار رکڻ لاءِ ضروري آهي ته گڏيل قومن جون فوجون انهيءَ ملڪ جي عوام ۽ حڪومت جي رضامندي حاصل ڪن، جتي اهي مقرر ٿيل هجن. ان لاءِ ضروري آهي ته مقامي ماڻهن کي امن قائم رکڻ واري عمل جو حصو محسوس ڪرايو وڃي ۽ امن قائم رکڻ وارن کي مقامي ثقافت بابت مناسب ڄاڻ هجي، جيئن مقامي آبادي سان ڇڪتاڻ گهٽجي ۽ مشن ڪامياب بڻجي سگهي.

امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج ۽ مقامي آبادي جي ثقافتي لاڳاپن بابت اڃا تائين گهڻي تحقيق نه ٿي آهي. 1976ع ۾ [[يوهان گالٽونگ]] ۽ [[هيلگه هويم]] انهن نارويجي اهلڪارن جو مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (غزه) ۽ [[ڪانگو ۾ گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيا هئا. هنن جو نتيجو هو ته ڪنهن ملڪ جي ثقافت ۽ اتان جي ماڻهن بابت ڄاڻ صرف مفيد نه، پر مشن جي ڪاميابي لاءِ لازمي آهي. مطالعي موجب نارويجي اهلڪارن مقامي ثقافت ۽ تڪرار بابت وڌيڪ ڄاڻ حاصل ڪرڻ جي خواهش ظاهر ڪئي ۽ ٻين ملڪن جي اهلڪارن سان گڏ ڪم ڪرڻ بابت وڌيڪ تربيت به گهربل سمجهي. بهرحال، کين اهڙي تربيت تمام محدود ملي، ۽ تڪرار بابت گهڻي ڄاڻ کين خبرن، ڪتابن يا ٻين گڏيل قومن جي اهلڪارن کان ملي، نه ڪي گڏيل قومن جي ڪنهن منظم تربيتي پروگرام مان.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=150–151}}

لبنان ۾ [[لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن جي عبوري فوج]] (UNIFIL) ۽ مقامي آبادي جي لاڳاپن بابت هيبرگ ۽ هولسٽ جي مطالعي به ساڳيا نتيجا ظاهر ڪيا. هنن ڏٺو ته جيڪي ملڪ مقامي آباديءَ سان وڌيڪ ويجها لاڳاپا قائم ڪرڻ ۽ مقامي ثقافت کي سمجهڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿيا، انهن جا مشن وڌيڪ اثرائتا ثابت ٿيا؛ جڏهن ته جيڪي دستا مقامي سماج کان الڳ رهيا، اهي انهن ماڻهن کان به پري رهيا، جن سان کين ڪم ڪرڻو هو، ۽ ان جو اثر سندن ڪاميابي تي پيو.

{{Quote|
صرف اٽليءَ جو لڳ ڀڳ 2,200 اهلڪارن تي ٻڌل دستو مقامي سماج جو حصو بڻجي ويو ۽ معمول جي زندگي بحال ڪرڻ ۾ سرگرم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. انهن جي فوجين کي مقامي ماڻهن جي ثقافتي، سياسي ۽ سماجي حالتن بابت مناسب تربيت ڏني وئي هئي. لڳ ڀڳ 600,000 آبادي واري علائقي، جنهن ۾ اڪثريت شيعن جي هئي، ۾ اٽليءَ جي فوجين عام ماڻهن ۽ سياسي اڳواڻن سان ويجها لاڳاپا قائم رکيا. ان جي ابتڙ آمريڪي فوجين اهو سمجهيو ته هو لبناني سياست ۾ شامل ٿي رهيا آهن، پر انهن وٽ لبناني ثقافت ۽ تاريخ بابت تمام محدود ڄاڻ هئي. گهڻن آمريڪن کي مختصر مدي وارن اتحادين، پراڻين دشمنيُن، عرب سماج ۾ خانداني لاڳاپن جي اهميت ۽ مذهبي اختلافن جي نزاڪتن جي صحيح سمجهه نه هئي.
|&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=150–151}}
}}

هي مثال ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته ڪامياب امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائي لاءِ مقامي ثقافت جي ڄاڻ انتهائي اهم آهي. جيتوڻيڪ گڏيل قومن وٽ هڪ تربيتي رهنما موجود آهي، جيڪو امن قائم رکڻ وارن کي ضروري طريقن بابت هدايتون ڏئي ٿو، پر مختلف دستن لاءِ ڪو گڏيل نظريو يا معياري ڪارروائي جو طريقو موجود ناهي، جيڪو آخرڪار امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن جي ڪاميابيءَ ۾ رڪاوٽ بڻجي سگهي ٿو.

=== جديد مداخلت ۽ تڪرار جي حل جون حدون ===

[[سرد جنگ]] دوران گهرو تڪرارن ۾ ٻاهرين مداخلت ۽ ثالثي گهڻو ڪري رياست-مرڪز طريقي تي ٻڌل هئي، جنهن ۾ [[خودمختياري]] کي ناقابلِ ڀڃڪڙي سمجهيو ويندو هو. بين الاقوامي برادري رياست جي حڪومت ۽ ان جي مخالف گهريلو ويڙهاڪ ڌرين وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ اندروني تڪرارن ۾ تمام گهٽ مداخلت ڪندي هئي. پر سرد جنگ جي پڄاڻي کان پوءِ اها صورتحال بدلجي وئي. اڄڪلهه گهرو تڪرارن ۾ بين الاقوامي ڌرين جي ثالثي هڪ اهڙي معياري حل واري طريقي تي ٻڌل آهي، جيڪو تڪرار ۾ شامل سڀني ڌرين کي مجموعي طور برابر حيثيت ڏئي ٿو ۽ اهڙو ٺاهه حاصل ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿو، جيڪو سڀني لاءِ قبولڻ جوڳو هجي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Clapham|first=Christopher|date=1998|title=Rwanda: The Perils of Peace|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume=35|issue=2|pages=193–210|doi=10.1177/0022343398035002003|s2cid=110533606}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سرد جنگ جي خاتمي سان بين الاقوامي نظام کي نئين سر ترتيب ڏيڻ جو موقعو پيدا ٿيو. اهو موقعو سرد جنگ جي فاتح ڌرين، يعني [[آمريڪا]] ۽ ٻين اولهه جي سرمائيدار رياستن، وٽ هو، جيڪي آزاد جمهوري قدرن تحت هلنديون هيون ۽ [[انساني حق]]ن ۽ [[جمهوريت سازي]] کي وڏي اهميت ڏينديون هيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt; ان کان اڳ وارن ڏهاڪن ۾ رياست ئي واحد اهڙي وحدت هئي، جنهن کي خاص قانوني ۽ سياسي حيثيت حاصل هئي. جيتوڻيڪ ڪجهه استثنا، جهڙوڪ نوآبادياتي طاقتن خلاف جدوجهد ڪندڙ تحريڪون، موجود هيون، پر حتمي قانوني جواز رياست وٽ ئي هوندو هو. ان ڪري بين الاقوامي برادري عام طور ڪنهن ملڪ جي اندروني معاملن ۾ مداخلت نه ڪندي هئي. خودمختياريءَ جي ڀڃڪڙي نه ڪرڻ وارو هي نظام ٻنهي سپر طاقتن، سندن اتحادين ۽ [[ٽين دنيا]] جي حڪومتن لاءِ فائديمند هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt;

پر هاڻي غير رياستي ڌرين کي به سياسي جواز ملڻ ۽ ڪنهن اقليتي گروهه کي موجود رياست کان ڌار ٿي نئون ملڪ قائم ڪرڻ جي امڪان سبب بين الاقوامي صورتحال ۾ وڏي تبديلي آئي آهي. ان کان علاوه، بين الاقوامي برادري جو تڪرار حل ڪرڻ وارو نمونو گهڻو ڪري اولهه جي ملڪن ۾ تيار ٿيل علمي سوچ کان متاثر آهي. هي نمونو سياسي تشدد روڪڻ ۽ ڳالهين ذريعي ٺاهه حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ گهرو جنگين ۾ مداخلت جي همٿ افزائي ڪري ٿو، ۽ اهڙي ٺاهه ۾ اڪثر جمهوريت سازيءَ جا قدم به شامل هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt;

[[ڪرسٽوفر ڪلافم]] ۽ [[ڊيوڊ شيئرر]] جهڙا نقاد دليل ڏين ٿا ته اهڙي مداخلت ڪڏهن ڪڏهن عام شهرين جي نقصان تي تڪرار کي جاري رکڻ جا وسيلا فراهم ڪري سگهي ٿي. ڪلافم جو دليل بنيادي طور [[روانڊا]] ۾ [[روانڊا نسل ڪشي|نسل ڪشي]] کان اڳ واري صورتحال سان لاڳاپيل آهي،&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt; جڏهن ته شيئرر خاص طور [[سيرا ليون]] جي حوالي سان مداخلت جي منفي پهلوئن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو. سندس خيال موجب مداخلت ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي مڪمل فتح کي روڪي سگهي ٿي ۽ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ طاقت جو غيرمتوازن ڍانچو پيدا ڪري سگهي ٿي، جنهن سان وڌيڪ خونريزيءَ جو رستو کلي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Shearer|first=David|date=1997|title=Exploring the Limits of Consent: Conflict Resolution in Sierra Leone|journal=Millennium: Journal of International Studies|volume=26|issue=3|pages=845–860|doi=10.1177/03058298970260030601|s2cid=144940982}}&lt;/ref&gt;

روانڊا ۾ [[هوتو]] ۽ [[توتسي]] ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ڳالهين وسيلي ٺاهه ڪرائڻ جي ٽئين ڌر واري ڪوشش هوتو انتهاپسندن کي اعتدال پسند هوتو ماڻهن جي قتل ۽ توتسين جي نسل ڪشيءَ جي تياري ڪرڻ جو موقعو ڏنو. [[آفريقي اتحاد جي تنظيم]] جي علائقائي رياستن جي اڳواڻيءَ ۾ بين الاقوامي برادري [[اروشا امن عمل]] وسيلي هوتو ۽ توتسي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ جاري نسلي تشدد جو ڳالهين سان حل ڳولڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي. هي عمل هڪ سال کان ڪجهه وڌيڪ عرصي تائين هليو، جنهن ۾ وڏي بين الاقوامي شموليت ۽ [[تنزانيا]]، جيڪو ڳالهين جو ميزبان هو، [[برونڊي]]، [[يوگنڊا]] ۽ [[زائير]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علائقائي ڌرين حصو ورتو.

جيتوڻيڪ [[روانڊا محب وطن محاذ]] (RPF) [[اروشا معاهدا (روانڊا)|اروشا معاهدن]] مان سڀ کان وڌيڪ فائدو وٺندڙ ڌر هئي ۽ پنهنجون ڪيتريون شڪايتون حل ڪرائڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿي، پر ڪلافم موجب انهن مان ڪيترائي فائدا فوجي ڪارروائيءَ وسيلي به حاصل ڪري سگهجن پيا. ڪلافم جو چوڻ آهي ته اروشا معاهدن شرڪت ڪندڙ ڌرين جي پاڻ ۾ طاقت کي ٻن طريقن سان متاثر ڪيو: پهريون، جنگبنديءَ تڪرار جي هڪ مخصوص مرحلي تي علائقائي قبضي جي ورڇ کي منجمد ڪري ڇڏيو؛ ٻيو، ڳالهين ۾ شامل ڌرين کي ثالثن طرفان مقرر ڪيل اهميت ڏني وئي.

ان جو مطلب اهو هو ته تڪرار منجمد ٿي ويو ۽ RPF کي وڌيڪ علائقائي ڪاميابيون حاصل ڪرڻ کان روڪيو ويو. ڳالهين ۾ ڪنهن ڌر جي اهميت ان جي عوامي مقبوليت يا فوجي طاقت جي بنياد تي نه، پر ثالثن طرفان مصنوعي طور ڏنل وزن موجب طئي ڪئي وئي. نتيجي طور، سڄي عمل RPF جي حيثيت کي ڪمزور ڪيو، ان جي اڳ تائين ڪامياب فوجي مهم کي روڪيو ۽ هوتو انتهاپسندن کي [[روانڊا نسل ڪشي]] جي تياريءَ لاءِ وقت ڏنو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt;

شيئرر دليل ڏئي ٿو ته جديد حڪمت عمليون، جيڪي رڳو ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل ڳالهين تي ڀاڙين ٿيون، تمام گهڻيون محدود آهن، ۽ فوجي فتح کي تڪرار جي حل جي امڪاني طريقي طور نظرانداز نه ڪرڻ گهرجي. سندس چوڻ موجب جنگي ميدان ۾ طاقت جي توازن جي تبديلي اڪثر ڪنهن ويڙهاڪ ڌر کي ڳالهين جي ميز تائين آڻي سگهي ٿي ۽ ان جي مطالبن کي به نرم ڪري سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

ڳالهين ۽ ثالثيءَ ۾ رضامندي وڏي اهميت رکي ٿي. موجوده بين الاقوامي نظام ۽ سرد جنگ کان پوءِ بين الاقوامي برادريءَ طرفان گهڻو استعمال ٿيندڙ تڪرار حل ڪرڻ وارو نمونو رضامنديءَ کي بنيادي اهميت ڏئي ٿو. پر شيئرر سوال ڪري ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ويڙهاڪ ڌر ڳالهين ۽ جنگبنديءَ کي رڳو وقت حاصل ڪرڻ، پنهنجي فوج کي نئين سر ترتيب ڏيڻ ۽ پوءِ جنگ جاري رکڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري ٿي، ته ڇا تڪرار کي ڊگهو ڪرڻ ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل انساني نقصان جي خطري باوجود رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل حڪمت عملي جاري رکڻ گهرجي؟&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

شيئرر پاران ڄاڻايل تجرباتي تجزيي موجب، ڳالهين وسيلي ختم ٿيل اڳوڻين گهرو جنگين جي ڪاميابي محدود رهي آهي. هو جان اسٽيڊمين جي هڪ مطالعي جو حوالو ڏئي ٿو، جنهن مطابق 1900ع کان 1980ع تائين 85 سيڪڙو گهرو جنگيون ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي مڪمل فتح سان ختم ٿيون، جڏهن ته نوآبادياتي جنگين کي ڇڏي رڳو 15 سيڪڙو جنگيون ڳالهين وسيلي پڄاڻيءَ تي پهتيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

رائي لِڪلائيڊر جو مطالعو پڻ انهن نتيجن جي حمايت ڪري ٿو:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
1945ع کان 1989ع تائين سندس درجابندي موجب 93 گهرو تڪرارن مان 58 ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ ختم ٿيا، جڏهن ته باقي جاري رهيا. پر ختم ٿيل تڪرارن مان رڳو 14، يعني 24 سيڪڙو، ڳالهين وسيلي حل ٿيا. باقي 76 سيڪڙو فوجي فتحن سان ختم ٿيا. ان کان علاوه، ڳالهين وسيلي ختم ڪيل 14 تڪرارن مان 7 ۾ ويڙهه ٻيهر شروع ٿي وئي. تنهنڪري ختم ٿيل گهرو جنگين جي لحاظ کان ڳالهين وسيلي ٿيل ٺاهن جي مجموعي ڪاميابيءَ جي شرح لڳ ڀڳ 12 سيڪڙو هئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

سيرا ليون ۾ [[انقلابي گڏيل محاذ]] (RUF)، جنهن جي اڳواڻي [[فوڊي سنڪوه]] ڪري رهيو هو، 1991ع کان 1996ع تائين حڪومت خلاف [[سيرا ليون گهرو جنگ|رتوڇاڻ واري گهرو جنگ]] وڙهي. هن تڪرار ڏانهن بين الاقوامي ڌيان تمام گهٽ ويو، پر جنگ ملڪ کي تباهه ڪري ڇڏيو ۽ ان جي معيشت کي سخت نقصان پهچايو. ڳالهين وسيلي ٺاهه لاءِ ڪيترين ئي ڪوششن باوجود ڪنهن به ڌر پنهنجن مطالبن تان هٿ کڻڻ يا سمجهوتو ڪرڻ لاءِ تيار نه هئي.

سنڪوه [[نجي فوجي ڪمپني]] [[ايگزيڪيوٽو آئوٽڪمز]] جي مداخلت ۽ جنگي ميدان ۾ RUF جي ڪمزور ٿيڻ کان پوءِ ڳالهين جي ميز تي آيو. ان کان پوءِ RUF جو خطرو گهڻو گهٽجي ويو، عام ماڻهو پناهگير ڪئمپن مان واپس اچڻ ۽ پنهنجي زندگي نئين سر جوڙڻ لڳا. پر امن ڪمزور هو ۽ ڳالهين جو سلسلو جاري رهيو. RUF هٿيار ڦٽا ڪرڻ لاءِ تيار نه هو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان کي فوج ۽ شهري مليشيا ٻنهي کان انتقامي ڪاررواين جو خدشو هو.

انهن خدشن کي گهٽائڻ ۽ امن ڏانهن منتقليءَ ۾ مدد ڏيڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا موڪلڻ جو منصوبو هو، پر پوءِ صورتحال خراب ٿيڻ لڳي. بين الاقوامي ڌريون وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪوششن کان پوئتي هٽڻ لڳيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ حڪمت عمليءَ جي لحاظ کان گهٽ اهم ملڪ ۾ هڪ مهانگو ۽ اڻڄاتل مدي وارو مشن شروع ڪرڻ ۾ سندن دلچسپي نه هئي. نتيجي طور گڏيل قومن جي مداخلتي فوج جي جوڙجڪ سست ٿي وئي ۽ پوءِ مڪمل طور رڪجي وئي، جڏهن سنڪوه دليل ڏنو ته گڏيل قومن جي 740 امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جو دستو تمام وڏو هو.

گڏيل قومن ٻنهي ڌرين جي مڪمل رضامندي کان سواءِ ڪارروائي ڪرڻ کان انڪار ڪيو، جنهن سبب امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جي مقرري نه ٿي سگهي. شيئرر موجب رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هي طريقو ڏيکاري ٿو ته گهرو جنگ دوران ۽ ان کان پوءِ واري غير مستحڪم ۽ نازڪ صورتحال ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ڪردار ڪيترو محدود ٿي سگهي ٿو. سندس لفظن ۾، سيرا ليون ۾ ان جو مطلب اهو هو ته امن تعمير واري عمل کي مضبوط ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ اهم جزو موجود نه رهيو، ۽ سنڪوه پاڻ شرطون مقرر ڪرڻ لڳو. اهڙي طريقي سان هڪ ظالم باغي گروهه جي قيادت کي امن جا امڪان روڪڻ جي طاقت ملي وئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

صورتحال وڌيڪ خراب ٿي، جڏهن سيرا ليون جي نئين چونڊيل صدر [[احمد تيجان ڪباه]] ايگزيڪيوٽو آئوٽڪمز سان ٿيل معاهدو ختم ڪري ڇڏيو ۽ اهڙي طرح پنهنجي [[سخت طاقت]] واري فوجي برتري ڪمزور ڪري ڇڏي. 1997ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون جمهوريه جون هٿياربند فوجون|فوج]] جي ناراض آفيسرن حڪومت جو تختو اونڌو ڪيو، جنهن سان تڪرار ٻيهر تيز ٿي ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

سلامتيءَ جي صورتحال جي نگراني لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو هڪ ننڍو مبصر دستو موڪليو ويو. [[سيرا ليون ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مبصر مشن|UNOMSIL]] نالي هي مشن جولاءِ 1998ع کان آڪٽوبر 1999ع تائين موجود رهيو، پر RUF طرفان ملڪ جي گاديءَ واري شهر [[فري ٽائون]] تي قبضو ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ان کي واپس وڃڻو پيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna2008123–124&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=123–124}}&lt;/ref&gt;

نيٺ 1999ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مشن|UNAMSIL]] قائم ڪري موڪليو ويو. هن مشن کي گڏيل قومن جي منشور جي ستين باب تحت اختيار حاصل هو ۽ ان جو مقصد لومه معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ هو، پر تشدد جاري رهيو. شروعات کان ئي RUF تعاون ڪرڻ لاءِ تيار نه هو، ۽ [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري جو نگراني گروهه|ECOMOG]] جي دستي جي واپسيءَ کان پوءِ RUF گڏيل قومن جي فوجين تي حملو ڪيو ۽ سوين اهلڪارن کي يرغمال بڻائي ڇڏيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna2008123–124&quot; /&gt;

ان واقعي تي بين الاقوامي برادريءَ جو اهڙو سخت ردعمل سامهون آيو، جنهن جي RUF قيادت کي توقع نه هئي. ان جو خيال هو ته بين الاقوامي برادري صوماليا وانگر يا فري ٽائون مان UNOMSIL جي واپسيءَ وقت وانگر ٻيهر پوئتي هٽي ويندي. پر ان جي ابتڙ، برطانيه جي مدد سان RUF خلاف سخت [[سيرا ليون گهرو جنگ ۾ برطانوي فوجي مداخلت|فوجي مهم]] هلائي وئي. UNAMSIL جا اختيار وڌايا ويا ۽ ان جي اهلڪارن جو تعداد به وڌايو ويو. 2000ع جي پڇاڙيءَ ۽ 2001ع جي شروعات تائين RUF جي فوجي طاقت تمام گهڻي ڪمزور ٿي چڪي هئي. پوءِ [[ابوجا معاهدو|ابوجا معاهدا]] ڪيا ويا ۽ UNAMSIL ڊسمبر 2005ع ۾ پنهنجو مشن مڪمل ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unamsil/|title=UNAMSIL: United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone|website=www.un.org|access-date=May 5, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيتوڻيڪ اڄ سيرا ليون ۾ امن قائم آهي ۽ گڏيل قومن جي مشن کي ڪامياب سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، پر صورتحال جي ارتقا شيئرر جي ان دليل کي واضح ڪري ٿي ته رڳو رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل، سڀني ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي مفادن کي شامل ڪندڙ ڳالهين وارو طريقو لازمي طور ڪاميابيءَ تائين نٿو پهچي. UNOMSIL جي موجودگيءَ باوجود جنگ جاري رهي. حقيقت ۾، ستين باب تحت وڌيڪ مضبوط UNAMSIL اچڻ کان پوءِ به تشدد ختم نه ٿيو. جڏهن برطانيا فوجي مداخلت ڪري RUF جي تڪرار جاري رکڻ واري صلاحيت کي سخت نقصان پهچايو، جيئن ان کان اڳ ايگزيڪيوٽو آئوٽڪمز ڪيو هو، تڏهن RUF آخرڪار ڳالهين جي ميز تي آيو ۽ امن قائم ٿيڻ ممڪن ٿيو.

ڪجهه ليکڪ اصولي طور بين الاقوامي مداخلت جي خيال تي ئي سوال اٿارين ٿا. 2005ع ۾ [[عالمي ترقي مرڪز]] لاءِ تيار ڪيل هڪ تحقيقي مقالي ۾ [[اسٽينفورڊ يونيورسٽي]] جي [[جيريمي وائينسٽين]] ”خودمختيار بحالي“ جو نظريو پيش ڪيو، جنهن موجب رياستون بين الاقوامي مداخلت کان سواءِ به پائيدار امن حاصل ڪري سگهن ٿيون. [[يوگنڊا]]، [[ايريٽريا]] ۽ [[صوماليا]] جي ڪيس مطالعي ذريعي وائينسٽين ڏيکاريو ته رياستون جنگ مان به اثرائتا ادارا پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿيون.

هن طريقي جا فائدا ۽ نقصان آهن، جن کي بين الاقوامي مداخلت جي امڪاني نتيجن سان ڀيٽڻ گهرجي. ٻاهرين مداخلت وڏي پيماني تي ٿيندڙ ظلمن کي روڪي سگهي ٿي، پر اها ادارتي تبديليءَ کي به روڪي سگهي ٿي. خودمختيار بحالي سڀ کان طاقتور اڳواڻ کي مٿانهون ڪري ٿي، پر گڏوگڏ سڀ کان طاقتور ويڙهاڪن کي به انعام ڏئي ٿي، جيڪي اقتدار ورهائڻ لاءِ گهٽ تيار ٿي سگهن ٿا. ان کان علاوه، مداخلت ٻاهرين اثر تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جڏهن ته خودمختيار بحالي اندروني عنصرن تي ٻڌل هوندي آهي.

وائينسٽين جي دليل مان اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته مداخلت هميشه بهترين پاليسي ناهي. تنهن هوندي به سندس چوڻ آهي ته بين الاقوامي برادريءَ جي [[تحفظ جي ذميواري]] واري اصول کي اخلاقي اهميت حاصل آهي، جڏهن ته خودمختيار بحاليءَ لاءِ گهربل حالتون تمام گهٽ ملن ٿيون. سندس نظر ۾ بنيادي مسئلو اهو آهي ته سٺي حڪمرانيءَ کي ڪيئن همٿايو وڃي ۽ باغي گروهن جي مدد اهڙي نموني ڪيئن ڪئي وڃي، جو آمدني گڏ ڪرڻ ۽ حڪمرانن کي جوابده بڻائڻ واري شهرين ۽ حڪمرانن جي لاڳاپي کي نقصان نه پهچي.&lt;ref&gt;Weinstein, Jeremy M. 2005. &quot;Autonomous Recovery and International Intervention in Comparative Perspective.&quot; Center for Global Development Working Paper 57. https://www.cgdev.org/files/2731_file_WP57.pdf.&lt;/ref&gt;

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:امن]]
[[زمرو:تنظيمون]]
[[زمرو:گڏيل قومون]]
[[زمرو:عالمي سياست]]
[[زمرو:بين الاقوامي لاڳاپا]]</text>
      <sha1>hy5ax70knzgpzlusch2mfmh1nsd4m4u</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399332</id>
      <parentid>399331</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T22:01:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399332</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="137712" sha1="0sewx0ukm8ry0luy5473w0erxv3yo22" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|دائمي امن لاءِ سازگار حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ خاطر ڪيل سرگرميون}}


[[File:Italian Soldier UNIFIL 2 Lebanon 2007.jpg|thumb|[[اطالوي فوج]] جو هڪ [[سپاهي]] لبنان ۾ [[يونيفل]] مشن دوران پهرو ڏئي رهيو آهي.]]

'''امن قائم رکندڙ فوج''' (Peacekeeping Force) انهن سرگرمين، خاص طور فوجي سرگرمين،&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Peacekeeping&quot;. Oxford Languages. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جن جو مقصد اهڙيون حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ هوندو آهي جيڪي پائيدار [[امن]] جي قيام لاءِ سازگار هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/|title=United Nations Peacekeeping|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; تحقيق مان عام طور اهو ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون [[شهري جاني نقصان|شهري]] ۽ جنگي ميدان ۾ ٿيندڙ جاني نقصان کي گهٽائين ٿيون ۽ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي پڻ گهٽائين ٿيون.

[[گڏيل قومون]] (UN) ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل [[قومي رياست]]ن جي حڪومتن ۽ [[تنظيم]]ن جي وچ ۾ عام طور اهو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو ته عالمي سطح تي امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا جنگ کان پوءِ وارن علائقن ۾ امن جي عمل جي نگراني ۽ مشاهدو ڪندا آهن، ۽ اڳوڻن ويڙهاڪن کي انهن امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ ۾ مدد ڏيندا آهن، جن جا هو پابند بڻيل هوندا آهن. اهڙي مدد ڪيترين ئي صورتن ۾ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ اعتماد سازي جا قدم، اقتدار جي ورهاست جا انتظام، چونڊن ۾ مدد، [[قانون جي حڪمراني]] کي مضبوط بڻائڻ، ۽ معاشي ۽ سماجي ترقي کي هٿي ڏيڻ. ان ڪري [[گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا]] (جن کي سندن هلڪي نيري [[بيريٽ]] يا هيلمٽ سبب اڪثر '''نيري بيريٽ''' يا '''نيرا هيلمٽ''' چيو ويندو آهي) ۾ فوجي، [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس آفيسر]] ۽ شهري عملي جا ميمبر شامل ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dpko/ |title=Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dfs/ |title=Department of Field Support (DFS) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جا مشن هلائيندڙ واحد تنظيم گڏيل قومون نه آهن. گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم ڪندڙ قوتن ۾ [[ڪوسوو فورس]] جي [[نيٽو]] مشن (گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان)، [[سينا ٻيٽ نما]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]]، ۽ [[يورپي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[EUFOR RCA]]، گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان) ۽ [[آفريقي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[سوڊان ۾ آفريقي يونين مشن]]) پاران منظم ڪيل امن مشن شامل آهن.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

[[بين الاقوامي قانون]] موجب، امن قائم ڪندڙ پنهنجي غيرجانبدار حيثيت سبب [[غير جنگجو]] (non-combatants) شمار ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي ٻن يا وڌيڪ [[جنگ ڪندڙ ڌر]]ن جي وچ ۾ تڪرار ۾ غيرجانبدار هوندا آهن (بلڪل اهڙيءَ طرح جيئن امن قائم رکڻ جي ذميوارين کان ٻاهر موجود غيرجانبدار ماڻهو ۽ ملڪيت). تنهنڪري انهن کي هر حال ۾ حملن کان تحفظ حاصل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule33 |title=Rule 33. Personnel and Objects Involved in a Peacekeeping Mission|publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]|access-date=April 7, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فائل:UN Soldiers in Eritrea.jpeg|thumb|right|upright=1.00|نيدرلينڊز جا ڊچ فوجي اقوام متحده جي امن جي قيام جي فورس ۾ ايٿوپيا ۽ ايريٽيريا جي سرحد تي گڏيل قومن پاران چوڪسي ڪندي]]

'''امن جي بحالي واري فوج'''{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي=Peace Keeping Force}}
ٻن ملڪن ياڌرين جي وچ ۾ ڪو به تڪرار ايترو زور وٺي وڃي، جو ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت کانسواءِ اهو ٽري نه سگهي، ته ٽين ڌر امن قائم ڪرڻ (Peace Keeping) لاءِ مُختلف اُپاءُ وٺندي آهي. ڪنهن به تڪرار جي حل لاءِ ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت جو مقصد ٻن ڌُرين ۾ رڳو صُلح ڪرائڻ هوندو آهي، جنهن لاءِ فوجي ۽ سُفارتي طريقا ڪتب آندا ويندا آهن. ان کان سواءِ گھُرج پوڻ تي ٽين ڌر (يا وچين ڌر) جهيڙو ڪندڙ ڌرين تي مُختلف قسمن جو دٻاءُ رکندي آهي، جيڪڏهن ڌريون پوءِ به جهيڙي کي نه ٿيون ختم ڪن، ته مٿانئن فوجي قدم کڻڻ لاءِ به اڳڀرائي ڪئي ويندي آهي. جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جو عالمي ادارو|گڏيل قومن]] جو ادارو قائم ڪيو ويو هيو ته ان وقت ٻي عالمي جنگ ختم ٿي هئي، پر ملڪن جا پاڻ ۾ تڪرار پوءِ به هلي رهيا هئا ۽ ”سرد جنگ“ به شروع ٿي چڪي هئي، دُنيا جي امن کي گهڻن قسمن جا خطرا پيدا ٿي چڪا هئا. 1950ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل بين الاقوامي جهيڙن کي پاسيرو ڪرڻ ۽ امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ”احتياطي سفارتڪاري“ (Preventive Diplomacy) جو اصطلاح اڳيان آندو هو. انهيءَ قسم جي حڪمت عملي ۾ ڪنهن به تڪرار کي رڳو ٺارڻ جو حل ڏنل هيو، پر جهيڙي کي مستقل طور ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪجهه واڌو قدم به گهربل هئا. انهيءَ ڪري اهڙي صورتحال ۾ اڳتي هلي ”مشن ڪريپ“ (Mission Creep) جو اصطلاح ڪتب آندو ويو، جنهن ۾ جهيڙي کي مڪمل طور ختم ڪرڻ جي تجويز ڏني وئي. انهيءَ حوالي سان 1956ع ۾ ڪئناڊا جي پرڏيهي معاملن جي وزير ۽ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”ڊگ هئمرشولڊ“ گڏيل قومن جي اداري جي پلئٽفارم تان ”امن قائم ڪرڻ واري فوج“ (Peace Keeping Force) قائم ڪئي، جنهن جي شعبا بندي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ان جي ورديءَ کانسواءِ خاص قسم جي ٽوپي به تيار ڪرائي وئي ۽ ان خاص ٽوپيءَ جو رنگ ”نيرو“ مقرر ڪيو ويو. ٽوپيءَ کي ٻين فوجي ٽوپين کان الڳ رنگ ڏيڻ جو مقصد، بين الاقوامي امن فوج جي انفراديت کي ظاهر ڪرڻ آهي. ان هوندي به ”امن فوج“ جي طريقيڪار ۽ اختيارن کي اڃا تائين چڱيءَ ريت گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر ۾ بيان نه ڪيو ويو آهي. گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر جي 6 ۽ 7 باب ۾، امن جي ڪوشش وٺڻ لاءِ جيڪي تفصيل بيان ڪيا ويا آهن، انهن سان امن جي بحاليءَ واري عمل کي به جوڙيو ويو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن جي بحاليءَ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي پڌرنامي جي روح مطابق جوڙجڪ ضروري آهي. انهن کوٽن جي باوجود، گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج، دُنيا ۾ امن ۽ صلح جي لاءِ گھڻن هنڌن مثال طور؛ ڪمبوڊيا، نميبيا، انگولا، لبنان، ايراني نار ۽ [[سوماليا|صوماليا]] وغيره ۾ ڪاميابيءَ سان پنهنجون ذميواريون پوريون ڪري چڪي آهي. امن فوج جي اهڙي اهميت کي محسوس ڪندي، گڏيل قومن جي اداري ڪيترن مُتاثر ملڪن جي داخلي معاملن ۾ به هن فوج جو استعمال مُناسب ۽ بهتر سمجهيو. منڍ ۾ اها فوج ٻن تڪراري ڌُر جي وچ ۾ هلندڙ جهيِڙو ٽارڻ لاءِ ڪتب آندي ويندي هئي، پر 1988ع کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جي اداري اهڙن ملڪن ۾ به کيس ذميواري سونپيون، جتي گهرو ويڙھ ۾ اَڙيل مُختلف ڌرين ۾ جنگ جاري هُئي ۽ اُتي انتظامي معاملا هيٺ مٿي لڳا پيا هُئا. اهڙن مُلڪن ۾ امن فوج کي گڏيل قومن طرفان چونڊون ڪرائڻ، انتظامي معاملن کي سُڌارڻ، عوام کي تحفظ ڏيڻ ۽ جهيڙن کان تنگ اچي ملڪ ڇڏي ويل ماڻهن کي واپس پنهنجي اباڻي وطن ۾ ٻيهر آباد ڪرائڻ جا اختيار به ڏنا ويا. ٻئي طرف اها به حقيقت آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج کي گھڻن معاملن ۽ هنڌن تي ڪن ملڪن پنهنجن خاص مقصدن لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو. ان کانسواءِ گھڻن علائقن (جهڙوڪ ڪشمير) ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن فوج پنهنجي مقصد حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام وئي آهي. سندس مُقابلي ۾ اولھ جي مُلڪن جي فوجي اتحاد نيٽو امن فوج جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ متحرڪ ۽ اثرائتي رهي آهي. 1992ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”بترس غالي“، امن جي آڻڻ لاءِ خاص علائقي ۽ خاص حالتن آهر مداخلت ڪرڻ ۽ نون اختيار ڏيڻ لاءِ اداري آڏو تجويزون پيش ڪيون، پر ان ڏس ۾ مڪمل سوڀاري ٿيڻ لاءِ ”پيس ڪيپگ“ جو عمل نون ضابطن، اختيارن ۽ قانونن جي انتظار ۾ آهي. 
&lt;ref&gt;[http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/define/Peace%20Keeping%20Force.php سنڌي آنلائين ڊڪشنري]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} پاران [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد&lt;/ref&gt;

== وصفون ۽ امن قائم رکڻ جي عمل جا قسم ==

=== گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ===
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن}}

==== ڇهون باب ۽ ستون باب وارا مشن ====

امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن جا ڪيترائي مختلف قسم آهن. مثال طور، پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي ڪتاب ''Does Peacekeeping Work?'' ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن کي چئن مختلف قسمن ۾ ورهايو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=Chapter 7}}&lt;/ref&gt; انهن مشنن جو قسم ۽ انهن تي عملدرآمد جو طريقو گهڻي حد تائين ان اختيارنامي (mandate) تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، جنهن تحت انهن کي اختيار ڏنو ويندو آهي.

فورٽنا جي بيان ڪيل چئن قسمن مان ٽي اهڙا آهن، جيڪي ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن ۽ انهن کي عام طور ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ڇهون باب|ڇهين باب]]'' وارا مشن چيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته چوٿون قسم ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]]'' وارو مشن هوندو آهي.

ڇهين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشنن لاءِ جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي لازمي هوندي آهي؛ جيڪڏهن اها رضامندي ختم ٿي وڃي ته امن قائم ڪندڙ دستن کي علائقو ڇڏڻو پوندو. ان جي ابتڙ، ستين باب وارن مشنن کي قانوني طور رضامندي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي، جيتوڻيڪ عملي طور اها موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي. جيڪڏهن رضامندي بعد ۾ ختم به ٿي وڃي ته به اهڙن مشنن کي واپس وڃڻ ضروري نه هوندو.

# '''مشاهدي وارا مشن''' (Observation Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي يا شهري مبصرن جا ننڍا دستا شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي جنگبندي، فوجن جي واپسي يا جنگبندي واري معاهدي ۾ ڄاڻايل ٻين شرطن جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. اهي عام طور بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا آهن ۽ سندن بنيادي ذميواري رڳو مشاهدو ڪرڻ ۽ رپورٽون تيار ڪرڻ هوندي آهي؛ تنهن ڪري جيڪڏهن ڪا ڌر معاهدي جي ڀڃڪڙي ڪري ته اهي مداخلت ڪرڻ جا مجاز نه هوندا آهن. مثال طور [[انگولا]] ۾ 1991ع وارو [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن II]] (UNAVEM II) ۽ [[اولهه صحارا]] ۾ [[اولهه صحارا بابت راءِ شماري لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو مشن]] (MINURSO).

# '''وچٿري مشن''' (Interpositional Missions)، جن کي روايتي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، نسبتاً وڏن ۽ هلڪي هٿياربند فوجي دستن تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جيڪي تڪرار کان پوءِ ٻن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ طور مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهي ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ بفر زون جو ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. مثال طور 1994ع ۾ [[انگولا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن III]] (UNAVEM III) ۽ 1996ع ۾ [[گوئٽي مالا]] ۾ [[MINUGUA]].

# '''گهڻ رخا مشن''' (Multidimensional Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس]] عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو جامع امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندو آهي. اهي رڳو مشاهدو يا ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رڪاوٽ بڻجڻ تائين محدود نه هوندا آهن، پر چونڊن جي نگراني، پوليس ۽ سلامتي ادارن جي سڌارن، ادارن جي تعمير، معاشي ترقي ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي شعبن ۾ پڻ حصو وٺندا آهن. مثال طور [[نيميبيا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو عبوري امدادي گروهه]] (UNTAG)، [[ايل سلواڊور]] ۾ [[ONUSAL]] ۽ [[موزمبيق]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUMOZ).

# '''[[امن لاڳو ڪندڙ]] مشن''' (Peace Enforcement Missions): اهي ستين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشن هوندا آهن ۽ اڳين ٽن قسمن جي ابتڙ، جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ جا پابند نه هوندا آهن. اهي شهري ۽ فوجي ٻنهي قسمن جي عملي تي مشتمل گهڻ رخا مشن هوندا آهن. انهن وٽ نسبتاً وڏي ۽ بهتر هٿياربند فوج هوندي آهي ۽ انهن کي صرف پنهنجي بچاءَ کان وڌيڪ مقصدن لاءِ به طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل هوندو آهي. مثال طور [[اولهه آفريڪا]] ۾ [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري جو نگراني گروهه]] (ECOMOG)، 1999ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو سيرا ليون مشن]] (UNAMSIL)، ۽ [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ [[نيٽو]] جا [[IFOR]] ۽ [[SFOR]] آپريشن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;/&gt;

==== سرد جنگ دوران ۽ ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ====

[[سرد جنگ]] جي دور ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جا اڪثر مشن روايتي نوعيت جا هئا، جن ۾ امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا ملڪن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ جنگن کان پوءِ مقرر ڪيا ويندا هئا ته جيئن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ بڻجن ۽ امن معاهدن تي عملدرآمد کي يقيني بڻائين. اهي مشن رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا هئا ۽ گهڻو ڪري مبصر بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا هئا، جيئن [[وچ اوڀر]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) ۽ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] بابت [[ڪشمير بابت گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP). ڪجهه مشن هٿياربند به هئا، جهڙوڪ [[سوئيز بحران]] دوران قائم ڪيل [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I). مجموعي طور اهي مشن پنهنجي مقرر ڪيل ڪردار ۾ ڪامياب رهيا.

[[سرد جنگ کان پوءِ وارو دور|سرد جنگ کان پوءِ]] گڏيل قومن امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ جامع ۽ گهڻ رخي طريقيڪار اختيار ڪيو. 1992ع ۾ ان وقت جي [[گڏيل قومن جو سيڪريٽري جنرل|سيڪريٽري جنرل]] [[بوتروس بوتروس غالي]] هڪ رپورٽ تيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ امن قائم رکڻ بابت پنهنجو جامع تصور پيش ڪيو. ''[[امن لاءِ ايجنڊا]]'' (An Agenda for Peace) نالي هن رپورٽ ۾ هن احتياطي سفارتڪاري، امن لاڳو ڪرڻ، امن ڪرائڻ، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ بحاليءَ کي هڪ ٻئي سان ڳنڍيل قدمن طور بيان ڪيو، جن جي ذريعي سرد جنگ کان پوءِ واري عالمي سياست ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ڪردار وڌيڪ اثرائتو بڻجي سگهي.

==== گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جا وسيع مقصد ====

[[مائيڪل ڊوئل]] ۽ نڪولس سامبانس پنهنجي ڪتاب ''The UN Record on Peacekeeping Operations'' ۾ بوتروس غالي جي رپورٽ جو خلاصو پيش ڪندي احتياطي سفارتڪاري، اعتماد سازي جي قدمن (جهڙوڪ حقيقت معلوم ڪرڻ وارا مشن)، مبصر مشن، ۽ تشدد جي خطري کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي اختيار هيٺ فوج مقرر ڪرڻ کي پائيدار امن لاءِ اهم ذريعا قرار ڏين ٿا. سندن بيان موجب:

# '''امن لاڳو ڪرڻ''' (Peace Enforcement): گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي منظور ڪيل جنگبندي يا معاهدي تي عمل ڪرائڻ لاءِ، ضرورت پوڻ تي ڌرين جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به فوجي طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ. اهڙا مشن عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]] تحت هلندا آهن ۽ انهن ۾ مقرر فوجون نسبتاً وڌيڪ هٿياربند هونديون آهن.

# '''امن ڪرائڻ''' (Peacemaking): گڏيل قومن جي سرپرستي هيٺ ثالثي ۽ ڳالهين ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين کي پرامن حل تي راضي ڪرڻ. هي عمل عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] جي ڇهين باب تحت ڪيو ويندو آهي.

# '''امن قائم رکڻ''' (Peacekeeping): جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي سان هلڪي هٿياربند گڏيل قومن جي موجودگي قائم ڪرڻ، اعتماد پيدا ڪرڻ ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ٿيل معاهدن جي نگراني ڪرڻ. ان سان گڏ سفارتي ڪوششون پڻ جاري رهنديون آهن ته جيئن جامع ۽ پائيدار امن حاصل ڪري سگهجي.

# '''تڪرار کان پوءِ بحالي''' (Post-Conflict Reconstruction): معاشي ۽ سماجي سهڪار ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي بحال ڪرڻ، سياسي، سماجي ۽ معاشي ادارن کي مضبوط ڪرڻ، مستقبل ۾ تشدد جي امڪان کي گهٽائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|date=2007|title=The UN Record On Peacekeeping Operations|journal=International Journal|volume=63|issue=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ ۾ غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) سان گڏجي [[ثقافتي ورثو|ثقافتي ورثي]] جي تحفظ لاءِ ڪم ڪرڻ پڻ شامل آهي. ثقافتي ورثي جي حفاظت بابت گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري وابستگي 2012ع کان جاري آهي ۽ ان کي آهستي آهستي وڌايو پيو وڃي. ان سلسلي ۾ 2019ع ۾ [[يونيفل]] ۽ [[بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل]] جو لبنان ۾ [[يونيسڪو عالمي ورثو]] جي تحفظ لاءِ گڏيل مشن نمايان مثال آهي. فوجي ۽ شهري ماهرن پاران مقامي آباديءَ سان گڏجي ثقافتي ورثي جو تحفظ ڪيترن ئي تڪراري علائقن ۾ مستقبل جي پرامن ۽ معاشي ترقيءَ جو بنياد بڻجي ٿو. بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل جي صدر [[ڪارل فون هيبسبرگ]]، اپريل 2019ع ۾ لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ [[يونيسڪو]] جي مشن دوران چيو: ''&quot;ثقافتي ورثو ڪنهن به علائقي ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جي سڃاڻپ جو حصو هوندو آهي. جيڪڏهن توهان انهن جي ثقافت تباهه ڪريو ٿا ته سندن سڃاڻپ به ختم ٿي وڃي ٿي. نتيجي ۾ ڪيترائي ماڻهو بي گهر ٿي وڃن ٿا، سندن مستقبل بابت اميدون ختم ٿي وڃن ٿيون ۽ هو آخرڪار پنهنجو وطن ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ٿين ٿا.&quot;''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Karl von Habsburg auf Mission im Libanon|date=April 28, 2019 |url=https://www.krone.at/1911689|language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Jyot Hosagrahar: ''Culture: at the heart of SDGs.'' UNESCO-Kurier, April-Juni 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rick Szostak: ''The Causes of Economic Growth: Interdisciplinary Perspectives.'' Springer Science &amp; Business Media, 2009, {{ISBN|9783540922827}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bundesheer.at/cms/artikel.php?ID=10118 &quot;Blue Helmet Forum 2019 - Protection of Cultural Heritage in Peace Operations&quot;, Austrian Armed Forces].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017nian-di-3qi/historic-resolution-protect-cultural-heritage|title=A historic resolution to protect cultural heritage, The UNESCO Courier}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/action-plan-to-preserve-heritage-sites-during-conflict|title=Action plan to preserve heritage sites during conflict|website=United Nations Peacekeeping}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''UNESCO Director-General calls for stronger cooperation for heritage protection at the Blue Shield International General Assembly.'' UNESCO, September 13, 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم رکڻ ===
{{See also|غير گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي فهرست|نيٽو امن قائم رکڻ|يورپي يونين جي فوجي ۽ شهري مشنن جي فهرست|آفريقي يونين جي فوجي مداخلتن جي فهرست}}

[[File:En-MFO1.JPG|thumb|right|1989ع ۾ [[مصر]] جي [[سنائي اپٻيٽ|سنائي]] واري علائقي جي [[ايل گوراح]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) جي غير گڏيل قومن واري امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن سان مقرر ڪيل ڪينيڊا جا [[CH135 ٽوئن هيوئي]] هيليڪاپٽر.]]

[[File:75Parad 04.jpg|thumb|[[آذربائيجان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جا ميمبر، [[2020 ماسڪو فتح پريڊ]] دوران مڪمل فوجي ورديءَ ۾.]]

سڀئي بين الاقوامي امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا سڌي طرح گڏيل قومن جي ڪنٽرول هيٺ ڪم نٿا ڪن. 1981ع ۾ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ [[مصر]] جي وچ ۾ ٿيل هڪ معاهدي تحت [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) قائم ڪئي وئي، جيڪا اڄ تائين [[سنائي اپٻيٽ]] ۾ امن معاهدي تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;10TAGpgA-1&quot;&gt;10 Tactical Air Group: ''Canadian Contingent Multinational Force and Observers Handbook'' (unclassified), page A-1. DND, Ottawa, 1986.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[آفريقي يونين]] (AU) آفريقي امن ۽ سلامتي جو اهڙو ڍانچو (آفريڪن پيس اينڊ سڪيورٽي آرڪيٽيڪچر) قائم ڪرڻ تي ڪم ڪري رهي آهي، جيڪو براعظم ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري نڀائي سگهي. جيڪڏهن ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ [[نسل ڪشي]] يا انساني حقن جون ٻيون سنگين ڀڃڪڙيون ٿين، ته آفريقي يونين جي جنرل اسيمبلي جي منظوري سان، ان ملڪ جي حڪومت جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن موڪلي سگهجي ٿو. هن نظام، جنهن ۾ [[آفريقي اسٽينڊ بائي فورس]] (ASF) پڻ شامل آهي، جي قيام جو منصوبو 2015ع کان اڳ نه هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/african-peace-and-security-architecture-already-proving-useful-even-though-it-still-work |title=The African Peace and Security Architecture is already proving useful even though it is still work in progress |publisher=dandc.eu |date=August 27, 2013 |access-date=November 14, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

علائقائي سطح تي [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري]] (ECOWAS) پنهنجي ڪجهه ميمبر ملڪن ۾ ڪيترائي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا آهن، ۽ ان کي &quot;آفريڪا جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ ترقي يافته علائقائي امن ۽ سلامتي وارو نظام&quot; قرار ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Oni|first1=Cyril I.|date=2009|journal=African Security|volume=2|pages=119–135|doi=10.1080/19362200903361945|title=Economic Community of West African States on the Ground: Comparing Peacekeeping in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea Bissau, and Côte D'Ivoire|issue=2–3|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''غير هٿياربند شهري امن قائم رکڻ''' (ان آرمڊ سويلين پيس ڪيپنگ، UCP) ۾ شهري عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو تڪراري علائقن ۾ شهرين کي تشدد کان بچائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن جي قيام جي ڪوششن جي سهائتا لاءِ غير تشدد، غير مداخلت ۽ غير جانبداريءَ تي ٻڌل حڪمت عمليون اختيار ڪندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ UCP جو اصطلاح سڀني غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) ۾ هڪجهڙو عام نه آهي، پر ڪيترائي ادارا ساڳين طريقن سان ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ امن بابت هڪجهڙا مقصد رکندا آهن. انهن طريقن ۾ متاثر ماڻهن سان گڏ رهڻ، مستقل موجودگي، افواهن تي ضابطو آڻڻ، برادريءَ جي سلامتي بابت گڏجاڻيون، محفوظ لنگهن جو بندوبست ڪرڻ ۽ نگراني ڪرڻ شامل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rachel|first1=Julian|last2=Schweitzer|first2=Christine|date=2015|title=The Origins And Development of Unarmed Civilian Peacekeeping|url=http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|journal=Peace Review|volume=27|issue=1|pages=1–8|doi=10.1080/10402659.2015.1000181|s2cid=144911738|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719124249/http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|archive-date=July 19, 2018|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== مختصر تاريخ ==
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي تاريخ}}

=== قيام ۽ شروعاتي سال ===

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري نظام جي شروعات 1948ع ۾ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] [[1948ع جي عرب-اسرائيل جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ ان جي عرب پاڙيسري ملڪن وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي واري معاهدي جي نگراني لاءِ وچ اوڀر ۾ گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن کي مقرر ڪرڻ جي منظوري ڏني. هن مشن کي [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) سڏيو ويو، جيڪو اڄ تائين جاري آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/history.shtml|title=History of Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آگسٽ 1949ع ۾ سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 73 (1949ع) منظور ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNTSO کي اسرائيل ۽ انهن عرب رياستن جي وچ ۾ ٿيل چئن جنگبندي معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني جي ذميواري ڏني وئي، جيڪي ان جنگ ۾ شامل هيون. نتيجي طور، UNTSO جون سرگرميون علائقي جي پنجن رياستن، يعني [[اسرائيل]]، [[مصر]]، [[اردن]]، [[لبنان]] ۽ [[شام]] تائين ڦهلجي ويون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/untso/background.shtml|title=UNTSO Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== سرد جنگ دوران امن قائم رکڻ ===

آگسٽ 1947ع ۾ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] جي آزادي ۽ ان کان پوءِ ٿيل وڏي پيماني تي خونريزيءَ کان پوءِ، سلامتي ڪائونسل جنوري 1948ع ۾ قرارداد 39 (1948ع) منظور ڪري [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP) قائم ڪيو، جنهن جو مقصد [[ڪشمير]] بابت ٻنهي ملڪن جي وچ ۾ پيدا ٿيل تڪرار ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل ويڙهه ۾ ثالثي ڪرڻ هو.

هي مشن غير مداخلتي نوعيت جو هو ۽ ان کي [[ڄمون ۽ ڪشمير]] ۾ ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان جي وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي جي نگراني جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي. جولاءِ 1949ع ۾ [[ڪراچي معاهدو]] ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNCIP جنگبندي واري لڪير جي نگراني شروع ڪئي، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن ۽ ٻنهي ڌرين جي مقامي فوجي ڪمانڊرن جي گڏيل نگراني هيٺ هئي. هن مشن جو تسلسل اڄ به [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان ۾ گڏيل قومن جو فوجي مبصر گروپ]] (UNMOGIP) جي نالي سان جاري آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unmogip/background.shtml|title=UNMOGIP Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف ملڪن ۾ ڪُل 69 امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي منظوري ڏني.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;/&gt; انهن مان گهڻا مشن سرد جنگ جي خاتمي کان پوءِ قائم ٿيا. 1988ع کان 1998ع جي وچ ۾ گڏيل قومن 35 نوان امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا، جڏهن ته 1948ع کان 1978ع تائين صرف 13 مشن قائم ٿيا هئا، ۽ 1978ع کان 1988ع جي وچ واري ڏهاڪي دوران ڪو به نئون مشن قائم نه ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Duffey|first=Tamara|date=2000|title=Cultural Issues in Contemporary Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=7|issue=1|pages=142–168|doi=10.1080/13533310008413823|s2cid=145210823}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|142–168}}

گڏيل قومن جي پهرين هٿياربند مداخلت 1956ع جي [[سوئيز بحران]] کان پوءِ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I) قائم ڪئي وئي. هي فوج نومبر 1956ع کان جون 1967ع تائين موجود رهي ۽ ان کي [[مصر]]، [[برطانيه]]، [[فرانس]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] جي وچ ۾ جنگبندي برقرار رکڻ، مصري علائقي مان برطانوي، فرينچ ۽ اسرائيلي فوجن جي واپسي جي نگراني ڪرڻ، ۽ پوءِ مصر ۽ اسرائيل جي فوجن جي وچ ۾ بفر فورس طور ڪم ڪندي جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ جو مينڊيٽ ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unef1mandate.html|title=UNEF Mandate|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان ٿوري ئي عرصي بعد 1960ع ۾ [[ڪانگو ۾ گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUC) شروع ڪيو ويو. پنهنجي عروج تي هن مشن ۾ ويهه هزار کان وڌيڪ فوجي اهلڪار شامل هئا، ۽ ان دوران 250 گڏيل قومن جا اهلڪار مارجي ويا، جن ۾ ان وقت جو سيڪريٽري جنرل [[ڊيگ هيملشولڊ]] پڻ شامل هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/early.shtml|title=The Early Years of UN Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ONUC جو مقصد [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] مان بيلجيم جي فوجن جي واپسي کي يقيني بڻائڻ هو، جيڪي [[فورس پبليڪ]] جي بغاوت کان پوءِ بيلجيم جي شهرين ۽ اقتصادي مفادن جي تحفظ لاءِ ٻيهر داخل ٿي ويون هيون. هن مشن کي قانون ۽ امن امان بحال ڪرڻ، بغاوت ۽ نسلي تشدد کي ختم ڪرڻ، ڪانگولي سلامتي فورسن کي فني مدد ۽ تربيت ڏيڻ، ۽ ملڪ جي علائقائي سالميت ۽ سياسي خودمختياري کي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/onuc.htm|title=ONUC|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي ذميواري خاص طور تي [[ڪتانگا]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪاسائي]] جهڙن معدني وسيلن سان مالامال صوبن جي علحدگيءَ واري تحريڪ جي پسمنظر ۾ شامل ڪئي وئي. ان دور ۾ گڏيل قومن جون فوجون، ڪجهه تڪراري انداز ۾، ڪانگو جي حڪومت جي مدد ڪندي ٻنهي صوبن جي علحدگي ختم ڪرائڻ ۾ به ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

1960ع ۽ 1970ع واري ڏهاڪن دوران گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف علائقن ۾ ڪيترائي مختصر مدي وارا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن قائم ڪيا، جن ۾ [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريه ۾ سيڪريٽري جنرل جي نمائندي جو مشن]] (DOMREP)، [[اولهه نيو گني ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي فورس]] (UNSF) ۽ [[يمن ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مبصر مشن]] (UNYOM) شامل هئا. ساڳئي وقت ڪجهه ڊگهي مدي وارا مشن پڻ جاري رهيا، جهڙوڪ [[قبرص ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج]] (UNFICYP)، [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج II]] (UNEF II)، [[گڏيل قومن جي ڌرين جي الڳ ٿيڻ جي نگراني ڪندڙ فوج]] (UNDOF)، ۽ [[لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن جي عبوري فوج]] (UNIFIL).&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;/&gt;

=== 1991ع کان پوءِ ===

[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-un-holds-head.jpg|thumb|[[سراييوو جو گهيرو|سراييوو جي گهيري]] (1992ع–1993ع) دوران هڪ [[ناروي]] جو امن قائم رکڻ وارو اهلڪار؛ تصوير: [[ميخائل اِوستافيئف]].]]

[[يوگوسلاو جنگين]] دوران امن قائم رکڻ جي تجربن، خاص طور تي [[سربرينيتسا قتلِ عام]] جهڙين ناڪامين، جزوي طور [[گڏيل قومن جي امن تعمير ڪميشن]] (يونائيٽيڊ نيشنز پيس بلڊنگ ڪميشن) جي قيام جو سبب بڻيا. هي ڪميشن چونڊن ۽ ٻين شهري ادارن جي مضبوطي جهڙين سرگرمين وسيلي پائيدار امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ انجام ڏيندا آهن. هن وقت اها ڪميشن آفريڪا جي ڇهن ملڪن سان ڪم ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/projects/africa/beyond-peace-deals-united-nations-experiment-peacebuilding |title=Beyond Peace Deals: The United Nations Experiment in &quot;Peacebuilding&quot;|date=June 22, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ڳالهين سان گڏ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، ۾ عورتن جي وڌيڪ مؤثر شرڪت، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهرن جي مقرري، هٿياربند تڪرارن جا عورتن تي پوندڙ اثرن بابت وڌيڪ معلومات، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |title=UN Security Council Takes a Historic Stand Supporting Abortion Access for Women Raped in War / Library / Homepage |publisher=AWID |access-date=October 28, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203101025/http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |archive-date=December 3, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن سان امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW)، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن بابت ڪميٽي آهي، هڪ عام سفارش جاري ڪئي، جنهن موجب اهي رياستون، جيڪي گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جون ڌريون آهن، پابند آهن ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌيءَ طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ فوجون موڪلين، يا تڪرارن جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مالي يا ٻئي قسم جي مدد فراهم ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=13885&amp;LangID=E|title=OHCHR -|website=www.ohchr.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪميٽي اهو پڻ واضح ڪيو ته اهڙين رياستن کي مناسب احتياط اختيار ڪرڻ گهرجي ته جيئن [[غير رياستي ڌريون]]، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي سلامتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ٿيندڙ ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

[[پيج فورٽنا]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي مقرري بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍيو ته ''&quot;امن قائم رکڻ رسد ۽ طلب جو معاملو آهي.&quot;'' رسد جي لحاظ کان سندس مشاهدو آهي ته سلامتي ڪائونسل جي مستقل ميمبرن مان ڪنهن هڪ جي ويجهن ملڪن ۾ هلندڙ گهرو ويڙهن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن مقرر ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن. جڏهن ته طلب جي لحاظ کان مختلف تحقيقون ظاهر ڪن ٿيون ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن گهڻو ڪري انهن ملڪن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن، جتي انهن جي ضرورت سڀ کان وڌيڪ هوندي آهي، يعني جتي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تمام گهڻو هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot; /&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي جوڙجڪ ==

=== اهي ملڪ جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺن ٿا ===
{{See also|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي تعداد موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Irish troops UNMIL.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|جولاءِ 2006ع ۾ [[لائبيريا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو مشن لائبيريا]] (UNMIL) سان مقرر آئرش فوجي گشت ڪندي.]]

[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] موجب، دنيا ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ ۾ مدد ڏيڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا سڀئي ميمبر ملڪ سلامتي ڪائونسل کي ضرورت موجب فوجي دستا ۽ ٻيون سهولتون فراهم ڪندا. 1948ع کان وٺي لڳ ڀڳ 130 ملڪن امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن لاءِ فوجي اهلڪار، شهري پوليس ۽ ٻيو عملو فراهم ڪيو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ 1948ع کان وٺي سڀني امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏيندڙ اهلڪارن جو مڪمل رڪارڊ موجود ناهي، پر اندازو آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي 71 مشنن ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه لک فوجين، پوليس اهلڪارن ۽ شهرين گڏيل قومن جي جهنڊي هيٺ خدمتون انجام ڏنيون آهن. سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين 122 ملڪ گڏيل طور لڳ ڀڳ 76,000 فوجي مبصر، پوليس اهلڪار ۽ فوجي مهيا ڪري رهيا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Troop and police contributors|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/troop-and-police-contributors|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

شرڪت ڪندڙ ملڪن جو تعداد گهڻو هجڻ باوجود، امن قائم رکڻ جو وڏو بار اڃا تائين [[ترقي پذير ملڪ|ترقي پذير ملڪن]] جي هڪ بنيادي گروهه تي آهي. آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي، پوليس ۽ فوجي ماهر موڪليندڙ ڏهه ملڪ [[بنگلاديش]] (6,447)، [[نيپال]] (5,536)، [[ڀارت]] (5,481)، [[روانڊا]] (5,263)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (4,856)، [[پاڪستان]] (3,949)، [[مصر]] (2,818)، [[انڊونيشيا]] (2,818)، [[گهانا]] (2,296) ۽ [[چين]] (2,248) هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين 14,000 کان وڌيڪ شهري اهلڪار به امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ قانوني يا طبي ماهرن، استادن، مواصلاتي ٽيڪنالاجي جي ماهرن ۽ انتظامي عملي طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/civilians|title=Civilians|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

30 سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن دوران 100 کان وڌيڪ ملڪن سان تعلق رکندڙ 4,147 ماڻهو پنهنجون حياتيون وڃائي چڪا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/fatalities|title=Fatalities|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان وڌيڪ جاني نقصان [[ڀارت]] جو ٿيو، جنهن جا 174 امن اهلڪار مارجي ويا، ان کان پوءِ [[بنگلاديش]] (159)، [[پاڪستان]] (159)، [[نائيجيريا]] (157)، [[گهانا]] (145)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (138)، [[ڪينيڊا]] (123)، [[فرانس]] (115) ۽ [[برطانيه]] (106) شامل آهن. 1948ع کان وٺي سراسري طور هر سال 56 امن اهلڪار ماريا ويا، پر 2001ع کان پوءِ هي انگ لڳ ڀڳ ٻيڻو ٿي هر سال 110 تائين پهچي ويو. گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي پهرين 55 سالن دوران ٿيل ڪل جاني نقصان جو 30 سيڪڙو حصو صرف 1993ع کان 1995ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جي شعبي ۾ عالمي اتر ۽ عالمي ڏکڻ (Global North ۽ Global South) جي وچ ۾ واضح فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي وڏي اڪثريت [[عالمي ڏکڻ]] جي ترقي پذير ملڪن مان ايندي آهي. [[ٿامس جي. وائيس]] ۽ جيووانا ڪيولي موجب، ان جا ٽي اهم سبب علائقائي مفاد، بين الاقوامي وقار ۽ مالي فائدا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=February 3, 2019|title=The Global South and UN Peace Operations|url=https://www.e-ir.info/2019/02/03/the-global-south-and-un-peace-operations/|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=E-International Relations|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آفريقي ملڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا سڀ کان وڌيڪ اهلڪار فراهم ڪن ٿا، پر ساڳئي وقت آفريڪا ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جو تعداد به سڀ کان وڌيڪ آهي، ۽ گهڻا آفريقي امن اهلڪار آفريڪا جي اندر ئي مقرر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، ايٿوپيا جا لڳ ڀڳ سڀئي 4,800 امن اهلڪار پاڙيسري ملڪن [[سوڊان]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ مقرر هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺڻ سان ترقي پذير ملڪن کي بين الاقوامي وقار پڻ حاصل ٿيندو آهي، ۽ اهو [[عظيم طاقت]] طور پنهنجون دعوائون مضبوط ڪرڻ ۾ مددگار ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيئن [[برازيل]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جي صورت ۾ ڏٺو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، غريب ملڪن لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين کي موڪلڻ مالي لحاظ کان به فائديمند هوندو آهي. هر امن اهلڪار لاءِ ماهوار واپسيءَ جي رقم ۾ پگهار ۽ الائونس لاءِ 1,028 آمريڪي ڊالر، ماهرن لاءِ اضافي 303 آمريڪي ڊالر، ذاتي لباس، سامان ۽ اوزارن لاءِ 68 آمريڪي ڊالر، ۽ ذاتي هٿيار لاءِ 5 آمريڪي ڊالر شامل هوندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/faq/q10.htm|title=United Nations Peacekeepers - How are peacekeepers compensated?|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; گڏيل قومن طرفان فراهم ڪيل اهي ادائيگيون، تربيت ۽ سامان، انفرادي فوجين سان گڏ ترقي پذير ملڪن لاءِ به مالي طور پرڪشش هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ مقرر ڪيل فوجي ۽ شهري پوليس اهلڪارن مان لڳ ڀڳ 4.5 سيڪڙو [[يورپي يونين]] مان ايندا آهن، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو حصو هڪ سيڪڙو کان به گهٽ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;factsheet&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/overview.shtml |title=Peacekeeping Fact Sheet |publisher=United Nations|access-date=December 20, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

مشنن جي قيادت بابت عام طور تي فوجي ڪمانڊر انهن ملڪن مان چونڊيا ويندا آهن، جيڪي سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي دستا فراهم ڪندا آهن، جڏهن ته سيڪريٽري جنرل جا خاص نمائندا گهڻو ڪري ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Oksamytna |first1= Kseniya|last2= Bove |first2= Vincenzo|last3= Lundgren |first3= Magnus|date= 2021 |title=Leadership selection in United Nations peacekeeping |journal= International Studies Quarterly|volume= 65|pages= 16–28|doi= 10.1093/isq/sqaa023 |doi-access= free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت ===
{{See also|امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتون}}

[[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 1325]] عورتن کي تڪرارن جي روڪٿام ۽ حل، امن ڳالهين، امن جي تعمير، امن قائم رکڻ، انساني امداد ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ ۾ سرگرم ۽ برابر ڌر طور شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو پهريون اهم قدم هو. هن قرارداد ۾ زور ڏنو ويو ته امن ۽ سلامتي جي قيام ۽ واڌاري لاءِ ٿيندڙ سڀني ڪوششن ۾ عورتن جي برابر شرڪت ۽ مڪمل شموليت کي يقيني بڻايو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and the Advancement of Women. &quot;[http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/wps/#resolution Landmark resolution on Women, Peace and Security]&quot;, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Security Council (October 31, 2000) &quot;Resolution 1325&quot;, S/RES/1325, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;

هن قرارداد تي هڪ تنقيد اها به ڪئي وئي آهي ته ان ۾ صنفي مرڪزي ڌارا (جينڊر مين اسٽريمنگ) کي لاڳو ڪرڻ جي ڳالهه ڪئي وئي، پر عملي طور گهڻو ڌيان صرف عورتن جي شموليت وڌائڻ تي ڏنو ويو، جڏهن ته مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي تي پاليسين جي اثرن جو مناسب جائزو نه ورتو ويو. 2010ع ۾ هن قرارداد جي ڏهن سالن جي اثرن بابت هڪ جامع جائزو ورتو ويو، جنهن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ان تي عملدرآمد محدود حد تائين ڪامياب رهيو، خاص طور تي امن ڳالهين ۽ امن معاهدن ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت وڌائڻ جي حوالي سان، جڏهن ته جنسي ۽ صنفي بنياد تي تشدد گهٽائڻ جي ڪوششن باوجود اهو مسئلو برقرار رهيو.&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations and Department of Field Support (2010). &quot;Ten-year Impact Study on Implementation of UN Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) on Women, Peace and Security in Peacekeeping&quot;, United Nations, p. 9-10. https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/documents/10year_impact_study_1325.pdf.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Ghana IntPeaceCorps 2016-05-29 B002a.jpg|thumb|گھانا جون عورتون گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏينديون.]]

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهريت، هٿياربند تڪرارن جي عورتن تي اثرن بابت بهتر ڄاڻ، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي وڌيڪ سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ مؤثر قدمن تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;/&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن خلاف امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW) پڻ پنهنجي هڪ عام سفارش ۾ چيو ته جن رياستن گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جي توثيق ڪئي آهي، انهن تي لازم آهي ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌي طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا، تڪرار جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مدد فراهم ڪري رهيون هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

ڪميٽي وڌيڪ چيو ته توثيق ڪندڙ رياستن کي مناسب احتياط سان اهو به يقيني بڻائڻ گهرجي ته غير رياستي ڌريون، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي حفاظتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

جولاءِ 2016ع تائين عورتون گڏيل قومن جي هر امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن ۾ فوجي، پوليس يا شهري عملي جي حيثيت سان خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيون هيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/resources/statistics/gender.shtml|title=Gender statistics. United Nations Peacekeeping|website=www.un.org|access-date=September 6, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

1993ع ۾ مقرر ٿيل يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن مان رڳو 1 سيڪڙو عورتون هيون. 2020ع تائين لڳ ڀڳ 95,000 امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن مان عورتون فوجي عملي جو 4.8 سيڪڙو، پوليس عملي جو 10.9 سيڪڙو، ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عملي جو 34 سيڪڙو هيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Women in peacekeeping|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/women-peacekeeping|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين اهڙو ڪو به ملڪ، جيڪو گڏيل قومن لاءِ 100 کان وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار موڪلي ٿو، پنهنجي دستي ۾ 25 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ عورتون نامزد نه ڪندو هو. حقيقي انگن اکرن موجب سڀ کان وڏا عورتن جا دستا [[ايٿوپيا]] (578 عورتون، يعني ان جي ڪل دستي جو 12 سيڪڙو)، [[روانڊا]] (500، يعني 10 سيڪڙو) ۽ [[گهانا]] (389، يعني 17 سيڪڙو) طرفان فراهم ڪيا ويا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

جيتوڻيڪ فوجي عملي ۾ عورتن جي مقرر تناسب بابت گڏيل قومن ڪو لازمي هدف مقرر نه ڪيو آهي، پر ميمبر رياستن کان درخواست ڪئي وئي آهي ته اهي پوليس آفيسرن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 20 سيڪڙو ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 30 سيڪڙو عورتون نامزد ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot; /&gt;

2024ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجي دستن ۾ عورتن جو ڪل انگ گهٽجي ويو، پر انهن جو تناسب وڌيو. يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن ۾ صنفي برابري واري حڪمت عملي (يونيفارمڊ جينڊر پئرٽي اسٽريٽجي) شروع ٿيڻ کان پوءِ عورتن جو تناسب مسلسل وڌندو رهيو آهي. عورتن جي ڪل تعداد ۾ گهٽتائي جو وڏو سبب [[گڏيل قومن جو مالي ۾ ڪثيرالجہتي مربوط استحڪامي مشن]] (MINUSMA) جو خاتمو هو. جون 2024ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن ۾ مقرر فوجي عملي مان عورتن جو تناسب 8.6 سيڪڙو هو، جيڪو گذريل سال جي ڀيٽ ۾ 1.3 سيڪڙو وڌيڪ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pfeifer Cruz |first=Claudia |title=Women in Multilateral Peace Operations in 2024: What is the State of Play? |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241031064944/https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |archive-date=October 31, 2024 |date=October 2024 |doi=10.55163/VYHM5282 |doi-access=free |location=Stockholm |publisher=SIPRI}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ جو نظرياتي بنياد ==


جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ ۽ امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي ڪردار بابت گهڻو ڪجهه لکيو ويو آهي، پر اهڙي تجرباتي تحقيق نسبتاً گهٽ ٿي آهي، جيڪا اهو واضح ڪري سگهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول ۾ ڪهڙي نموني اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. [[ڪولمبيا يونيورسٽي]] جي پروفيسر [[ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا]] چار اهڙن سببن (ڪيئيوئل ميڪينزم) جي سڃاڻپ ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي، جن جي ذريعي امن قائم رکڻ وارا پائيدار امن لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices After Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|location=Princeton|pages=175}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا موجب اهي چار بنيادي طريقا هي آهن:

# تازن ويڙهاڪن جي ترغيبي عنصرن ۾ تبديلي آڻڻ، جيئن امن وڌيڪ فائديمند ۽ جنگ وڌيڪ مهانگي محسوس ٿئي.
# غير يقيني صورتحال ۽ خوف کي گهٽائڻ، جيڪي سلامتي جي مخمصي (سڪيورٽي ڊليما) کي وڌائين ٿا.
# حادثاتي واقعن يا بي ضابطه هٿياربند گروهن جي ڪاررواين کي روڪڻ يا ضابطي ۾ آڻڻ، جيڪي ٻيهر جنگ جو سبب بڻجي سگهن.
# ڪنهن هڪ ڌر (خاص طور حڪومت) طرفان سياسي زيادتين کي روڪڻ، جيڪي امن کان محروم ڌرين کي ٻيهر هٿيار کڻڻ تي مجبور ڪري سگهن.

فورٽنا جو دليل آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا امن جي عمل تي مثبت اثر ڇڏين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ انهن کي اڪثر اهڙن هنڌن تي موڪليو ويندو آهي، جتي امن قائم رکڻ سڀ کان وڌيڪ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. امن قائم رکڻ تي تنقيد ڪندڙ اڪثر چوندا آهن ته اهي مشن غير مؤثر يا غير ضروري آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن ويڙهاڪ ڌريون پاڻ امن برقرار رکڻ ۾ دلچسپي رکن ٿيون ته امن قائم رهندو. تنهن هوندي به، فورٽنا جو خيال آهي ته مٿي بيان ڪيل سبب ڏيکارين ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا پائيدار امن کي يقيني بڻائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، خاص طور تي انهن حالتن جي ڀيٽ ۾ جتي ويڙهاڪ ڌريون مڪمل طور پنهنجي حال تي ڇڏيل هجن. اهي سبب اهو به واضح ڪن ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ جي ضرورت ڇو آهي ۽ اهو تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول تي ڪيئن اثرانداز ٿي سگهي ٿو.

جنگ جي ترغيبن کي گهٽائڻ ۽ امن کي وڌيڪ پرڪشش بڻائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومون نفاذي اختيارن (انفورسمينٽ مينڊيٽ) تحت فوجي قوت مقرر ڪري سگهي ٿي، جيڪا امن خراب ڪندڙ ڌرين لاءِ روڪ جو سبب بڻجي. اهڙا دستا حالتن جي نگراني ڪري سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي اوچتي حملي جو امڪان گهٽجي وڃي ٿو يا اهڙو حملو ڪرڻ وڌيڪ ڏکيو ٿي وڃي ٿو. هلڪي هٿيارن سان ليس مشاهدي وارو مشن پڻ ابتدائي خبرداري واري قوت (ارلي-وارننگ فورس) يا &quot;ٽرپ وائر&quot; طور ڪم ڪري سگهي ٿو. بين الاقوامي برادري طرفان ڏني ويندڙ امداد ۽ سياسي سڃاڻپ کي به ان ڳالهه سان مشروط ڪيو وڃي ته ڌريون ڳالهين دوران طئي ٿيل شرطن تي عمل ڪن. ان سان گڏ، روزگار، عوامي ترقياتي منصوبن ۽ ٻين فائدن جي صورت ۾ &quot;امن جا فائدا&quot; (پيس ڊويڊينڊس) پڻ فراهم ڪيا وڃن.

غير يقيني صورتحال ۽ خوف کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري سگهن ٿا، ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رابطي کي آسان بڻائي سگهن ٿا ته جيئن سلامتي بابت خدشا گهٽجن، ۽ هر ڌر کي اها خاطري ملي ته ٻي ڌر پنهنجن واعدن کان نه ڦرندي. اهڙي طرح اهي ٻنهي ڌرين کي پنهنجي امن پسند ارادن کي واضح ۽ قابل اعتماد نموني ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ مؤثر ذريعو مهيا ڪن ٿا.

امن جي عمل کي پٽڙي تان لاهي ڇڏيندڙ حادثن يا بي ضابطه گروهن جي ڪاررواين کي روڪڻ لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهڙن گروهن کي روڪي سگهن ٿا. ويڙهاڪ قوتون اڪثر مضبوط قيادت ۽ [[حڪم ۽ ضابطي]] (ڪمانڊ اينڊ ڪنٽرول) کان محروم هونديون آهن، تنهنڪري امن ڳالهين دوران ڪنهن بي ضابطه گروهه جي معاهدي کان انڪار ڪرڻ يا امن جي عمل کي ناڪام بڻائڻ جو خطرو موجود هوندو آهي. گڏيل قومن جا دستا اهڙين حالتن کي روڪڻ سان گڏ ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ثالثي ۽ رابطي کي پڻ آسان بڻائي سگهن ٿا ۽ سياسي اعتدال پسند قوتن کي اڳتي آڻي سگهن ٿا. قانون ۽ امن امان برقرار رکندي اهي عارضي طور رياستي حفاظتي ادارن جي ذميواري سنڀالي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي مبينا ڀڃڪڙي تي غيرجانبدار رويو اختيار ڪيو وڃي ۽ تشدد جي ٻيهر شروعات کان بچي سگهجي.

سياسي زيادتين جي روڪٿام لاءِ حڪومت سان لاڳاپيل ادارن ۾ سڌارا آندا وڃن ٿا. فوج ۽ پوليس جهڙن حفاظتي ادارن کي تربيت ڏيڻ ۽ انهن جي نگراني ڪرڻ سان کين حڪمرانن جي دٻاءَ جو اوزار بڻجڻ بدران عوام جا غيرجانبدار محافظ بڻائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. اهڙي تربيت عوام جو اعتماد وڌائڻ ۾ مددگار ثابت ٿي سگهي ٿي. گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا آزاد ۽ منصفاڻي چونڊون ڪرائڻ ۽ انهن جي نگراني پڻ ڪري سگهن ٿا. ڪجهه حالتن ۾ گڏيل قومون عبوري دور دوران غيرجانبدار عبوري حڪومت پڻ قائم ڪري سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ملڪ جو انتظام سنڀالي، جڏهن ته سرڪاري ادارن کي ٻيهر منظم، سڌاريو يا وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪيو وڃي. ان کان سواءِ هٿياربند باغي گروهن کي هٿيار ڦٽا ڪرڻ، انهن کي سياسي تنظيمن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ ۽ پرامن جمهوري عمل وسيلي پنهنجا مطالبا پيش ڪرڻ لاءِ همٿايو وڃي ٿو. اهو خاص طور اهم آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي باغي گروهه حڪومت جي اهم مخالف قوت هوندا آهن، پر سياسي تنظيم طور مؤثر نموني ڪم ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت کان محروم هوندا آهن.

مختلف امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن مختلف سببن ۽ ضرورتن جي بنياد تي قائم ڪيا ويندا آهن. [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VII]] تحت هلندڙ مشنن ۾ فوجي روڪ ۽ نفاذ تي وڌيڪ زور هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VI]] تحت مشن بنيادي طور نگراني ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ غيرجانبدار موجودگي برقرار رکڻ لاءِ هوندا آهن. سياسي زيادتين جي روڪٿام لاءِ قائم ڪيل مشن گهڻ رخي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ واري سياسي عمل ۾ سرگرم ڪردار ادا ڪندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|chapter=4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي اثرائتي ==

علمي تحقيق جي جائزي مان مضبوط ثبوت مليا آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن امن جي استحڪام ۾ واڌارو آڻين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Walter|first1=Barbara F.|last2=Howard|first2=Lise Morje|last3=Fortna|first3=V. Page|date=2020|title=The Extraordinary Relationship between Peacekeeping and Peace|journal=British Journal of Political Science|volume=51|issue=4|language=en|pages=1705–1722|doi=10.1017/S000712342000023X|s2cid=229469021 |issn=0007-1234|doi-access=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hoeffler|first=Anke|date=March 11, 2014|title=Can international interventions secure the peace?|journal=International Area Studies Review|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=75–94|doi=10.1177/2233865914525380|s2cid=16303210|url=http://www.econrsa.org/node/700|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا]] موجب مضبوط ثبوت موجود آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي نمايان طور گهٽائي ٿي. امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين جو تعداد جيترو وڌيڪ هوندو، اوترا ئي جنگي محاذ تي مارجي ويل ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽ ٿيندو، ۽ عام شهرين جي جاني نقصان ۾ به گهٽتائي ايندي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://politicalviolenceataglance.org/2015/09/24/enough-with-the-pessimism-about-peacekeeping/|title=Enough with the Pessimism about Peacekeeping|date=September 24, 2015|website=Political Violence at a Glance|access-date=January 26, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[اپسالا يونيورسٽي]] ۽ [[اوسلو امن تحقيقاتي اداري]] جي سياسي سائنسدانن جي هڪ مطالعي موجب، جيڪڏهن گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري پاليسي کي وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪيو وڃي، امن قائم رکڻ وارن دستن جو تعداد ٻيڻو ڪيو وڃي ۽ انهن کي وڌيڪ وسيع اختيار ڏنا وڃن، ته هٿياربند تڪرارن جي عالمي شرح، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي غير موجودگي واري صورتحال جي ڀيٽ ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ٻه ٽيون حصو گهٽجي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Hegre|first1=Håvard|last2=Hultman|first2=Lisa|last3=Nygård|first3=Håvard Mokleiv|date=November 28, 2018|title=Evaluating the Conflict-Reducing Effect of UN Peacekeeping Operations|journal=The Journal of Politics|volume=81|language=en|pages=215–232|doi=10.1086/700203|s2cid=13894244|issn=0022-3816|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فورڊهم يونيورسٽي]] جي سياسي سائنسدان [[انجلي ديال]] موجب، تحقيق مان ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن جنگ کي سرحدن کان ٻاهر پکڙجڻ کان روڪين ٿا. زمين تي وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار هجڻ سان عام شهرين خلاف تشدد جا واقعا پڻ گهٽ ٿيندا آهن، ۽ ڪيترين حالتن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ڪاميابي سان عبوري انتظاميا جو ڪردار ادا ڪندي اقتدار ٻيهر مقامي اختيارين حوالي ڪيو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ هاڻي اهڙو عمل اڳ جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ڏسڻ ۾ اچي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/02/01/is-u-n-peacekeeping-under-fire-heres-what-you-need-to-know/|title=Is U.N. peacekeeping under fire? Here's what you need to know.|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=February 1, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2018ع جي هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پنهنجي سر به گهرو ويڙهه جي شدت کي گهٽائين ٿا، پر جڏهن انهن کي ثالثي سان گڏ استعمال ڪيو وڃي ٿو ته انهن جو اثر وڌيڪ نمايان ٿي وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Mediation, Peacekeeping, and the Severity of Civil War|journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution|volume=63|issue=7|pages=1682–1709|language=en|doi=10.1177/0022002718817092|year=2018|last1=Beardsley|first1=Kyle|last2=Cunningham|first2=David E.|last3=White|first3=Peter B.|s2cid=202164361}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهڙا به ثبوت موجود آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا موڪلڻ جو واعدو ئي ويڙهاڪ ڌرين کي ڳالهين جي ميز تي آڻڻ ۽ جنگبندي تي راضي ٿيڻ جا امڪان وڌائي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lundgren|first=Magnus|year=2016|title=Which international organizations can settle civil wars?|journal=Review of International Organizations|volume=DOI 10.1007/s11558-016-9253-0|issue=4|pages=613–641|doi=10.1007/s11558-016-9253-0|s2cid=152898046}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي شمارياتي تحقيق ۾ انهن عنصرن کي به نظر ۾ رکيو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ڪٿي مقرر ڪيا وڃن ۽ ڪٿي امن قائم ٿيڻ جا امڪان ڪيترا آهن. هن جي نتيجن موجب، امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ۽ پائيدار امن جي وچ ۾ شمارياتي طور اهم لاڳاپو موجود آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن عام طور تي انهن علائقن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن جتي امن قائم ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن، فورٽنا جو اندازو آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 55 کان 60 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽائي ٿي، جڏهن ته ڪجهه وڌيڪ پراميد اندازن موجب اها گهٽتائي 75 کان 85 سيڪڙو تائين ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 116&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=116}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا جي تجزيي موجب [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VI]] تحت رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل مشنن ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VII]] تحت نفاذي مشنن جي اثرائتي ۾ گهڻو فرق نظر نٿو اچي. البته نفاذي مشن تڏهن ئي اثرائتا ثابت ٿين ٿا، جڏهن امن قائم رکڻ واري قوت طاقت جي استعمال بابت پنهنجي اعتبار ۽ صلاحيت برقرار رکي سگهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=109, 116, 125}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهو ان ڳالهه جي اهميت کي اجاگر ڪري ٿو ته گڏيل قومن جا مشن مقامي ڌرين جي رضامندي برقرار رکن. مجموعي طور فورٽنا جو نتيجو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ويڙهاڪ ڌريون مڪمل طور پنهنجي حال تي نه ڇڏيون وڃن، ته امن قائم رکڻ پائيدار امن کي يقيني بڻائڻ جو هڪ مؤثر اوزار آهي. هن اڳ بيان ڪيل سببن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول ۾ امن جي استحڪام تي نمايان اثر وجهي سگهن ٿا. فورٽنا ۽ [[ليز مورجي هاورڊ]] جو چوڻ آهي ته هاڻي تحقيق جو ڌيان امن قائم رکڻ جي بنيادي اثرائتي کان اڳتي وڌي، مختلف قسمن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن، عبوري انتظاميائن، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ جمهوريت جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن، ۽ انهن ماڻهن جي نظرين ڏانهن منتقل ٿي رهيو آهي، جن جي لاءِ امن قائم رکيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Pitfalls and Prospects in the Peacekeeping Literature*|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|volume=11|pages=283–301|last1=Fortna|first1=Virginia Page|last2=Howard|first2=Lise Morjé|date=May 20, 2008|language=en|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.9.041205.103022|s2cid=15740415|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[مائيڪل ڊبليو ڊائل]] ۽ [[نيڪولس سامبانس]] جي تجزيي موجب، انهن ملڪن ۾، جتي نسلي بنيادن تي جنگ نه هجي، معاشي ترقي جو سطح نسبتاً بهتر هجي ۽ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا ۽ مالي امداد موجود هجن، اتي پائيدار امن قائم رهڻ جا امڪان وڌيڪ هوندا آهن. انهن جو نتيجو آهي ته مختصر مدي ۾ پائيدار امن جو دارومدار گڏيل قومن جي مضبوط موجودگي ۽ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ گهٽ دشمني تي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ڊگهي مدي ۾ معاشي صلاحيت وڌيڪ اهم عنصر بڻجي ويندي آهي ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ دشمني جي شدت نسبتاً گهٽ اهم رهندي آهي. سندن خيال ۾، جيتوڻيڪ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ڪافي حد تائين ڪامياب رهيا آهن، پر اهي مداخلت هيٺ آيل ملڪن ۾ خودمختيار معاشي ترقي کي ڪافي حد تائين هٿي نه ڏئي سگهيا آهن. تنهنڪري گڏيل قومون امن برقرار رکڻ ۾ هڪ مضبوط پر اڻ سڌو ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿيون، جڏهن ته پائيدار امن جو اصل دارومدار اهڙن ادارن جي قيام تي هوندو آهي، جيڪي امن کي ڊگهي عرصي تائين برقرار رکي سگهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Making War and Building Peace : United Nations Peace Operations|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2010|pages=336–337}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ٻين علمي تحقيقن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي ڪاميابيءَ بابت مختلف نتيجا سامهون آيا آهن، جن موجب انهن جي ڪاميابيءَ جي شرح تقريباً 31 سيڪڙو کان 85 سيڪڙو تائين رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Autesserre|first1=Severine|title=Peaceland: Conflict Resolution and the Everyday Politics of International Intervention|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2020ع جي هڪ مطالعي موجب، گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر هلندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن به اثرائتي جي لحاظ کان گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جيترا ئي مؤثر آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Bara|first1=Corinne|last2=Hultman|first2=Lisa|date=March 20, 2020|title=Just Different Hats? Comparing UN and Non-UN Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=27|issue=3|pages=341–368|doi=10.1080/13533312.2020.1737023|issn=1353-3312|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; ساڳئي سال شايع ٿيل هڪ ٻي تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن عام شهرين جي تحفظ ۾ به ڪامياب رهيا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Carnegie|first1=Allison|last2=Mikulaschek|first2=Christoph|date=2020|title=The Promise of Peacekeeping: Protecting Civilians in Civil Wars|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-organization/article/promise-of-peacekeeping-protecting-civilians-in-civil-wars/2BA3A91C26CF29480409B1FFB64F7E40|journal=International Organization|volume=74|issue=4|language=en|pages=810–832|doi=10.1017/S0020818320000442|s2cid=232253107|issn=0020-8183|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2021ع ۾ ''[[آمريڪن جرنل آف پوليٽيڪل سائنس]]'' ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن مقامي معيشت تي مثبت اثر وڌو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Bove|first1=Vincenzo|last2=Salvatore|first2=Jessica Di|last3=Elia|first3=Leandro|date=2021|title=UN Peacekeeping and Households' Well-Being in Civil Wars|journal=American Journal of Political Science|volume=66|issue=2|pages=402–417|language=en|doi=10.1111/ajps.12644|issn=1540-5907|doi-access=free|hdl=10281/458537|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== پائيدار امن تي اثرانداز ٿيندڙ عنصر ===

ڪيترائي عنصر پائيدار امن تي منفي اثر وجهي سگهن ٿا. انهن ۾ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي حقيقي فوجي طاقت بابت لڪل معلومات، باغي گروهن جي هيرن، ٻين معدنيات يا غيرقانوني واپار وسيلي مالي وسيلا حاصل ڪرڻ، منشيات، هٿيارن ۽ انساني اسمگلنگ ۾ سندن شموليت، ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي فوجي فتح يا شڪست، جنگ جو عرصو ۽ ان جي قيمت، ٻنهي ڌرين کي درپيش واعدن تي عملدرآمد جا مسئلا (ڪمٽمينٽ پرابلم) ۽ سلامتي جو مخمصو (سڪيورٽي ڊليما)، جنگبندي يا امن معاهدي جي موجودگي، تڪرار ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ ڌرين جي ارادن ۽ ڪاررواين بابت شفافيت جي کوٽ، امن کي نقصان پهچائيندڙ انتهاپسند گروهه، اهڙا ڌر يا فرد جيڪي جنگ جاري رهڻ مان فائدو حاصل ڪن، ۽ اهڙا تڪراري مسئلا جيڪي ورهائي يا سمجهوتي ذريعي حل نٿا ٿي سگهن شامل آهن.

فورٽنا جي تحقيق موجب، پائيدار امن جو سڀ کان اهم شمارياتي عنصر اهو آهي ته ڇا جنگ ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي فوجي فتح تي ختم ٿي آهي يا نه. جيڪڏهن گهرو ويڙهه ۾ هڪ ڌر واضح فوجي فتح حاصل ڪري ۽ ان کان پوءِ جنگبندي يا صلح جو معاهدو ٿئي، ته ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تقريباً 85 کان 90 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽجي ويندو آهي. ان کان علاوه، رسمي امن معاهدا ٻيهر تڪرار جي خطري کي لڳ ڀڳ 60 کان 70 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 116&quot;/&gt;

جيڪڏهن ڪو هٿياربند گروهه منشيات، هيرن يا ٻين غيرقانوني واپاري ذريعن مان مالي مدد حاصل ڪري ٿو، ته ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان نمايان طور وڌي وڃن ٿا. فورٽنا موجب اهڙين حالتن ۾ جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو 100 کان 250 سيڪڙو تائين وڌي سگهي ٿو، يعني اهڙي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان عام حالتن جي ڀيٽ ۾ ٻه کان ساڍا ٽي ڀيرا وڌيڪ هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choice after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=117}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا جو خيال آهي ته جن جنگين ۾ ڪيترائي ڌر شامل هجن، اهي ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان نسبتاً گهٽ رکن ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; ان جي ابتڙ، [[مائيڪل ڊبليو ڊائل]] ۽ [[نيڪولس سامبانس]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ نتيجو ڪڍيو ته گهڻ ڌرين وارا تڪرار ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان وڌيڪ رکن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Making War and Building Peace : United Nations Peace Operations|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2010|pages=336}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڊگهي عرصي تائين هلندڙ جنگين ۽ سڃاڻپ يا قومي/نسلي بنيادن تي وڙهيل جنگين ۾ ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. بهرحال، ڊگهيون جنگيون ۽ اهي امن معاهدا جيڪي فوجي فتح کان پوءِ وجود ۾ اچن، عام طور تي مستقبل ۾ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽائين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=117–119}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪاررواين جا حصو وٺندڙ فوجن تي اثر ==

=== فوجي معمول تي آڻڻ ===

ڪجهه محققن جو خيال آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون فوج جي &quot;معمول تي آڻڻ&quot; (مليٽري نارملائيزيشن) کي اڳتي وڌائڻ جو هڪ ذريعو بڻجي سگهن ٿيون. مائيڪل ايڊورڊ والش ۽ جيريمي ٽيلر دليل ڏين ٿا ته [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ [[جاپان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون انهن حلقن لاءِ هڪ منفرد موقعو فراهم ڪن ٿيون، جيڪي جاپان جي فوجي ڪردار کي عام ۽ معمول مطابق بڻائڻ چاهين ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهڙي عمل سان ملڪ جي امن پسند آئين کي تدريجي طور ڪمزور ڪرڻ جو امڪان پيدا ٿئي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;nbr.org&quot;&gt;Jeremy Taylor and Michael Edward Walsh (January 7, 2014), ''[http://www.nbr.org/downloads/pdfs/psa/taylor-walsh_commentary_010714.pdf UN Operations in Africa Provide a Mechanism for Japan’s Military Normalization Agenda]'', {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303010649/http://www.nbr.org/downloads/pdfs/psa/taylor-walsh_commentary_010714.pdf |date=March 3, 2014 }}, retrieved February 7, 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;

سندن خيال موجب، بنيادي سياسي، قانوني ۽ سماجي سڌارن کان سواءِ جاپان جون امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون اهڙين سنگين حالتن کي منهن ڏيڻ لاءِ مڪمل طور تي تيار ناهن، جتي جان ليوا طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ ضروري بڻجي وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Edward Walsh and Jeremy Taylor (December 23, 2013), ''[http://africanarguments.org/2013/12/23/time-to-reconsider-the-japanese-peacekeeping-mission-in-south-sudan-by-michael-edward-walsh-jeremy-taylor/ Time to Reconsider the Japanese Peacekeeping Mission in South Sudan]'', retrieved February 7, 2014.&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن ڪري، اهي دليل ڏين ٿا ته گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين ۾ جاپان جي مسلسل شرڪت آخرڪار اهڙين پاليسي تبديلين جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿي، جن کان پوءِ جاپان جي فوج کي معمول مطابق فوجي حيثيت ڏيڻ ئي واحد ممڪن نتيجو رهجي وڃي.&lt;ref name=&quot;nbr.org&quot;/&gt;

=== فوج موڪليندڙ ملڪن تي سياسي اثر ===

[[ڊيانا ميور ايپل بام]] خدشو ظاهر ڪيو آهي ته [[فجي]] ۾ عالمي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين لاءِ فوج تيار ڪرڻ جي نتيجي ۾ فوج ايتري طاقتور بڻجي وئي، جو هن 1987ع، 1999–2000ع، 2006ع ۽ 2009ع ۾ چار فوجي بغاوتون ڪيون ۽ ويهن سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين فجي تي فوجي آمريت قائم رکي.&lt;ref&gt;Appelbaum, Diana Muir (August 27, 2012), ''[http://www.jewishideasdaily.com/4867/features/how-the-sinai-peacekeeping-force-staged-a-military-coup-in-fiji/ How the Sinai Peacekeeping Force Staged a Military Coup in Fiji]'', retrieved September 7, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt;

بهرحال، ''جرنل آف پيس ريسرچ'' ۾ 2018ع ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ مطالعي موجب، اهي ملڪ جن جون فوجون گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين مان حاصل ٿيندڙ مالي وسيلن تي وڌيڪ ڀاڙين ٿيون، انهن ۾ فوجي بغاوتن جا امڪان انهن ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهڙن مالي وسيلن تي گهٽ ڀاڙين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lundgren|first=Magnus|date=2018|title=Backdoor peacekeeping: Does participation in UN peacekeeping reduce coups at home?|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume=55|issue=4|pages=508–523|doi=10.1177/0022343317747668|s2cid=116168984}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ وارن فردن تي اثر ===

[[File:UNAMIR Blue Berets memorial Kigali (4).jpg|thumb|[[روانڊا]] جي شهر [[ڪيگالي]] ۾ [[يو اين اي ايم آء آر]] (UNAMIR) جي ڏهن بيلجيمي امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي يادگار، جيڪي 1994ع ۾ هوتو نيم فوجي گروهن هٿان مارجي ويا.]]

امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين بابت ٿيل تحقيق مان معلوم ٿئي ٿو ته انهن تي مثبت ۽ منفي، ٻئي قسم جا اثر پون ٿا. بوسنيا ۾ مقرر آمريڪي فوج جي 951 سپاهين تي ٿيل هڪ مطالعي مطابق، 77 سيڪڙو فوجين مثبت اثرن جي نشاندهي ڪئي، 63 سيڪڙو منفي اثرن جو ذڪر ڪيو، جڏهن ته 47 سيڪڙو ٻنهي قسمن جي تجربن بابت ٻڌايو.&lt;ref&gt;Newby, John H., et al. &quot;Positive and negative consequences of a military deployment.&quot; ''Military Medicine'' (2005) 170#10 pp: 815-819.&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار گهڻو ڪري ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي حملن جي خطري ۽ اڻڄاتل موسمي حالتن کي منهن ڏيندا آهن. انهن سببن ڪري ذهني صحت جا مسئلا، خودڪشي جا واقعا ۽ منشيات جي استعمال جا خطرا وڌي سگهن ٿا. ڊگهي عرصي تائين ٻاهرين ملڪن ۾ مقرر رهڻ امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي خاندانن، خاص طور تي سندن ٻارن ۽ گهروارن، لاءِ پڻ ذهني دٻاءُ جو سبب بڻجي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1 = Fernandes Souza | first1 = Wanderson |display-authors=etal  | year = 2011 | title = Posttraumatic stress disorder in peacekeepers: a meta-analysis | journal = The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease | volume = 199 | issue = 5| pages = 309–312 | doi=10.1097/nmd.0b013e3182175180| pmid = 21543949 | s2cid = 28713512 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

هڪ ٻيو نقطه نظر اهو به آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون ذميواريون فوجين جي جنگي صلاحيتن کي ڪمزور ڪري سگهن ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ امن قائم رکڻ واري دستي جون ذميواريون مڪمل جنگ وڙهندڙ فوجي يونٽ کان ڪافي مختلف هونديون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20070926001502/http://www.usafa.af.mil/jscope/ISME2007/Papers/Prof%20Paulin%20Kaurin%20War%20Stories.doc Kaurin, P. M. (2007) War Stories: Narrative, Identity and (Recasting) Military Ethics Pedagogy. Pacific Lutheran University. ISME 2007. Retrieved 9-3-2007].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Liu, H. C. K., The war that could destroy both armies, ''Asia Times'', October 23, 2003. Retrieved March 9, 2007.&lt;/ref&gt;

== تنقيد ==

=== امن قائم رکڻ، انساني اسمگلنگ ۽ جبري جسم فروشي ===
{{Main|امن قائم رکڻ وارن پاران ٻارن سان جنسي زيادتي جو اسڪينڊل}}

1990ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن تي مختلف قسمن جي زيادتين جا ڪيترائي الزام لڳندا رهيا آهن، جن ۾ [[زنا بالجبر]]، [[جنسي زيادتي]]، [[ٻارن سان جنسي زيادتي]] ۽ [[انساني اسمگلنگ]] شامل آهن. اهڙيون شڪايتون [[ڪمبوڊيا]]، [[اوڀر تيمور]] ۽ [[اولهه آفريڪا]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علائقن مان سامهون آيون آهن.

[[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ اسمگل ٿيل عورتن سان لاڳاپيل جسم فروشي ۾ تيزي سان واڌ آئي، ۽ ڪيترائي اهڙا اڏا گڏيل قومن جي ڪئمپن جي ويجهو قائم ٿيا. بوسنيا ۾ 2000ع کان 2001ع تائين علائقائي انساني حقن جي آفيسر ڊيوڊ ليمب جو چوڻ هو ته، &quot;بوسنيا ۾ جنسي غلاميءَ جي واپار جو وڏو سبب گڏيل قومن جون امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون آهن. جيڪڏهن اهي فوجون نه هجن ها ته بوسنيا ۾ جبري جسم فروشي تمام گهٽ يا بلڪل نه هجي ها.&quot; ان کان علاوه، 2002ع ۾ [[آمريڪا جي ايوانِ نمائندگان]] ۾ ٿيل ٻڌڻي دوران اهو به سامهون آيو ته SFOR جا ڪجهه اهلڪار بوسنيا جي جسم فروشي جي مرڪزن تي ويندا هئا ۽ اسمگل ٿيل عورتن ۽ نابالغ ڇوڪرين سان جنسي لاڳاپا رکندا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Allred2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Allred|first=KJ|date=2006|title=Peacekeepers And Prostitutes: How Deployed Forces Fuel the Demand for Trafficked Women and New Hope for Stopping It|journal=Armed Forces &amp; Society|volume=33|issue=1|page=7|doi=10.1177/0095327X06288803|s2cid=71430076}}&lt;/ref&gt;

صحافين پڻ رپورٽ ڪيو ته گڏيل قومن يا، بوسنيا ۽ [[ڪوسوو]] جي صورت ۾، [[نيٽو]] جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي اچڻ کان پوءِ [[ڪمبوڊيا]]، [[موزمبيق]]، [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۽ [[ڪوسوو]] ۾ جسم فروشي ۾ تيزي سان اضافو ٿيو. 1996ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي رپورٽ ''دي امپيڪٽ آف آرمڊ ڪنفلڪٽ آن چلڊرين'' ۾ موزمبيق جي اڳوڻي خاتون اول [[گراسا ماچيل]] لکيو ته هن رپورٽ لاءِ تيار ڪيل 12 ملڪن مان 6 مطالعي ۾ هٿياربند تڪرارن دوران ٻارن جي جنسي استحصال ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي اچڻ کان پوءِ [[ٻارن جي جسم فروشي]] ۾ تيز واڌ ڏٺي وئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;unicef.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/graca/a51-306_en.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030316210918/http://www.unicef.org/graca/a51-306_en.pdf|url-status=dead|title=The Impact of Armed Conflict on Children|archive-date=March 16, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گيتا سهگل]] 2004ع ۾ چيو ته جتي به [[انساني همدرديءَ واري مداخلت]] يا امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون ٿين ٿيون، اتي جسم فروشي ۽ [[جنسي استحصال]] جا مسئلا به ظاهر ٿين ٿا. سندس خيال هو ته گڏيل قومن بابت بنيادي مسئلو اهو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون به ٻين فوجن وانگر ساڳين مسئلن ۾ ملوث ٿي سگهن ٿيون، تنهنڪري &quot;نگهبانن جي به نگراني ڪرڻي پوي ٿي&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.csmonitor.com/2004/1126/p06s02-wogi.html Sex charges haunt UN forces; In places like Congo and Kosovo, peacekeepers have been accused of abusing the people they're protecting,&quot;] ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'', November 26, 2004, accessed February 16, 2010.&lt;/ref&gt;

2006ع ۾ گڏيل قومن ۾ [[اردن]] جي مستقل نمائندي [[شهزادو زيد رعد زيد الحسين]] جي سربراهيءَ ۾ ٿيل جاچ جي نتيجي ۾ هڪ تفصيلي رپورٽ جاري ٿي، جنهن ۾ خاص طور تي [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] ۾ ٿيل جنسي استحصال جي ڪيترن ئي واقعن کي بيان ڪيو ويو. رپورٽ موجب، جنسي استحصال گهڻو ڪري جسم فروشي جي صورت ۾ ٿيندو هو، جتي جنسي لاڳاپن جي بدلي اوسطاً هڪ کان ٽي آمريڪي ڊالر ادا ڪيا ويندا هئا. ڪن حالتن ۾ عورتن کي کاڌي يا روزگار جو لالچ ڏئي جنسي لاڳاپن تي مجبور ڪيو ويندو هو، جڏهن ته ڪجهه نوجوان عورتن ٻڌايو ته کين زبردستي جنسي زيادتي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ڪجهه رقم يا کاڌو ڏنو ويندو هو ته جيئن اهو عمل رضامنديءَ وارو لڳي.&lt;ref&gt;al-Hussein, Prince Zeid Ra'ad Zeid. (2005) &quot;A Comprehensive Strategy to Eliminate Future Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations.&quot; Report to the UN Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations: 8.&lt;/ref&gt;

مئي کان سيپٽمبر 2004ع تائين جنسي استحصال جا 72 الزام سامهون آيا، جن مان 68 فوجي اهلڪارن ۽ 4 شهري عملي خلاف هئا. سال جي آخر تائين اهڙن الزامن جو انگ 105 تائين پهچي ويو. انهن مان 45 سيڪڙو الزام 18 سالن کان گهٽ عمر وارن سان جنسي لاڳاپن بابت هئا، جڏهن ته 31 سيڪڙو بالغ جسم فروش عورتن سان لاڳاپيل هئا. زنا بالجبر تقريباً 13 سيڪڙو ۽ جنسي زيادتي 5 سيڪڙو الزامن تي مشتمل هئي، جڏهن ته باقي 6 سيڪڙو ٻئي قسم جي جنسي استحصال سان واسطو رکندا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;al-Hussein, Prince Zeid Ra'ad Zeid. (2005) &quot;A Comprehensive Strategy to Eliminate Future Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations.&quot; Report to the UN Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations: 8-9.&lt;/ref&gt; گهڻا الزام [[پاڪستان]]، [[يوراگوئي]]، [[مراڪش]]، [[تيونس]]، [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] ۽ [[نيپال]] سان تعلق رکندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Allred2006&quot;/&gt;

[[يوراگوئي]] جي صدر [[خوسي موخيڪا]]، گڏيل قومن جي يوراگوئي فوجين تي 18 سالن جي هڪ هيٽي نوجوان سان مبينا زنا بالجبر جي واقعي تي [[هيٽي]] جي صدر [[ميشيل مارٽيلي]] کان معافي ورتي. مارٽيلي چيو ته &quot;هڪ نوجوان هيٽي شهري سان ٿيل اجتماعي زنا بالجبر کي بنا سزا نه ڇڏيو ويندو.&quot; واقعي ۾ ملوث هجڻ جي شڪ ۾ چار فوجين کي حراست ۾ ورتو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-haiti-uruguay-un-idUSTRE78603I20110907|title=Uruguay apologises over alleged rape by U.N. peacekeepers|newspaper=Reuters|access-date=October 23, 2014|date=September 7, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/Headlines/Article.aspx?id=236953|title=Uruguay to apologise over alleged rape by UN peacekeepers|date=September 21, 2010 |access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جولاءِ 2007ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي [[امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون کاتو]] (DPKO) [[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]] ۾ مقرر 734 مراڪشي فوجين جي پوري دستي کي الزام سامهون اچڻ کان پوءِ ڪئمپن تائين محدود ڪري ڇڏيو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن مان ڪجهه تي نابالغ ڇوڪرين سان جنسي زيادتي جا الزام هئا. ايندڙ سالن دوران گڏيل قومن جي [[گڏيل قومن جي اندروني نگراني جون خدمتون کاتو]] (OIOS) اهڙن 80 ڪيسن جي جاچ ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Simic|first=Olivera|title=Regulation of Sexual Conduct in UN Peacekeeping Operations |chapter=UN Peacekeeping Operations: The Emerging Problem of Sexual Exploitation |date=2012|pages=13–38|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-28484-7_2|isbn=978-3-642-28483-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ [[مرڪزي آفريقي جمهوريه]] ۾ ڪم ڪندڙ [[فرانس]]، [[گيبون]] ۽ [[برونڊي]] جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف پڻ الزام لڳا. انهن ۾ [[ڪيمو صوبو|ڪيمو صوبي]] ۾ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 108 ماڻهن سان جنسي استحصال ۽ جنسي زيادتي جا الزام شامل هئا، جن مان اڪثريت نابالغ هئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/01/world/africa/un-peacekeeping-hit-by-new-allegations-of-sickening-sex-abuse.html?_r=0|title=U.N. Peacekeeping Hit By New Allegations of 'Sickening' Sex Abuse|last=Gladstone|first=Rick|date=2016|access-date=April 17, 2016|newspaper=The New York Times}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2016ع ۾ [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] جي اوڀر واري [[اتر ڪيئو]] صوبي ۾ مقرر امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف به نوان الزام لڳا. [[تنزانيا]] ۽ گڏيل قومن گڏيل جاچ شروع ڪئي، جنهن ۾ تنزاني فوجين تي جنسي استحصال جا 18 الزام شامل هئا، جن مان اٺ نابالغن سان لاڳاپيل هئا. انهن الزامن ۾ 16 تنزاني، هڪ [[ملاوي]] ۽ هڪ ڏکڻ آفريقي فوجي جو نالو آيو. گڏيل قومن مارچ 2016ع ۾ ٻڌايو ته جنسي استحصال بابت الزامن ۾ نمايان واڌ ٿي آهي، جنهن ۾ 21 ملڪن جا فوجي شامل هئا. انهن مان گهڻا الزام آفريقي ملڪن جهڙوڪ [[ڪيمرون]]، [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]]، [[تنزانيا]]، [[بينن]]، [[برڪينا فاسو]]، [[برونڊي]]، [[گھانا]]، [[مڊگاسڪر]]، [[نائيجر]]، [[نائيجيريا]]، [[روانڊا]]، [[سينيگال]] ۽ [[ٽوگو]] سان تعلق رکندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/probe-opens-un-troops-alleged-sex-abuse-dr-155023758.html|title=Probe Opens into UN Troops' Alleged Sex Abuse in DR Congo|date=2016|access-date=April 17, 2016|via=Yahoo News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ وارا ۽ هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جو بحران ===

پهرين [[ايسوسيئيٽيڊ پريس]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Katz |first=Jonathan M. |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/health/2013276274_apcbhaitidiseaseoutbreak.html |title=Nation &amp; World &amp;#124; UN probes base as source of Haiti cholera outbreak &amp;#124; Seattle Times Newspaper |publisher=Seattletimes.com |date=October 27, 2010 |access-date=July 28, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پوءِ ''[[نيو يارڪ ٽائيمز]]''،&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/01/world/americas/haitis-cholera-outraced-the-experts-and-tainted-the-un.html?pagewanted=all In Haiti, Global Failures on a Cholera Epidemic; In-depth New York Times piece investigating UN role in introducing cholera] ''[[New York Times]]'', March 31, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; ''[[الجزيره عربي]]''،&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.aljazeera.com/video/americas/2012/03/201237194798262.html UN likely to blame for Haiti Cholera Outbreak] ''[[الجزيره عربي]]'', March 7, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اي بي سي نيوز]]&lt;ref&gt;[https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/scientists-soldiers-brought-deadly-superbug-americas/story?id=15341129 Scientists: UN Soldiers Brought Deadly Superbug to Americas] ''[[اي بي سي نيوز]]'', January 12, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; پاران شايع ٿيل اهم سائنسي ثبوتن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته [[نيپال]] سان تعلق رکندڙ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا، جيڪي [[هيٽي]] جي [[ميريباليه]] واري علائقي ۾ هڪ ڏورانهين اڏي تي مقرر هئا، 2010ع جي آڪٽوبر کان ملڪ کي متاثر ڪندڙ خطرناڪ [[هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا (2010ع واري ڏهاڪي)|ڪالرا جي وبا]] جو سبب بڻيا.

[[ڪالرا]] پاڻيءَ وسيلي پکڙجندڙ بيماري آهي، جيڪا سخت دستن ۽ الٽين جو سبب بڻجي ٿي، ۽ جيڪڏهن مريض کي بروقت جسم ۾ پاڻي ۽ لوڻ جي کوٽ پوري ڪرڻ وارو علاج (rehydration) نه ملي ته ڪجهه ئي ڪلاڪن اندر موت جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿي. جولاءِ 2012ع تائين هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا دنيا جي سڀ کان وڏي وبا بڻجي چڪي هئي، جنهن ۾ لڳ ڀڳ 7,500 ماڻهو فوت ٿي چڪا هئا، جڏهن ته تقريباً 585,000 هيٽي وارا (يعني هر ويهن مان هڪ ماڻهو) هن بيماري ۾ مبتلا ٿي چڪا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.cdc.gov/haiticholera/haiti_cholera.htm Haiti Cholera: One Year Later], [[بيمارين جي ضابطي ۽ روڪٿام جا مرڪز]] October 25, 2011, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.mspp.gouv.ht/site/downloads/Rapport%20journalier%20MSPP%20du%2022%20juillet%202012.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407031228/http://www.mspp.gouv.ht/site/downloads/Rapport%20journalier%20MSPP%20du%2022%20juillet%202012.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Haitian Ministry of Public Health and Population Cholera Report of July 22, 2012, 22 July 2011, accessed 30 July 2012|archive-date=April 7, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا بابت گڏيل قومن پاران مقرر ڪيل آزاد ماهرن جي پينل موجب، امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جي اڏي تي صفائي ۽ نيڪال جا انتظام غير محفوظ هئا، جنهن سبب گهٽ ۾ گهٽ ٻن طريقن سان هيٽي جي دريائي نظام ۾ آلودگي پکڙجي. رپورٽ موجب، &quot;مکيه غسل خاني ۽ ٽوائليٽن واري حصي ۾ پاڻيءَ جي پائيپن جي جوڙجڪ بي ترتيب هئي، جنهن سبب آلودگي ملڻ جو وڏو خطرو موجود هو، خاص طور تي اهي پائيپ جيڪي هڪ کليل نيڪال واري نالي جي مٿان گذرندا هئا، جيڪو سڄي ڪئمپ مان وهي سڌو [[ميئي ندي]] جي معاون نديءَ ۾ ڇوڙ ڪندو هو.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;UNCholeraReport&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/haiti/UN-cholera-report-final.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110506001548/https://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/haiti/UN-cholera-report-final.pdf|url-status=live|title=Final Report of the Independent Panel of Experts on the Cholera Outbreak in Haiti, pages 21-22, July 2011, accessed 30 July 2012|archive-date=May 6, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

پينل اهو پڻ ٻڌايو ته ميريباليه واري اڏي ۽ ٻن ٻين اڏن مان نڪرندڙ گندو پاڻي باقاعدگي سان هڪ کليل، غير محفوظ سيپٽڪ کڏ ۾ وڌو ويندو هو، جيڪا ٻوڏ اچڻ وقت پاڻيءَ سان ڀرجي ويندي هئي ۽ برساتن دوران ان جو گندو پاڻي ميئي نديءَ جي معاون وهڪري ۾ داخل ٿي ويندو هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;UNCholeraReport&quot; /&gt;

نومبر 2011ع ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا کان متاثر ٿيل 5,000 کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن گڏيل قومن جي اندروني دعوائن واري نظام ۾ درخواست داخل ڪئي. هنن وبا تي ضابطو آڻڻ لاءِ صاف پاڻي ۽ صفائي جي بنيادي ڍانچي جي فراهمي، ذاتي نقصانن جو معاوضو ۽ گڏيل قومن کان باضابطه معافي جو مطالبو ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15648110|title=Haiti cholera demand against UN|date=November 9, 2011|work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جولاءِ 2012ع ۾ [[آمريڪا جي گڏيل رياستن جي ڪانگريس]] جي 104 ميمبرن هڪ خط تي صحيون ڪيون، جنهن ۾ چيو ويو ته &quot;گڏيل قومن جي قدمن&quot; سبب هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا پکڙيو، ۽ گڏيل قومن کي گهر ڪئي وئي ته هو پنهنجي ذميواري قبول ڪري ۽ وبا جي خاتمي لاءِ عملي قدم کڻي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18928405|title=Haiti cholera 'UN responsibility'|first=Mark|last=Doyle|date=July 20, 2012|work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ گڏيل قومن انهن دعوائن کي رد ڪري ڇڏيو، جنهن کان پوءِ متاثرن جي وڪيلن اعلان ڪيو ته هو گڏيل قومن خلاف عدالت ۾ مقدمو داخل ڪندا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ijdh.org/cholera-litigation/ |title=Institute for Justice and Democracy in Haiti: Cholera Litigation |publisher=Ijdh.org |date=October 21, 2010 |access-date=July 28, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== جديد امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائين سان لاڳاپيل ثقافتي خدشا ===

امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائين ۾ مختلف ثقافتن جو پاڻ ۾ گهرو ميل جول هوندو آهي. ان جو سبب اهو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون، پوليس ۽ ٻيو عملو دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي ملڪن مان اچي گڏ ٿيندو آهي، جڏهن ته اهي اڪثر انهن علائقن ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن، جتي نسلي ۽ ثقافتي تنوع تمام گهڻو هوندو آهي. اهڙي صورتحال ۾ مختلف ثقافتن جي وچ ۾ پيچيده لاڳاپا پيدا ٿيندا آهن، جيڪي نه رڳو مشن جي اثرائتي تي اثر انداز ٿيندا آهن، پر ڪڏهن ڪڏهن انهن مقامي ماڻهن سان به تڪرار جو سبب بڻجندا آهن، جن جي مدد لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارا موڪليا ويندا آهن.

1988ع کان اڳ اڪثر امن قائم رکڻ وارا هڪ محدود تعداد وارن ملڪن مان ايندا هئا. ان وقت تائين رڳو 26 ملڪن پنهنجو عملو امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون ۾ موڪليو هو، پر هاڻي اهو انگ 80 کان وڌيڪ ملڪن تائين پهچي ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=146–147}} نتيجي طور، گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون انتهائي گهڻ ثقافتي بڻجي ويون آهن. اهڙي صورتحال ۾ انهن کي نه رڳو ٻولين جي فرق سان منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، پر سماجي ۽ ثقافتي اختلافن سان به، جيڪي اهڙيون عملي مشڪلاتون پيدا ڪن ٿا، جن تي ضابطو آڻڻ آسان نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Pendlebury |first1=Jarrod |last2=Stott |first2=Neil |last3=Tracey |first3=Paul |date=2025 |title=The peacekeeper's challenge: innovation in meta-organisations |journal=Peacebuiding |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1080/21647259.2025.2501873|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; اهي اختلاف ذاتي يا اداري سطح جي رابطن، غلط فهمين، اڻڄاتل طور تي توهين جو سبب بڻجندڙ روين ۽ مخصوص ملڪن جي دستن بابت اڳواٽ قائم ٿيل تعصبن کي جنم ڏئي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=146–147}}

عملياتي لحاظ کان به مشن جي اثرائتي متاثر ٿي سگهي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ مختلف ملڪن جي فوجي ۽ پوليس اهلڪار پنهنجا پنهنجا طريقا، حڪمت عمليون ۽ ضابطا استعمال ڪندا آهن. گڏيل قومن جون فوجون مختلف ذريعن مان گڏ ڪيون وينديون آهن، جنهن سبب انهن جي صلاحيت، تربيت، سامان، معيارن ۽ ڪارروائي جي طريقن ۾ نمايان فرق موجود هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot; /&gt; ان کان علاوه، حصو وٺندڙ ملڪن جي ڪمان ۽ ڪنٽرول جي نظام ۾ به وڏا فرق هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot; /&gt; ڪجهه ملڪ ٻين ملڪن جي ماتحت ڪم ڪرڻ کان به ڪيٻائيندا آهن، جنهن سبب [[ڪمان جي وحدت]] برقرار رکڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي. اهڙي صورتحال گڏيل قومن جي مختلف دستن جي وچ ۾ اختلاف پيدا ڪري سگهي ٿي، جنهن جو نتيجو ميدان ۾ هڪ ٻئي جي سهڪار جي کوٽ جي صورت ۾ نڪري سگهي ٿو. ان جو مثال [[اوڀر تيمور]] ۾ گڏيل قومن جي مشن دوران ڏٺو ويو، جتي آسٽريليا جي فوج [[اوڀر تيمور ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مشن]] تحت پنهنجي فوجين جي تحفظ تي زور ڏيندي سخت فوجي حڪمت عملي اختيار ڪئي، جڏهن ته برطانيا جي [[گورکا]] فوجين مقامي ماڻهن سان ويجها لاڳاپا قائم ڪرڻ واري پاليسي تي عمل ڪيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=146–147}}

جديد امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائين ۾ مقامي آبادي ۽ حڪومت جي رضامندي برقرار رکڻ بنيادي اهميت رکي ٿي. خاص طور تي [[بوسنيا ۾ گڏيل قومن جي تحفظ واري فوج]]، [[سوماليا ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ٻيون آپريشن]] ۽ [[روانڊا ۾ گڏيل قومن جو امدادي مشن]] دوران انسانيت جي بنياد تي مداخلت جي نالي ۾ هن اصول کي نظرانداز ڪيو ويو، جيڪو گڏيل قومن جي منشور جي باب ستين هيٺ ٿيندڙ مداخلتن جي نوعيت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو. بهرحال، اهڙين ڪارروائين جي قانوني حيثيت ۽ مقبوليت برقرار رکڻ لاءِ ضروري آهي ته گڏيل قومن جون فوجون انهيءَ ملڪ جي عوام ۽ حڪومت جي رضامندي حاصل ڪن، جتي اهي مقرر ٿيل هجن. ان لاءِ ضروري آهي ته مقامي ماڻهن کي امن قائم رکڻ واري عمل جو حصو محسوس ڪرايو وڃي ۽ امن قائم رکڻ وارن کي مقامي ثقافت بابت مناسب ڄاڻ هجي، جيئن مقامي آبادي سان ڇڪتاڻ گهٽجي ۽ مشن ڪامياب بڻجي سگهي.

امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج ۽ مقامي آبادي جي ثقافتي لاڳاپن بابت اڃا تائين گهڻي تحقيق نه ٿي آهي. 1976ع ۾ [[يوهان گالٽونگ]] ۽ [[هيلگه هويم]] انهن نارويجي اهلڪارن جو مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (غزه) ۽ [[ڪانگو ۾ گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيا هئا. هنن جو نتيجو هو ته ڪنهن ملڪ جي ثقافت ۽ اتان جي ماڻهن بابت ڄاڻ صرف مفيد نه، پر مشن جي ڪاميابي لاءِ لازمي آهي. مطالعي موجب نارويجي اهلڪارن مقامي ثقافت ۽ تڪرار بابت وڌيڪ ڄاڻ حاصل ڪرڻ جي خواهش ظاهر ڪئي ۽ ٻين ملڪن جي اهلڪارن سان گڏ ڪم ڪرڻ بابت وڌيڪ تربيت به گهربل سمجهي. بهرحال، کين اهڙي تربيت تمام محدود ملي، ۽ تڪرار بابت گهڻي ڄاڻ کين خبرن، ڪتابن يا ٻين گڏيل قومن جي اهلڪارن کان ملي، نه ڪي گڏيل قومن جي ڪنهن منظم تربيتي پروگرام مان.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=150–151}}

لبنان ۾ [[لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن جي عبوري فوج]] (UNIFIL) ۽ مقامي آبادي جي لاڳاپن بابت هيبرگ ۽ هولسٽ جي مطالعي به ساڳيا نتيجا ظاهر ڪيا. هنن ڏٺو ته جيڪي ملڪ مقامي آباديءَ سان وڌيڪ ويجها لاڳاپا قائم ڪرڻ ۽ مقامي ثقافت کي سمجهڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿيا، انهن جا مشن وڌيڪ اثرائتا ثابت ٿيا؛ جڏهن ته جيڪي دستا مقامي سماج کان الڳ رهيا، اهي انهن ماڻهن کان به پري رهيا، جن سان کين ڪم ڪرڻو هو، ۽ ان جو اثر سندن ڪاميابي تي پيو.

{{Quote|
صرف اٽليءَ جو لڳ ڀڳ 2,200 اهلڪارن تي ٻڌل دستو مقامي سماج جو حصو بڻجي ويو ۽ معمول جي زندگي بحال ڪرڻ ۾ سرگرم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. انهن جي فوجين کي مقامي ماڻهن جي ثقافتي، سياسي ۽ سماجي حالتن بابت مناسب تربيت ڏني وئي هئي. لڳ ڀڳ 600,000 آبادي واري علائقي، جنهن ۾ اڪثريت شيعن جي هئي، ۾ اٽليءَ جي فوجين عام ماڻهن ۽ سياسي اڳواڻن سان ويجها لاڳاپا قائم رکيا. ان جي ابتڙ آمريڪي فوجين اهو سمجهيو ته هو لبناني سياست ۾ شامل ٿي رهيا آهن، پر انهن وٽ لبناني ثقافت ۽ تاريخ بابت تمام محدود ڄاڻ هئي. گهڻن آمريڪن کي مختصر مدي وارن اتحادين، پراڻين دشمنيُن، عرب سماج ۾ خانداني لاڳاپن جي اهميت ۽ مذهبي اختلافن جي نزاڪتن جي صحيح سمجهه نه هئي.
|&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=150–151}}
}}

هي مثال ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته ڪامياب امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائي لاءِ مقامي ثقافت جي ڄاڻ انتهائي اهم آهي. جيتوڻيڪ گڏيل قومن وٽ هڪ تربيتي رهنما موجود آهي، جيڪو امن قائم رکڻ وارن کي ضروري طريقن بابت هدايتون ڏئي ٿو، پر مختلف دستن لاءِ ڪو گڏيل نظريو يا معياري ڪارروائي جو طريقو موجود ناهي، جيڪو آخرڪار امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن جي ڪاميابيءَ ۾ رڪاوٽ بڻجي سگهي ٿو.

=== جديد مداخلت ۽ تڪرار جي حل جون حدون ===

[[سرد جنگ]] دوران گهرو تڪرارن ۾ ٻاهرين مداخلت ۽ ثالثي گهڻو ڪري رياست-مرڪز طريقي تي ٻڌل هئي، جنهن ۾ [[خودمختياري]] کي ناقابلِ ڀڃڪڙي سمجهيو ويندو هو. بين الاقوامي برادري رياست جي حڪومت ۽ ان جي مخالف گهريلو ويڙهاڪ ڌرين وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ اندروني تڪرارن ۾ تمام گهٽ مداخلت ڪندي هئي. پر سرد جنگ جي پڄاڻي کان پوءِ اها صورتحال بدلجي وئي. اڄڪلهه گهرو تڪرارن ۾ بين الاقوامي ڌرين جي ثالثي هڪ اهڙي معياري حل واري طريقي تي ٻڌل آهي، جيڪو تڪرار ۾ شامل سڀني ڌرين کي مجموعي طور برابر حيثيت ڏئي ٿو ۽ اهڙو ٺاهه حاصل ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿو، جيڪو سڀني لاءِ قبولڻ جوڳو هجي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Clapham|first=Christopher|date=1998|title=Rwanda: The Perils of Peace|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume=35|issue=2|pages=193–210|doi=10.1177/0022343398035002003|s2cid=110533606}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سرد جنگ جي خاتمي سان بين الاقوامي نظام کي نئين سر ترتيب ڏيڻ جو موقعو پيدا ٿيو. اهو موقعو سرد جنگ جي فاتح ڌرين، يعني [[آمريڪا]] ۽ ٻين اولهه جي سرمائيدار رياستن، وٽ هو، جيڪي آزاد جمهوري قدرن تحت هلنديون هيون ۽ [[انساني حق]]ن ۽ [[جمهوريت سازي]] کي وڏي اهميت ڏينديون هيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt; ان کان اڳ وارن ڏهاڪن ۾ رياست ئي واحد اهڙي وحدت هئي، جنهن کي خاص قانوني ۽ سياسي حيثيت حاصل هئي. جيتوڻيڪ ڪجهه استثنا، جهڙوڪ نوآبادياتي طاقتن خلاف جدوجهد ڪندڙ تحريڪون، موجود هيون، پر حتمي قانوني جواز رياست وٽ ئي هوندو هو. ان ڪري بين الاقوامي برادري عام طور ڪنهن ملڪ جي اندروني معاملن ۾ مداخلت نه ڪندي هئي. خودمختياريءَ جي ڀڃڪڙي نه ڪرڻ وارو هي نظام ٻنهي سپر طاقتن، سندن اتحادين ۽ [[ٽين دنيا]] جي حڪومتن لاءِ فائديمند هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt;

پر هاڻي غير رياستي ڌرين کي به سياسي جواز ملڻ ۽ ڪنهن اقليتي گروهه کي موجود رياست کان ڌار ٿي نئون ملڪ قائم ڪرڻ جي امڪان سبب بين الاقوامي صورتحال ۾ وڏي تبديلي آئي آهي. ان کان علاوه، بين الاقوامي برادري جو تڪرار حل ڪرڻ وارو نمونو گهڻو ڪري اولهه جي ملڪن ۾ تيار ٿيل علمي سوچ کان متاثر آهي. هي نمونو سياسي تشدد روڪڻ ۽ ڳالهين ذريعي ٺاهه حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ گهرو جنگين ۾ مداخلت جي همٿ افزائي ڪري ٿو، ۽ اهڙي ٺاهه ۾ اڪثر جمهوريت سازيءَ جا قدم به شامل هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt;

[[ڪرسٽوفر ڪلافم]] ۽ [[ڊيوڊ شيئرر]] جهڙا نقاد دليل ڏين ٿا ته اهڙي مداخلت ڪڏهن ڪڏهن عام شهرين جي نقصان تي تڪرار کي جاري رکڻ جا وسيلا فراهم ڪري سگهي ٿي. ڪلافم جو دليل بنيادي طور [[روانڊا]] ۾ [[روانڊا نسل ڪشي|نسل ڪشي]] کان اڳ واري صورتحال سان لاڳاپيل آهي،&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt; جڏهن ته شيئرر خاص طور [[سيرا ليون]] جي حوالي سان مداخلت جي منفي پهلوئن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو. سندس خيال موجب مداخلت ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي مڪمل فتح کي روڪي سگهي ٿي ۽ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ طاقت جو غيرمتوازن ڍانچو پيدا ڪري سگهي ٿي، جنهن سان وڌيڪ خونريزيءَ جو رستو کلي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Shearer|first=David|date=1997|title=Exploring the Limits of Consent: Conflict Resolution in Sierra Leone|journal=Millennium: Journal of International Studies|volume=26|issue=3|pages=845–860|doi=10.1177/03058298970260030601|s2cid=144940982}}&lt;/ref&gt;

روانڊا ۾ [[هوتو]] ۽ [[توتسي]] ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ڳالهين وسيلي ٺاهه ڪرائڻ جي ٽئين ڌر واري ڪوشش هوتو انتهاپسندن کي اعتدال پسند هوتو ماڻهن جي قتل ۽ توتسين جي نسل ڪشيءَ جي تياري ڪرڻ جو موقعو ڏنو. [[آفريقي اتحاد جي تنظيم]] جي علائقائي رياستن جي اڳواڻيءَ ۾ بين الاقوامي برادري [[اروشا امن عمل]] وسيلي هوتو ۽ توتسي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ جاري نسلي تشدد جو ڳالهين سان حل ڳولڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي. هي عمل هڪ سال کان ڪجهه وڌيڪ عرصي تائين هليو، جنهن ۾ وڏي بين الاقوامي شموليت ۽ [[تنزانيا]]، جيڪو ڳالهين جو ميزبان هو، [[برونڊي]]، [[يوگنڊا]] ۽ [[زائير]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علائقائي ڌرين حصو ورتو.

جيتوڻيڪ [[روانڊا محب وطن محاذ]] (RPF) [[اروشا معاهدا (روانڊا)|اروشا معاهدن]] مان سڀ کان وڌيڪ فائدو وٺندڙ ڌر هئي ۽ پنهنجون ڪيتريون شڪايتون حل ڪرائڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿي، پر ڪلافم موجب انهن مان ڪيترائي فائدا فوجي ڪارروائيءَ وسيلي به حاصل ڪري سگهجن پيا. ڪلافم جو چوڻ آهي ته اروشا معاهدن شرڪت ڪندڙ ڌرين جي پاڻ ۾ طاقت کي ٻن طريقن سان متاثر ڪيو: پهريون، جنگبنديءَ تڪرار جي هڪ مخصوص مرحلي تي علائقائي قبضي جي ورڇ کي منجمد ڪري ڇڏيو؛ ٻيو، ڳالهين ۾ شامل ڌرين کي ثالثن طرفان مقرر ڪيل اهميت ڏني وئي.

ان جو مطلب اهو هو ته تڪرار منجمد ٿي ويو ۽ RPF کي وڌيڪ علائقائي ڪاميابيون حاصل ڪرڻ کان روڪيو ويو. ڳالهين ۾ ڪنهن ڌر جي اهميت ان جي عوامي مقبوليت يا فوجي طاقت جي بنياد تي نه، پر ثالثن طرفان مصنوعي طور ڏنل وزن موجب طئي ڪئي وئي. نتيجي طور، سڄي عمل RPF جي حيثيت کي ڪمزور ڪيو، ان جي اڳ تائين ڪامياب فوجي مهم کي روڪيو ۽ هوتو انتهاپسندن کي [[روانڊا نسل ڪشي]] جي تياريءَ لاءِ وقت ڏنو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt;

شيئرر دليل ڏئي ٿو ته جديد حڪمت عمليون، جيڪي رڳو ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل ڳالهين تي ڀاڙين ٿيون، تمام گهڻيون محدود آهن، ۽ فوجي فتح کي تڪرار جي حل جي امڪاني طريقي طور نظرانداز نه ڪرڻ گهرجي. سندس چوڻ موجب جنگي ميدان ۾ طاقت جي توازن جي تبديلي اڪثر ڪنهن ويڙهاڪ ڌر کي ڳالهين جي ميز تائين آڻي سگهي ٿي ۽ ان جي مطالبن کي به نرم ڪري سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

ڳالهين ۽ ثالثيءَ ۾ رضامندي وڏي اهميت رکي ٿي. موجوده بين الاقوامي نظام ۽ سرد جنگ کان پوءِ بين الاقوامي برادريءَ طرفان گهڻو استعمال ٿيندڙ تڪرار حل ڪرڻ وارو نمونو رضامنديءَ کي بنيادي اهميت ڏئي ٿو. پر شيئرر سوال ڪري ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ويڙهاڪ ڌر ڳالهين ۽ جنگبنديءَ کي رڳو وقت حاصل ڪرڻ، پنهنجي فوج کي نئين سر ترتيب ڏيڻ ۽ پوءِ جنگ جاري رکڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري ٿي، ته ڇا تڪرار کي ڊگهو ڪرڻ ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل انساني نقصان جي خطري باوجود رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل حڪمت عملي جاري رکڻ گهرجي؟&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

شيئرر پاران ڄاڻايل تجرباتي تجزيي موجب، ڳالهين وسيلي ختم ٿيل اڳوڻين گهرو جنگين جي ڪاميابي محدود رهي آهي. هو جان اسٽيڊمين جي هڪ مطالعي جو حوالو ڏئي ٿو، جنهن مطابق 1900ع کان 1980ع تائين 85 سيڪڙو گهرو جنگيون ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي مڪمل فتح سان ختم ٿيون، جڏهن ته نوآبادياتي جنگين کي ڇڏي رڳو 15 سيڪڙو جنگيون ڳالهين وسيلي پڄاڻيءَ تي پهتيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

رائي لِڪلائيڊر جو مطالعو پڻ انهن نتيجن جي حمايت ڪري ٿو:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
1945ع کان 1989ع تائين سندس درجابندي موجب 93 گهرو تڪرارن مان 58 ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ ختم ٿيا، جڏهن ته باقي جاري رهيا. پر ختم ٿيل تڪرارن مان رڳو 14، يعني 24 سيڪڙو، ڳالهين وسيلي حل ٿيا. باقي 76 سيڪڙو فوجي فتحن سان ختم ٿيا. ان کان علاوه، ڳالهين وسيلي ختم ڪيل 14 تڪرارن مان 7 ۾ ويڙهه ٻيهر شروع ٿي وئي. تنهنڪري ختم ٿيل گهرو جنگين جي لحاظ کان ڳالهين وسيلي ٿيل ٺاهن جي مجموعي ڪاميابيءَ جي شرح لڳ ڀڳ 12 سيڪڙو هئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

سيرا ليون ۾ [[انقلابي گڏيل محاذ]] (RUF)، جنهن جي اڳواڻي [[فوڊي سنڪوه]] ڪري رهيو هو، 1991ع کان 1996ع تائين حڪومت خلاف [[سيرا ليون گهرو جنگ|رتوڇاڻ واري گهرو جنگ]] وڙهي. هن تڪرار ڏانهن بين الاقوامي ڌيان تمام گهٽ ويو، پر جنگ ملڪ کي تباهه ڪري ڇڏيو ۽ ان جي معيشت کي سخت نقصان پهچايو. ڳالهين وسيلي ٺاهه لاءِ ڪيترين ئي ڪوششن باوجود ڪنهن به ڌر پنهنجن مطالبن تان هٿ کڻڻ يا سمجهوتو ڪرڻ لاءِ تيار نه هئي.

سنڪوه [[نجي فوجي ڪمپني]] [[ايگزيڪيوٽو آئوٽڪمز]] جي مداخلت ۽ جنگي ميدان ۾ RUF جي ڪمزور ٿيڻ کان پوءِ ڳالهين جي ميز تي آيو. ان کان پوءِ RUF جو خطرو گهڻو گهٽجي ويو، عام ماڻهو پناهگير ڪئمپن مان واپس اچڻ ۽ پنهنجي زندگي نئين سر جوڙڻ لڳا. پر امن ڪمزور هو ۽ ڳالهين جو سلسلو جاري رهيو. RUF هٿيار ڦٽا ڪرڻ لاءِ تيار نه هو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان کي فوج ۽ شهري مليشيا ٻنهي کان انتقامي ڪاررواين جو خدشو هو.

انهن خدشن کي گهٽائڻ ۽ امن ڏانهن منتقليءَ ۾ مدد ڏيڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا موڪلڻ جو منصوبو هو، پر پوءِ صورتحال خراب ٿيڻ لڳي. بين الاقوامي ڌريون وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪوششن کان پوئتي هٽڻ لڳيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ حڪمت عمليءَ جي لحاظ کان گهٽ اهم ملڪ ۾ هڪ مهانگو ۽ اڻڄاتل مدي وارو مشن شروع ڪرڻ ۾ سندن دلچسپي نه هئي. نتيجي طور گڏيل قومن جي مداخلتي فوج جي جوڙجڪ سست ٿي وئي ۽ پوءِ مڪمل طور رڪجي وئي، جڏهن سنڪوه دليل ڏنو ته گڏيل قومن جي 740 امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جو دستو تمام وڏو هو.

گڏيل قومن ٻنهي ڌرين جي مڪمل رضامندي کان سواءِ ڪارروائي ڪرڻ کان انڪار ڪيو، جنهن سبب امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جي مقرري نه ٿي سگهي. شيئرر موجب رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هي طريقو ڏيکاري ٿو ته گهرو جنگ دوران ۽ ان کان پوءِ واري غير مستحڪم ۽ نازڪ صورتحال ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ڪردار ڪيترو محدود ٿي سگهي ٿو. سندس لفظن ۾، سيرا ليون ۾ ان جو مطلب اهو هو ته امن تعمير واري عمل کي مضبوط ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ اهم جزو موجود نه رهيو، ۽ سنڪوه پاڻ شرطون مقرر ڪرڻ لڳو. اهڙي طريقي سان هڪ ظالم باغي گروهه جي قيادت کي امن جا امڪان روڪڻ جي طاقت ملي وئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

صورتحال وڌيڪ خراب ٿي، جڏهن سيرا ليون جي نئين چونڊيل صدر [[احمد تيجان ڪباه]] ايگزيڪيوٽو آئوٽڪمز سان ٿيل معاهدو ختم ڪري ڇڏيو ۽ اهڙي طرح پنهنجي [[سخت طاقت]] واري فوجي برتري ڪمزور ڪري ڇڏي. 1997ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون جمهوريه جون هٿياربند فوجون|فوج]] جي ناراض آفيسرن حڪومت جو تختو اونڌو ڪيو، جنهن سان تڪرار ٻيهر تيز ٿي ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

سلامتيءَ جي صورتحال جي نگراني لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو هڪ ننڍو مبصر دستو موڪليو ويو. [[سيرا ليون ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مبصر مشن|UNOMSIL]] نالي هي مشن جولاءِ 1998ع کان آڪٽوبر 1999ع تائين موجود رهيو، پر RUF طرفان ملڪ جي گاديءَ واري شهر [[فري ٽائون]] تي قبضو ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ان کي واپس وڃڻو پيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna2008123–124&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=123–124}}&lt;/ref&gt;

نيٺ 1999ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مشن|UNAMSIL]] قائم ڪري موڪليو ويو. هن مشن کي گڏيل قومن جي منشور جي ستين باب تحت اختيار حاصل هو ۽ ان جو مقصد لومه معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ هو، پر تشدد جاري رهيو. شروعات کان ئي RUF تعاون ڪرڻ لاءِ تيار نه هو، ۽ [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري جو نگراني گروهه|ECOMOG]] جي دستي جي واپسيءَ کان پوءِ RUF گڏيل قومن جي فوجين تي حملو ڪيو ۽ سوين اهلڪارن کي يرغمال بڻائي ڇڏيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna2008123–124&quot; /&gt;

ان واقعي تي بين الاقوامي برادريءَ جو اهڙو سخت ردعمل سامهون آيو، جنهن جي RUF قيادت کي توقع نه هئي. ان جو خيال هو ته بين الاقوامي برادري صوماليا وانگر يا فري ٽائون مان UNOMSIL جي واپسيءَ وقت وانگر ٻيهر پوئتي هٽي ويندي. پر ان جي ابتڙ، برطانيه جي مدد سان RUF خلاف سخت [[سيرا ليون گهرو جنگ ۾ برطانوي فوجي مداخلت|فوجي مهم]] هلائي وئي. UNAMSIL جا اختيار وڌايا ويا ۽ ان جي اهلڪارن جو تعداد به وڌايو ويو. 2000ع جي پڇاڙيءَ ۽ 2001ع جي شروعات تائين RUF جي فوجي طاقت تمام گهڻي ڪمزور ٿي چڪي هئي. پوءِ [[ابوجا معاهدو|ابوجا معاهدا]] ڪيا ويا ۽ UNAMSIL ڊسمبر 2005ع ۾ پنهنجو مشن مڪمل ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unamsil/|title=UNAMSIL: United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone|website=www.un.org|access-date=May 5, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيتوڻيڪ اڄ سيرا ليون ۾ امن قائم آهي ۽ گڏيل قومن جي مشن کي ڪامياب سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، پر صورتحال جي ارتقا شيئرر جي ان دليل کي واضح ڪري ٿي ته رڳو رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل، سڀني ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي مفادن کي شامل ڪندڙ ڳالهين وارو طريقو لازمي طور ڪاميابيءَ تائين نٿو پهچي. UNOMSIL جي موجودگيءَ باوجود جنگ جاري رهي. حقيقت ۾، ستين باب تحت وڌيڪ مضبوط UNAMSIL اچڻ کان پوءِ به تشدد ختم نه ٿيو. جڏهن برطانيا فوجي مداخلت ڪري RUF جي تڪرار جاري رکڻ واري صلاحيت کي سخت نقصان پهچايو، جيئن ان کان اڳ ايگزيڪيوٽو آئوٽڪمز ڪيو هو، تڏهن RUF آخرڪار ڳالهين جي ميز تي آيو ۽ امن قائم ٿيڻ ممڪن ٿيو.

ڪجهه ليکڪ اصولي طور بين الاقوامي مداخلت جي خيال تي ئي سوال اٿارين ٿا. 2005ع ۾ [[عالمي ترقي مرڪز]] لاءِ تيار ڪيل هڪ تحقيقي مقالي ۾ [[اسٽينفورڊ يونيورسٽي]] جي [[جيريمي وائينسٽين]] ”خودمختيار بحالي“ جو نظريو پيش ڪيو، جنهن موجب رياستون بين الاقوامي مداخلت کان سواءِ به پائيدار امن حاصل ڪري سگهن ٿيون. [[يوگنڊا]]، [[ايريٽريا]] ۽ [[صوماليا]] جي ڪيس مطالعي ذريعي وائينسٽين ڏيکاريو ته رياستون جنگ مان به اثرائتا ادارا پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿيون.

هن طريقي جا فائدا ۽ نقصان آهن، جن کي بين الاقوامي مداخلت جي امڪاني نتيجن سان ڀيٽڻ گهرجي. ٻاهرين مداخلت وڏي پيماني تي ٿيندڙ ظلمن کي روڪي سگهي ٿي، پر اها ادارتي تبديليءَ کي به روڪي سگهي ٿي. خودمختيار بحالي سڀ کان طاقتور اڳواڻ کي مٿانهون ڪري ٿي، پر گڏوگڏ سڀ کان طاقتور ويڙهاڪن کي به انعام ڏئي ٿي، جيڪي اقتدار ورهائڻ لاءِ گهٽ تيار ٿي سگهن ٿا. ان کان علاوه، مداخلت ٻاهرين اثر تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جڏهن ته خودمختيار بحالي اندروني عنصرن تي ٻڌل هوندي آهي.

وائينسٽين جي دليل مان اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته مداخلت هميشه بهترين پاليسي ناهي. تنهن هوندي به سندس چوڻ آهي ته بين الاقوامي برادريءَ جي [[تحفظ جي ذميواري]] واري اصول کي اخلاقي اهميت حاصل آهي، جڏهن ته خودمختيار بحاليءَ لاءِ گهربل حالتون تمام گهٽ ملن ٿيون. سندس نظر ۾ بنيادي مسئلو اهو آهي ته سٺي حڪمرانيءَ کي ڪيئن همٿايو وڃي ۽ باغي گروهن جي مدد اهڙي نموني ڪيئن ڪئي وڃي، جو آمدني گڏ ڪرڻ ۽ حڪمرانن کي جوابده بڻائڻ واري شهرين ۽ حڪمرانن جي لاڳاپي کي نقصان نه پهچي.&lt;ref&gt;Weinstein, Jeremy M. 2005. &quot;Autonomous Recovery and International Intervention in Comparative Perspective.&quot; Center for Global Development Working Paper 57. https://www.cgdev.org/files/2731_file_WP57.pdf.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== مشن جي دائري جو وڌڻ ===

جيتوڻيڪ [[جيمس فيئرون]] ۽ [[ڊيوڊ ليٽن]] امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين لاءِ ڪيترن ئي عملي ۽ اخلاقي سببن کي تسليم ڪن ٿا، پر سندن خيال آهي ته ڪجهه حالتن ۾ اهي ڪارروايون آهستي آهستي [[رياست سازي]] جي ڪوششن سان ڳنڍجي وڃن ٿيون. ڪمزور رياستن ۾، جتي باغي گروهه ڪامياب گوريلا مهمون هلائي رهيا هجن، امن قائم رکڻ وارن دستن تي اهو دٻاءُ وڌي وڃي ٿو ته هو پائيدار امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ رياستي ادارن ۽ انتظامي صلاحيتن کي به مضبوط ڪن. اهڙو دٻاءُ اصل امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن جي دائري کان ٻاهر نڪري وڃي ٿو، جنهن کي &quot;مشن جي دائري جو وڌڻ&quot; (Mission creep) چيو وڃي ٿو.

جيڪڏهن امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون رياست سازي جي عمل ۾ حصو نه وٺن، ته انهن جي واپسي کان پوءِ لاڳاپيل ملڪ ۾ ٻيهر تشدد ڀڙڪڻ جو خطرو وڌي سگهي ٿو. تنهن ڪري فيئرون ۽ ليٽن امن قائم رکڻ جي ڪوششن ۾ رياست سازي کي وڌيڪ مربوط ڪرڻ جي حمايت ڪن ٿا. هو ان مقصد لاءِ &quot;نيو ٽرسٽيشپ&quot; (''Neotrusteeship'') نالي هڪ نئين فريم ورڪ جي تجويز پيش ڪن ٿا، جنهن تحت پرڏيهي طاقتون ڪمزور رياست جي گهرو معاملن تي نمايان حد تائين نگراني ۽ اختيار رکن، جيئن مستقبل ۾ تشدد جي ٻيهر اُڀار کي روڪي سگهجي.&lt;ref name=&quot;FearonLaitin2004&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Fearon|first1=James D.|last2=Laitin|first2=David D.|date=2004|title=Neotrusteeship and the Problem of Weak States|journal=International Security|volume=28|issue=4|pages=5–43|doi=10.1162/0162288041588296|s2cid=57559356}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:امن]]
[[زمرو:تنظيمون]]
[[زمرو:گڏيل قومون]]
[[زمرو:عالمي سياست]]
[[زمرو:بين الاقوامي لاڳاپا]]</text>
      <sha1>0sewx0ukm8ry0luy5473w0erxv3yo22</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399333</id>
      <parentid>399332</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T22:04:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* مشن جي دائري جو وڌڻ */</comment>
      <origin>399333</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="147691" sha1="a2m9n6u9yr2zb9tin280ay983jl2gt1" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|دائمي امن لاءِ سازگار حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ خاطر ڪيل سرگرميون}}


[[File:Italian Soldier UNIFIL 2 Lebanon 2007.jpg|thumb|[[اطالوي فوج]] جو هڪ [[سپاهي]] لبنان ۾ [[يونيفل]] مشن دوران پهرو ڏئي رهيو آهي.]]

'''امن قائم رکندڙ فوج''' (Peacekeeping Force) انهن سرگرمين، خاص طور فوجي سرگرمين،&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Peacekeeping&quot;. Oxford Languages. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جن جو مقصد اهڙيون حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ هوندو آهي جيڪي پائيدار [[امن]] جي قيام لاءِ سازگار هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/|title=United Nations Peacekeeping|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; تحقيق مان عام طور اهو ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون [[شهري جاني نقصان|شهري]] ۽ جنگي ميدان ۾ ٿيندڙ جاني نقصان کي گهٽائين ٿيون ۽ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي پڻ گهٽائين ٿيون.

[[گڏيل قومون]] (UN) ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل [[قومي رياست]]ن جي حڪومتن ۽ [[تنظيم]]ن جي وچ ۾ عام طور اهو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو ته عالمي سطح تي امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا جنگ کان پوءِ وارن علائقن ۾ امن جي عمل جي نگراني ۽ مشاهدو ڪندا آهن، ۽ اڳوڻن ويڙهاڪن کي انهن امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ ۾ مدد ڏيندا آهن، جن جا هو پابند بڻيل هوندا آهن. اهڙي مدد ڪيترين ئي صورتن ۾ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ اعتماد سازي جا قدم، اقتدار جي ورهاست جا انتظام، چونڊن ۾ مدد، [[قانون جي حڪمراني]] کي مضبوط بڻائڻ، ۽ معاشي ۽ سماجي ترقي کي هٿي ڏيڻ. ان ڪري [[گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا]] (جن کي سندن هلڪي نيري [[بيريٽ]] يا هيلمٽ سبب اڪثر '''نيري بيريٽ''' يا '''نيرا هيلمٽ''' چيو ويندو آهي) ۾ فوجي، [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس آفيسر]] ۽ شهري عملي جا ميمبر شامل ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dpko/ |title=Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dfs/ |title=Department of Field Support (DFS) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جا مشن هلائيندڙ واحد تنظيم گڏيل قومون نه آهن. گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم ڪندڙ قوتن ۾ [[ڪوسوو فورس]] جي [[نيٽو]] مشن (گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان)، [[سينا ٻيٽ نما]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]]، ۽ [[يورپي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[EUFOR RCA]]، گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان) ۽ [[آفريقي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[سوڊان ۾ آفريقي يونين مشن]]) پاران منظم ڪيل امن مشن شامل آهن.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

[[بين الاقوامي قانون]] موجب، امن قائم ڪندڙ پنهنجي غيرجانبدار حيثيت سبب [[غير جنگجو]] (non-combatants) شمار ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي ٻن يا وڌيڪ [[جنگ ڪندڙ ڌر]]ن جي وچ ۾ تڪرار ۾ غيرجانبدار هوندا آهن (بلڪل اهڙيءَ طرح جيئن امن قائم رکڻ جي ذميوارين کان ٻاهر موجود غيرجانبدار ماڻهو ۽ ملڪيت). تنهنڪري انهن کي هر حال ۾ حملن کان تحفظ حاصل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule33 |title=Rule 33. Personnel and Objects Involved in a Peacekeeping Mission|publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]|access-date=April 7, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فائل:UN Soldiers in Eritrea.jpeg|thumb|right|upright=1.00|نيدرلينڊز جا ڊچ فوجي اقوام متحده جي امن جي قيام جي فورس ۾ ايٿوپيا ۽ ايريٽيريا جي سرحد تي گڏيل قومن پاران چوڪسي ڪندي]]

'''امن جي بحالي واري فوج'''{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي=Peace Keeping Force}}
ٻن ملڪن ياڌرين جي وچ ۾ ڪو به تڪرار ايترو زور وٺي وڃي، جو ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت کانسواءِ اهو ٽري نه سگهي، ته ٽين ڌر امن قائم ڪرڻ (Peace Keeping) لاءِ مُختلف اُپاءُ وٺندي آهي. ڪنهن به تڪرار جي حل لاءِ ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت جو مقصد ٻن ڌُرين ۾ رڳو صُلح ڪرائڻ هوندو آهي، جنهن لاءِ فوجي ۽ سُفارتي طريقا ڪتب آندا ويندا آهن. ان کان سواءِ گھُرج پوڻ تي ٽين ڌر (يا وچين ڌر) جهيڙو ڪندڙ ڌرين تي مُختلف قسمن جو دٻاءُ رکندي آهي، جيڪڏهن ڌريون پوءِ به جهيڙي کي نه ٿيون ختم ڪن، ته مٿانئن فوجي قدم کڻڻ لاءِ به اڳڀرائي ڪئي ويندي آهي. جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جو عالمي ادارو|گڏيل قومن]] جو ادارو قائم ڪيو ويو هيو ته ان وقت ٻي عالمي جنگ ختم ٿي هئي، پر ملڪن جا پاڻ ۾ تڪرار پوءِ به هلي رهيا هئا ۽ ”سرد جنگ“ به شروع ٿي چڪي هئي، دُنيا جي امن کي گهڻن قسمن جا خطرا پيدا ٿي چڪا هئا. 1950ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل بين الاقوامي جهيڙن کي پاسيرو ڪرڻ ۽ امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ”احتياطي سفارتڪاري“ (Preventive Diplomacy) جو اصطلاح اڳيان آندو هو. انهيءَ قسم جي حڪمت عملي ۾ ڪنهن به تڪرار کي رڳو ٺارڻ جو حل ڏنل هيو، پر جهيڙي کي مستقل طور ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪجهه واڌو قدم به گهربل هئا. انهيءَ ڪري اهڙي صورتحال ۾ اڳتي هلي ”مشن ڪريپ“ (Mission Creep) جو اصطلاح ڪتب آندو ويو، جنهن ۾ جهيڙي کي مڪمل طور ختم ڪرڻ جي تجويز ڏني وئي. انهيءَ حوالي سان 1956ع ۾ ڪئناڊا جي پرڏيهي معاملن جي وزير ۽ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”ڊگ هئمرشولڊ“ گڏيل قومن جي اداري جي پلئٽفارم تان ”امن قائم ڪرڻ واري فوج“ (Peace Keeping Force) قائم ڪئي، جنهن جي شعبا بندي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ان جي ورديءَ کانسواءِ خاص قسم جي ٽوپي به تيار ڪرائي وئي ۽ ان خاص ٽوپيءَ جو رنگ ”نيرو“ مقرر ڪيو ويو. ٽوپيءَ کي ٻين فوجي ٽوپين کان الڳ رنگ ڏيڻ جو مقصد، بين الاقوامي امن فوج جي انفراديت کي ظاهر ڪرڻ آهي. ان هوندي به ”امن فوج“ جي طريقيڪار ۽ اختيارن کي اڃا تائين چڱيءَ ريت گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر ۾ بيان نه ڪيو ويو آهي. گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر جي 6 ۽ 7 باب ۾، امن جي ڪوشش وٺڻ لاءِ جيڪي تفصيل بيان ڪيا ويا آهن، انهن سان امن جي بحاليءَ واري عمل کي به جوڙيو ويو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن جي بحاليءَ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي پڌرنامي جي روح مطابق جوڙجڪ ضروري آهي. انهن کوٽن جي باوجود، گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج، دُنيا ۾ امن ۽ صلح جي لاءِ گھڻن هنڌن مثال طور؛ ڪمبوڊيا، نميبيا، انگولا، لبنان، ايراني نار ۽ [[سوماليا|صوماليا]] وغيره ۾ ڪاميابيءَ سان پنهنجون ذميواريون پوريون ڪري چڪي آهي. امن فوج جي اهڙي اهميت کي محسوس ڪندي، گڏيل قومن جي اداري ڪيترن مُتاثر ملڪن جي داخلي معاملن ۾ به هن فوج جو استعمال مُناسب ۽ بهتر سمجهيو. منڍ ۾ اها فوج ٻن تڪراري ڌُر جي وچ ۾ هلندڙ جهيِڙو ٽارڻ لاءِ ڪتب آندي ويندي هئي، پر 1988ع کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جي اداري اهڙن ملڪن ۾ به کيس ذميواري سونپيون، جتي گهرو ويڙھ ۾ اَڙيل مُختلف ڌرين ۾ جنگ جاري هُئي ۽ اُتي انتظامي معاملا هيٺ مٿي لڳا پيا هُئا. اهڙن مُلڪن ۾ امن فوج کي گڏيل قومن طرفان چونڊون ڪرائڻ، انتظامي معاملن کي سُڌارڻ، عوام کي تحفظ ڏيڻ ۽ جهيڙن کان تنگ اچي ملڪ ڇڏي ويل ماڻهن کي واپس پنهنجي اباڻي وطن ۾ ٻيهر آباد ڪرائڻ جا اختيار به ڏنا ويا. ٻئي طرف اها به حقيقت آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج کي گھڻن معاملن ۽ هنڌن تي ڪن ملڪن پنهنجن خاص مقصدن لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو. ان کانسواءِ گھڻن علائقن (جهڙوڪ ڪشمير) ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن فوج پنهنجي مقصد حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام وئي آهي. سندس مُقابلي ۾ اولھ جي مُلڪن جي فوجي اتحاد نيٽو امن فوج جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ متحرڪ ۽ اثرائتي رهي آهي. 1992ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”بترس غالي“، امن جي آڻڻ لاءِ خاص علائقي ۽ خاص حالتن آهر مداخلت ڪرڻ ۽ نون اختيار ڏيڻ لاءِ اداري آڏو تجويزون پيش ڪيون، پر ان ڏس ۾ مڪمل سوڀاري ٿيڻ لاءِ ”پيس ڪيپگ“ جو عمل نون ضابطن، اختيارن ۽ قانونن جي انتظار ۾ آهي. 
&lt;ref&gt;[http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/define/Peace%20Keeping%20Force.php سنڌي آنلائين ڊڪشنري]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} پاران [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد&lt;/ref&gt;

== وصفون ۽ امن قائم رکڻ جي عمل جا قسم ==

=== گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ===
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن}}

==== ڇهون باب ۽ ستون باب وارا مشن ====

امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن جا ڪيترائي مختلف قسم آهن. مثال طور، پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي ڪتاب ''Does Peacekeeping Work?'' ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن کي چئن مختلف قسمن ۾ ورهايو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=Chapter 7}}&lt;/ref&gt; انهن مشنن جو قسم ۽ انهن تي عملدرآمد جو طريقو گهڻي حد تائين ان اختيارنامي (mandate) تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، جنهن تحت انهن کي اختيار ڏنو ويندو آهي.

فورٽنا جي بيان ڪيل چئن قسمن مان ٽي اهڙا آهن، جيڪي ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن ۽ انهن کي عام طور ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ڇهون باب|ڇهين باب]]'' وارا مشن چيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته چوٿون قسم ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]]'' وارو مشن هوندو آهي.

ڇهين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشنن لاءِ جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي لازمي هوندي آهي؛ جيڪڏهن اها رضامندي ختم ٿي وڃي ته امن قائم ڪندڙ دستن کي علائقو ڇڏڻو پوندو. ان جي ابتڙ، ستين باب وارن مشنن کي قانوني طور رضامندي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي، جيتوڻيڪ عملي طور اها موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي. جيڪڏهن رضامندي بعد ۾ ختم به ٿي وڃي ته به اهڙن مشنن کي واپس وڃڻ ضروري نه هوندو.

# '''مشاهدي وارا مشن''' (Observation Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي يا شهري مبصرن جا ننڍا دستا شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي جنگبندي، فوجن جي واپسي يا جنگبندي واري معاهدي ۾ ڄاڻايل ٻين شرطن جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. اهي عام طور بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا آهن ۽ سندن بنيادي ذميواري رڳو مشاهدو ڪرڻ ۽ رپورٽون تيار ڪرڻ هوندي آهي؛ تنهن ڪري جيڪڏهن ڪا ڌر معاهدي جي ڀڃڪڙي ڪري ته اهي مداخلت ڪرڻ جا مجاز نه هوندا آهن. مثال طور [[انگولا]] ۾ 1991ع وارو [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن II]] (UNAVEM II) ۽ [[اولهه صحارا]] ۾ [[اولهه صحارا بابت راءِ شماري لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو مشن]] (MINURSO).

# '''وچٿري مشن''' (Interpositional Missions)، جن کي روايتي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، نسبتاً وڏن ۽ هلڪي هٿياربند فوجي دستن تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جيڪي تڪرار کان پوءِ ٻن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ طور مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهي ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ بفر زون جو ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. مثال طور 1994ع ۾ [[انگولا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن III]] (UNAVEM III) ۽ 1996ع ۾ [[گوئٽي مالا]] ۾ [[MINUGUA]].

# '''گهڻ رخا مشن''' (Multidimensional Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس]] عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو جامع امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندو آهي. اهي رڳو مشاهدو يا ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رڪاوٽ بڻجڻ تائين محدود نه هوندا آهن، پر چونڊن جي نگراني، پوليس ۽ سلامتي ادارن جي سڌارن، ادارن جي تعمير، معاشي ترقي ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي شعبن ۾ پڻ حصو وٺندا آهن. مثال طور [[نيميبيا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو عبوري امدادي گروهه]] (UNTAG)، [[ايل سلواڊور]] ۾ [[ONUSAL]] ۽ [[موزمبيق]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUMOZ).

# '''[[امن لاڳو ڪندڙ]] مشن''' (Peace Enforcement Missions): اهي ستين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشن هوندا آهن ۽ اڳين ٽن قسمن جي ابتڙ، جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ جا پابند نه هوندا آهن. اهي شهري ۽ فوجي ٻنهي قسمن جي عملي تي مشتمل گهڻ رخا مشن هوندا آهن. انهن وٽ نسبتاً وڏي ۽ بهتر هٿياربند فوج هوندي آهي ۽ انهن کي صرف پنهنجي بچاءَ کان وڌيڪ مقصدن لاءِ به طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل هوندو آهي. مثال طور [[اولهه آفريڪا]] ۾ [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري جو نگراني گروهه]] (ECOMOG)، 1999ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو سيرا ليون مشن]] (UNAMSIL)، ۽ [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ [[نيٽو]] جا [[IFOR]] ۽ [[SFOR]] آپريشن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;/&gt;

==== سرد جنگ دوران ۽ ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ====

[[سرد جنگ]] جي دور ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جا اڪثر مشن روايتي نوعيت جا هئا، جن ۾ امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا ملڪن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ جنگن کان پوءِ مقرر ڪيا ويندا هئا ته جيئن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ بڻجن ۽ امن معاهدن تي عملدرآمد کي يقيني بڻائين. اهي مشن رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا هئا ۽ گهڻو ڪري مبصر بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا هئا، جيئن [[وچ اوڀر]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) ۽ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] بابت [[ڪشمير بابت گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP). ڪجهه مشن هٿياربند به هئا، جهڙوڪ [[سوئيز بحران]] دوران قائم ڪيل [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I). مجموعي طور اهي مشن پنهنجي مقرر ڪيل ڪردار ۾ ڪامياب رهيا.

[[سرد جنگ کان پوءِ وارو دور|سرد جنگ کان پوءِ]] گڏيل قومن امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ جامع ۽ گهڻ رخي طريقيڪار اختيار ڪيو. 1992ع ۾ ان وقت جي [[گڏيل قومن جو سيڪريٽري جنرل|سيڪريٽري جنرل]] [[بوتروس بوتروس غالي]] هڪ رپورٽ تيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ امن قائم رکڻ بابت پنهنجو جامع تصور پيش ڪيو. ''[[امن لاءِ ايجنڊا]]'' (An Agenda for Peace) نالي هن رپورٽ ۾ هن احتياطي سفارتڪاري، امن لاڳو ڪرڻ، امن ڪرائڻ، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ بحاليءَ کي هڪ ٻئي سان ڳنڍيل قدمن طور بيان ڪيو، جن جي ذريعي سرد جنگ کان پوءِ واري عالمي سياست ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ڪردار وڌيڪ اثرائتو بڻجي سگهي.

==== گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جا وسيع مقصد ====

[[مائيڪل ڊوئل]] ۽ نڪولس سامبانس پنهنجي ڪتاب ''The UN Record on Peacekeeping Operations'' ۾ بوتروس غالي جي رپورٽ جو خلاصو پيش ڪندي احتياطي سفارتڪاري، اعتماد سازي جي قدمن (جهڙوڪ حقيقت معلوم ڪرڻ وارا مشن)، مبصر مشن، ۽ تشدد جي خطري کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي اختيار هيٺ فوج مقرر ڪرڻ کي پائيدار امن لاءِ اهم ذريعا قرار ڏين ٿا. سندن بيان موجب:

# '''امن لاڳو ڪرڻ''' (Peace Enforcement): گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي منظور ڪيل جنگبندي يا معاهدي تي عمل ڪرائڻ لاءِ، ضرورت پوڻ تي ڌرين جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به فوجي طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ. اهڙا مشن عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]] تحت هلندا آهن ۽ انهن ۾ مقرر فوجون نسبتاً وڌيڪ هٿياربند هونديون آهن.

# '''امن ڪرائڻ''' (Peacemaking): گڏيل قومن جي سرپرستي هيٺ ثالثي ۽ ڳالهين ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين کي پرامن حل تي راضي ڪرڻ. هي عمل عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] جي ڇهين باب تحت ڪيو ويندو آهي.

# '''امن قائم رکڻ''' (Peacekeeping): جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي سان هلڪي هٿياربند گڏيل قومن جي موجودگي قائم ڪرڻ، اعتماد پيدا ڪرڻ ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ٿيل معاهدن جي نگراني ڪرڻ. ان سان گڏ سفارتي ڪوششون پڻ جاري رهنديون آهن ته جيئن جامع ۽ پائيدار امن حاصل ڪري سگهجي.

# '''تڪرار کان پوءِ بحالي''' (Post-Conflict Reconstruction): معاشي ۽ سماجي سهڪار ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي بحال ڪرڻ، سياسي، سماجي ۽ معاشي ادارن کي مضبوط ڪرڻ، مستقبل ۾ تشدد جي امڪان کي گهٽائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|date=2007|title=The UN Record On Peacekeeping Operations|journal=International Journal|volume=63|issue=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ ۾ غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) سان گڏجي [[ثقافتي ورثو|ثقافتي ورثي]] جي تحفظ لاءِ ڪم ڪرڻ پڻ شامل آهي. ثقافتي ورثي جي حفاظت بابت گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري وابستگي 2012ع کان جاري آهي ۽ ان کي آهستي آهستي وڌايو پيو وڃي. ان سلسلي ۾ 2019ع ۾ [[يونيفل]] ۽ [[بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل]] جو لبنان ۾ [[يونيسڪو عالمي ورثو]] جي تحفظ لاءِ گڏيل مشن نمايان مثال آهي. فوجي ۽ شهري ماهرن پاران مقامي آباديءَ سان گڏجي ثقافتي ورثي جو تحفظ ڪيترن ئي تڪراري علائقن ۾ مستقبل جي پرامن ۽ معاشي ترقيءَ جو بنياد بڻجي ٿو. بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل جي صدر [[ڪارل فون هيبسبرگ]]، اپريل 2019ع ۾ لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ [[يونيسڪو]] جي مشن دوران چيو: ''&quot;ثقافتي ورثو ڪنهن به علائقي ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جي سڃاڻپ جو حصو هوندو آهي. جيڪڏهن توهان انهن جي ثقافت تباهه ڪريو ٿا ته سندن سڃاڻپ به ختم ٿي وڃي ٿي. نتيجي ۾ ڪيترائي ماڻهو بي گهر ٿي وڃن ٿا، سندن مستقبل بابت اميدون ختم ٿي وڃن ٿيون ۽ هو آخرڪار پنهنجو وطن ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ٿين ٿا.&quot;''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Karl von Habsburg auf Mission im Libanon|date=April 28, 2019 |url=https://www.krone.at/1911689|language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Jyot Hosagrahar: ''Culture: at the heart of SDGs.'' UNESCO-Kurier, April-Juni 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rick Szostak: ''The Causes of Economic Growth: Interdisciplinary Perspectives.'' Springer Science &amp; Business Media, 2009, {{ISBN|9783540922827}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bundesheer.at/cms/artikel.php?ID=10118 &quot;Blue Helmet Forum 2019 - Protection of Cultural Heritage in Peace Operations&quot;, Austrian Armed Forces].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017nian-di-3qi/historic-resolution-protect-cultural-heritage|title=A historic resolution to protect cultural heritage, The UNESCO Courier}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/action-plan-to-preserve-heritage-sites-during-conflict|title=Action plan to preserve heritage sites during conflict|website=United Nations Peacekeeping}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''UNESCO Director-General calls for stronger cooperation for heritage protection at the Blue Shield International General Assembly.'' UNESCO, September 13, 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم رکڻ ===
{{See also|غير گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي فهرست|نيٽو امن قائم رکڻ|يورپي يونين جي فوجي ۽ شهري مشنن جي فهرست|آفريقي يونين جي فوجي مداخلتن جي فهرست}}

[[File:En-MFO1.JPG|thumb|right|1989ع ۾ [[مصر]] جي [[سنائي اپٻيٽ|سنائي]] واري علائقي جي [[ايل گوراح]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) جي غير گڏيل قومن واري امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن سان مقرر ڪيل ڪينيڊا جا [[CH135 ٽوئن هيوئي]] هيليڪاپٽر.]]

[[File:75Parad 04.jpg|thumb|[[آذربائيجان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جا ميمبر، [[2020 ماسڪو فتح پريڊ]] دوران مڪمل فوجي ورديءَ ۾.]]

سڀئي بين الاقوامي امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا سڌي طرح گڏيل قومن جي ڪنٽرول هيٺ ڪم نٿا ڪن. 1981ع ۾ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ [[مصر]] جي وچ ۾ ٿيل هڪ معاهدي تحت [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) قائم ڪئي وئي، جيڪا اڄ تائين [[سنائي اپٻيٽ]] ۾ امن معاهدي تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;10TAGpgA-1&quot;&gt;10 Tactical Air Group: ''Canadian Contingent Multinational Force and Observers Handbook'' (unclassified), page A-1. DND, Ottawa, 1986.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[آفريقي يونين]] (AU) آفريقي امن ۽ سلامتي جو اهڙو ڍانچو (آفريڪن پيس اينڊ سڪيورٽي آرڪيٽيڪچر) قائم ڪرڻ تي ڪم ڪري رهي آهي، جيڪو براعظم ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري نڀائي سگهي. جيڪڏهن ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ [[نسل ڪشي]] يا انساني حقن جون ٻيون سنگين ڀڃڪڙيون ٿين، ته آفريقي يونين جي جنرل اسيمبلي جي منظوري سان، ان ملڪ جي حڪومت جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن موڪلي سگهجي ٿو. هن نظام، جنهن ۾ [[آفريقي اسٽينڊ بائي فورس]] (ASF) پڻ شامل آهي، جي قيام جو منصوبو 2015ع کان اڳ نه هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/african-peace-and-security-architecture-already-proving-useful-even-though-it-still-work |title=The African Peace and Security Architecture is already proving useful even though it is still work in progress |publisher=dandc.eu |date=August 27, 2013 |access-date=November 14, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

علائقائي سطح تي [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري]] (ECOWAS) پنهنجي ڪجهه ميمبر ملڪن ۾ ڪيترائي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا آهن، ۽ ان کي &quot;آفريڪا جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ ترقي يافته علائقائي امن ۽ سلامتي وارو نظام&quot; قرار ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Oni|first1=Cyril I.|date=2009|journal=African Security|volume=2|pages=119–135|doi=10.1080/19362200903361945|title=Economic Community of West African States on the Ground: Comparing Peacekeeping in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea Bissau, and Côte D'Ivoire|issue=2–3|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''غير هٿياربند شهري امن قائم رکڻ''' (ان آرمڊ سويلين پيس ڪيپنگ، UCP) ۾ شهري عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو تڪراري علائقن ۾ شهرين کي تشدد کان بچائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن جي قيام جي ڪوششن جي سهائتا لاءِ غير تشدد، غير مداخلت ۽ غير جانبداريءَ تي ٻڌل حڪمت عمليون اختيار ڪندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ UCP جو اصطلاح سڀني غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) ۾ هڪجهڙو عام نه آهي، پر ڪيترائي ادارا ساڳين طريقن سان ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ امن بابت هڪجهڙا مقصد رکندا آهن. انهن طريقن ۾ متاثر ماڻهن سان گڏ رهڻ، مستقل موجودگي، افواهن تي ضابطو آڻڻ، برادريءَ جي سلامتي بابت گڏجاڻيون، محفوظ لنگهن جو بندوبست ڪرڻ ۽ نگراني ڪرڻ شامل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rachel|first1=Julian|last2=Schweitzer|first2=Christine|date=2015|title=The Origins And Development of Unarmed Civilian Peacekeeping|url=http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|journal=Peace Review|volume=27|issue=1|pages=1–8|doi=10.1080/10402659.2015.1000181|s2cid=144911738|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719124249/http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|archive-date=July 19, 2018|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== مختصر تاريخ ==
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي تاريخ}}

=== قيام ۽ شروعاتي سال ===

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري نظام جي شروعات 1948ع ۾ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] [[1948ع جي عرب-اسرائيل جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ ان جي عرب پاڙيسري ملڪن وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي واري معاهدي جي نگراني لاءِ وچ اوڀر ۾ گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن کي مقرر ڪرڻ جي منظوري ڏني. هن مشن کي [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) سڏيو ويو، جيڪو اڄ تائين جاري آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/history.shtml|title=History of Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آگسٽ 1949ع ۾ سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 73 (1949ع) منظور ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNTSO کي اسرائيل ۽ انهن عرب رياستن جي وچ ۾ ٿيل چئن جنگبندي معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني جي ذميواري ڏني وئي، جيڪي ان جنگ ۾ شامل هيون. نتيجي طور، UNTSO جون سرگرميون علائقي جي پنجن رياستن، يعني [[اسرائيل]]، [[مصر]]، [[اردن]]، [[لبنان]] ۽ [[شام]] تائين ڦهلجي ويون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/untso/background.shtml|title=UNTSO Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== سرد جنگ دوران امن قائم رکڻ ===

آگسٽ 1947ع ۾ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] جي آزادي ۽ ان کان پوءِ ٿيل وڏي پيماني تي خونريزيءَ کان پوءِ، سلامتي ڪائونسل جنوري 1948ع ۾ قرارداد 39 (1948ع) منظور ڪري [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP) قائم ڪيو، جنهن جو مقصد [[ڪشمير]] بابت ٻنهي ملڪن جي وچ ۾ پيدا ٿيل تڪرار ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل ويڙهه ۾ ثالثي ڪرڻ هو.

هي مشن غير مداخلتي نوعيت جو هو ۽ ان کي [[ڄمون ۽ ڪشمير]] ۾ ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان جي وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي جي نگراني جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي. جولاءِ 1949ع ۾ [[ڪراچي معاهدو]] ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNCIP جنگبندي واري لڪير جي نگراني شروع ڪئي، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن ۽ ٻنهي ڌرين جي مقامي فوجي ڪمانڊرن جي گڏيل نگراني هيٺ هئي. هن مشن جو تسلسل اڄ به [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان ۾ گڏيل قومن جو فوجي مبصر گروپ]] (UNMOGIP) جي نالي سان جاري آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unmogip/background.shtml|title=UNMOGIP Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف ملڪن ۾ ڪُل 69 امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي منظوري ڏني.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;/&gt; انهن مان گهڻا مشن سرد جنگ جي خاتمي کان پوءِ قائم ٿيا. 1988ع کان 1998ع جي وچ ۾ گڏيل قومن 35 نوان امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا، جڏهن ته 1948ع کان 1978ع تائين صرف 13 مشن قائم ٿيا هئا، ۽ 1978ع کان 1988ع جي وچ واري ڏهاڪي دوران ڪو به نئون مشن قائم نه ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Duffey|first=Tamara|date=2000|title=Cultural Issues in Contemporary Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=7|issue=1|pages=142–168|doi=10.1080/13533310008413823|s2cid=145210823}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|142–168}}

گڏيل قومن جي پهرين هٿياربند مداخلت 1956ع جي [[سوئيز بحران]] کان پوءِ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I) قائم ڪئي وئي. هي فوج نومبر 1956ع کان جون 1967ع تائين موجود رهي ۽ ان کي [[مصر]]، [[برطانيه]]، [[فرانس]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] جي وچ ۾ جنگبندي برقرار رکڻ، مصري علائقي مان برطانوي، فرينچ ۽ اسرائيلي فوجن جي واپسي جي نگراني ڪرڻ، ۽ پوءِ مصر ۽ اسرائيل جي فوجن جي وچ ۾ بفر فورس طور ڪم ڪندي جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ جو مينڊيٽ ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unef1mandate.html|title=UNEF Mandate|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان ٿوري ئي عرصي بعد 1960ع ۾ [[ڪانگو ۾ گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUC) شروع ڪيو ويو. پنهنجي عروج تي هن مشن ۾ ويهه هزار کان وڌيڪ فوجي اهلڪار شامل هئا، ۽ ان دوران 250 گڏيل قومن جا اهلڪار مارجي ويا، جن ۾ ان وقت جو سيڪريٽري جنرل [[ڊيگ هيملشولڊ]] پڻ شامل هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/early.shtml|title=The Early Years of UN Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ONUC جو مقصد [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] مان بيلجيم جي فوجن جي واپسي کي يقيني بڻائڻ هو، جيڪي [[فورس پبليڪ]] جي بغاوت کان پوءِ بيلجيم جي شهرين ۽ اقتصادي مفادن جي تحفظ لاءِ ٻيهر داخل ٿي ويون هيون. هن مشن کي قانون ۽ امن امان بحال ڪرڻ، بغاوت ۽ نسلي تشدد کي ختم ڪرڻ، ڪانگولي سلامتي فورسن کي فني مدد ۽ تربيت ڏيڻ، ۽ ملڪ جي علائقائي سالميت ۽ سياسي خودمختياري کي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/onuc.htm|title=ONUC|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي ذميواري خاص طور تي [[ڪتانگا]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪاسائي]] جهڙن معدني وسيلن سان مالامال صوبن جي علحدگيءَ واري تحريڪ جي پسمنظر ۾ شامل ڪئي وئي. ان دور ۾ گڏيل قومن جون فوجون، ڪجهه تڪراري انداز ۾، ڪانگو جي حڪومت جي مدد ڪندي ٻنهي صوبن جي علحدگي ختم ڪرائڻ ۾ به ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

1960ع ۽ 1970ع واري ڏهاڪن دوران گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف علائقن ۾ ڪيترائي مختصر مدي وارا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن قائم ڪيا، جن ۾ [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريه ۾ سيڪريٽري جنرل جي نمائندي جو مشن]] (DOMREP)، [[اولهه نيو گني ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي فورس]] (UNSF) ۽ [[يمن ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مبصر مشن]] (UNYOM) شامل هئا. ساڳئي وقت ڪجهه ڊگهي مدي وارا مشن پڻ جاري رهيا، جهڙوڪ [[قبرص ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج]] (UNFICYP)، [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج II]] (UNEF II)، [[گڏيل قومن جي ڌرين جي الڳ ٿيڻ جي نگراني ڪندڙ فوج]] (UNDOF)، ۽ [[لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن جي عبوري فوج]] (UNIFIL).&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;/&gt;

=== 1991ع کان پوءِ ===

[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-un-holds-head.jpg|thumb|[[سراييوو جو گهيرو|سراييوو جي گهيري]] (1992ع–1993ع) دوران هڪ [[ناروي]] جو امن قائم رکڻ وارو اهلڪار؛ تصوير: [[ميخائل اِوستافيئف]].]]

[[يوگوسلاو جنگين]] دوران امن قائم رکڻ جي تجربن، خاص طور تي [[سربرينيتسا قتلِ عام]] جهڙين ناڪامين، جزوي طور [[گڏيل قومن جي امن تعمير ڪميشن]] (يونائيٽيڊ نيشنز پيس بلڊنگ ڪميشن) جي قيام جو سبب بڻيا. هي ڪميشن چونڊن ۽ ٻين شهري ادارن جي مضبوطي جهڙين سرگرمين وسيلي پائيدار امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ انجام ڏيندا آهن. هن وقت اها ڪميشن آفريڪا جي ڇهن ملڪن سان ڪم ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/projects/africa/beyond-peace-deals-united-nations-experiment-peacebuilding |title=Beyond Peace Deals: The United Nations Experiment in &quot;Peacebuilding&quot;|date=June 22, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ڳالهين سان گڏ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، ۾ عورتن جي وڌيڪ مؤثر شرڪت، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهرن جي مقرري، هٿياربند تڪرارن جا عورتن تي پوندڙ اثرن بابت وڌيڪ معلومات، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |title=UN Security Council Takes a Historic Stand Supporting Abortion Access for Women Raped in War / Library / Homepage |publisher=AWID |access-date=October 28, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203101025/http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |archive-date=December 3, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن سان امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW)، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن بابت ڪميٽي آهي، هڪ عام سفارش جاري ڪئي، جنهن موجب اهي رياستون، جيڪي گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جون ڌريون آهن، پابند آهن ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌيءَ طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ فوجون موڪلين، يا تڪرارن جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مالي يا ٻئي قسم جي مدد فراهم ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=13885&amp;LangID=E|title=OHCHR -|website=www.ohchr.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪميٽي اهو پڻ واضح ڪيو ته اهڙين رياستن کي مناسب احتياط اختيار ڪرڻ گهرجي ته جيئن [[غير رياستي ڌريون]]، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي سلامتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ٿيندڙ ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

[[پيج فورٽنا]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي مقرري بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍيو ته ''&quot;امن قائم رکڻ رسد ۽ طلب جو معاملو آهي.&quot;'' رسد جي لحاظ کان سندس مشاهدو آهي ته سلامتي ڪائونسل جي مستقل ميمبرن مان ڪنهن هڪ جي ويجهن ملڪن ۾ هلندڙ گهرو ويڙهن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن مقرر ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن. جڏهن ته طلب جي لحاظ کان مختلف تحقيقون ظاهر ڪن ٿيون ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن گهڻو ڪري انهن ملڪن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن، جتي انهن جي ضرورت سڀ کان وڌيڪ هوندي آهي، يعني جتي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تمام گهڻو هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot; /&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي جوڙجڪ ==

=== اهي ملڪ جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺن ٿا ===
{{See also|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي تعداد موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Irish troops UNMIL.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|جولاءِ 2006ع ۾ [[لائبيريا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو مشن لائبيريا]] (UNMIL) سان مقرر آئرش فوجي گشت ڪندي.]]

[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] موجب، دنيا ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ ۾ مدد ڏيڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا سڀئي ميمبر ملڪ سلامتي ڪائونسل کي ضرورت موجب فوجي دستا ۽ ٻيون سهولتون فراهم ڪندا. 1948ع کان وٺي لڳ ڀڳ 130 ملڪن امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن لاءِ فوجي اهلڪار، شهري پوليس ۽ ٻيو عملو فراهم ڪيو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ 1948ع کان وٺي سڀني امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏيندڙ اهلڪارن جو مڪمل رڪارڊ موجود ناهي، پر اندازو آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي 71 مشنن ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه لک فوجين، پوليس اهلڪارن ۽ شهرين گڏيل قومن جي جهنڊي هيٺ خدمتون انجام ڏنيون آهن. سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين 122 ملڪ گڏيل طور لڳ ڀڳ 76,000 فوجي مبصر، پوليس اهلڪار ۽ فوجي مهيا ڪري رهيا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Troop and police contributors|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/troop-and-police-contributors|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

شرڪت ڪندڙ ملڪن جو تعداد گهڻو هجڻ باوجود، امن قائم رکڻ جو وڏو بار اڃا تائين [[ترقي پذير ملڪ|ترقي پذير ملڪن]] جي هڪ بنيادي گروهه تي آهي. آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي، پوليس ۽ فوجي ماهر موڪليندڙ ڏهه ملڪ [[بنگلاديش]] (6,447)، [[نيپال]] (5,536)، [[ڀارت]] (5,481)، [[روانڊا]] (5,263)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (4,856)، [[پاڪستان]] (3,949)، [[مصر]] (2,818)، [[انڊونيشيا]] (2,818)، [[گهانا]] (2,296) ۽ [[چين]] (2,248) هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين 14,000 کان وڌيڪ شهري اهلڪار به امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ قانوني يا طبي ماهرن، استادن، مواصلاتي ٽيڪنالاجي جي ماهرن ۽ انتظامي عملي طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/civilians|title=Civilians|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

30 سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن دوران 100 کان وڌيڪ ملڪن سان تعلق رکندڙ 4,147 ماڻهو پنهنجون حياتيون وڃائي چڪا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/fatalities|title=Fatalities|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان وڌيڪ جاني نقصان [[ڀارت]] جو ٿيو، جنهن جا 174 امن اهلڪار مارجي ويا، ان کان پوءِ [[بنگلاديش]] (159)، [[پاڪستان]] (159)، [[نائيجيريا]] (157)، [[گهانا]] (145)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (138)، [[ڪينيڊا]] (123)، [[فرانس]] (115) ۽ [[برطانيه]] (106) شامل آهن. 1948ع کان وٺي سراسري طور هر سال 56 امن اهلڪار ماريا ويا، پر 2001ع کان پوءِ هي انگ لڳ ڀڳ ٻيڻو ٿي هر سال 110 تائين پهچي ويو. گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي پهرين 55 سالن دوران ٿيل ڪل جاني نقصان جو 30 سيڪڙو حصو صرف 1993ع کان 1995ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جي شعبي ۾ عالمي اتر ۽ عالمي ڏکڻ (Global North ۽ Global South) جي وچ ۾ واضح فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي وڏي اڪثريت [[عالمي ڏکڻ]] جي ترقي پذير ملڪن مان ايندي آهي. [[ٿامس جي. وائيس]] ۽ جيووانا ڪيولي موجب، ان جا ٽي اهم سبب علائقائي مفاد، بين الاقوامي وقار ۽ مالي فائدا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=February 3, 2019|title=The Global South and UN Peace Operations|url=https://www.e-ir.info/2019/02/03/the-global-south-and-un-peace-operations/|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=E-International Relations|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آفريقي ملڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا سڀ کان وڌيڪ اهلڪار فراهم ڪن ٿا، پر ساڳئي وقت آفريڪا ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جو تعداد به سڀ کان وڌيڪ آهي، ۽ گهڻا آفريقي امن اهلڪار آفريڪا جي اندر ئي مقرر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، ايٿوپيا جا لڳ ڀڳ سڀئي 4,800 امن اهلڪار پاڙيسري ملڪن [[سوڊان]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ مقرر هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺڻ سان ترقي پذير ملڪن کي بين الاقوامي وقار پڻ حاصل ٿيندو آهي، ۽ اهو [[عظيم طاقت]] طور پنهنجون دعوائون مضبوط ڪرڻ ۾ مددگار ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيئن [[برازيل]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جي صورت ۾ ڏٺو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، غريب ملڪن لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين کي موڪلڻ مالي لحاظ کان به فائديمند هوندو آهي. هر امن اهلڪار لاءِ ماهوار واپسيءَ جي رقم ۾ پگهار ۽ الائونس لاءِ 1,028 آمريڪي ڊالر، ماهرن لاءِ اضافي 303 آمريڪي ڊالر، ذاتي لباس، سامان ۽ اوزارن لاءِ 68 آمريڪي ڊالر، ۽ ذاتي هٿيار لاءِ 5 آمريڪي ڊالر شامل هوندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/faq/q10.htm|title=United Nations Peacekeepers - How are peacekeepers compensated?|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; گڏيل قومن طرفان فراهم ڪيل اهي ادائيگيون، تربيت ۽ سامان، انفرادي فوجين سان گڏ ترقي پذير ملڪن لاءِ به مالي طور پرڪشش هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ مقرر ڪيل فوجي ۽ شهري پوليس اهلڪارن مان لڳ ڀڳ 4.5 سيڪڙو [[يورپي يونين]] مان ايندا آهن، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو حصو هڪ سيڪڙو کان به گهٽ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;factsheet&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/overview.shtml |title=Peacekeeping Fact Sheet |publisher=United Nations|access-date=December 20, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

مشنن جي قيادت بابت عام طور تي فوجي ڪمانڊر انهن ملڪن مان چونڊيا ويندا آهن، جيڪي سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي دستا فراهم ڪندا آهن، جڏهن ته سيڪريٽري جنرل جا خاص نمائندا گهڻو ڪري ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Oksamytna |first1= Kseniya|last2= Bove |first2= Vincenzo|last3= Lundgren |first3= Magnus|date= 2021 |title=Leadership selection in United Nations peacekeeping |journal= International Studies Quarterly|volume= 65|pages= 16–28|doi= 10.1093/isq/sqaa023 |doi-access= free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت ===
{{See also|امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتون}}

[[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 1325]] عورتن کي تڪرارن جي روڪٿام ۽ حل، امن ڳالهين، امن جي تعمير، امن قائم رکڻ، انساني امداد ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ ۾ سرگرم ۽ برابر ڌر طور شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو پهريون اهم قدم هو. هن قرارداد ۾ زور ڏنو ويو ته امن ۽ سلامتي جي قيام ۽ واڌاري لاءِ ٿيندڙ سڀني ڪوششن ۾ عورتن جي برابر شرڪت ۽ مڪمل شموليت کي يقيني بڻايو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and the Advancement of Women. &quot;[http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/wps/#resolution Landmark resolution on Women, Peace and Security]&quot;, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Security Council (October 31, 2000) &quot;Resolution 1325&quot;, S/RES/1325, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;

هن قرارداد تي هڪ تنقيد اها به ڪئي وئي آهي ته ان ۾ صنفي مرڪزي ڌارا (جينڊر مين اسٽريمنگ) کي لاڳو ڪرڻ جي ڳالهه ڪئي وئي، پر عملي طور گهڻو ڌيان صرف عورتن جي شموليت وڌائڻ تي ڏنو ويو، جڏهن ته مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي تي پاليسين جي اثرن جو مناسب جائزو نه ورتو ويو. 2010ع ۾ هن قرارداد جي ڏهن سالن جي اثرن بابت هڪ جامع جائزو ورتو ويو، جنهن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ان تي عملدرآمد محدود حد تائين ڪامياب رهيو، خاص طور تي امن ڳالهين ۽ امن معاهدن ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت وڌائڻ جي حوالي سان، جڏهن ته جنسي ۽ صنفي بنياد تي تشدد گهٽائڻ جي ڪوششن باوجود اهو مسئلو برقرار رهيو.&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations and Department of Field Support (2010). &quot;Ten-year Impact Study on Implementation of UN Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) on Women, Peace and Security in Peacekeeping&quot;, United Nations, p. 9-10. https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/documents/10year_impact_study_1325.pdf.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Ghana IntPeaceCorps 2016-05-29 B002a.jpg|thumb|گھانا جون عورتون گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏينديون.]]

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهريت، هٿياربند تڪرارن جي عورتن تي اثرن بابت بهتر ڄاڻ، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي وڌيڪ سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ مؤثر قدمن تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;/&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن خلاف امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW) پڻ پنهنجي هڪ عام سفارش ۾ چيو ته جن رياستن گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جي توثيق ڪئي آهي، انهن تي لازم آهي ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌي طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا، تڪرار جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مدد فراهم ڪري رهيون هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

ڪميٽي وڌيڪ چيو ته توثيق ڪندڙ رياستن کي مناسب احتياط سان اهو به يقيني بڻائڻ گهرجي ته غير رياستي ڌريون، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي حفاظتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

جولاءِ 2016ع تائين عورتون گڏيل قومن جي هر امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن ۾ فوجي، پوليس يا شهري عملي جي حيثيت سان خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيون هيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/resources/statistics/gender.shtml|title=Gender statistics. United Nations Peacekeeping|website=www.un.org|access-date=September 6, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

1993ع ۾ مقرر ٿيل يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن مان رڳو 1 سيڪڙو عورتون هيون. 2020ع تائين لڳ ڀڳ 95,000 امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن مان عورتون فوجي عملي جو 4.8 سيڪڙو، پوليس عملي جو 10.9 سيڪڙو، ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عملي جو 34 سيڪڙو هيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Women in peacekeeping|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/women-peacekeeping|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين اهڙو ڪو به ملڪ، جيڪو گڏيل قومن لاءِ 100 کان وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار موڪلي ٿو، پنهنجي دستي ۾ 25 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ عورتون نامزد نه ڪندو هو. حقيقي انگن اکرن موجب سڀ کان وڏا عورتن جا دستا [[ايٿوپيا]] (578 عورتون، يعني ان جي ڪل دستي جو 12 سيڪڙو)، [[روانڊا]] (500، يعني 10 سيڪڙو) ۽ [[گهانا]] (389، يعني 17 سيڪڙو) طرفان فراهم ڪيا ويا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

جيتوڻيڪ فوجي عملي ۾ عورتن جي مقرر تناسب بابت گڏيل قومن ڪو لازمي هدف مقرر نه ڪيو آهي، پر ميمبر رياستن کان درخواست ڪئي وئي آهي ته اهي پوليس آفيسرن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 20 سيڪڙو ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 30 سيڪڙو عورتون نامزد ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot; /&gt;

2024ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجي دستن ۾ عورتن جو ڪل انگ گهٽجي ويو، پر انهن جو تناسب وڌيو. يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن ۾ صنفي برابري واري حڪمت عملي (يونيفارمڊ جينڊر پئرٽي اسٽريٽجي) شروع ٿيڻ کان پوءِ عورتن جو تناسب مسلسل وڌندو رهيو آهي. عورتن جي ڪل تعداد ۾ گهٽتائي جو وڏو سبب [[گڏيل قومن جو مالي ۾ ڪثيرالجہتي مربوط استحڪامي مشن]] (MINUSMA) جو خاتمو هو. جون 2024ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن ۾ مقرر فوجي عملي مان عورتن جو تناسب 8.6 سيڪڙو هو، جيڪو گذريل سال جي ڀيٽ ۾ 1.3 سيڪڙو وڌيڪ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pfeifer Cruz |first=Claudia |title=Women in Multilateral Peace Operations in 2024: What is the State of Play? |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241031064944/https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |archive-date=October 31, 2024 |date=October 2024 |doi=10.55163/VYHM5282 |doi-access=free |location=Stockholm |publisher=SIPRI}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ جو نظرياتي بنياد ==


جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ ۽ امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي ڪردار بابت گهڻو ڪجهه لکيو ويو آهي، پر اهڙي تجرباتي تحقيق نسبتاً گهٽ ٿي آهي، جيڪا اهو واضح ڪري سگهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول ۾ ڪهڙي نموني اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. [[ڪولمبيا يونيورسٽي]] جي پروفيسر [[ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا]] چار اهڙن سببن (ڪيئيوئل ميڪينزم) جي سڃاڻپ ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي، جن جي ذريعي امن قائم رکڻ وارا پائيدار امن لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices After Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|location=Princeton|pages=175}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا موجب اهي چار بنيادي طريقا هي آهن:

# تازن ويڙهاڪن جي ترغيبي عنصرن ۾ تبديلي آڻڻ، جيئن امن وڌيڪ فائديمند ۽ جنگ وڌيڪ مهانگي محسوس ٿئي.
# غير يقيني صورتحال ۽ خوف کي گهٽائڻ، جيڪي سلامتي جي مخمصي (سڪيورٽي ڊليما) کي وڌائين ٿا.
# حادثاتي واقعن يا بي ضابطه هٿياربند گروهن جي ڪاررواين کي روڪڻ يا ضابطي ۾ آڻڻ، جيڪي ٻيهر جنگ جو سبب بڻجي سگهن.
# ڪنهن هڪ ڌر (خاص طور حڪومت) طرفان سياسي زيادتين کي روڪڻ، جيڪي امن کان محروم ڌرين کي ٻيهر هٿيار کڻڻ تي مجبور ڪري سگهن.

فورٽنا جو دليل آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا امن جي عمل تي مثبت اثر ڇڏين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ انهن کي اڪثر اهڙن هنڌن تي موڪليو ويندو آهي، جتي امن قائم رکڻ سڀ کان وڌيڪ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. امن قائم رکڻ تي تنقيد ڪندڙ اڪثر چوندا آهن ته اهي مشن غير مؤثر يا غير ضروري آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن ويڙهاڪ ڌريون پاڻ امن برقرار رکڻ ۾ دلچسپي رکن ٿيون ته امن قائم رهندو. تنهن هوندي به، فورٽنا جو خيال آهي ته مٿي بيان ڪيل سبب ڏيکارين ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا پائيدار امن کي يقيني بڻائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، خاص طور تي انهن حالتن جي ڀيٽ ۾ جتي ويڙهاڪ ڌريون مڪمل طور پنهنجي حال تي ڇڏيل هجن. اهي سبب اهو به واضح ڪن ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ جي ضرورت ڇو آهي ۽ اهو تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول تي ڪيئن اثرانداز ٿي سگهي ٿو.

جنگ جي ترغيبن کي گهٽائڻ ۽ امن کي وڌيڪ پرڪشش بڻائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومون نفاذي اختيارن (انفورسمينٽ مينڊيٽ) تحت فوجي قوت مقرر ڪري سگهي ٿي، جيڪا امن خراب ڪندڙ ڌرين لاءِ روڪ جو سبب بڻجي. اهڙا دستا حالتن جي نگراني ڪري سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي اوچتي حملي جو امڪان گهٽجي وڃي ٿو يا اهڙو حملو ڪرڻ وڌيڪ ڏکيو ٿي وڃي ٿو. هلڪي هٿيارن سان ليس مشاهدي وارو مشن پڻ ابتدائي خبرداري واري قوت (ارلي-وارننگ فورس) يا &quot;ٽرپ وائر&quot; طور ڪم ڪري سگهي ٿو. بين الاقوامي برادري طرفان ڏني ويندڙ امداد ۽ سياسي سڃاڻپ کي به ان ڳالهه سان مشروط ڪيو وڃي ته ڌريون ڳالهين دوران طئي ٿيل شرطن تي عمل ڪن. ان سان گڏ، روزگار، عوامي ترقياتي منصوبن ۽ ٻين فائدن جي صورت ۾ &quot;امن جا فائدا&quot; (پيس ڊويڊينڊس) پڻ فراهم ڪيا وڃن.

غير يقيني صورتحال ۽ خوف کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري سگهن ٿا، ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رابطي کي آسان بڻائي سگهن ٿا ته جيئن سلامتي بابت خدشا گهٽجن، ۽ هر ڌر کي اها خاطري ملي ته ٻي ڌر پنهنجن واعدن کان نه ڦرندي. اهڙي طرح اهي ٻنهي ڌرين کي پنهنجي امن پسند ارادن کي واضح ۽ قابل اعتماد نموني ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ مؤثر ذريعو مهيا ڪن ٿا.

امن جي عمل کي پٽڙي تان لاهي ڇڏيندڙ حادثن يا بي ضابطه گروهن جي ڪاررواين کي روڪڻ لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهڙن گروهن کي روڪي سگهن ٿا. ويڙهاڪ قوتون اڪثر مضبوط قيادت ۽ [[حڪم ۽ ضابطي]] (ڪمانڊ اينڊ ڪنٽرول) کان محروم هونديون آهن، تنهنڪري امن ڳالهين دوران ڪنهن بي ضابطه گروهه جي معاهدي کان انڪار ڪرڻ يا امن جي عمل کي ناڪام بڻائڻ جو خطرو موجود هوندو آهي. گڏيل قومن جا دستا اهڙين حالتن کي روڪڻ سان گڏ ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ثالثي ۽ رابطي کي پڻ آسان بڻائي سگهن ٿا ۽ سياسي اعتدال پسند قوتن کي اڳتي آڻي سگهن ٿا. قانون ۽ امن امان برقرار رکندي اهي عارضي طور رياستي حفاظتي ادارن جي ذميواري سنڀالي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي مبينا ڀڃڪڙي تي غيرجانبدار رويو اختيار ڪيو وڃي ۽ تشدد جي ٻيهر شروعات کان بچي سگهجي.

سياسي زيادتين جي روڪٿام لاءِ حڪومت سان لاڳاپيل ادارن ۾ سڌارا آندا وڃن ٿا. فوج ۽ پوليس جهڙن حفاظتي ادارن کي تربيت ڏيڻ ۽ انهن جي نگراني ڪرڻ سان کين حڪمرانن جي دٻاءَ جو اوزار بڻجڻ بدران عوام جا غيرجانبدار محافظ بڻائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. اهڙي تربيت عوام جو اعتماد وڌائڻ ۾ مددگار ثابت ٿي سگهي ٿي. گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا آزاد ۽ منصفاڻي چونڊون ڪرائڻ ۽ انهن جي نگراني پڻ ڪري سگهن ٿا. ڪجهه حالتن ۾ گڏيل قومون عبوري دور دوران غيرجانبدار عبوري حڪومت پڻ قائم ڪري سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ملڪ جو انتظام سنڀالي، جڏهن ته سرڪاري ادارن کي ٻيهر منظم، سڌاريو يا وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪيو وڃي. ان کان سواءِ هٿياربند باغي گروهن کي هٿيار ڦٽا ڪرڻ، انهن کي سياسي تنظيمن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ ۽ پرامن جمهوري عمل وسيلي پنهنجا مطالبا پيش ڪرڻ لاءِ همٿايو وڃي ٿو. اهو خاص طور اهم آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي باغي گروهه حڪومت جي اهم مخالف قوت هوندا آهن، پر سياسي تنظيم طور مؤثر نموني ڪم ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت کان محروم هوندا آهن.

مختلف امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن مختلف سببن ۽ ضرورتن جي بنياد تي قائم ڪيا ويندا آهن. [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VII]] تحت هلندڙ مشنن ۾ فوجي روڪ ۽ نفاذ تي وڌيڪ زور هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VI]] تحت مشن بنيادي طور نگراني ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ غيرجانبدار موجودگي برقرار رکڻ لاءِ هوندا آهن. سياسي زيادتين جي روڪٿام لاءِ قائم ڪيل مشن گهڻ رخي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ واري سياسي عمل ۾ سرگرم ڪردار ادا ڪندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|chapter=4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي اثرائتي ==

علمي تحقيق جي جائزي مان مضبوط ثبوت مليا آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن امن جي استحڪام ۾ واڌارو آڻين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Walter|first1=Barbara F.|last2=Howard|first2=Lise Morje|last3=Fortna|first3=V. Page|date=2020|title=The Extraordinary Relationship between Peacekeeping and Peace|journal=British Journal of Political Science|volume=51|issue=4|language=en|pages=1705–1722|doi=10.1017/S000712342000023X|s2cid=229469021 |issn=0007-1234|doi-access=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hoeffler|first=Anke|date=March 11, 2014|title=Can international interventions secure the peace?|journal=International Area Studies Review|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=75–94|doi=10.1177/2233865914525380|s2cid=16303210|url=http://www.econrsa.org/node/700|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا]] موجب مضبوط ثبوت موجود آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي نمايان طور گهٽائي ٿي. امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين جو تعداد جيترو وڌيڪ هوندو، اوترا ئي جنگي محاذ تي مارجي ويل ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽ ٿيندو، ۽ عام شهرين جي جاني نقصان ۾ به گهٽتائي ايندي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://politicalviolenceataglance.org/2015/09/24/enough-with-the-pessimism-about-peacekeeping/|title=Enough with the Pessimism about Peacekeeping|date=September 24, 2015|website=Political Violence at a Glance|access-date=January 26, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[اپسالا يونيورسٽي]] ۽ [[اوسلو امن تحقيقاتي اداري]] جي سياسي سائنسدانن جي هڪ مطالعي موجب، جيڪڏهن گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري پاليسي کي وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪيو وڃي، امن قائم رکڻ وارن دستن جو تعداد ٻيڻو ڪيو وڃي ۽ انهن کي وڌيڪ وسيع اختيار ڏنا وڃن، ته هٿياربند تڪرارن جي عالمي شرح، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي غير موجودگي واري صورتحال جي ڀيٽ ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ٻه ٽيون حصو گهٽجي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Hegre|first1=Håvard|last2=Hultman|first2=Lisa|last3=Nygård|first3=Håvard Mokleiv|date=November 28, 2018|title=Evaluating the Conflict-Reducing Effect of UN Peacekeeping Operations|journal=The Journal of Politics|volume=81|language=en|pages=215–232|doi=10.1086/700203|s2cid=13894244|issn=0022-3816|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فورڊهم يونيورسٽي]] جي سياسي سائنسدان [[انجلي ديال]] موجب، تحقيق مان ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن جنگ کي سرحدن کان ٻاهر پکڙجڻ کان روڪين ٿا. زمين تي وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار هجڻ سان عام شهرين خلاف تشدد جا واقعا پڻ گهٽ ٿيندا آهن، ۽ ڪيترين حالتن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ڪاميابي سان عبوري انتظاميا جو ڪردار ادا ڪندي اقتدار ٻيهر مقامي اختيارين حوالي ڪيو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ هاڻي اهڙو عمل اڳ جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ڏسڻ ۾ اچي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/02/01/is-u-n-peacekeeping-under-fire-heres-what-you-need-to-know/|title=Is U.N. peacekeeping under fire? Here's what you need to know.|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=February 1, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2018ع جي هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پنهنجي سر به گهرو ويڙهه جي شدت کي گهٽائين ٿا، پر جڏهن انهن کي ثالثي سان گڏ استعمال ڪيو وڃي ٿو ته انهن جو اثر وڌيڪ نمايان ٿي وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Mediation, Peacekeeping, and the Severity of Civil War|journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution|volume=63|issue=7|pages=1682–1709|language=en|doi=10.1177/0022002718817092|year=2018|last1=Beardsley|first1=Kyle|last2=Cunningham|first2=David E.|last3=White|first3=Peter B.|s2cid=202164361}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهڙا به ثبوت موجود آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا موڪلڻ جو واعدو ئي ويڙهاڪ ڌرين کي ڳالهين جي ميز تي آڻڻ ۽ جنگبندي تي راضي ٿيڻ جا امڪان وڌائي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lundgren|first=Magnus|year=2016|title=Which international organizations can settle civil wars?|journal=Review of International Organizations|volume=DOI 10.1007/s11558-016-9253-0|issue=4|pages=613–641|doi=10.1007/s11558-016-9253-0|s2cid=152898046}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي شمارياتي تحقيق ۾ انهن عنصرن کي به نظر ۾ رکيو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ڪٿي مقرر ڪيا وڃن ۽ ڪٿي امن قائم ٿيڻ جا امڪان ڪيترا آهن. هن جي نتيجن موجب، امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ۽ پائيدار امن جي وچ ۾ شمارياتي طور اهم لاڳاپو موجود آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن عام طور تي انهن علائقن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن جتي امن قائم ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن، فورٽنا جو اندازو آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 55 کان 60 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽائي ٿي، جڏهن ته ڪجهه وڌيڪ پراميد اندازن موجب اها گهٽتائي 75 کان 85 سيڪڙو تائين ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 116&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=116}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا جي تجزيي موجب [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VI]] تحت رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل مشنن ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VII]] تحت نفاذي مشنن جي اثرائتي ۾ گهڻو فرق نظر نٿو اچي. البته نفاذي مشن تڏهن ئي اثرائتا ثابت ٿين ٿا، جڏهن امن قائم رکڻ واري قوت طاقت جي استعمال بابت پنهنجي اعتبار ۽ صلاحيت برقرار رکي سگهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=109, 116, 125}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهو ان ڳالهه جي اهميت کي اجاگر ڪري ٿو ته گڏيل قومن جا مشن مقامي ڌرين جي رضامندي برقرار رکن. مجموعي طور فورٽنا جو نتيجو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ويڙهاڪ ڌريون مڪمل طور پنهنجي حال تي نه ڇڏيون وڃن، ته امن قائم رکڻ پائيدار امن کي يقيني بڻائڻ جو هڪ مؤثر اوزار آهي. هن اڳ بيان ڪيل سببن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول ۾ امن جي استحڪام تي نمايان اثر وجهي سگهن ٿا. فورٽنا ۽ [[ليز مورجي هاورڊ]] جو چوڻ آهي ته هاڻي تحقيق جو ڌيان امن قائم رکڻ جي بنيادي اثرائتي کان اڳتي وڌي، مختلف قسمن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن، عبوري انتظاميائن، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ جمهوريت جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن، ۽ انهن ماڻهن جي نظرين ڏانهن منتقل ٿي رهيو آهي، جن جي لاءِ امن قائم رکيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Pitfalls and Prospects in the Peacekeeping Literature*|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|volume=11|pages=283–301|last1=Fortna|first1=Virginia Page|last2=Howard|first2=Lise Morjé|date=May 20, 2008|language=en|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.9.041205.103022|s2cid=15740415|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[مائيڪل ڊبليو ڊائل]] ۽ [[نيڪولس سامبانس]] جي تجزيي موجب، انهن ملڪن ۾، جتي نسلي بنيادن تي جنگ نه هجي، معاشي ترقي جو سطح نسبتاً بهتر هجي ۽ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا ۽ مالي امداد موجود هجن، اتي پائيدار امن قائم رهڻ جا امڪان وڌيڪ هوندا آهن. انهن جو نتيجو آهي ته مختصر مدي ۾ پائيدار امن جو دارومدار گڏيل قومن جي مضبوط موجودگي ۽ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ گهٽ دشمني تي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ڊگهي مدي ۾ معاشي صلاحيت وڌيڪ اهم عنصر بڻجي ويندي آهي ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ دشمني جي شدت نسبتاً گهٽ اهم رهندي آهي. سندن خيال ۾، جيتوڻيڪ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ڪافي حد تائين ڪامياب رهيا آهن، پر اهي مداخلت هيٺ آيل ملڪن ۾ خودمختيار معاشي ترقي کي ڪافي حد تائين هٿي نه ڏئي سگهيا آهن. تنهنڪري گڏيل قومون امن برقرار رکڻ ۾ هڪ مضبوط پر اڻ سڌو ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿيون، جڏهن ته پائيدار امن جو اصل دارومدار اهڙن ادارن جي قيام تي هوندو آهي، جيڪي امن کي ڊگهي عرصي تائين برقرار رکي سگهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Making War and Building Peace : United Nations Peace Operations|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2010|pages=336–337}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ٻين علمي تحقيقن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي ڪاميابيءَ بابت مختلف نتيجا سامهون آيا آهن، جن موجب انهن جي ڪاميابيءَ جي شرح تقريباً 31 سيڪڙو کان 85 سيڪڙو تائين رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Autesserre|first1=Severine|title=Peaceland: Conflict Resolution and the Everyday Politics of International Intervention|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2020ع جي هڪ مطالعي موجب، گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر هلندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن به اثرائتي جي لحاظ کان گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جيترا ئي مؤثر آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Bara|first1=Corinne|last2=Hultman|first2=Lisa|date=March 20, 2020|title=Just Different Hats? Comparing UN and Non-UN Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=27|issue=3|pages=341–368|doi=10.1080/13533312.2020.1737023|issn=1353-3312|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; ساڳئي سال شايع ٿيل هڪ ٻي تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن عام شهرين جي تحفظ ۾ به ڪامياب رهيا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Carnegie|first1=Allison|last2=Mikulaschek|first2=Christoph|date=2020|title=The Promise of Peacekeeping: Protecting Civilians in Civil Wars|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-organization/article/promise-of-peacekeeping-protecting-civilians-in-civil-wars/2BA3A91C26CF29480409B1FFB64F7E40|journal=International Organization|volume=74|issue=4|language=en|pages=810–832|doi=10.1017/S0020818320000442|s2cid=232253107|issn=0020-8183|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2021ع ۾ ''[[آمريڪن جرنل آف پوليٽيڪل سائنس]]'' ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن مقامي معيشت تي مثبت اثر وڌو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Bove|first1=Vincenzo|last2=Salvatore|first2=Jessica Di|last3=Elia|first3=Leandro|date=2021|title=UN Peacekeeping and Households' Well-Being in Civil Wars|journal=American Journal of Political Science|volume=66|issue=2|pages=402–417|language=en|doi=10.1111/ajps.12644|issn=1540-5907|doi-access=free|hdl=10281/458537|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== پائيدار امن تي اثرانداز ٿيندڙ عنصر ===

ڪيترائي عنصر پائيدار امن تي منفي اثر وجهي سگهن ٿا. انهن ۾ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي حقيقي فوجي طاقت بابت لڪل معلومات، باغي گروهن جي هيرن، ٻين معدنيات يا غيرقانوني واپار وسيلي مالي وسيلا حاصل ڪرڻ، منشيات، هٿيارن ۽ انساني اسمگلنگ ۾ سندن شموليت، ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي فوجي فتح يا شڪست، جنگ جو عرصو ۽ ان جي قيمت، ٻنهي ڌرين کي درپيش واعدن تي عملدرآمد جا مسئلا (ڪمٽمينٽ پرابلم) ۽ سلامتي جو مخمصو (سڪيورٽي ڊليما)، جنگبندي يا امن معاهدي جي موجودگي، تڪرار ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ ڌرين جي ارادن ۽ ڪاررواين بابت شفافيت جي کوٽ، امن کي نقصان پهچائيندڙ انتهاپسند گروهه، اهڙا ڌر يا فرد جيڪي جنگ جاري رهڻ مان فائدو حاصل ڪن، ۽ اهڙا تڪراري مسئلا جيڪي ورهائي يا سمجهوتي ذريعي حل نٿا ٿي سگهن شامل آهن.

فورٽنا جي تحقيق موجب، پائيدار امن جو سڀ کان اهم شمارياتي عنصر اهو آهي ته ڇا جنگ ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي فوجي فتح تي ختم ٿي آهي يا نه. جيڪڏهن گهرو ويڙهه ۾ هڪ ڌر واضح فوجي فتح حاصل ڪري ۽ ان کان پوءِ جنگبندي يا صلح جو معاهدو ٿئي، ته ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تقريباً 85 کان 90 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽجي ويندو آهي. ان کان علاوه، رسمي امن معاهدا ٻيهر تڪرار جي خطري کي لڳ ڀڳ 60 کان 70 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 116&quot;/&gt;

جيڪڏهن ڪو هٿياربند گروهه منشيات، هيرن يا ٻين غيرقانوني واپاري ذريعن مان مالي مدد حاصل ڪري ٿو، ته ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان نمايان طور وڌي وڃن ٿا. فورٽنا موجب اهڙين حالتن ۾ جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو 100 کان 250 سيڪڙو تائين وڌي سگهي ٿو، يعني اهڙي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان عام حالتن جي ڀيٽ ۾ ٻه کان ساڍا ٽي ڀيرا وڌيڪ هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choice after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=117}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا جو خيال آهي ته جن جنگين ۾ ڪيترائي ڌر شامل هجن، اهي ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان نسبتاً گهٽ رکن ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; ان جي ابتڙ، [[مائيڪل ڊبليو ڊائل]] ۽ [[نيڪولس سامبانس]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ نتيجو ڪڍيو ته گهڻ ڌرين وارا تڪرار ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان وڌيڪ رکن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Making War and Building Peace : United Nations Peace Operations|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2010|pages=336}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڊگهي عرصي تائين هلندڙ جنگين ۽ سڃاڻپ يا قومي/نسلي بنيادن تي وڙهيل جنگين ۾ ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. بهرحال، ڊگهيون جنگيون ۽ اهي امن معاهدا جيڪي فوجي فتح کان پوءِ وجود ۾ اچن، عام طور تي مستقبل ۾ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽائين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=117–119}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪاررواين جا حصو وٺندڙ فوجن تي اثر ==

=== فوجي معمول تي آڻڻ ===

ڪجهه محققن جو خيال آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون فوج جي &quot;معمول تي آڻڻ&quot; (مليٽري نارملائيزيشن) کي اڳتي وڌائڻ جو هڪ ذريعو بڻجي سگهن ٿيون. مائيڪل ايڊورڊ والش ۽ جيريمي ٽيلر دليل ڏين ٿا ته [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ [[جاپان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون انهن حلقن لاءِ هڪ منفرد موقعو فراهم ڪن ٿيون، جيڪي جاپان جي فوجي ڪردار کي عام ۽ معمول مطابق بڻائڻ چاهين ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهڙي عمل سان ملڪ جي امن پسند آئين کي تدريجي طور ڪمزور ڪرڻ جو امڪان پيدا ٿئي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;nbr.org&quot;&gt;Jeremy Taylor and Michael Edward Walsh (January 7, 2014), ''[http://www.nbr.org/downloads/pdfs/psa/taylor-walsh_commentary_010714.pdf UN Operations in Africa Provide a Mechanism for Japan’s Military Normalization Agenda]'', {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303010649/http://www.nbr.org/downloads/pdfs/psa/taylor-walsh_commentary_010714.pdf |date=March 3, 2014 }}, retrieved February 7, 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;

سندن خيال موجب، بنيادي سياسي، قانوني ۽ سماجي سڌارن کان سواءِ جاپان جون امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون اهڙين سنگين حالتن کي منهن ڏيڻ لاءِ مڪمل طور تي تيار ناهن، جتي جان ليوا طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ ضروري بڻجي وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Edward Walsh and Jeremy Taylor (December 23, 2013), ''[http://africanarguments.org/2013/12/23/time-to-reconsider-the-japanese-peacekeeping-mission-in-south-sudan-by-michael-edward-walsh-jeremy-taylor/ Time to Reconsider the Japanese Peacekeeping Mission in South Sudan]'', retrieved February 7, 2014.&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن ڪري، اهي دليل ڏين ٿا ته گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين ۾ جاپان جي مسلسل شرڪت آخرڪار اهڙين پاليسي تبديلين جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿي، جن کان پوءِ جاپان جي فوج کي معمول مطابق فوجي حيثيت ڏيڻ ئي واحد ممڪن نتيجو رهجي وڃي.&lt;ref name=&quot;nbr.org&quot;/&gt;

=== فوج موڪليندڙ ملڪن تي سياسي اثر ===

[[ڊيانا ميور ايپل بام]] خدشو ظاهر ڪيو آهي ته [[فجي]] ۾ عالمي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين لاءِ فوج تيار ڪرڻ جي نتيجي ۾ فوج ايتري طاقتور بڻجي وئي، جو هن 1987ع، 1999–2000ع، 2006ع ۽ 2009ع ۾ چار فوجي بغاوتون ڪيون ۽ ويهن سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين فجي تي فوجي آمريت قائم رکي.&lt;ref&gt;Appelbaum, Diana Muir (August 27, 2012), ''[http://www.jewishideasdaily.com/4867/features/how-the-sinai-peacekeeping-force-staged-a-military-coup-in-fiji/ How the Sinai Peacekeeping Force Staged a Military Coup in Fiji]'', retrieved September 7, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt;

بهرحال، ''جرنل آف پيس ريسرچ'' ۾ 2018ع ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ مطالعي موجب، اهي ملڪ جن جون فوجون گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين مان حاصل ٿيندڙ مالي وسيلن تي وڌيڪ ڀاڙين ٿيون، انهن ۾ فوجي بغاوتن جا امڪان انهن ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهڙن مالي وسيلن تي گهٽ ڀاڙين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lundgren|first=Magnus|date=2018|title=Backdoor peacekeeping: Does participation in UN peacekeeping reduce coups at home?|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume=55|issue=4|pages=508–523|doi=10.1177/0022343317747668|s2cid=116168984}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ وارن فردن تي اثر ===

[[File:UNAMIR Blue Berets memorial Kigali (4).jpg|thumb|[[روانڊا]] جي شهر [[ڪيگالي]] ۾ [[يو اين اي ايم آء آر]] (UNAMIR) جي ڏهن بيلجيمي امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي يادگار، جيڪي 1994ع ۾ هوتو نيم فوجي گروهن هٿان مارجي ويا.]]

امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين بابت ٿيل تحقيق مان معلوم ٿئي ٿو ته انهن تي مثبت ۽ منفي، ٻئي قسم جا اثر پون ٿا. بوسنيا ۾ مقرر آمريڪي فوج جي 951 سپاهين تي ٿيل هڪ مطالعي مطابق، 77 سيڪڙو فوجين مثبت اثرن جي نشاندهي ڪئي، 63 سيڪڙو منفي اثرن جو ذڪر ڪيو، جڏهن ته 47 سيڪڙو ٻنهي قسمن جي تجربن بابت ٻڌايو.&lt;ref&gt;Newby, John H., et al. &quot;Positive and negative consequences of a military deployment.&quot; ''Military Medicine'' (2005) 170#10 pp: 815-819.&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار گهڻو ڪري ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي حملن جي خطري ۽ اڻڄاتل موسمي حالتن کي منهن ڏيندا آهن. انهن سببن ڪري ذهني صحت جا مسئلا، خودڪشي جا واقعا ۽ منشيات جي استعمال جا خطرا وڌي سگهن ٿا. ڊگهي عرصي تائين ٻاهرين ملڪن ۾ مقرر رهڻ امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي خاندانن، خاص طور تي سندن ٻارن ۽ گهروارن، لاءِ پڻ ذهني دٻاءُ جو سبب بڻجي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1 = Fernandes Souza | first1 = Wanderson |display-authors=etal  | year = 2011 | title = Posttraumatic stress disorder in peacekeepers: a meta-analysis | journal = The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease | volume = 199 | issue = 5| pages = 309–312 | doi=10.1097/nmd.0b013e3182175180| pmid = 21543949 | s2cid = 28713512 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

هڪ ٻيو نقطه نظر اهو به آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون ذميواريون فوجين جي جنگي صلاحيتن کي ڪمزور ڪري سگهن ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ امن قائم رکڻ واري دستي جون ذميواريون مڪمل جنگ وڙهندڙ فوجي يونٽ کان ڪافي مختلف هونديون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20070926001502/http://www.usafa.af.mil/jscope/ISME2007/Papers/Prof%20Paulin%20Kaurin%20War%20Stories.doc Kaurin, P. M. (2007) War Stories: Narrative, Identity and (Recasting) Military Ethics Pedagogy. Pacific Lutheran University. ISME 2007. Retrieved 9-3-2007].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Liu, H. C. K., The war that could destroy both armies, ''Asia Times'', October 23, 2003. Retrieved March 9, 2007.&lt;/ref&gt;

== تنقيد ==

=== امن قائم رکڻ، انساني اسمگلنگ ۽ جبري جسم فروشي ===
{{Main|امن قائم رکڻ وارن پاران ٻارن سان جنسي زيادتي جو اسڪينڊل}}

1990ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن تي مختلف قسمن جي زيادتين جا ڪيترائي الزام لڳندا رهيا آهن، جن ۾ [[زنا بالجبر]]، [[جنسي زيادتي]]، [[ٻارن سان جنسي زيادتي]] ۽ [[انساني اسمگلنگ]] شامل آهن. اهڙيون شڪايتون [[ڪمبوڊيا]]، [[اوڀر تيمور]] ۽ [[اولهه آفريڪا]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علائقن مان سامهون آيون آهن.

[[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ اسمگل ٿيل عورتن سان لاڳاپيل جسم فروشي ۾ تيزي سان واڌ آئي، ۽ ڪيترائي اهڙا اڏا گڏيل قومن جي ڪئمپن جي ويجهو قائم ٿيا. بوسنيا ۾ 2000ع کان 2001ع تائين علائقائي انساني حقن جي آفيسر ڊيوڊ ليمب جو چوڻ هو ته، &quot;بوسنيا ۾ جنسي غلاميءَ جي واپار جو وڏو سبب گڏيل قومن جون امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون آهن. جيڪڏهن اهي فوجون نه هجن ها ته بوسنيا ۾ جبري جسم فروشي تمام گهٽ يا بلڪل نه هجي ها.&quot; ان کان علاوه، 2002ع ۾ [[آمريڪا جي ايوانِ نمائندگان]] ۾ ٿيل ٻڌڻي دوران اهو به سامهون آيو ته SFOR جا ڪجهه اهلڪار بوسنيا جي جسم فروشي جي مرڪزن تي ويندا هئا ۽ اسمگل ٿيل عورتن ۽ نابالغ ڇوڪرين سان جنسي لاڳاپا رکندا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Allred2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Allred|first=KJ|date=2006|title=Peacekeepers And Prostitutes: How Deployed Forces Fuel the Demand for Trafficked Women and New Hope for Stopping It|journal=Armed Forces &amp; Society|volume=33|issue=1|page=7|doi=10.1177/0095327X06288803|s2cid=71430076}}&lt;/ref&gt;

صحافين پڻ رپورٽ ڪيو ته گڏيل قومن يا، بوسنيا ۽ [[ڪوسوو]] جي صورت ۾، [[نيٽو]] جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي اچڻ کان پوءِ [[ڪمبوڊيا]]، [[موزمبيق]]، [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۽ [[ڪوسوو]] ۾ جسم فروشي ۾ تيزي سان اضافو ٿيو. 1996ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي رپورٽ ''دي امپيڪٽ آف آرمڊ ڪنفلڪٽ آن چلڊرين'' ۾ موزمبيق جي اڳوڻي خاتون اول [[گراسا ماچيل]] لکيو ته هن رپورٽ لاءِ تيار ڪيل 12 ملڪن مان 6 مطالعي ۾ هٿياربند تڪرارن دوران ٻارن جي جنسي استحصال ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي اچڻ کان پوءِ [[ٻارن جي جسم فروشي]] ۾ تيز واڌ ڏٺي وئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;unicef.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/graca/a51-306_en.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030316210918/http://www.unicef.org/graca/a51-306_en.pdf|url-status=dead|title=The Impact of Armed Conflict on Children|archive-date=March 16, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گيتا سهگل]] 2004ع ۾ چيو ته جتي به [[انساني همدرديءَ واري مداخلت]] يا امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون ٿين ٿيون، اتي جسم فروشي ۽ [[جنسي استحصال]] جا مسئلا به ظاهر ٿين ٿا. سندس خيال هو ته گڏيل قومن بابت بنيادي مسئلو اهو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون به ٻين فوجن وانگر ساڳين مسئلن ۾ ملوث ٿي سگهن ٿيون، تنهنڪري &quot;نگهبانن جي به نگراني ڪرڻي پوي ٿي&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.csmonitor.com/2004/1126/p06s02-wogi.html Sex charges haunt UN forces; In places like Congo and Kosovo, peacekeepers have been accused of abusing the people they're protecting,&quot;] ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'', November 26, 2004, accessed February 16, 2010.&lt;/ref&gt;

2006ع ۾ گڏيل قومن ۾ [[اردن]] جي مستقل نمائندي [[شهزادو زيد رعد زيد الحسين]] جي سربراهيءَ ۾ ٿيل جاچ جي نتيجي ۾ هڪ تفصيلي رپورٽ جاري ٿي، جنهن ۾ خاص طور تي [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] ۾ ٿيل جنسي استحصال جي ڪيترن ئي واقعن کي بيان ڪيو ويو. رپورٽ موجب، جنسي استحصال گهڻو ڪري جسم فروشي جي صورت ۾ ٿيندو هو، جتي جنسي لاڳاپن جي بدلي اوسطاً هڪ کان ٽي آمريڪي ڊالر ادا ڪيا ويندا هئا. ڪن حالتن ۾ عورتن کي کاڌي يا روزگار جو لالچ ڏئي جنسي لاڳاپن تي مجبور ڪيو ويندو هو، جڏهن ته ڪجهه نوجوان عورتن ٻڌايو ته کين زبردستي جنسي زيادتي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ڪجهه رقم يا کاڌو ڏنو ويندو هو ته جيئن اهو عمل رضامنديءَ وارو لڳي.&lt;ref&gt;al-Hussein, Prince Zeid Ra'ad Zeid. (2005) &quot;A Comprehensive Strategy to Eliminate Future Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations.&quot; Report to the UN Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations: 8.&lt;/ref&gt;

مئي کان سيپٽمبر 2004ع تائين جنسي استحصال جا 72 الزام سامهون آيا، جن مان 68 فوجي اهلڪارن ۽ 4 شهري عملي خلاف هئا. سال جي آخر تائين اهڙن الزامن جو انگ 105 تائين پهچي ويو. انهن مان 45 سيڪڙو الزام 18 سالن کان گهٽ عمر وارن سان جنسي لاڳاپن بابت هئا، جڏهن ته 31 سيڪڙو بالغ جسم فروش عورتن سان لاڳاپيل هئا. زنا بالجبر تقريباً 13 سيڪڙو ۽ جنسي زيادتي 5 سيڪڙو الزامن تي مشتمل هئي، جڏهن ته باقي 6 سيڪڙو ٻئي قسم جي جنسي استحصال سان واسطو رکندا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;al-Hussein, Prince Zeid Ra'ad Zeid. (2005) &quot;A Comprehensive Strategy to Eliminate Future Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations.&quot; Report to the UN Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations: 8-9.&lt;/ref&gt; گهڻا الزام [[پاڪستان]]، [[يوراگوئي]]، [[مراڪش]]، [[تيونس]]، [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] ۽ [[نيپال]] سان تعلق رکندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Allred2006&quot;/&gt;

[[يوراگوئي]] جي صدر [[خوسي موخيڪا]]، گڏيل قومن جي يوراگوئي فوجين تي 18 سالن جي هڪ هيٽي نوجوان سان مبينا زنا بالجبر جي واقعي تي [[هيٽي]] جي صدر [[ميشيل مارٽيلي]] کان معافي ورتي. مارٽيلي چيو ته &quot;هڪ نوجوان هيٽي شهري سان ٿيل اجتماعي زنا بالجبر کي بنا سزا نه ڇڏيو ويندو.&quot; واقعي ۾ ملوث هجڻ جي شڪ ۾ چار فوجين کي حراست ۾ ورتو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-haiti-uruguay-un-idUSTRE78603I20110907|title=Uruguay apologises over alleged rape by U.N. peacekeepers|newspaper=Reuters|access-date=October 23, 2014|date=September 7, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/Headlines/Article.aspx?id=236953|title=Uruguay to apologise over alleged rape by UN peacekeepers|date=September 21, 2010 |access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جولاءِ 2007ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي [[امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون کاتو]] (DPKO) [[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]] ۾ مقرر 734 مراڪشي فوجين جي پوري دستي کي الزام سامهون اچڻ کان پوءِ ڪئمپن تائين محدود ڪري ڇڏيو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن مان ڪجهه تي نابالغ ڇوڪرين سان جنسي زيادتي جا الزام هئا. ايندڙ سالن دوران گڏيل قومن جي [[گڏيل قومن جي اندروني نگراني جون خدمتون کاتو]] (OIOS) اهڙن 80 ڪيسن جي جاچ ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Simic|first=Olivera|title=Regulation of Sexual Conduct in UN Peacekeeping Operations |chapter=UN Peacekeeping Operations: The Emerging Problem of Sexual Exploitation |date=2012|pages=13–38|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-28484-7_2|isbn=978-3-642-28483-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ [[مرڪزي آفريقي جمهوريه]] ۾ ڪم ڪندڙ [[فرانس]]، [[گيبون]] ۽ [[برونڊي]] جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف پڻ الزام لڳا. انهن ۾ [[ڪيمو صوبو|ڪيمو صوبي]] ۾ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 108 ماڻهن سان جنسي استحصال ۽ جنسي زيادتي جا الزام شامل هئا، جن مان اڪثريت نابالغ هئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/01/world/africa/un-peacekeeping-hit-by-new-allegations-of-sickening-sex-abuse.html?_r=0|title=U.N. Peacekeeping Hit By New Allegations of 'Sickening' Sex Abuse|last=Gladstone|first=Rick|date=2016|access-date=April 17, 2016|newspaper=The New York Times}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2016ع ۾ [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] جي اوڀر واري [[اتر ڪيئو]] صوبي ۾ مقرر امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف به نوان الزام لڳا. [[تنزانيا]] ۽ گڏيل قومن گڏيل جاچ شروع ڪئي، جنهن ۾ تنزاني فوجين تي جنسي استحصال جا 18 الزام شامل هئا، جن مان اٺ نابالغن سان لاڳاپيل هئا. انهن الزامن ۾ 16 تنزاني، هڪ [[ملاوي]] ۽ هڪ ڏکڻ آفريقي فوجي جو نالو آيو. گڏيل قومن مارچ 2016ع ۾ ٻڌايو ته جنسي استحصال بابت الزامن ۾ نمايان واڌ ٿي آهي، جنهن ۾ 21 ملڪن جا فوجي شامل هئا. انهن مان گهڻا الزام آفريقي ملڪن جهڙوڪ [[ڪيمرون]]، [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]]، [[تنزانيا]]، [[بينن]]، [[برڪينا فاسو]]، [[برونڊي]]، [[گھانا]]، [[مڊگاسڪر]]، [[نائيجر]]، [[نائيجيريا]]، [[روانڊا]]، [[سينيگال]] ۽ [[ٽوگو]] سان تعلق رکندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/probe-opens-un-troops-alleged-sex-abuse-dr-155023758.html|title=Probe Opens into UN Troops' Alleged Sex Abuse in DR Congo|date=2016|access-date=April 17, 2016|via=Yahoo News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ وارا ۽ هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جو بحران ===

پهرين [[ايسوسيئيٽيڊ پريس]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Katz |first=Jonathan M. |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/health/2013276274_apcbhaitidiseaseoutbreak.html |title=Nation &amp; World &amp;#124; UN probes base as source of Haiti cholera outbreak &amp;#124; Seattle Times Newspaper |publisher=Seattletimes.com |date=October 27, 2010 |access-date=July 28, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پوءِ ''[[نيو يارڪ ٽائيمز]]''،&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/01/world/americas/haitis-cholera-outraced-the-experts-and-tainted-the-un.html?pagewanted=all In Haiti, Global Failures on a Cholera Epidemic; In-depth New York Times piece investigating UN role in introducing cholera] ''[[New York Times]]'', March 31, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; ''[[الجزيره عربي]]''،&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.aljazeera.com/video/americas/2012/03/201237194798262.html UN likely to blame for Haiti Cholera Outbreak] ''[[الجزيره عربي]]'', March 7, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اي بي سي نيوز]]&lt;ref&gt;[https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/scientists-soldiers-brought-deadly-superbug-americas/story?id=15341129 Scientists: UN Soldiers Brought Deadly Superbug to Americas] ''[[اي بي سي نيوز]]'', January 12, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; پاران شايع ٿيل اهم سائنسي ثبوتن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته [[نيپال]] سان تعلق رکندڙ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا، جيڪي [[هيٽي]] جي [[ميريباليه]] واري علائقي ۾ هڪ ڏورانهين اڏي تي مقرر هئا، 2010ع جي آڪٽوبر کان ملڪ کي متاثر ڪندڙ خطرناڪ [[هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا (2010ع واري ڏهاڪي)|ڪالرا جي وبا]] جو سبب بڻيا.

[[ڪالرا]] پاڻيءَ وسيلي پکڙجندڙ بيماري آهي، جيڪا سخت دستن ۽ الٽين جو سبب بڻجي ٿي، ۽ جيڪڏهن مريض کي بروقت جسم ۾ پاڻي ۽ لوڻ جي کوٽ پوري ڪرڻ وارو علاج (rehydration) نه ملي ته ڪجهه ئي ڪلاڪن اندر موت جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿي. جولاءِ 2012ع تائين هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا دنيا جي سڀ کان وڏي وبا بڻجي چڪي هئي، جنهن ۾ لڳ ڀڳ 7,500 ماڻهو فوت ٿي چڪا هئا، جڏهن ته تقريباً 585,000 هيٽي وارا (يعني هر ويهن مان هڪ ماڻهو) هن بيماري ۾ مبتلا ٿي چڪا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.cdc.gov/haiticholera/haiti_cholera.htm Haiti Cholera: One Year Later], [[بيمارين جي ضابطي ۽ روڪٿام جا مرڪز]] October 25, 2011, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.mspp.gouv.ht/site/downloads/Rapport%20journalier%20MSPP%20du%2022%20juillet%202012.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407031228/http://www.mspp.gouv.ht/site/downloads/Rapport%20journalier%20MSPP%20du%2022%20juillet%202012.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Haitian Ministry of Public Health and Population Cholera Report of July 22, 2012, 22 July 2011, accessed 30 July 2012|archive-date=April 7, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا بابت گڏيل قومن پاران مقرر ڪيل آزاد ماهرن جي پينل موجب، امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جي اڏي تي صفائي ۽ نيڪال جا انتظام غير محفوظ هئا، جنهن سبب گهٽ ۾ گهٽ ٻن طريقن سان هيٽي جي دريائي نظام ۾ آلودگي پکڙجي. رپورٽ موجب، &quot;مکيه غسل خاني ۽ ٽوائليٽن واري حصي ۾ پاڻيءَ جي پائيپن جي جوڙجڪ بي ترتيب هئي، جنهن سبب آلودگي ملڻ جو وڏو خطرو موجود هو، خاص طور تي اهي پائيپ جيڪي هڪ کليل نيڪال واري نالي جي مٿان گذرندا هئا، جيڪو سڄي ڪئمپ مان وهي سڌو [[ميئي ندي]] جي معاون نديءَ ۾ ڇوڙ ڪندو هو.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;UNCholeraReport&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/haiti/UN-cholera-report-final.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110506001548/https://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/haiti/UN-cholera-report-final.pdf|url-status=live|title=Final Report of the Independent Panel of Experts on the Cholera Outbreak in Haiti, pages 21-22, July 2011, accessed 30 July 2012|archive-date=May 6, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

پينل اهو پڻ ٻڌايو ته ميريباليه واري اڏي ۽ ٻن ٻين اڏن مان نڪرندڙ گندو پاڻي باقاعدگي سان هڪ کليل، غير محفوظ سيپٽڪ کڏ ۾ وڌو ويندو هو، جيڪا ٻوڏ اچڻ وقت پاڻيءَ سان ڀرجي ويندي هئي ۽ برساتن دوران ان جو گندو پاڻي ميئي نديءَ جي معاون وهڪري ۾ داخل ٿي ويندو هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;UNCholeraReport&quot; /&gt;

نومبر 2011ع ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا کان متاثر ٿيل 5,000 کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن گڏيل قومن جي اندروني دعوائن واري نظام ۾ درخواست داخل ڪئي. هنن وبا تي ضابطو آڻڻ لاءِ صاف پاڻي ۽ صفائي جي بنيادي ڍانچي جي فراهمي، ذاتي نقصانن جو معاوضو ۽ گڏيل قومن کان باضابطه معافي جو مطالبو ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15648110|title=Haiti cholera demand against UN|date=November 9, 2011|work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جولاءِ 2012ع ۾ [[آمريڪا جي گڏيل رياستن جي ڪانگريس]] جي 104 ميمبرن هڪ خط تي صحيون ڪيون، جنهن ۾ چيو ويو ته &quot;گڏيل قومن جي قدمن&quot; سبب هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا پکڙيو، ۽ گڏيل قومن کي گهر ڪئي وئي ته هو پنهنجي ذميواري قبول ڪري ۽ وبا جي خاتمي لاءِ عملي قدم کڻي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18928405|title=Haiti cholera 'UN responsibility'|first=Mark|last=Doyle|date=July 20, 2012|work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ گڏيل قومن انهن دعوائن کي رد ڪري ڇڏيو، جنهن کان پوءِ متاثرن جي وڪيلن اعلان ڪيو ته هو گڏيل قومن خلاف عدالت ۾ مقدمو داخل ڪندا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ijdh.org/cholera-litigation/ |title=Institute for Justice and Democracy in Haiti: Cholera Litigation |publisher=Ijdh.org |date=October 21, 2010 |access-date=July 28, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== جديد امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائين سان لاڳاپيل ثقافتي خدشا ===

امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائين ۾ مختلف ثقافتن جو پاڻ ۾ گهرو ميل جول هوندو آهي. ان جو سبب اهو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون، پوليس ۽ ٻيو عملو دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي ملڪن مان اچي گڏ ٿيندو آهي، جڏهن ته اهي اڪثر انهن علائقن ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن، جتي نسلي ۽ ثقافتي تنوع تمام گهڻو هوندو آهي. اهڙي صورتحال ۾ مختلف ثقافتن جي وچ ۾ پيچيده لاڳاپا پيدا ٿيندا آهن، جيڪي نه رڳو مشن جي اثرائتي تي اثر انداز ٿيندا آهن، پر ڪڏهن ڪڏهن انهن مقامي ماڻهن سان به تڪرار جو سبب بڻجندا آهن، جن جي مدد لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارا موڪليا ويندا آهن.

1988ع کان اڳ اڪثر امن قائم رکڻ وارا هڪ محدود تعداد وارن ملڪن مان ايندا هئا. ان وقت تائين رڳو 26 ملڪن پنهنجو عملو امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون ۾ موڪليو هو، پر هاڻي اهو انگ 80 کان وڌيڪ ملڪن تائين پهچي ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=146–147}} نتيجي طور، گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون انتهائي گهڻ ثقافتي بڻجي ويون آهن. اهڙي صورتحال ۾ انهن کي نه رڳو ٻولين جي فرق سان منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، پر سماجي ۽ ثقافتي اختلافن سان به، جيڪي اهڙيون عملي مشڪلاتون پيدا ڪن ٿا، جن تي ضابطو آڻڻ آسان نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Pendlebury |first1=Jarrod |last2=Stott |first2=Neil |last3=Tracey |first3=Paul |date=2025 |title=The peacekeeper's challenge: innovation in meta-organisations |journal=Peacebuiding |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1080/21647259.2025.2501873|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; اهي اختلاف ذاتي يا اداري سطح جي رابطن، غلط فهمين، اڻڄاتل طور تي توهين جو سبب بڻجندڙ روين ۽ مخصوص ملڪن جي دستن بابت اڳواٽ قائم ٿيل تعصبن کي جنم ڏئي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=146–147}}

عملياتي لحاظ کان به مشن جي اثرائتي متاثر ٿي سگهي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ مختلف ملڪن جي فوجي ۽ پوليس اهلڪار پنهنجا پنهنجا طريقا، حڪمت عمليون ۽ ضابطا استعمال ڪندا آهن. گڏيل قومن جون فوجون مختلف ذريعن مان گڏ ڪيون وينديون آهن، جنهن سبب انهن جي صلاحيت، تربيت، سامان، معيارن ۽ ڪارروائي جي طريقن ۾ نمايان فرق موجود هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot; /&gt; ان کان علاوه، حصو وٺندڙ ملڪن جي ڪمان ۽ ڪنٽرول جي نظام ۾ به وڏا فرق هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot; /&gt; ڪجهه ملڪ ٻين ملڪن جي ماتحت ڪم ڪرڻ کان به ڪيٻائيندا آهن، جنهن سبب [[ڪمان جي وحدت]] برقرار رکڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي. اهڙي صورتحال گڏيل قومن جي مختلف دستن جي وچ ۾ اختلاف پيدا ڪري سگهي ٿي، جنهن جو نتيجو ميدان ۾ هڪ ٻئي جي سهڪار جي کوٽ جي صورت ۾ نڪري سگهي ٿو. ان جو مثال [[اوڀر تيمور]] ۾ گڏيل قومن جي مشن دوران ڏٺو ويو، جتي آسٽريليا جي فوج [[اوڀر تيمور ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مشن]] تحت پنهنجي فوجين جي تحفظ تي زور ڏيندي سخت فوجي حڪمت عملي اختيار ڪئي، جڏهن ته برطانيا جي [[گورکا]] فوجين مقامي ماڻهن سان ويجها لاڳاپا قائم ڪرڻ واري پاليسي تي عمل ڪيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=146–147}}

جديد امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائين ۾ مقامي آبادي ۽ حڪومت جي رضامندي برقرار رکڻ بنيادي اهميت رکي ٿي. خاص طور تي [[بوسنيا ۾ گڏيل قومن جي تحفظ واري فوج]]، [[سوماليا ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ٻيون آپريشن]] ۽ [[روانڊا ۾ گڏيل قومن جو امدادي مشن]] دوران انسانيت جي بنياد تي مداخلت جي نالي ۾ هن اصول کي نظرانداز ڪيو ويو، جيڪو گڏيل قومن جي منشور جي باب ستين هيٺ ٿيندڙ مداخلتن جي نوعيت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو. بهرحال، اهڙين ڪارروائين جي قانوني حيثيت ۽ مقبوليت برقرار رکڻ لاءِ ضروري آهي ته گڏيل قومن جون فوجون انهيءَ ملڪ جي عوام ۽ حڪومت جي رضامندي حاصل ڪن، جتي اهي مقرر ٿيل هجن. ان لاءِ ضروري آهي ته مقامي ماڻهن کي امن قائم رکڻ واري عمل جو حصو محسوس ڪرايو وڃي ۽ امن قائم رکڻ وارن کي مقامي ثقافت بابت مناسب ڄاڻ هجي، جيئن مقامي آبادي سان ڇڪتاڻ گهٽجي ۽ مشن ڪامياب بڻجي سگهي.

امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج ۽ مقامي آبادي جي ثقافتي لاڳاپن بابت اڃا تائين گهڻي تحقيق نه ٿي آهي. 1976ع ۾ [[يوهان گالٽونگ]] ۽ [[هيلگه هويم]] انهن نارويجي اهلڪارن جو مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (غزه) ۽ [[ڪانگو ۾ گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيا هئا. هنن جو نتيجو هو ته ڪنهن ملڪ جي ثقافت ۽ اتان جي ماڻهن بابت ڄاڻ صرف مفيد نه، پر مشن جي ڪاميابي لاءِ لازمي آهي. مطالعي موجب نارويجي اهلڪارن مقامي ثقافت ۽ تڪرار بابت وڌيڪ ڄاڻ حاصل ڪرڻ جي خواهش ظاهر ڪئي ۽ ٻين ملڪن جي اهلڪارن سان گڏ ڪم ڪرڻ بابت وڌيڪ تربيت به گهربل سمجهي. بهرحال، کين اهڙي تربيت تمام محدود ملي، ۽ تڪرار بابت گهڻي ڄاڻ کين خبرن، ڪتابن يا ٻين گڏيل قومن جي اهلڪارن کان ملي، نه ڪي گڏيل قومن جي ڪنهن منظم تربيتي پروگرام مان.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=150–151}}

لبنان ۾ [[لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن جي عبوري فوج]] (UNIFIL) ۽ مقامي آبادي جي لاڳاپن بابت هيبرگ ۽ هولسٽ جي مطالعي به ساڳيا نتيجا ظاهر ڪيا. هنن ڏٺو ته جيڪي ملڪ مقامي آباديءَ سان وڌيڪ ويجها لاڳاپا قائم ڪرڻ ۽ مقامي ثقافت کي سمجهڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿيا، انهن جا مشن وڌيڪ اثرائتا ثابت ٿيا؛ جڏهن ته جيڪي دستا مقامي سماج کان الڳ رهيا، اهي انهن ماڻهن کان به پري رهيا، جن سان کين ڪم ڪرڻو هو، ۽ ان جو اثر سندن ڪاميابي تي پيو.

{{Quote|
صرف اٽليءَ جو لڳ ڀڳ 2,200 اهلڪارن تي ٻڌل دستو مقامي سماج جو حصو بڻجي ويو ۽ معمول جي زندگي بحال ڪرڻ ۾ سرگرم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. انهن جي فوجين کي مقامي ماڻهن جي ثقافتي، سياسي ۽ سماجي حالتن بابت مناسب تربيت ڏني وئي هئي. لڳ ڀڳ 600,000 آبادي واري علائقي، جنهن ۾ اڪثريت شيعن جي هئي، ۾ اٽليءَ جي فوجين عام ماڻهن ۽ سياسي اڳواڻن سان ويجها لاڳاپا قائم رکيا. ان جي ابتڙ آمريڪي فوجين اهو سمجهيو ته هو لبناني سياست ۾ شامل ٿي رهيا آهن، پر انهن وٽ لبناني ثقافت ۽ تاريخ بابت تمام محدود ڄاڻ هئي. گهڻن آمريڪن کي مختصر مدي وارن اتحادين، پراڻين دشمنيُن، عرب سماج ۾ خانداني لاڳاپن جي اهميت ۽ مذهبي اختلافن جي نزاڪتن جي صحيح سمجهه نه هئي.
|&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=150–151}}
}}

هي مثال ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته ڪامياب امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائي لاءِ مقامي ثقافت جي ڄاڻ انتهائي اهم آهي. جيتوڻيڪ گڏيل قومن وٽ هڪ تربيتي رهنما موجود آهي، جيڪو امن قائم رکڻ وارن کي ضروري طريقن بابت هدايتون ڏئي ٿو، پر مختلف دستن لاءِ ڪو گڏيل نظريو يا معياري ڪارروائي جو طريقو موجود ناهي، جيڪو آخرڪار امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن جي ڪاميابيءَ ۾ رڪاوٽ بڻجي سگهي ٿو.

=== جديد مداخلت ۽ تڪرار جي حل جون حدون ===

[[سرد جنگ]] دوران گهرو تڪرارن ۾ ٻاهرين مداخلت ۽ ثالثي گهڻو ڪري رياست-مرڪز طريقي تي ٻڌل هئي، جنهن ۾ [[خودمختياري]] کي ناقابلِ ڀڃڪڙي سمجهيو ويندو هو. بين الاقوامي برادري رياست جي حڪومت ۽ ان جي مخالف گهريلو ويڙهاڪ ڌرين وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ اندروني تڪرارن ۾ تمام گهٽ مداخلت ڪندي هئي. پر سرد جنگ جي پڄاڻي کان پوءِ اها صورتحال بدلجي وئي. اڄڪلهه گهرو تڪرارن ۾ بين الاقوامي ڌرين جي ثالثي هڪ اهڙي معياري حل واري طريقي تي ٻڌل آهي، جيڪو تڪرار ۾ شامل سڀني ڌرين کي مجموعي طور برابر حيثيت ڏئي ٿو ۽ اهڙو ٺاهه حاصل ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿو، جيڪو سڀني لاءِ قبولڻ جوڳو هجي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Clapham|first=Christopher|date=1998|title=Rwanda: The Perils of Peace|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume=35|issue=2|pages=193–210|doi=10.1177/0022343398035002003|s2cid=110533606}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سرد جنگ جي خاتمي سان بين الاقوامي نظام کي نئين سر ترتيب ڏيڻ جو موقعو پيدا ٿيو. اهو موقعو سرد جنگ جي فاتح ڌرين، يعني [[آمريڪا]] ۽ ٻين اولهه جي سرمائيدار رياستن، وٽ هو، جيڪي آزاد جمهوري قدرن تحت هلنديون هيون ۽ [[انساني حق]]ن ۽ [[جمهوريت سازي]] کي وڏي اهميت ڏينديون هيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt; ان کان اڳ وارن ڏهاڪن ۾ رياست ئي واحد اهڙي وحدت هئي، جنهن کي خاص قانوني ۽ سياسي حيثيت حاصل هئي. جيتوڻيڪ ڪجهه استثنا، جهڙوڪ نوآبادياتي طاقتن خلاف جدوجهد ڪندڙ تحريڪون، موجود هيون، پر حتمي قانوني جواز رياست وٽ ئي هوندو هو. ان ڪري بين الاقوامي برادري عام طور ڪنهن ملڪ جي اندروني معاملن ۾ مداخلت نه ڪندي هئي. خودمختياريءَ جي ڀڃڪڙي نه ڪرڻ وارو هي نظام ٻنهي سپر طاقتن، سندن اتحادين ۽ [[ٽين دنيا]] جي حڪومتن لاءِ فائديمند هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt;

پر هاڻي غير رياستي ڌرين کي به سياسي جواز ملڻ ۽ ڪنهن اقليتي گروهه کي موجود رياست کان ڌار ٿي نئون ملڪ قائم ڪرڻ جي امڪان سبب بين الاقوامي صورتحال ۾ وڏي تبديلي آئي آهي. ان کان علاوه، بين الاقوامي برادري جو تڪرار حل ڪرڻ وارو نمونو گهڻو ڪري اولهه جي ملڪن ۾ تيار ٿيل علمي سوچ کان متاثر آهي. هي نمونو سياسي تشدد روڪڻ ۽ ڳالهين ذريعي ٺاهه حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ گهرو جنگين ۾ مداخلت جي همٿ افزائي ڪري ٿو، ۽ اهڙي ٺاهه ۾ اڪثر جمهوريت سازيءَ جا قدم به شامل هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt;

[[ڪرسٽوفر ڪلافم]] ۽ [[ڊيوڊ شيئرر]] جهڙا نقاد دليل ڏين ٿا ته اهڙي مداخلت ڪڏهن ڪڏهن عام شهرين جي نقصان تي تڪرار کي جاري رکڻ جا وسيلا فراهم ڪري سگهي ٿي. ڪلافم جو دليل بنيادي طور [[روانڊا]] ۾ [[روانڊا نسل ڪشي|نسل ڪشي]] کان اڳ واري صورتحال سان لاڳاپيل آهي،&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt; جڏهن ته شيئرر خاص طور [[سيرا ليون]] جي حوالي سان مداخلت جي منفي پهلوئن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو. سندس خيال موجب مداخلت ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي مڪمل فتح کي روڪي سگهي ٿي ۽ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ طاقت جو غيرمتوازن ڍانچو پيدا ڪري سگهي ٿي، جنهن سان وڌيڪ خونريزيءَ جو رستو کلي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Shearer|first=David|date=1997|title=Exploring the Limits of Consent: Conflict Resolution in Sierra Leone|journal=Millennium: Journal of International Studies|volume=26|issue=3|pages=845–860|doi=10.1177/03058298970260030601|s2cid=144940982}}&lt;/ref&gt;

روانڊا ۾ [[هوتو]] ۽ [[توتسي]] ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ڳالهين وسيلي ٺاهه ڪرائڻ جي ٽئين ڌر واري ڪوشش هوتو انتهاپسندن کي اعتدال پسند هوتو ماڻهن جي قتل ۽ توتسين جي نسل ڪشيءَ جي تياري ڪرڻ جو موقعو ڏنو. [[آفريقي اتحاد جي تنظيم]] جي علائقائي رياستن جي اڳواڻيءَ ۾ بين الاقوامي برادري [[اروشا امن عمل]] وسيلي هوتو ۽ توتسي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ جاري نسلي تشدد جو ڳالهين سان حل ڳولڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي. هي عمل هڪ سال کان ڪجهه وڌيڪ عرصي تائين هليو، جنهن ۾ وڏي بين الاقوامي شموليت ۽ [[تنزانيا]]، جيڪو ڳالهين جو ميزبان هو، [[برونڊي]]، [[يوگنڊا]] ۽ [[زائير]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علائقائي ڌرين حصو ورتو.

جيتوڻيڪ [[روانڊا محب وطن محاذ]] (RPF) [[اروشا معاهدا (روانڊا)|اروشا معاهدن]] مان سڀ کان وڌيڪ فائدو وٺندڙ ڌر هئي ۽ پنهنجون ڪيتريون شڪايتون حل ڪرائڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿي، پر ڪلافم موجب انهن مان ڪيترائي فائدا فوجي ڪارروائيءَ وسيلي به حاصل ڪري سگهجن پيا. ڪلافم جو چوڻ آهي ته اروشا معاهدن شرڪت ڪندڙ ڌرين جي پاڻ ۾ طاقت کي ٻن طريقن سان متاثر ڪيو: پهريون، جنگبنديءَ تڪرار جي هڪ مخصوص مرحلي تي علائقائي قبضي جي ورڇ کي منجمد ڪري ڇڏيو؛ ٻيو، ڳالهين ۾ شامل ڌرين کي ثالثن طرفان مقرر ڪيل اهميت ڏني وئي.

ان جو مطلب اهو هو ته تڪرار منجمد ٿي ويو ۽ RPF کي وڌيڪ علائقائي ڪاميابيون حاصل ڪرڻ کان روڪيو ويو. ڳالهين ۾ ڪنهن ڌر جي اهميت ان جي عوامي مقبوليت يا فوجي طاقت جي بنياد تي نه، پر ثالثن طرفان مصنوعي طور ڏنل وزن موجب طئي ڪئي وئي. نتيجي طور، سڄي عمل RPF جي حيثيت کي ڪمزور ڪيو، ان جي اڳ تائين ڪامياب فوجي مهم کي روڪيو ۽ هوتو انتهاپسندن کي [[روانڊا نسل ڪشي]] جي تياريءَ لاءِ وقت ڏنو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt;

شيئرر دليل ڏئي ٿو ته جديد حڪمت عمليون، جيڪي رڳو ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل ڳالهين تي ڀاڙين ٿيون، تمام گهڻيون محدود آهن، ۽ فوجي فتح کي تڪرار جي حل جي امڪاني طريقي طور نظرانداز نه ڪرڻ گهرجي. سندس چوڻ موجب جنگي ميدان ۾ طاقت جي توازن جي تبديلي اڪثر ڪنهن ويڙهاڪ ڌر کي ڳالهين جي ميز تائين آڻي سگهي ٿي ۽ ان جي مطالبن کي به نرم ڪري سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

ڳالهين ۽ ثالثيءَ ۾ رضامندي وڏي اهميت رکي ٿي. موجوده بين الاقوامي نظام ۽ سرد جنگ کان پوءِ بين الاقوامي برادريءَ طرفان گهڻو استعمال ٿيندڙ تڪرار حل ڪرڻ وارو نمونو رضامنديءَ کي بنيادي اهميت ڏئي ٿو. پر شيئرر سوال ڪري ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ويڙهاڪ ڌر ڳالهين ۽ جنگبنديءَ کي رڳو وقت حاصل ڪرڻ، پنهنجي فوج کي نئين سر ترتيب ڏيڻ ۽ پوءِ جنگ جاري رکڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري ٿي، ته ڇا تڪرار کي ڊگهو ڪرڻ ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل انساني نقصان جي خطري باوجود رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل حڪمت عملي جاري رکڻ گهرجي؟&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

شيئرر پاران ڄاڻايل تجرباتي تجزيي موجب، ڳالهين وسيلي ختم ٿيل اڳوڻين گهرو جنگين جي ڪاميابي محدود رهي آهي. هو جان اسٽيڊمين جي هڪ مطالعي جو حوالو ڏئي ٿو، جنهن مطابق 1900ع کان 1980ع تائين 85 سيڪڙو گهرو جنگيون ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي مڪمل فتح سان ختم ٿيون، جڏهن ته نوآبادياتي جنگين کي ڇڏي رڳو 15 سيڪڙو جنگيون ڳالهين وسيلي پڄاڻيءَ تي پهتيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

رائي لِڪلائيڊر جو مطالعو پڻ انهن نتيجن جي حمايت ڪري ٿو:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
1945ع کان 1989ع تائين سندس درجابندي موجب 93 گهرو تڪرارن مان 58 ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ ختم ٿيا، جڏهن ته باقي جاري رهيا. پر ختم ٿيل تڪرارن مان رڳو 14، يعني 24 سيڪڙو، ڳالهين وسيلي حل ٿيا. باقي 76 سيڪڙو فوجي فتحن سان ختم ٿيا. ان کان علاوه، ڳالهين وسيلي ختم ڪيل 14 تڪرارن مان 7 ۾ ويڙهه ٻيهر شروع ٿي وئي. تنهنڪري ختم ٿيل گهرو جنگين جي لحاظ کان ڳالهين وسيلي ٿيل ٺاهن جي مجموعي ڪاميابيءَ جي شرح لڳ ڀڳ 12 سيڪڙو هئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

سيرا ليون ۾ [[انقلابي گڏيل محاذ]] (RUF)، جنهن جي اڳواڻي [[فوڊي سنڪوه]] ڪري رهيو هو، 1991ع کان 1996ع تائين حڪومت خلاف [[سيرا ليون گهرو جنگ|رتوڇاڻ واري گهرو جنگ]] وڙهي. هن تڪرار ڏانهن بين الاقوامي ڌيان تمام گهٽ ويو، پر جنگ ملڪ کي تباهه ڪري ڇڏيو ۽ ان جي معيشت کي سخت نقصان پهچايو. ڳالهين وسيلي ٺاهه لاءِ ڪيترين ئي ڪوششن باوجود ڪنهن به ڌر پنهنجن مطالبن تان هٿ کڻڻ يا سمجهوتو ڪرڻ لاءِ تيار نه هئي.

سنڪوه [[نجي فوجي ڪمپني]] [[ايگزيڪيوٽو آئوٽڪمز]] جي مداخلت ۽ جنگي ميدان ۾ RUF جي ڪمزور ٿيڻ کان پوءِ ڳالهين جي ميز تي آيو. ان کان پوءِ RUF جو خطرو گهڻو گهٽجي ويو، عام ماڻهو پناهگير ڪئمپن مان واپس اچڻ ۽ پنهنجي زندگي نئين سر جوڙڻ لڳا. پر امن ڪمزور هو ۽ ڳالهين جو سلسلو جاري رهيو. RUF هٿيار ڦٽا ڪرڻ لاءِ تيار نه هو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان کي فوج ۽ شهري مليشيا ٻنهي کان انتقامي ڪاررواين جو خدشو هو.

انهن خدشن کي گهٽائڻ ۽ امن ڏانهن منتقليءَ ۾ مدد ڏيڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا موڪلڻ جو منصوبو هو، پر پوءِ صورتحال خراب ٿيڻ لڳي. بين الاقوامي ڌريون وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪوششن کان پوئتي هٽڻ لڳيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ حڪمت عمليءَ جي لحاظ کان گهٽ اهم ملڪ ۾ هڪ مهانگو ۽ اڻڄاتل مدي وارو مشن شروع ڪرڻ ۾ سندن دلچسپي نه هئي. نتيجي طور گڏيل قومن جي مداخلتي فوج جي جوڙجڪ سست ٿي وئي ۽ پوءِ مڪمل طور رڪجي وئي، جڏهن سنڪوه دليل ڏنو ته گڏيل قومن جي 740 امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جو دستو تمام وڏو هو.

گڏيل قومن ٻنهي ڌرين جي مڪمل رضامندي کان سواءِ ڪارروائي ڪرڻ کان انڪار ڪيو، جنهن سبب امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جي مقرري نه ٿي سگهي. شيئرر موجب رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هي طريقو ڏيکاري ٿو ته گهرو جنگ دوران ۽ ان کان پوءِ واري غير مستحڪم ۽ نازڪ صورتحال ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ڪردار ڪيترو محدود ٿي سگهي ٿو. سندس لفظن ۾، سيرا ليون ۾ ان جو مطلب اهو هو ته امن تعمير واري عمل کي مضبوط ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ اهم جزو موجود نه رهيو، ۽ سنڪوه پاڻ شرطون مقرر ڪرڻ لڳو. اهڙي طريقي سان هڪ ظالم باغي گروهه جي قيادت کي امن جا امڪان روڪڻ جي طاقت ملي وئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

صورتحال وڌيڪ خراب ٿي، جڏهن سيرا ليون جي نئين چونڊيل صدر [[احمد تيجان ڪباه]] ايگزيڪيوٽو آئوٽڪمز سان ٿيل معاهدو ختم ڪري ڇڏيو ۽ اهڙي طرح پنهنجي [[سخت طاقت]] واري فوجي برتري ڪمزور ڪري ڇڏي. 1997ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون جمهوريه جون هٿياربند فوجون|فوج]] جي ناراض آفيسرن حڪومت جو تختو اونڌو ڪيو، جنهن سان تڪرار ٻيهر تيز ٿي ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

سلامتيءَ جي صورتحال جي نگراني لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو هڪ ننڍو مبصر دستو موڪليو ويو. [[سيرا ليون ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مبصر مشن|UNOMSIL]] نالي هي مشن جولاءِ 1998ع کان آڪٽوبر 1999ع تائين موجود رهيو، پر RUF طرفان ملڪ جي گاديءَ واري شهر [[فري ٽائون]] تي قبضو ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ان کي واپس وڃڻو پيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna2008123–124&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=123–124}}&lt;/ref&gt;

نيٺ 1999ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مشن|UNAMSIL]] قائم ڪري موڪليو ويو. هن مشن کي گڏيل قومن جي منشور جي ستين باب تحت اختيار حاصل هو ۽ ان جو مقصد لومه معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ هو، پر تشدد جاري رهيو. شروعات کان ئي RUF تعاون ڪرڻ لاءِ تيار نه هو، ۽ [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري جو نگراني گروهه|ECOMOG]] جي دستي جي واپسيءَ کان پوءِ RUF گڏيل قومن جي فوجين تي حملو ڪيو ۽ سوين اهلڪارن کي يرغمال بڻائي ڇڏيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna2008123–124&quot; /&gt;

ان واقعي تي بين الاقوامي برادريءَ جو اهڙو سخت ردعمل سامهون آيو، جنهن جي RUF قيادت کي توقع نه هئي. ان جو خيال هو ته بين الاقوامي برادري صوماليا وانگر يا فري ٽائون مان UNOMSIL جي واپسيءَ وقت وانگر ٻيهر پوئتي هٽي ويندي. پر ان جي ابتڙ، برطانيه جي مدد سان RUF خلاف سخت [[سيرا ليون گهرو جنگ ۾ برطانوي فوجي مداخلت|فوجي مهم]] هلائي وئي. UNAMSIL جا اختيار وڌايا ويا ۽ ان جي اهلڪارن جو تعداد به وڌايو ويو. 2000ع جي پڇاڙيءَ ۽ 2001ع جي شروعات تائين RUF جي فوجي طاقت تمام گهڻي ڪمزور ٿي چڪي هئي. پوءِ [[ابوجا معاهدو|ابوجا معاهدا]] ڪيا ويا ۽ UNAMSIL ڊسمبر 2005ع ۾ پنهنجو مشن مڪمل ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unamsil/|title=UNAMSIL: United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone|website=www.un.org|access-date=May 5, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيتوڻيڪ اڄ سيرا ليون ۾ امن قائم آهي ۽ گڏيل قومن جي مشن کي ڪامياب سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، پر صورتحال جي ارتقا شيئرر جي ان دليل کي واضح ڪري ٿي ته رڳو رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل، سڀني ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي مفادن کي شامل ڪندڙ ڳالهين وارو طريقو لازمي طور ڪاميابيءَ تائين نٿو پهچي. UNOMSIL جي موجودگيءَ باوجود جنگ جاري رهي. حقيقت ۾، ستين باب تحت وڌيڪ مضبوط UNAMSIL اچڻ کان پوءِ به تشدد ختم نه ٿيو. جڏهن برطانيا فوجي مداخلت ڪري RUF جي تڪرار جاري رکڻ واري صلاحيت کي سخت نقصان پهچايو، جيئن ان کان اڳ ايگزيڪيوٽو آئوٽڪمز ڪيو هو، تڏهن RUF آخرڪار ڳالهين جي ميز تي آيو ۽ امن قائم ٿيڻ ممڪن ٿيو.

ڪجهه ليکڪ اصولي طور بين الاقوامي مداخلت جي خيال تي ئي سوال اٿارين ٿا. 2005ع ۾ [[عالمي ترقي مرڪز]] لاءِ تيار ڪيل هڪ تحقيقي مقالي ۾ [[اسٽينفورڊ يونيورسٽي]] جي [[جيريمي وائينسٽين]] ”خودمختيار بحالي“ جو نظريو پيش ڪيو، جنهن موجب رياستون بين الاقوامي مداخلت کان سواءِ به پائيدار امن حاصل ڪري سگهن ٿيون. [[يوگنڊا]]، [[ايريٽريا]] ۽ [[صوماليا]] جي ڪيس مطالعي ذريعي وائينسٽين ڏيکاريو ته رياستون جنگ مان به اثرائتا ادارا پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿيون.

هن طريقي جا فائدا ۽ نقصان آهن، جن کي بين الاقوامي مداخلت جي امڪاني نتيجن سان ڀيٽڻ گهرجي. ٻاهرين مداخلت وڏي پيماني تي ٿيندڙ ظلمن کي روڪي سگهي ٿي، پر اها ادارتي تبديليءَ کي به روڪي سگهي ٿي. خودمختيار بحالي سڀ کان طاقتور اڳواڻ کي مٿانهون ڪري ٿي، پر گڏوگڏ سڀ کان طاقتور ويڙهاڪن کي به انعام ڏئي ٿي، جيڪي اقتدار ورهائڻ لاءِ گهٽ تيار ٿي سگهن ٿا. ان کان علاوه، مداخلت ٻاهرين اثر تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جڏهن ته خودمختيار بحالي اندروني عنصرن تي ٻڌل هوندي آهي.

وائينسٽين جي دليل مان اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته مداخلت هميشه بهترين پاليسي ناهي. تنهن هوندي به سندس چوڻ آهي ته بين الاقوامي برادريءَ جي [[تحفظ جي ذميواري]] واري اصول کي اخلاقي اهميت حاصل آهي، جڏهن ته خودمختيار بحاليءَ لاءِ گهربل حالتون تمام گهٽ ملن ٿيون. سندس نظر ۾ بنيادي مسئلو اهو آهي ته سٺي حڪمرانيءَ کي ڪيئن همٿايو وڃي ۽ باغي گروهن جي مدد اهڙي نموني ڪيئن ڪئي وڃي، جو آمدني گڏ ڪرڻ ۽ حڪمرانن کي جوابده بڻائڻ واري شهرين ۽ حڪمرانن جي لاڳاپي کي نقصان نه پهچي.&lt;ref&gt;Weinstein, Jeremy M. 2005. &quot;Autonomous Recovery and International Intervention in Comparative Perspective.&quot; Center for Global Development Working Paper 57. https://www.cgdev.org/files/2731_file_WP57.pdf.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== مشن جي دائري جو وڌڻ ===

جيتوڻيڪ [[جيمس فيئرون]] ۽ [[ڊيوڊ ليٽن]] امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين لاءِ ڪيترن ئي عملي ۽ اخلاقي سببن کي تسليم ڪن ٿا، پر سندن خيال آهي ته ڪجهه حالتن ۾ اهي ڪارروايون آهستي آهستي [[رياست سازي]] جي ڪوششن سان ڳنڍجي وڃن ٿيون. ڪمزور رياستن ۾، جتي باغي گروهه ڪامياب گوريلا مهمون هلائي رهيا هجن، امن قائم رکڻ وارن دستن تي اهو دٻاءُ وڌي وڃي ٿو ته هو پائيدار امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ رياستي ادارن ۽ انتظامي صلاحيتن کي به مضبوط ڪن. اهڙو دٻاءُ اصل امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن جي دائري کان ٻاهر نڪري وڃي ٿو، جنهن کي &quot;مشن جي دائري جو وڌڻ&quot; (Mission creep) چيو وڃي ٿو.

جيڪڏهن امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون رياست سازي جي عمل ۾ حصو نه وٺن، ته انهن جي واپسي کان پوءِ لاڳاپيل ملڪ ۾ ٻيهر تشدد ڀڙڪڻ جو خطرو وڌي سگهي ٿو. تنهن ڪري فيئرون ۽ ليٽن امن قائم رکڻ جي ڪوششن ۾ رياست سازي کي وڌيڪ مربوط ڪرڻ جي حمايت ڪن ٿا. هو ان مقصد لاءِ &quot;نيو ٽرسٽيشپ&quot; (''Neotrusteeship'') نالي هڪ نئين فريم ورڪ جي تجويز پيش ڪن ٿا، جنهن تحت پرڏيهي طاقتون ڪمزور رياست جي گهرو معاملن تي نمايان حد تائين نگراني ۽ اختيار رکن، جيئن مستقبل ۾ تشدد جي ٻيهر اُڀار کي روڪي سگهجي.&lt;ref name=&quot;FearonLaitin2004&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Fearon|first1=James D.|last2=Laitin|first2=David D.|date=2004|title=Neotrusteeship and the Problem of Weak States|journal=International Security|volume=28|issue=4|pages=5–43|doi=10.1162/0162288041588296|s2cid=57559356}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== مقامي آبادي سان لاڳاپي جي کوٽ ===

امن قائم رکڻ بابت وڌندڙ تنقيدن مان هڪ اهم تنقيد اها آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارن عملدارن ۽ مقامي آبادي جي وچ ۾ اثرائتي رابطي ۽ شموليت جي کوٽ هوندي آهي. [[سيورين اوٽيسر]] 2015ع ۾ ''فارين پاليسي'' ۾ شايع ٿيل پنهنجي مقالي ۾ وضاحت ڪري ٿي ته اهڙي صورتحال سبب امن قائم رکڻ وارا عملدار امن برقرار رکڻ جا منصوبا ته تيار ڪن ٿا، پر اهي زميني حقيقتن کان ڪٽيل هوندا آهن، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ عملي طور انهن منصوبن جا اثر اڪثر ابتا نڪرندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;trouble&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/10/06/trouble-in-peaceland-united-nations-congo-development/|title=Trouble in Peaceland|last=Autesserre|first=Severine|website=Foreign Policy|date=October 6, 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

اوٽيسر موجب، اهڙي طريقي سان هڪ اهڙو خودتقويت ڏيندڙ نظام به وجود ۾ اچي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ميدان تي ڪم ڪندڙ عملدار پنهنجي منصوبن کي ڪامياب قرار ڏئي رپورٽون موڪلين ٿا، جڏهن ته حقيقت ۾ انهن جا نتيجا مقامي سطح تي نقصانڪار ثابت ٿيندا آهن. جيڪڏهن بعد ۾ صورتحال ٻيهر تشدد ۾ تبديل ٿي وڃي، ته ان جو ذميوار مقامي آبادي کي ٺهرايو ويندو آهي، نه ته انهن پاليسين يا منصوبن کي، جيڪي حقيقت کان ڪٽيل هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;trouble&quot; /&gt;

هي تنقيد گهڻي حد تائين اُن تنقيد سان ملي ٿي، جيڪا ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾ ترقياتي منصوبن بابت [[جيمس سي. اسڪاٽ]]، [[جيمس فرگوسن]] ۽ [[ايل. لوهمان]] جهڙن ليکڪن پيش ڪئي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Scott1998&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed|url=https://archive.org/details/seeinglikestateh00scot|url-access=limited|last=Scott|first=James C.|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1998|location=New Haven|pages=[https://archive.org/details/seeinglikestateh00scot/page/n17 1]–10|isbn=9780300078152}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Ferguson|last2=Lohman|first1=James|first2=L.|date=1994|title=The anti-politics machine: 'development' and bureaucratic power in Lesotho.|journal=The Ecologist|volume=24}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ ۽ ترقياتي سرگرميون ٻه الڳ شعبا آهن، پر هن تنقيد جي بنيادي منطق ساڳي آهي. ٽئين ڌر جا عملدار—چاهي اهي امن قائم رکڻ وارا هجن يا ترقياتي ادارن جا نمائندا—عام ماڻهن کان پري رهندا آهن. هو اهو سمجهندا آهن ته کين بهتر خبر آهي ته مقامي ماڻهن لاءِ ڇا مناسب آهي، ۽ ان ڪري هو زميني سطح تي رهندڙ ماڻهن کان معلومات يا راءِ حاصل ڪرڻ کي ضروري نه سمجهندا آهن. ليکڪن موجب، اها روش عام طور بدنِيتي يا سامراجيت جي نتيجي ۾ نه هوندي آهي، پر ان يقين مان پيدا ٿيندي آهي ته اعليٰ تعليم يافته عملدار، جيڪي ٻين ماهرن تائين رسائي رکن ٿا ۽ امن قائم رکڻ ۽ ترقي بابت علمي ادب کان واقف آهن، مقامي ماڻهن کان وڌيڪ بهتر فيصلا ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Scott1998&quot; /&gt;

=== ميٽا-تنظيمي چئلينج ===

تنقيد جو هڪ ٻيو اهم رخ انهن رڪاوٽن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، جيڪي گڏيل قومن جي پنهنجي تنظيمي ڍانچي مان پيدا ٿين ٿيون ۽ امن قائم رکڻ جي اثرائتي صلاحيت کي محدود ڪن ٿيون. [[جيروڊ پينڊلبري]]، [[نيل اسٽاٽ]] ۽ [[پال ٽريسي]] دليل ڏين ٿا ته گڏيل قومن جي [[ميٽا-تنظيم]] (ميٽا-آرگنائيزيشن) هجڻ—يعني اهڙي تنظيم جيڪا پاڻ به ڪيترين ئي خودمختيار تنظيمن تي مشتمل هجي—امن قائم رکڻ جي ڪارڪردگيءَ کي خاص طور ٻن اهم شعبن ۾ متاثر ڪري ٿي: فيصلا سازي ۽ نواڻ (Innovation).&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot; /&gt;

انهن ليکڪن موجب، پيچيده تنظيمي لاڳاپا، ادارتي سڃاڻپ جا ٽڪراءُ، حڪم ۽ ڪنٽرول جون ورهايل زنجيرون، مختلف ادارن جي وچ ۾ محدود افقي هم آهنگي، مالي وسيلا فراهم ڪرڻ جا پيچيده طريقا ۽ اداري جي اندر موجود جمود (سسٽميٽڪ انرشيا) گڏيل قومن لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي منصوبابندي، فوج ۽ ٻين وسيلن جي فراهمي، ۽ مشنن جي مؤثر عملدرآمد کي وڌيڪ ڏکيو بڻائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot; /&gt;

== سڌارن جون تجويزون ==

=== برهيمي تجزيو ===

خاص طور امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن تي لڳندڙ جنسي استحصال جي الزامن سميت مختلف تنقيدن جي جواب ۾، گڏيل قومن پنهنجي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين ۾ سڌارا آڻڻ لاءِ ڪيترائي قدم کنيا. [[گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ بابت پينل جي رپورٽ|برهيمي رپورٽ]] انهن قدمن مان پهرين اهم ڪوشش هئي، جنهن جو مقصد اڳوڻين امن قائم رکڻ وارين مشنن جو جائزو وٺڻ، انهن جي خامين جي سڃاڻپ ڪرڻ ۽ مستقبل جي مشنن کي وڌيڪ مؤثر بڻائڻ لاءِ ضروري سڌارا تجويز ڪرڻ هو. گڏيل قومن اهو عزم ظاهر ڪيو ته مستقبل ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين دوران انهن سڌارن تي عمل جاري رکيو ويندو.

سڌارن جي هن فني عمل کي [[گڏيل قومن جو امن قائم رکڻ وارو کاتو]] (DPKO) پنهنجي **&quot;امن ڪارروايون 2010&quot;** (''Peace Operations 2010'') واري سڌاري جي ايجنڊا ذريعي اڳتي وڌايو ۽ وڌيڪ مضبوط بڻايو. ان ۾ عملي جي تعداد ۾ واڌ، ميداني ۽ هيڊڪوارٽر عملي جي خدمتن جي شرطن ۾ هم آهنگي، رهنما اصولن ۽ معياري عملي طريقن (اسٽينڊرڊ آپريٽنگ پروسيجر) جي تياري، ۽ DPKO، [[گڏيل قومن جو ترقياتي پروگرام]] (UNDP)، [[آفريقي اتحاد]] ۽ [[يورپي اتحاد]] جي وچ ۾ شراڪتداري کي وڌيڪ بهتر بڻائڻ شامل هو. 2008ع ۾ جاري ڪيل بنيادي دستاويز **&quot;گڏيل قومن جون امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون: اصول ۽ رهنما هدايتون&quot;** انهن ئي برهيمي تجزين کي وڌيڪ وسيع ۽ مضبوط بنياد فراهم ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://pbpu.unlb.org/pbps/Library/Capstone_Doctrine_ENG.pdf|title=Peacekeeping Resource Hub|website=pbpu.unlb.org|access-date=July 8, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819214105/http://pbpu.unlb.org/pbps/Library/Capstone_Doctrine_ENG.pdf|archive-date=August 19, 2008|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

برهيمي رپورٽ جن بنيادي مسئلن جي نشاندهي ڪئي، انهن مان هڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين جي منصوبابندي ۽ هم آهنگيءَ جي کوٽ هئي. رپورٽ اهو پڻ واضح ڪيو ته ڪيترن ئي مشنن جا مقرر ڪيل مقصد انهن لاءِ مهيا ڪيل وسيلن ۽ مالي امداد سان هم آهنگ نه هئا. ان ڪري رپورٽ سفارش ڪئي ته [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] هر مشن جا مقصد، اختيار ۽ انهن جي عملدرآمد لاءِ گهربل وسيلا واضح نموني طئي ڪري.

[[جيمس فيئرون]] ۽ [[ڊيوڊ ليٽن]] جي خيال موجب، برهيمي رپورٽ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل لاءِ هڪ اهم سياسي اوزار فراهم ڪيو، جنهن ذريعي هو سلامتي ڪائونسل سان امن قائم رکڻ وارين مشنن جي مقصدن، گهربل فوجين ۽ مالي وسيلن بابت وڌيڪ مؤثر نموني ڳالهين ڪري سگهي ٿو. هن اوزار جو مقصد انهن حالتن کان بچڻ هو، جتي [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا|بوسنيا]]، [[صوماليا]] ۽ [[سيرا ليون]] جهڙن مشنن کي ناڪافي مالي ۽ انساني وسيلا فراهم ڪيا ويا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;FearonLaitin2004&quot;/&gt;

[[ڪرسٽين گري]] برهيمي رپورٽ جي سفارشن تي عملدرآمد سان لاڳاپيل مسئلن جو جائزو وٺندي بيان ڪري ٿي ته انهن تجويزن کي عملي جامو پارائڻ آسان نه هو. خاص طور تي، [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] طرفان جاري ڪيل وسيع اختيارن (مينڊيٽ) ۽ انهن تي عملدرآمد لاءِ حقيقت ۾ مهيا ڪيل محدود وسيلن جي وچ ۾ موجود فرق کي گهٽائڻ هڪ وڏو چئلينج ثابت ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1 = Gray | first1 = Christine | year = 2001 | title = Peacekeeping After the ''Brahimi Report'': Is There a Crisis of Credibility for the UN?. | journal = J Conflict Security Law | volume = 6 | issue = 2| pages = 267–288 | doi=10.1093/jcsl/6.2.267}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:امن]]
[[زمرو:تنظيمون]]
[[زمرو:گڏيل قومون]]
[[زمرو:عالمي سياست]]
[[زمرو:بين الاقوامي لاڳاپا]]</text>
      <sha1>a2m9n6u9yr2zb9tin280ay983jl2gt1</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399334</id>
      <parentid>399333</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T22:05:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399334</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="148641" sha1="81jj7tgcb61cno563rn9jdrjvf6uawo" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|دائمي امن لاءِ سازگار حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ خاطر ڪيل سرگرميون}}


[[File:Italian Soldier UNIFIL 2 Lebanon 2007.jpg|thumb|[[اطالوي فوج]] جو هڪ [[سپاهي]] لبنان ۾ [[يونيفل]] مشن دوران پهرو ڏئي رهيو آهي.]]

'''امن قائم رکندڙ فوج''' (Peacekeeping Force) انهن سرگرمين، خاص طور فوجي سرگرمين،&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Peacekeeping&quot;. Oxford Languages. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جن جو مقصد اهڙيون حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ هوندو آهي جيڪي پائيدار [[امن]] جي قيام لاءِ سازگار هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/|title=United Nations Peacekeeping|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; تحقيق مان عام طور اهو ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون [[شهري جاني نقصان|شهري]] ۽ جنگي ميدان ۾ ٿيندڙ جاني نقصان کي گهٽائين ٿيون ۽ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي پڻ گهٽائين ٿيون.

[[گڏيل قومون]] (UN) ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل [[قومي رياست]]ن جي حڪومتن ۽ [[تنظيم]]ن جي وچ ۾ عام طور اهو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو ته عالمي سطح تي امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا جنگ کان پوءِ وارن علائقن ۾ امن جي عمل جي نگراني ۽ مشاهدو ڪندا آهن، ۽ اڳوڻن ويڙهاڪن کي انهن امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ ۾ مدد ڏيندا آهن، جن جا هو پابند بڻيل هوندا آهن. اهڙي مدد ڪيترين ئي صورتن ۾ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ اعتماد سازي جا قدم، اقتدار جي ورهاست جا انتظام، چونڊن ۾ مدد، [[قانون جي حڪمراني]] کي مضبوط بڻائڻ، ۽ معاشي ۽ سماجي ترقي کي هٿي ڏيڻ. ان ڪري [[گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا]] (جن کي سندن هلڪي نيري [[بيريٽ]] يا هيلمٽ سبب اڪثر '''نيري بيريٽ''' يا '''نيرا هيلمٽ''' چيو ويندو آهي) ۾ فوجي، [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس آفيسر]] ۽ شهري عملي جا ميمبر شامل ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dpko/ |title=Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dfs/ |title=Department of Field Support (DFS) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جا مشن هلائيندڙ واحد تنظيم گڏيل قومون نه آهن. گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم ڪندڙ قوتن ۾ [[ڪوسوو فورس]] جي [[نيٽو]] مشن (گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان)، [[سينا ٻيٽ نما]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]]، ۽ [[يورپي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[EUFOR RCA]]، گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان) ۽ [[آفريقي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[سوڊان ۾ آفريقي يونين مشن]]) پاران منظم ڪيل امن مشن شامل آهن.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

[[بين الاقوامي قانون]] موجب، امن قائم ڪندڙ پنهنجي غيرجانبدار حيثيت سبب [[غير جنگجو]] (non-combatants) شمار ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي ٻن يا وڌيڪ [[جنگ ڪندڙ ڌر]]ن جي وچ ۾ تڪرار ۾ غيرجانبدار هوندا آهن (بلڪل اهڙيءَ طرح جيئن امن قائم رکڻ جي ذميوارين کان ٻاهر موجود غيرجانبدار ماڻهو ۽ ملڪيت). تنهنڪري انهن کي هر حال ۾ حملن کان تحفظ حاصل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule33 |title=Rule 33. Personnel and Objects Involved in a Peacekeeping Mission|publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]|access-date=April 7, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فائل:UN Soldiers in Eritrea.jpeg|thumb|right|upright=1.00|نيدرلينڊز جا ڊچ فوجي اقوام متحده جي امن جي قيام جي فورس ۾ ايٿوپيا ۽ ايريٽيريا جي سرحد تي گڏيل قومن پاران چوڪسي ڪندي]]

'''امن جي بحالي واري فوج'''{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي=Peace Keeping Force}}
ٻن ملڪن ياڌرين جي وچ ۾ ڪو به تڪرار ايترو زور وٺي وڃي، جو ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت کانسواءِ اهو ٽري نه سگهي، ته ٽين ڌر امن قائم ڪرڻ (Peace Keeping) لاءِ مُختلف اُپاءُ وٺندي آهي. ڪنهن به تڪرار جي حل لاءِ ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت جو مقصد ٻن ڌُرين ۾ رڳو صُلح ڪرائڻ هوندو آهي، جنهن لاءِ فوجي ۽ سُفارتي طريقا ڪتب آندا ويندا آهن. ان کان سواءِ گھُرج پوڻ تي ٽين ڌر (يا وچين ڌر) جهيڙو ڪندڙ ڌرين تي مُختلف قسمن جو دٻاءُ رکندي آهي، جيڪڏهن ڌريون پوءِ به جهيڙي کي نه ٿيون ختم ڪن، ته مٿانئن فوجي قدم کڻڻ لاءِ به اڳڀرائي ڪئي ويندي آهي. جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جو عالمي ادارو|گڏيل قومن]] جو ادارو قائم ڪيو ويو هيو ته ان وقت ٻي عالمي جنگ ختم ٿي هئي، پر ملڪن جا پاڻ ۾ تڪرار پوءِ به هلي رهيا هئا ۽ ”سرد جنگ“ به شروع ٿي چڪي هئي، دُنيا جي امن کي گهڻن قسمن جا خطرا پيدا ٿي چڪا هئا. 1950ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل بين الاقوامي جهيڙن کي پاسيرو ڪرڻ ۽ امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ”احتياطي سفارتڪاري“ (Preventive Diplomacy) جو اصطلاح اڳيان آندو هو. انهيءَ قسم جي حڪمت عملي ۾ ڪنهن به تڪرار کي رڳو ٺارڻ جو حل ڏنل هيو، پر جهيڙي کي مستقل طور ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪجهه واڌو قدم به گهربل هئا. انهيءَ ڪري اهڙي صورتحال ۾ اڳتي هلي ”مشن ڪريپ“ (Mission Creep) جو اصطلاح ڪتب آندو ويو، جنهن ۾ جهيڙي کي مڪمل طور ختم ڪرڻ جي تجويز ڏني وئي. انهيءَ حوالي سان 1956ع ۾ ڪئناڊا جي پرڏيهي معاملن جي وزير ۽ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”ڊگ هئمرشولڊ“ گڏيل قومن جي اداري جي پلئٽفارم تان ”امن قائم ڪرڻ واري فوج“ (Peace Keeping Force) قائم ڪئي، جنهن جي شعبا بندي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ان جي ورديءَ کانسواءِ خاص قسم جي ٽوپي به تيار ڪرائي وئي ۽ ان خاص ٽوپيءَ جو رنگ ”نيرو“ مقرر ڪيو ويو. ٽوپيءَ کي ٻين فوجي ٽوپين کان الڳ رنگ ڏيڻ جو مقصد، بين الاقوامي امن فوج جي انفراديت کي ظاهر ڪرڻ آهي. ان هوندي به ”امن فوج“ جي طريقيڪار ۽ اختيارن کي اڃا تائين چڱيءَ ريت گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر ۾ بيان نه ڪيو ويو آهي. گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر جي 6 ۽ 7 باب ۾، امن جي ڪوشش وٺڻ لاءِ جيڪي تفصيل بيان ڪيا ويا آهن، انهن سان امن جي بحاليءَ واري عمل کي به جوڙيو ويو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن جي بحاليءَ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي پڌرنامي جي روح مطابق جوڙجڪ ضروري آهي. انهن کوٽن جي باوجود، گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج، دُنيا ۾ امن ۽ صلح جي لاءِ گھڻن هنڌن مثال طور؛ ڪمبوڊيا، نميبيا، انگولا، لبنان، ايراني نار ۽ [[سوماليا|صوماليا]] وغيره ۾ ڪاميابيءَ سان پنهنجون ذميواريون پوريون ڪري چڪي آهي. امن فوج جي اهڙي اهميت کي محسوس ڪندي، گڏيل قومن جي اداري ڪيترن مُتاثر ملڪن جي داخلي معاملن ۾ به هن فوج جو استعمال مُناسب ۽ بهتر سمجهيو. منڍ ۾ اها فوج ٻن تڪراري ڌُر جي وچ ۾ هلندڙ جهيِڙو ٽارڻ لاءِ ڪتب آندي ويندي هئي، پر 1988ع کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جي اداري اهڙن ملڪن ۾ به کيس ذميواري سونپيون، جتي گهرو ويڙھ ۾ اَڙيل مُختلف ڌرين ۾ جنگ جاري هُئي ۽ اُتي انتظامي معاملا هيٺ مٿي لڳا پيا هُئا. اهڙن مُلڪن ۾ امن فوج کي گڏيل قومن طرفان چونڊون ڪرائڻ، انتظامي معاملن کي سُڌارڻ، عوام کي تحفظ ڏيڻ ۽ جهيڙن کان تنگ اچي ملڪ ڇڏي ويل ماڻهن کي واپس پنهنجي اباڻي وطن ۾ ٻيهر آباد ڪرائڻ جا اختيار به ڏنا ويا. ٻئي طرف اها به حقيقت آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج کي گھڻن معاملن ۽ هنڌن تي ڪن ملڪن پنهنجن خاص مقصدن لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو. ان کانسواءِ گھڻن علائقن (جهڙوڪ ڪشمير) ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن فوج پنهنجي مقصد حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام وئي آهي. سندس مُقابلي ۾ اولھ جي مُلڪن جي فوجي اتحاد نيٽو امن فوج جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ متحرڪ ۽ اثرائتي رهي آهي. 1992ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”بترس غالي“، امن جي آڻڻ لاءِ خاص علائقي ۽ خاص حالتن آهر مداخلت ڪرڻ ۽ نون اختيار ڏيڻ لاءِ اداري آڏو تجويزون پيش ڪيون، پر ان ڏس ۾ مڪمل سوڀاري ٿيڻ لاءِ ”پيس ڪيپگ“ جو عمل نون ضابطن، اختيارن ۽ قانونن جي انتظار ۾ آهي. 
&lt;ref&gt;[http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/define/Peace%20Keeping%20Force.php سنڌي آنلائين ڊڪشنري]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} پاران [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد&lt;/ref&gt;

== وصفون ۽ امن قائم رکڻ جي عمل جا قسم ==

=== گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ===
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن}}

==== ڇهون باب ۽ ستون باب وارا مشن ====

امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن جا ڪيترائي مختلف قسم آهن. مثال طور، پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي ڪتاب ''Does Peacekeeping Work?'' ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن کي چئن مختلف قسمن ۾ ورهايو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=Chapter 7}}&lt;/ref&gt; انهن مشنن جو قسم ۽ انهن تي عملدرآمد جو طريقو گهڻي حد تائين ان اختيارنامي (mandate) تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، جنهن تحت انهن کي اختيار ڏنو ويندو آهي.

فورٽنا جي بيان ڪيل چئن قسمن مان ٽي اهڙا آهن، جيڪي ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن ۽ انهن کي عام طور ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ڇهون باب|ڇهين باب]]'' وارا مشن چيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته چوٿون قسم ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]]'' وارو مشن هوندو آهي.

ڇهين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشنن لاءِ جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي لازمي هوندي آهي؛ جيڪڏهن اها رضامندي ختم ٿي وڃي ته امن قائم ڪندڙ دستن کي علائقو ڇڏڻو پوندو. ان جي ابتڙ، ستين باب وارن مشنن کي قانوني طور رضامندي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي، جيتوڻيڪ عملي طور اها موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي. جيڪڏهن رضامندي بعد ۾ ختم به ٿي وڃي ته به اهڙن مشنن کي واپس وڃڻ ضروري نه هوندو.

# '''مشاهدي وارا مشن''' (Observation Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي يا شهري مبصرن جا ننڍا دستا شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي جنگبندي، فوجن جي واپسي يا جنگبندي واري معاهدي ۾ ڄاڻايل ٻين شرطن جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. اهي عام طور بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا آهن ۽ سندن بنيادي ذميواري رڳو مشاهدو ڪرڻ ۽ رپورٽون تيار ڪرڻ هوندي آهي؛ تنهن ڪري جيڪڏهن ڪا ڌر معاهدي جي ڀڃڪڙي ڪري ته اهي مداخلت ڪرڻ جا مجاز نه هوندا آهن. مثال طور [[انگولا]] ۾ 1991ع وارو [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن II]] (UNAVEM II) ۽ [[اولهه صحارا]] ۾ [[اولهه صحارا بابت راءِ شماري لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو مشن]] (MINURSO).

# '''وچٿري مشن''' (Interpositional Missions)، جن کي روايتي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، نسبتاً وڏن ۽ هلڪي هٿياربند فوجي دستن تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جيڪي تڪرار کان پوءِ ٻن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ طور مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهي ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ بفر زون جو ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. مثال طور 1994ع ۾ [[انگولا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن III]] (UNAVEM III) ۽ 1996ع ۾ [[گوئٽي مالا]] ۾ [[MINUGUA]].

# '''گهڻ رخا مشن''' (Multidimensional Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس]] عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو جامع امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندو آهي. اهي رڳو مشاهدو يا ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رڪاوٽ بڻجڻ تائين محدود نه هوندا آهن، پر چونڊن جي نگراني، پوليس ۽ سلامتي ادارن جي سڌارن، ادارن جي تعمير، معاشي ترقي ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي شعبن ۾ پڻ حصو وٺندا آهن. مثال طور [[نيميبيا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو عبوري امدادي گروهه]] (UNTAG)، [[ايل سلواڊور]] ۾ [[ONUSAL]] ۽ [[موزمبيق]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUMOZ).

# '''[[امن لاڳو ڪندڙ]] مشن''' (Peace Enforcement Missions): اهي ستين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشن هوندا آهن ۽ اڳين ٽن قسمن جي ابتڙ، جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ جا پابند نه هوندا آهن. اهي شهري ۽ فوجي ٻنهي قسمن جي عملي تي مشتمل گهڻ رخا مشن هوندا آهن. انهن وٽ نسبتاً وڏي ۽ بهتر هٿياربند فوج هوندي آهي ۽ انهن کي صرف پنهنجي بچاءَ کان وڌيڪ مقصدن لاءِ به طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل هوندو آهي. مثال طور [[اولهه آفريڪا]] ۾ [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري جو نگراني گروهه]] (ECOMOG)، 1999ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو سيرا ليون مشن]] (UNAMSIL)، ۽ [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ [[نيٽو]] جا [[IFOR]] ۽ [[SFOR]] آپريشن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;/&gt;

==== سرد جنگ دوران ۽ ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ====

[[سرد جنگ]] جي دور ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جا اڪثر مشن روايتي نوعيت جا هئا، جن ۾ امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا ملڪن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ جنگن کان پوءِ مقرر ڪيا ويندا هئا ته جيئن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ بڻجن ۽ امن معاهدن تي عملدرآمد کي يقيني بڻائين. اهي مشن رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا هئا ۽ گهڻو ڪري مبصر بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا هئا، جيئن [[وچ اوڀر]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) ۽ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] بابت [[ڪشمير بابت گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP). ڪجهه مشن هٿياربند به هئا، جهڙوڪ [[سوئيز بحران]] دوران قائم ڪيل [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I). مجموعي طور اهي مشن پنهنجي مقرر ڪيل ڪردار ۾ ڪامياب رهيا.

[[سرد جنگ کان پوءِ وارو دور|سرد جنگ کان پوءِ]] گڏيل قومن امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ جامع ۽ گهڻ رخي طريقيڪار اختيار ڪيو. 1992ع ۾ ان وقت جي [[گڏيل قومن جو سيڪريٽري جنرل|سيڪريٽري جنرل]] [[بوتروس بوتروس غالي]] هڪ رپورٽ تيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ امن قائم رکڻ بابت پنهنجو جامع تصور پيش ڪيو. ''[[امن لاءِ ايجنڊا]]'' (An Agenda for Peace) نالي هن رپورٽ ۾ هن احتياطي سفارتڪاري، امن لاڳو ڪرڻ، امن ڪرائڻ، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ بحاليءَ کي هڪ ٻئي سان ڳنڍيل قدمن طور بيان ڪيو، جن جي ذريعي سرد جنگ کان پوءِ واري عالمي سياست ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ڪردار وڌيڪ اثرائتو بڻجي سگهي.

==== گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جا وسيع مقصد ====

[[مائيڪل ڊوئل]] ۽ نڪولس سامبانس پنهنجي ڪتاب ''The UN Record on Peacekeeping Operations'' ۾ بوتروس غالي جي رپورٽ جو خلاصو پيش ڪندي احتياطي سفارتڪاري، اعتماد سازي جي قدمن (جهڙوڪ حقيقت معلوم ڪرڻ وارا مشن)، مبصر مشن، ۽ تشدد جي خطري کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي اختيار هيٺ فوج مقرر ڪرڻ کي پائيدار امن لاءِ اهم ذريعا قرار ڏين ٿا. سندن بيان موجب:

# '''امن لاڳو ڪرڻ''' (Peace Enforcement): گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي منظور ڪيل جنگبندي يا معاهدي تي عمل ڪرائڻ لاءِ، ضرورت پوڻ تي ڌرين جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به فوجي طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ. اهڙا مشن عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]] تحت هلندا آهن ۽ انهن ۾ مقرر فوجون نسبتاً وڌيڪ هٿياربند هونديون آهن.

# '''امن ڪرائڻ''' (Peacemaking): گڏيل قومن جي سرپرستي هيٺ ثالثي ۽ ڳالهين ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين کي پرامن حل تي راضي ڪرڻ. هي عمل عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] جي ڇهين باب تحت ڪيو ويندو آهي.

# '''امن قائم رکڻ''' (Peacekeeping): جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي سان هلڪي هٿياربند گڏيل قومن جي موجودگي قائم ڪرڻ، اعتماد پيدا ڪرڻ ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ٿيل معاهدن جي نگراني ڪرڻ. ان سان گڏ سفارتي ڪوششون پڻ جاري رهنديون آهن ته جيئن جامع ۽ پائيدار امن حاصل ڪري سگهجي.

# '''تڪرار کان پوءِ بحالي''' (Post-Conflict Reconstruction): معاشي ۽ سماجي سهڪار ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي بحال ڪرڻ، سياسي، سماجي ۽ معاشي ادارن کي مضبوط ڪرڻ، مستقبل ۾ تشدد جي امڪان کي گهٽائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|date=2007|title=The UN Record On Peacekeeping Operations|journal=International Journal|volume=63|issue=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ ۾ غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) سان گڏجي [[ثقافتي ورثو|ثقافتي ورثي]] جي تحفظ لاءِ ڪم ڪرڻ پڻ شامل آهي. ثقافتي ورثي جي حفاظت بابت گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري وابستگي 2012ع کان جاري آهي ۽ ان کي آهستي آهستي وڌايو پيو وڃي. ان سلسلي ۾ 2019ع ۾ [[يونيفل]] ۽ [[بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل]] جو لبنان ۾ [[يونيسڪو عالمي ورثو]] جي تحفظ لاءِ گڏيل مشن نمايان مثال آهي. فوجي ۽ شهري ماهرن پاران مقامي آباديءَ سان گڏجي ثقافتي ورثي جو تحفظ ڪيترن ئي تڪراري علائقن ۾ مستقبل جي پرامن ۽ معاشي ترقيءَ جو بنياد بڻجي ٿو. بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل جي صدر [[ڪارل فون هيبسبرگ]]، اپريل 2019ع ۾ لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ [[يونيسڪو]] جي مشن دوران چيو: ''&quot;ثقافتي ورثو ڪنهن به علائقي ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جي سڃاڻپ جو حصو هوندو آهي. جيڪڏهن توهان انهن جي ثقافت تباهه ڪريو ٿا ته سندن سڃاڻپ به ختم ٿي وڃي ٿي. نتيجي ۾ ڪيترائي ماڻهو بي گهر ٿي وڃن ٿا، سندن مستقبل بابت اميدون ختم ٿي وڃن ٿيون ۽ هو آخرڪار پنهنجو وطن ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ٿين ٿا.&quot;''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Karl von Habsburg auf Mission im Libanon|date=April 28, 2019 |url=https://www.krone.at/1911689|language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Jyot Hosagrahar: ''Culture: at the heart of SDGs.'' UNESCO-Kurier, April-Juni 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rick Szostak: ''The Causes of Economic Growth: Interdisciplinary Perspectives.'' Springer Science &amp; Business Media, 2009, {{ISBN|9783540922827}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bundesheer.at/cms/artikel.php?ID=10118 &quot;Blue Helmet Forum 2019 - Protection of Cultural Heritage in Peace Operations&quot;, Austrian Armed Forces].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017nian-di-3qi/historic-resolution-protect-cultural-heritage|title=A historic resolution to protect cultural heritage, The UNESCO Courier}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/action-plan-to-preserve-heritage-sites-during-conflict|title=Action plan to preserve heritage sites during conflict|website=United Nations Peacekeeping}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''UNESCO Director-General calls for stronger cooperation for heritage protection at the Blue Shield International General Assembly.'' UNESCO, September 13, 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم رکڻ ===
{{See also|غير گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي فهرست|نيٽو امن قائم رکڻ|يورپي يونين جي فوجي ۽ شهري مشنن جي فهرست|آفريقي يونين جي فوجي مداخلتن جي فهرست}}

[[File:En-MFO1.JPG|thumb|right|1989ع ۾ [[مصر]] جي [[سنائي اپٻيٽ|سنائي]] واري علائقي جي [[ايل گوراح]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) جي غير گڏيل قومن واري امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن سان مقرر ڪيل ڪينيڊا جا [[CH135 ٽوئن هيوئي]] هيليڪاپٽر.]]

[[File:75Parad 04.jpg|thumb|[[آذربائيجان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جا ميمبر، [[2020 ماسڪو فتح پريڊ]] دوران مڪمل فوجي ورديءَ ۾.]]

سڀئي بين الاقوامي امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا سڌي طرح گڏيل قومن جي ڪنٽرول هيٺ ڪم نٿا ڪن. 1981ع ۾ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ [[مصر]] جي وچ ۾ ٿيل هڪ معاهدي تحت [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) قائم ڪئي وئي، جيڪا اڄ تائين [[سنائي اپٻيٽ]] ۾ امن معاهدي تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;10TAGpgA-1&quot;&gt;10 Tactical Air Group: ''Canadian Contingent Multinational Force and Observers Handbook'' (unclassified), page A-1. DND, Ottawa, 1986.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[آفريقي يونين]] (AU) آفريقي امن ۽ سلامتي جو اهڙو ڍانچو (آفريڪن پيس اينڊ سڪيورٽي آرڪيٽيڪچر) قائم ڪرڻ تي ڪم ڪري رهي آهي، جيڪو براعظم ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري نڀائي سگهي. جيڪڏهن ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ [[نسل ڪشي]] يا انساني حقن جون ٻيون سنگين ڀڃڪڙيون ٿين، ته آفريقي يونين جي جنرل اسيمبلي جي منظوري سان، ان ملڪ جي حڪومت جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن موڪلي سگهجي ٿو. هن نظام، جنهن ۾ [[آفريقي اسٽينڊ بائي فورس]] (ASF) پڻ شامل آهي، جي قيام جو منصوبو 2015ع کان اڳ نه هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/african-peace-and-security-architecture-already-proving-useful-even-though-it-still-work |title=The African Peace and Security Architecture is already proving useful even though it is still work in progress |publisher=dandc.eu |date=August 27, 2013 |access-date=November 14, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

علائقائي سطح تي [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري]] (ECOWAS) پنهنجي ڪجهه ميمبر ملڪن ۾ ڪيترائي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا آهن، ۽ ان کي &quot;آفريڪا جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ ترقي يافته علائقائي امن ۽ سلامتي وارو نظام&quot; قرار ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Oni|first1=Cyril I.|date=2009|journal=African Security|volume=2|pages=119–135|doi=10.1080/19362200903361945|title=Economic Community of West African States on the Ground: Comparing Peacekeeping in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea Bissau, and Côte D'Ivoire|issue=2–3|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''غير هٿياربند شهري امن قائم رکڻ''' (ان آرمڊ سويلين پيس ڪيپنگ، UCP) ۾ شهري عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو تڪراري علائقن ۾ شهرين کي تشدد کان بچائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن جي قيام جي ڪوششن جي سهائتا لاءِ غير تشدد، غير مداخلت ۽ غير جانبداريءَ تي ٻڌل حڪمت عمليون اختيار ڪندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ UCP جو اصطلاح سڀني غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) ۾ هڪجهڙو عام نه آهي، پر ڪيترائي ادارا ساڳين طريقن سان ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ امن بابت هڪجهڙا مقصد رکندا آهن. انهن طريقن ۾ متاثر ماڻهن سان گڏ رهڻ، مستقل موجودگي، افواهن تي ضابطو آڻڻ، برادريءَ جي سلامتي بابت گڏجاڻيون، محفوظ لنگهن جو بندوبست ڪرڻ ۽ نگراني ڪرڻ شامل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rachel|first1=Julian|last2=Schweitzer|first2=Christine|date=2015|title=The Origins And Development of Unarmed Civilian Peacekeeping|url=http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|journal=Peace Review|volume=27|issue=1|pages=1–8|doi=10.1080/10402659.2015.1000181|s2cid=144911738|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719124249/http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|archive-date=July 19, 2018|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== مختصر تاريخ ==
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي تاريخ}}

=== قيام ۽ شروعاتي سال ===

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري نظام جي شروعات 1948ع ۾ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] [[1948ع جي عرب-اسرائيل جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ ان جي عرب پاڙيسري ملڪن وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي واري معاهدي جي نگراني لاءِ وچ اوڀر ۾ گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن کي مقرر ڪرڻ جي منظوري ڏني. هن مشن کي [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) سڏيو ويو، جيڪو اڄ تائين جاري آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/history.shtml|title=History of Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آگسٽ 1949ع ۾ سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 73 (1949ع) منظور ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNTSO کي اسرائيل ۽ انهن عرب رياستن جي وچ ۾ ٿيل چئن جنگبندي معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني جي ذميواري ڏني وئي، جيڪي ان جنگ ۾ شامل هيون. نتيجي طور، UNTSO جون سرگرميون علائقي جي پنجن رياستن، يعني [[اسرائيل]]، [[مصر]]، [[اردن]]، [[لبنان]] ۽ [[شام]] تائين ڦهلجي ويون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/untso/background.shtml|title=UNTSO Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== سرد جنگ دوران امن قائم رکڻ ===

آگسٽ 1947ع ۾ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] جي آزادي ۽ ان کان پوءِ ٿيل وڏي پيماني تي خونريزيءَ کان پوءِ، سلامتي ڪائونسل جنوري 1948ع ۾ قرارداد 39 (1948ع) منظور ڪري [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP) قائم ڪيو، جنهن جو مقصد [[ڪشمير]] بابت ٻنهي ملڪن جي وچ ۾ پيدا ٿيل تڪرار ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل ويڙهه ۾ ثالثي ڪرڻ هو.

هي مشن غير مداخلتي نوعيت جو هو ۽ ان کي [[ڄمون ۽ ڪشمير]] ۾ ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان جي وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي جي نگراني جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي. جولاءِ 1949ع ۾ [[ڪراچي معاهدو]] ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNCIP جنگبندي واري لڪير جي نگراني شروع ڪئي، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن ۽ ٻنهي ڌرين جي مقامي فوجي ڪمانڊرن جي گڏيل نگراني هيٺ هئي. هن مشن جو تسلسل اڄ به [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان ۾ گڏيل قومن جو فوجي مبصر گروپ]] (UNMOGIP) جي نالي سان جاري آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unmogip/background.shtml|title=UNMOGIP Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف ملڪن ۾ ڪُل 69 امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي منظوري ڏني.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;/&gt; انهن مان گهڻا مشن سرد جنگ جي خاتمي کان پوءِ قائم ٿيا. 1988ع کان 1998ع جي وچ ۾ گڏيل قومن 35 نوان امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا، جڏهن ته 1948ع کان 1978ع تائين صرف 13 مشن قائم ٿيا هئا، ۽ 1978ع کان 1988ع جي وچ واري ڏهاڪي دوران ڪو به نئون مشن قائم نه ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Duffey|first=Tamara|date=2000|title=Cultural Issues in Contemporary Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=7|issue=1|pages=142–168|doi=10.1080/13533310008413823|s2cid=145210823}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|142–168}}

گڏيل قومن جي پهرين هٿياربند مداخلت 1956ع جي [[سوئيز بحران]] کان پوءِ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I) قائم ڪئي وئي. هي فوج نومبر 1956ع کان جون 1967ع تائين موجود رهي ۽ ان کي [[مصر]]، [[برطانيه]]، [[فرانس]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] جي وچ ۾ جنگبندي برقرار رکڻ، مصري علائقي مان برطانوي، فرينچ ۽ اسرائيلي فوجن جي واپسي جي نگراني ڪرڻ، ۽ پوءِ مصر ۽ اسرائيل جي فوجن جي وچ ۾ بفر فورس طور ڪم ڪندي جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ جو مينڊيٽ ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unef1mandate.html|title=UNEF Mandate|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان ٿوري ئي عرصي بعد 1960ع ۾ [[ڪانگو ۾ گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUC) شروع ڪيو ويو. پنهنجي عروج تي هن مشن ۾ ويهه هزار کان وڌيڪ فوجي اهلڪار شامل هئا، ۽ ان دوران 250 گڏيل قومن جا اهلڪار مارجي ويا، جن ۾ ان وقت جو سيڪريٽري جنرل [[ڊيگ هيملشولڊ]] پڻ شامل هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/early.shtml|title=The Early Years of UN Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ONUC جو مقصد [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] مان بيلجيم جي فوجن جي واپسي کي يقيني بڻائڻ هو، جيڪي [[فورس پبليڪ]] جي بغاوت کان پوءِ بيلجيم جي شهرين ۽ اقتصادي مفادن جي تحفظ لاءِ ٻيهر داخل ٿي ويون هيون. هن مشن کي قانون ۽ امن امان بحال ڪرڻ، بغاوت ۽ نسلي تشدد کي ختم ڪرڻ، ڪانگولي سلامتي فورسن کي فني مدد ۽ تربيت ڏيڻ، ۽ ملڪ جي علائقائي سالميت ۽ سياسي خودمختياري کي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/onuc.htm|title=ONUC|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي ذميواري خاص طور تي [[ڪتانگا]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪاسائي]] جهڙن معدني وسيلن سان مالامال صوبن جي علحدگيءَ واري تحريڪ جي پسمنظر ۾ شامل ڪئي وئي. ان دور ۾ گڏيل قومن جون فوجون، ڪجهه تڪراري انداز ۾، ڪانگو جي حڪومت جي مدد ڪندي ٻنهي صوبن جي علحدگي ختم ڪرائڻ ۾ به ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

1960ع ۽ 1970ع واري ڏهاڪن دوران گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف علائقن ۾ ڪيترائي مختصر مدي وارا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن قائم ڪيا، جن ۾ [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريه ۾ سيڪريٽري جنرل جي نمائندي جو مشن]] (DOMREP)، [[اولهه نيو گني ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي فورس]] (UNSF) ۽ [[يمن ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مبصر مشن]] (UNYOM) شامل هئا. ساڳئي وقت ڪجهه ڊگهي مدي وارا مشن پڻ جاري رهيا، جهڙوڪ [[قبرص ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج]] (UNFICYP)، [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج II]] (UNEF II)، [[گڏيل قومن جي ڌرين جي الڳ ٿيڻ جي نگراني ڪندڙ فوج]] (UNDOF)، ۽ [[لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن جي عبوري فوج]] (UNIFIL).&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;/&gt;

=== 1991ع کان پوءِ ===

[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-un-holds-head.jpg|thumb|[[سراييوو جو گهيرو|سراييوو جي گهيري]] (1992ع–1993ع) دوران هڪ [[ناروي]] جو امن قائم رکڻ وارو اهلڪار؛ تصوير: [[ميخائل اِوستافيئف]].]]

[[يوگوسلاو جنگين]] دوران امن قائم رکڻ جي تجربن، خاص طور تي [[سربرينيتسا قتلِ عام]] جهڙين ناڪامين، جزوي طور [[گڏيل قومن جي امن تعمير ڪميشن]] (يونائيٽيڊ نيشنز پيس بلڊنگ ڪميشن) جي قيام جو سبب بڻيا. هي ڪميشن چونڊن ۽ ٻين شهري ادارن جي مضبوطي جهڙين سرگرمين وسيلي پائيدار امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ انجام ڏيندا آهن. هن وقت اها ڪميشن آفريڪا جي ڇهن ملڪن سان ڪم ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/projects/africa/beyond-peace-deals-united-nations-experiment-peacebuilding |title=Beyond Peace Deals: The United Nations Experiment in &quot;Peacebuilding&quot;|date=June 22, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ڳالهين سان گڏ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، ۾ عورتن جي وڌيڪ مؤثر شرڪت، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهرن جي مقرري، هٿياربند تڪرارن جا عورتن تي پوندڙ اثرن بابت وڌيڪ معلومات، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |title=UN Security Council Takes a Historic Stand Supporting Abortion Access for Women Raped in War / Library / Homepage |publisher=AWID |access-date=October 28, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203101025/http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |archive-date=December 3, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن سان امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW)، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن بابت ڪميٽي آهي، هڪ عام سفارش جاري ڪئي، جنهن موجب اهي رياستون، جيڪي گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جون ڌريون آهن، پابند آهن ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌيءَ طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ فوجون موڪلين، يا تڪرارن جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مالي يا ٻئي قسم جي مدد فراهم ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=13885&amp;LangID=E|title=OHCHR -|website=www.ohchr.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪميٽي اهو پڻ واضح ڪيو ته اهڙين رياستن کي مناسب احتياط اختيار ڪرڻ گهرجي ته جيئن [[غير رياستي ڌريون]]، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي سلامتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ٿيندڙ ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

[[پيج فورٽنا]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي مقرري بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍيو ته ''&quot;امن قائم رکڻ رسد ۽ طلب جو معاملو آهي.&quot;'' رسد جي لحاظ کان سندس مشاهدو آهي ته سلامتي ڪائونسل جي مستقل ميمبرن مان ڪنهن هڪ جي ويجهن ملڪن ۾ هلندڙ گهرو ويڙهن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن مقرر ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن. جڏهن ته طلب جي لحاظ کان مختلف تحقيقون ظاهر ڪن ٿيون ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن گهڻو ڪري انهن ملڪن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن، جتي انهن جي ضرورت سڀ کان وڌيڪ هوندي آهي، يعني جتي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تمام گهڻو هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot; /&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي جوڙجڪ ==

=== اهي ملڪ جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺن ٿا ===
{{See also|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي تعداد موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Irish troops UNMIL.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|جولاءِ 2006ع ۾ [[لائبيريا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو مشن لائبيريا]] (UNMIL) سان مقرر آئرش فوجي گشت ڪندي.]]

[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] موجب، دنيا ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ ۾ مدد ڏيڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا سڀئي ميمبر ملڪ سلامتي ڪائونسل کي ضرورت موجب فوجي دستا ۽ ٻيون سهولتون فراهم ڪندا. 1948ع کان وٺي لڳ ڀڳ 130 ملڪن امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن لاءِ فوجي اهلڪار، شهري پوليس ۽ ٻيو عملو فراهم ڪيو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ 1948ع کان وٺي سڀني امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏيندڙ اهلڪارن جو مڪمل رڪارڊ موجود ناهي، پر اندازو آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي 71 مشنن ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه لک فوجين، پوليس اهلڪارن ۽ شهرين گڏيل قومن جي جهنڊي هيٺ خدمتون انجام ڏنيون آهن. سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين 122 ملڪ گڏيل طور لڳ ڀڳ 76,000 فوجي مبصر، پوليس اهلڪار ۽ فوجي مهيا ڪري رهيا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Troop and police contributors|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/troop-and-police-contributors|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

شرڪت ڪندڙ ملڪن جو تعداد گهڻو هجڻ باوجود، امن قائم رکڻ جو وڏو بار اڃا تائين [[ترقي پذير ملڪ|ترقي پذير ملڪن]] جي هڪ بنيادي گروهه تي آهي. آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي، پوليس ۽ فوجي ماهر موڪليندڙ ڏهه ملڪ [[بنگلاديش]] (6,447)، [[نيپال]] (5,536)، [[ڀارت]] (5,481)، [[روانڊا]] (5,263)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (4,856)، [[پاڪستان]] (3,949)، [[مصر]] (2,818)، [[انڊونيشيا]] (2,818)، [[گهانا]] (2,296) ۽ [[چين]] (2,248) هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين 14,000 کان وڌيڪ شهري اهلڪار به امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ قانوني يا طبي ماهرن، استادن، مواصلاتي ٽيڪنالاجي جي ماهرن ۽ انتظامي عملي طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/civilians|title=Civilians|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

30 سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن دوران 100 کان وڌيڪ ملڪن سان تعلق رکندڙ 4,147 ماڻهو پنهنجون حياتيون وڃائي چڪا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/fatalities|title=Fatalities|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان وڌيڪ جاني نقصان [[ڀارت]] جو ٿيو، جنهن جا 174 امن اهلڪار مارجي ويا، ان کان پوءِ [[بنگلاديش]] (159)، [[پاڪستان]] (159)، [[نائيجيريا]] (157)، [[گهانا]] (145)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (138)، [[ڪينيڊا]] (123)، [[فرانس]] (115) ۽ [[برطانيه]] (106) شامل آهن. 1948ع کان وٺي سراسري طور هر سال 56 امن اهلڪار ماريا ويا، پر 2001ع کان پوءِ هي انگ لڳ ڀڳ ٻيڻو ٿي هر سال 110 تائين پهچي ويو. گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي پهرين 55 سالن دوران ٿيل ڪل جاني نقصان جو 30 سيڪڙو حصو صرف 1993ع کان 1995ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جي شعبي ۾ عالمي اتر ۽ عالمي ڏکڻ (Global North ۽ Global South) جي وچ ۾ واضح فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي وڏي اڪثريت [[عالمي ڏکڻ]] جي ترقي پذير ملڪن مان ايندي آهي. [[ٿامس جي. وائيس]] ۽ جيووانا ڪيولي موجب، ان جا ٽي اهم سبب علائقائي مفاد، بين الاقوامي وقار ۽ مالي فائدا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=February 3, 2019|title=The Global South and UN Peace Operations|url=https://www.e-ir.info/2019/02/03/the-global-south-and-un-peace-operations/|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=E-International Relations|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آفريقي ملڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا سڀ کان وڌيڪ اهلڪار فراهم ڪن ٿا، پر ساڳئي وقت آفريڪا ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جو تعداد به سڀ کان وڌيڪ آهي، ۽ گهڻا آفريقي امن اهلڪار آفريڪا جي اندر ئي مقرر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، ايٿوپيا جا لڳ ڀڳ سڀئي 4,800 امن اهلڪار پاڙيسري ملڪن [[سوڊان]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ مقرر هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺڻ سان ترقي پذير ملڪن کي بين الاقوامي وقار پڻ حاصل ٿيندو آهي، ۽ اهو [[عظيم طاقت]] طور پنهنجون دعوائون مضبوط ڪرڻ ۾ مددگار ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيئن [[برازيل]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جي صورت ۾ ڏٺو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، غريب ملڪن لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين کي موڪلڻ مالي لحاظ کان به فائديمند هوندو آهي. هر امن اهلڪار لاءِ ماهوار واپسيءَ جي رقم ۾ پگهار ۽ الائونس لاءِ 1,028 آمريڪي ڊالر، ماهرن لاءِ اضافي 303 آمريڪي ڊالر، ذاتي لباس، سامان ۽ اوزارن لاءِ 68 آمريڪي ڊالر، ۽ ذاتي هٿيار لاءِ 5 آمريڪي ڊالر شامل هوندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/faq/q10.htm|title=United Nations Peacekeepers - How are peacekeepers compensated?|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; گڏيل قومن طرفان فراهم ڪيل اهي ادائيگيون، تربيت ۽ سامان، انفرادي فوجين سان گڏ ترقي پذير ملڪن لاءِ به مالي طور پرڪشش هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ مقرر ڪيل فوجي ۽ شهري پوليس اهلڪارن مان لڳ ڀڳ 4.5 سيڪڙو [[يورپي يونين]] مان ايندا آهن، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو حصو هڪ سيڪڙو کان به گهٽ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;factsheet&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/overview.shtml |title=Peacekeeping Fact Sheet |publisher=United Nations|access-date=December 20, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

مشنن جي قيادت بابت عام طور تي فوجي ڪمانڊر انهن ملڪن مان چونڊيا ويندا آهن، جيڪي سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي دستا فراهم ڪندا آهن، جڏهن ته سيڪريٽري جنرل جا خاص نمائندا گهڻو ڪري ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Oksamytna |first1= Kseniya|last2= Bove |first2= Vincenzo|last3= Lundgren |first3= Magnus|date= 2021 |title=Leadership selection in United Nations peacekeeping |journal= International Studies Quarterly|volume= 65|pages= 16–28|doi= 10.1093/isq/sqaa023 |doi-access= free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت ===
{{See also|امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتون}}

[[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 1325]] عورتن کي تڪرارن جي روڪٿام ۽ حل، امن ڳالهين، امن جي تعمير، امن قائم رکڻ، انساني امداد ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ ۾ سرگرم ۽ برابر ڌر طور شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو پهريون اهم قدم هو. هن قرارداد ۾ زور ڏنو ويو ته امن ۽ سلامتي جي قيام ۽ واڌاري لاءِ ٿيندڙ سڀني ڪوششن ۾ عورتن جي برابر شرڪت ۽ مڪمل شموليت کي يقيني بڻايو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and the Advancement of Women. &quot;[http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/wps/#resolution Landmark resolution on Women, Peace and Security]&quot;, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Security Council (October 31, 2000) &quot;Resolution 1325&quot;, S/RES/1325, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;

هن قرارداد تي هڪ تنقيد اها به ڪئي وئي آهي ته ان ۾ صنفي مرڪزي ڌارا (جينڊر مين اسٽريمنگ) کي لاڳو ڪرڻ جي ڳالهه ڪئي وئي، پر عملي طور گهڻو ڌيان صرف عورتن جي شموليت وڌائڻ تي ڏنو ويو، جڏهن ته مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي تي پاليسين جي اثرن جو مناسب جائزو نه ورتو ويو. 2010ع ۾ هن قرارداد جي ڏهن سالن جي اثرن بابت هڪ جامع جائزو ورتو ويو، جنهن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ان تي عملدرآمد محدود حد تائين ڪامياب رهيو، خاص طور تي امن ڳالهين ۽ امن معاهدن ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت وڌائڻ جي حوالي سان، جڏهن ته جنسي ۽ صنفي بنياد تي تشدد گهٽائڻ جي ڪوششن باوجود اهو مسئلو برقرار رهيو.&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations and Department of Field Support (2010). &quot;Ten-year Impact Study on Implementation of UN Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) on Women, Peace and Security in Peacekeeping&quot;, United Nations, p. 9-10. https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/documents/10year_impact_study_1325.pdf.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Ghana IntPeaceCorps 2016-05-29 B002a.jpg|thumb|گھانا جون عورتون گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏينديون.]]

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهريت، هٿياربند تڪرارن جي عورتن تي اثرن بابت بهتر ڄاڻ، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي وڌيڪ سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ مؤثر قدمن تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;/&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن خلاف امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW) پڻ پنهنجي هڪ عام سفارش ۾ چيو ته جن رياستن گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جي توثيق ڪئي آهي، انهن تي لازم آهي ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌي طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا، تڪرار جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مدد فراهم ڪري رهيون هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

ڪميٽي وڌيڪ چيو ته توثيق ڪندڙ رياستن کي مناسب احتياط سان اهو به يقيني بڻائڻ گهرجي ته غير رياستي ڌريون، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي حفاظتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

جولاءِ 2016ع تائين عورتون گڏيل قومن جي هر امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن ۾ فوجي، پوليس يا شهري عملي جي حيثيت سان خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيون هيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/resources/statistics/gender.shtml|title=Gender statistics. United Nations Peacekeeping|website=www.un.org|access-date=September 6, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

1993ع ۾ مقرر ٿيل يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن مان رڳو 1 سيڪڙو عورتون هيون. 2020ع تائين لڳ ڀڳ 95,000 امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن مان عورتون فوجي عملي جو 4.8 سيڪڙو، پوليس عملي جو 10.9 سيڪڙو، ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عملي جو 34 سيڪڙو هيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Women in peacekeeping|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/women-peacekeeping|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين اهڙو ڪو به ملڪ، جيڪو گڏيل قومن لاءِ 100 کان وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار موڪلي ٿو، پنهنجي دستي ۾ 25 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ عورتون نامزد نه ڪندو هو. حقيقي انگن اکرن موجب سڀ کان وڏا عورتن جا دستا [[ايٿوپيا]] (578 عورتون، يعني ان جي ڪل دستي جو 12 سيڪڙو)، [[روانڊا]] (500، يعني 10 سيڪڙو) ۽ [[گهانا]] (389، يعني 17 سيڪڙو) طرفان فراهم ڪيا ويا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

جيتوڻيڪ فوجي عملي ۾ عورتن جي مقرر تناسب بابت گڏيل قومن ڪو لازمي هدف مقرر نه ڪيو آهي، پر ميمبر رياستن کان درخواست ڪئي وئي آهي ته اهي پوليس آفيسرن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 20 سيڪڙو ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 30 سيڪڙو عورتون نامزد ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot; /&gt;

2024ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجي دستن ۾ عورتن جو ڪل انگ گهٽجي ويو، پر انهن جو تناسب وڌيو. يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن ۾ صنفي برابري واري حڪمت عملي (يونيفارمڊ جينڊر پئرٽي اسٽريٽجي) شروع ٿيڻ کان پوءِ عورتن جو تناسب مسلسل وڌندو رهيو آهي. عورتن جي ڪل تعداد ۾ گهٽتائي جو وڏو سبب [[گڏيل قومن جو مالي ۾ ڪثيرالجہتي مربوط استحڪامي مشن]] (MINUSMA) جو خاتمو هو. جون 2024ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن ۾ مقرر فوجي عملي مان عورتن جو تناسب 8.6 سيڪڙو هو، جيڪو گذريل سال جي ڀيٽ ۾ 1.3 سيڪڙو وڌيڪ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pfeifer Cruz |first=Claudia |title=Women in Multilateral Peace Operations in 2024: What is the State of Play? |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241031064944/https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |archive-date=October 31, 2024 |date=October 2024 |doi=10.55163/VYHM5282 |doi-access=free |location=Stockholm |publisher=SIPRI}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ جو نظرياتي بنياد ==


جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ ۽ امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي ڪردار بابت گهڻو ڪجهه لکيو ويو آهي، پر اهڙي تجرباتي تحقيق نسبتاً گهٽ ٿي آهي، جيڪا اهو واضح ڪري سگهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول ۾ ڪهڙي نموني اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. [[ڪولمبيا يونيورسٽي]] جي پروفيسر [[ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا]] چار اهڙن سببن (ڪيئيوئل ميڪينزم) جي سڃاڻپ ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي، جن جي ذريعي امن قائم رکڻ وارا پائيدار امن لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices After Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|location=Princeton|pages=175}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا موجب اهي چار بنيادي طريقا هي آهن:

# تازن ويڙهاڪن جي ترغيبي عنصرن ۾ تبديلي آڻڻ، جيئن امن وڌيڪ فائديمند ۽ جنگ وڌيڪ مهانگي محسوس ٿئي.
# غير يقيني صورتحال ۽ خوف کي گهٽائڻ، جيڪي سلامتي جي مخمصي (سڪيورٽي ڊليما) کي وڌائين ٿا.
# حادثاتي واقعن يا بي ضابطه هٿياربند گروهن جي ڪاررواين کي روڪڻ يا ضابطي ۾ آڻڻ، جيڪي ٻيهر جنگ جو سبب بڻجي سگهن.
# ڪنهن هڪ ڌر (خاص طور حڪومت) طرفان سياسي زيادتين کي روڪڻ، جيڪي امن کان محروم ڌرين کي ٻيهر هٿيار کڻڻ تي مجبور ڪري سگهن.

فورٽنا جو دليل آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا امن جي عمل تي مثبت اثر ڇڏين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ انهن کي اڪثر اهڙن هنڌن تي موڪليو ويندو آهي، جتي امن قائم رکڻ سڀ کان وڌيڪ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. امن قائم رکڻ تي تنقيد ڪندڙ اڪثر چوندا آهن ته اهي مشن غير مؤثر يا غير ضروري آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن ويڙهاڪ ڌريون پاڻ امن برقرار رکڻ ۾ دلچسپي رکن ٿيون ته امن قائم رهندو. تنهن هوندي به، فورٽنا جو خيال آهي ته مٿي بيان ڪيل سبب ڏيکارين ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا پائيدار امن کي يقيني بڻائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، خاص طور تي انهن حالتن جي ڀيٽ ۾ جتي ويڙهاڪ ڌريون مڪمل طور پنهنجي حال تي ڇڏيل هجن. اهي سبب اهو به واضح ڪن ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ جي ضرورت ڇو آهي ۽ اهو تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول تي ڪيئن اثرانداز ٿي سگهي ٿو.

جنگ جي ترغيبن کي گهٽائڻ ۽ امن کي وڌيڪ پرڪشش بڻائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومون نفاذي اختيارن (انفورسمينٽ مينڊيٽ) تحت فوجي قوت مقرر ڪري سگهي ٿي، جيڪا امن خراب ڪندڙ ڌرين لاءِ روڪ جو سبب بڻجي. اهڙا دستا حالتن جي نگراني ڪري سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي اوچتي حملي جو امڪان گهٽجي وڃي ٿو يا اهڙو حملو ڪرڻ وڌيڪ ڏکيو ٿي وڃي ٿو. هلڪي هٿيارن سان ليس مشاهدي وارو مشن پڻ ابتدائي خبرداري واري قوت (ارلي-وارننگ فورس) يا &quot;ٽرپ وائر&quot; طور ڪم ڪري سگهي ٿو. بين الاقوامي برادري طرفان ڏني ويندڙ امداد ۽ سياسي سڃاڻپ کي به ان ڳالهه سان مشروط ڪيو وڃي ته ڌريون ڳالهين دوران طئي ٿيل شرطن تي عمل ڪن. ان سان گڏ، روزگار، عوامي ترقياتي منصوبن ۽ ٻين فائدن جي صورت ۾ &quot;امن جا فائدا&quot; (پيس ڊويڊينڊس) پڻ فراهم ڪيا وڃن.

غير يقيني صورتحال ۽ خوف کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري سگهن ٿا، ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رابطي کي آسان بڻائي سگهن ٿا ته جيئن سلامتي بابت خدشا گهٽجن، ۽ هر ڌر کي اها خاطري ملي ته ٻي ڌر پنهنجن واعدن کان نه ڦرندي. اهڙي طرح اهي ٻنهي ڌرين کي پنهنجي امن پسند ارادن کي واضح ۽ قابل اعتماد نموني ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ مؤثر ذريعو مهيا ڪن ٿا.

امن جي عمل کي پٽڙي تان لاهي ڇڏيندڙ حادثن يا بي ضابطه گروهن جي ڪاررواين کي روڪڻ لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهڙن گروهن کي روڪي سگهن ٿا. ويڙهاڪ قوتون اڪثر مضبوط قيادت ۽ [[حڪم ۽ ضابطي]] (ڪمانڊ اينڊ ڪنٽرول) کان محروم هونديون آهن، تنهنڪري امن ڳالهين دوران ڪنهن بي ضابطه گروهه جي معاهدي کان انڪار ڪرڻ يا امن جي عمل کي ناڪام بڻائڻ جو خطرو موجود هوندو آهي. گڏيل قومن جا دستا اهڙين حالتن کي روڪڻ سان گڏ ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ثالثي ۽ رابطي کي پڻ آسان بڻائي سگهن ٿا ۽ سياسي اعتدال پسند قوتن کي اڳتي آڻي سگهن ٿا. قانون ۽ امن امان برقرار رکندي اهي عارضي طور رياستي حفاظتي ادارن جي ذميواري سنڀالي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي مبينا ڀڃڪڙي تي غيرجانبدار رويو اختيار ڪيو وڃي ۽ تشدد جي ٻيهر شروعات کان بچي سگهجي.

سياسي زيادتين جي روڪٿام لاءِ حڪومت سان لاڳاپيل ادارن ۾ سڌارا آندا وڃن ٿا. فوج ۽ پوليس جهڙن حفاظتي ادارن کي تربيت ڏيڻ ۽ انهن جي نگراني ڪرڻ سان کين حڪمرانن جي دٻاءَ جو اوزار بڻجڻ بدران عوام جا غيرجانبدار محافظ بڻائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. اهڙي تربيت عوام جو اعتماد وڌائڻ ۾ مددگار ثابت ٿي سگهي ٿي. گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا آزاد ۽ منصفاڻي چونڊون ڪرائڻ ۽ انهن جي نگراني پڻ ڪري سگهن ٿا. ڪجهه حالتن ۾ گڏيل قومون عبوري دور دوران غيرجانبدار عبوري حڪومت پڻ قائم ڪري سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ملڪ جو انتظام سنڀالي، جڏهن ته سرڪاري ادارن کي ٻيهر منظم، سڌاريو يا وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪيو وڃي. ان کان سواءِ هٿياربند باغي گروهن کي هٿيار ڦٽا ڪرڻ، انهن کي سياسي تنظيمن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ ۽ پرامن جمهوري عمل وسيلي پنهنجا مطالبا پيش ڪرڻ لاءِ همٿايو وڃي ٿو. اهو خاص طور اهم آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي باغي گروهه حڪومت جي اهم مخالف قوت هوندا آهن، پر سياسي تنظيم طور مؤثر نموني ڪم ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت کان محروم هوندا آهن.

مختلف امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن مختلف سببن ۽ ضرورتن جي بنياد تي قائم ڪيا ويندا آهن. [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VII]] تحت هلندڙ مشنن ۾ فوجي روڪ ۽ نفاذ تي وڌيڪ زور هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VI]] تحت مشن بنيادي طور نگراني ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ غيرجانبدار موجودگي برقرار رکڻ لاءِ هوندا آهن. سياسي زيادتين جي روڪٿام لاءِ قائم ڪيل مشن گهڻ رخي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ واري سياسي عمل ۾ سرگرم ڪردار ادا ڪندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|chapter=4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي اثرائتي ==

علمي تحقيق جي جائزي مان مضبوط ثبوت مليا آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن امن جي استحڪام ۾ واڌارو آڻين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Walter|first1=Barbara F.|last2=Howard|first2=Lise Morje|last3=Fortna|first3=V. Page|date=2020|title=The Extraordinary Relationship between Peacekeeping and Peace|journal=British Journal of Political Science|volume=51|issue=4|language=en|pages=1705–1722|doi=10.1017/S000712342000023X|s2cid=229469021 |issn=0007-1234|doi-access=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hoeffler|first=Anke|date=March 11, 2014|title=Can international interventions secure the peace?|journal=International Area Studies Review|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=75–94|doi=10.1177/2233865914525380|s2cid=16303210|url=http://www.econrsa.org/node/700|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا]] موجب مضبوط ثبوت موجود آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي نمايان طور گهٽائي ٿي. امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين جو تعداد جيترو وڌيڪ هوندو، اوترا ئي جنگي محاذ تي مارجي ويل ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽ ٿيندو، ۽ عام شهرين جي جاني نقصان ۾ به گهٽتائي ايندي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://politicalviolenceataglance.org/2015/09/24/enough-with-the-pessimism-about-peacekeeping/|title=Enough with the Pessimism about Peacekeeping|date=September 24, 2015|website=Political Violence at a Glance|access-date=January 26, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[اپسالا يونيورسٽي]] ۽ [[اوسلو امن تحقيقاتي اداري]] جي سياسي سائنسدانن جي هڪ مطالعي موجب، جيڪڏهن گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري پاليسي کي وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪيو وڃي، امن قائم رکڻ وارن دستن جو تعداد ٻيڻو ڪيو وڃي ۽ انهن کي وڌيڪ وسيع اختيار ڏنا وڃن، ته هٿياربند تڪرارن جي عالمي شرح، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي غير موجودگي واري صورتحال جي ڀيٽ ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ٻه ٽيون حصو گهٽجي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Hegre|first1=Håvard|last2=Hultman|first2=Lisa|last3=Nygård|first3=Håvard Mokleiv|date=November 28, 2018|title=Evaluating the Conflict-Reducing Effect of UN Peacekeeping Operations|journal=The Journal of Politics|volume=81|language=en|pages=215–232|doi=10.1086/700203|s2cid=13894244|issn=0022-3816|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فورڊهم يونيورسٽي]] جي سياسي سائنسدان [[انجلي ديال]] موجب، تحقيق مان ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن جنگ کي سرحدن کان ٻاهر پکڙجڻ کان روڪين ٿا. زمين تي وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار هجڻ سان عام شهرين خلاف تشدد جا واقعا پڻ گهٽ ٿيندا آهن، ۽ ڪيترين حالتن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ڪاميابي سان عبوري انتظاميا جو ڪردار ادا ڪندي اقتدار ٻيهر مقامي اختيارين حوالي ڪيو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ هاڻي اهڙو عمل اڳ جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ڏسڻ ۾ اچي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/02/01/is-u-n-peacekeeping-under-fire-heres-what-you-need-to-know/|title=Is U.N. peacekeeping under fire? Here's what you need to know.|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=February 1, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2018ع جي هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پنهنجي سر به گهرو ويڙهه جي شدت کي گهٽائين ٿا، پر جڏهن انهن کي ثالثي سان گڏ استعمال ڪيو وڃي ٿو ته انهن جو اثر وڌيڪ نمايان ٿي وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Mediation, Peacekeeping, and the Severity of Civil War|journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution|volume=63|issue=7|pages=1682–1709|language=en|doi=10.1177/0022002718817092|year=2018|last1=Beardsley|first1=Kyle|last2=Cunningham|first2=David E.|last3=White|first3=Peter B.|s2cid=202164361}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهڙا به ثبوت موجود آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا موڪلڻ جو واعدو ئي ويڙهاڪ ڌرين کي ڳالهين جي ميز تي آڻڻ ۽ جنگبندي تي راضي ٿيڻ جا امڪان وڌائي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lundgren|first=Magnus|year=2016|title=Which international organizations can settle civil wars?|journal=Review of International Organizations|volume=DOI 10.1007/s11558-016-9253-0|issue=4|pages=613–641|doi=10.1007/s11558-016-9253-0|s2cid=152898046}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي شمارياتي تحقيق ۾ انهن عنصرن کي به نظر ۾ رکيو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ڪٿي مقرر ڪيا وڃن ۽ ڪٿي امن قائم ٿيڻ جا امڪان ڪيترا آهن. هن جي نتيجن موجب، امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ۽ پائيدار امن جي وچ ۾ شمارياتي طور اهم لاڳاپو موجود آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن عام طور تي انهن علائقن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن جتي امن قائم ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن، فورٽنا جو اندازو آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 55 کان 60 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽائي ٿي، جڏهن ته ڪجهه وڌيڪ پراميد اندازن موجب اها گهٽتائي 75 کان 85 سيڪڙو تائين ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 116&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=116}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا جي تجزيي موجب [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VI]] تحت رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل مشنن ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VII]] تحت نفاذي مشنن جي اثرائتي ۾ گهڻو فرق نظر نٿو اچي. البته نفاذي مشن تڏهن ئي اثرائتا ثابت ٿين ٿا، جڏهن امن قائم رکڻ واري قوت طاقت جي استعمال بابت پنهنجي اعتبار ۽ صلاحيت برقرار رکي سگهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=109, 116, 125}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهو ان ڳالهه جي اهميت کي اجاگر ڪري ٿو ته گڏيل قومن جا مشن مقامي ڌرين جي رضامندي برقرار رکن. مجموعي طور فورٽنا جو نتيجو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ويڙهاڪ ڌريون مڪمل طور پنهنجي حال تي نه ڇڏيون وڃن، ته امن قائم رکڻ پائيدار امن کي يقيني بڻائڻ جو هڪ مؤثر اوزار آهي. هن اڳ بيان ڪيل سببن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول ۾ امن جي استحڪام تي نمايان اثر وجهي سگهن ٿا. فورٽنا ۽ [[ليز مورجي هاورڊ]] جو چوڻ آهي ته هاڻي تحقيق جو ڌيان امن قائم رکڻ جي بنيادي اثرائتي کان اڳتي وڌي، مختلف قسمن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن، عبوري انتظاميائن، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ جمهوريت جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن، ۽ انهن ماڻهن جي نظرين ڏانهن منتقل ٿي رهيو آهي، جن جي لاءِ امن قائم رکيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Pitfalls and Prospects in the Peacekeeping Literature*|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|volume=11|pages=283–301|last1=Fortna|first1=Virginia Page|last2=Howard|first2=Lise Morjé|date=May 20, 2008|language=en|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.9.041205.103022|s2cid=15740415|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[مائيڪل ڊبليو ڊائل]] ۽ [[نيڪولس سامبانس]] جي تجزيي موجب، انهن ملڪن ۾، جتي نسلي بنيادن تي جنگ نه هجي، معاشي ترقي جو سطح نسبتاً بهتر هجي ۽ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا ۽ مالي امداد موجود هجن، اتي پائيدار امن قائم رهڻ جا امڪان وڌيڪ هوندا آهن. انهن جو نتيجو آهي ته مختصر مدي ۾ پائيدار امن جو دارومدار گڏيل قومن جي مضبوط موجودگي ۽ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ گهٽ دشمني تي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ڊگهي مدي ۾ معاشي صلاحيت وڌيڪ اهم عنصر بڻجي ويندي آهي ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ دشمني جي شدت نسبتاً گهٽ اهم رهندي آهي. سندن خيال ۾، جيتوڻيڪ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ڪافي حد تائين ڪامياب رهيا آهن، پر اهي مداخلت هيٺ آيل ملڪن ۾ خودمختيار معاشي ترقي کي ڪافي حد تائين هٿي نه ڏئي سگهيا آهن. تنهنڪري گڏيل قومون امن برقرار رکڻ ۾ هڪ مضبوط پر اڻ سڌو ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿيون، جڏهن ته پائيدار امن جو اصل دارومدار اهڙن ادارن جي قيام تي هوندو آهي، جيڪي امن کي ڊگهي عرصي تائين برقرار رکي سگهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Making War and Building Peace : United Nations Peace Operations|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2010|pages=336–337}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ٻين علمي تحقيقن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي ڪاميابيءَ بابت مختلف نتيجا سامهون آيا آهن، جن موجب انهن جي ڪاميابيءَ جي شرح تقريباً 31 سيڪڙو کان 85 سيڪڙو تائين رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Autesserre|first1=Severine|title=Peaceland: Conflict Resolution and the Everyday Politics of International Intervention|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2020ع جي هڪ مطالعي موجب، گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر هلندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن به اثرائتي جي لحاظ کان گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جيترا ئي مؤثر آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Bara|first1=Corinne|last2=Hultman|first2=Lisa|date=March 20, 2020|title=Just Different Hats? Comparing UN and Non-UN Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=27|issue=3|pages=341–368|doi=10.1080/13533312.2020.1737023|issn=1353-3312|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; ساڳئي سال شايع ٿيل هڪ ٻي تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن عام شهرين جي تحفظ ۾ به ڪامياب رهيا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Carnegie|first1=Allison|last2=Mikulaschek|first2=Christoph|date=2020|title=The Promise of Peacekeeping: Protecting Civilians in Civil Wars|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-organization/article/promise-of-peacekeeping-protecting-civilians-in-civil-wars/2BA3A91C26CF29480409B1FFB64F7E40|journal=International Organization|volume=74|issue=4|language=en|pages=810–832|doi=10.1017/S0020818320000442|s2cid=232253107|issn=0020-8183|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2021ع ۾ ''[[آمريڪن جرنل آف پوليٽيڪل سائنس]]'' ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن مقامي معيشت تي مثبت اثر وڌو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Bove|first1=Vincenzo|last2=Salvatore|first2=Jessica Di|last3=Elia|first3=Leandro|date=2021|title=UN Peacekeeping and Households' Well-Being in Civil Wars|journal=American Journal of Political Science|volume=66|issue=2|pages=402–417|language=en|doi=10.1111/ajps.12644|issn=1540-5907|doi-access=free|hdl=10281/458537|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== پائيدار امن تي اثرانداز ٿيندڙ عنصر ===

ڪيترائي عنصر پائيدار امن تي منفي اثر وجهي سگهن ٿا. انهن ۾ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي حقيقي فوجي طاقت بابت لڪل معلومات، باغي گروهن جي هيرن، ٻين معدنيات يا غيرقانوني واپار وسيلي مالي وسيلا حاصل ڪرڻ، منشيات، هٿيارن ۽ انساني اسمگلنگ ۾ سندن شموليت، ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي فوجي فتح يا شڪست، جنگ جو عرصو ۽ ان جي قيمت، ٻنهي ڌرين کي درپيش واعدن تي عملدرآمد جا مسئلا (ڪمٽمينٽ پرابلم) ۽ سلامتي جو مخمصو (سڪيورٽي ڊليما)، جنگبندي يا امن معاهدي جي موجودگي، تڪرار ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ ڌرين جي ارادن ۽ ڪاررواين بابت شفافيت جي کوٽ، امن کي نقصان پهچائيندڙ انتهاپسند گروهه، اهڙا ڌر يا فرد جيڪي جنگ جاري رهڻ مان فائدو حاصل ڪن، ۽ اهڙا تڪراري مسئلا جيڪي ورهائي يا سمجهوتي ذريعي حل نٿا ٿي سگهن شامل آهن.

فورٽنا جي تحقيق موجب، پائيدار امن جو سڀ کان اهم شمارياتي عنصر اهو آهي ته ڇا جنگ ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي فوجي فتح تي ختم ٿي آهي يا نه. جيڪڏهن گهرو ويڙهه ۾ هڪ ڌر واضح فوجي فتح حاصل ڪري ۽ ان کان پوءِ جنگبندي يا صلح جو معاهدو ٿئي، ته ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تقريباً 85 کان 90 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽجي ويندو آهي. ان کان علاوه، رسمي امن معاهدا ٻيهر تڪرار جي خطري کي لڳ ڀڳ 60 کان 70 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 116&quot;/&gt;

جيڪڏهن ڪو هٿياربند گروهه منشيات، هيرن يا ٻين غيرقانوني واپاري ذريعن مان مالي مدد حاصل ڪري ٿو، ته ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان نمايان طور وڌي وڃن ٿا. فورٽنا موجب اهڙين حالتن ۾ جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو 100 کان 250 سيڪڙو تائين وڌي سگهي ٿو، يعني اهڙي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان عام حالتن جي ڀيٽ ۾ ٻه کان ساڍا ٽي ڀيرا وڌيڪ هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choice after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=117}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا جو خيال آهي ته جن جنگين ۾ ڪيترائي ڌر شامل هجن، اهي ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان نسبتاً گهٽ رکن ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; ان جي ابتڙ، [[مائيڪل ڊبليو ڊائل]] ۽ [[نيڪولس سامبانس]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ نتيجو ڪڍيو ته گهڻ ڌرين وارا تڪرار ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان وڌيڪ رکن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Making War and Building Peace : United Nations Peace Operations|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2010|pages=336}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڊگهي عرصي تائين هلندڙ جنگين ۽ سڃاڻپ يا قومي/نسلي بنيادن تي وڙهيل جنگين ۾ ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. بهرحال، ڊگهيون جنگيون ۽ اهي امن معاهدا جيڪي فوجي فتح کان پوءِ وجود ۾ اچن، عام طور تي مستقبل ۾ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽائين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=117–119}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪاررواين جا حصو وٺندڙ فوجن تي اثر ==

=== فوجي معمول تي آڻڻ ===

ڪجهه محققن جو خيال آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون فوج جي &quot;معمول تي آڻڻ&quot; (مليٽري نارملائيزيشن) کي اڳتي وڌائڻ جو هڪ ذريعو بڻجي سگهن ٿيون. مائيڪل ايڊورڊ والش ۽ جيريمي ٽيلر دليل ڏين ٿا ته [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ [[جاپان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون انهن حلقن لاءِ هڪ منفرد موقعو فراهم ڪن ٿيون، جيڪي جاپان جي فوجي ڪردار کي عام ۽ معمول مطابق بڻائڻ چاهين ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهڙي عمل سان ملڪ جي امن پسند آئين کي تدريجي طور ڪمزور ڪرڻ جو امڪان پيدا ٿئي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;nbr.org&quot;&gt;Jeremy Taylor and Michael Edward Walsh (January 7, 2014), ''[http://www.nbr.org/downloads/pdfs/psa/taylor-walsh_commentary_010714.pdf UN Operations in Africa Provide a Mechanism for Japan’s Military Normalization Agenda]'', {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303010649/http://www.nbr.org/downloads/pdfs/psa/taylor-walsh_commentary_010714.pdf |date=March 3, 2014 }}, retrieved February 7, 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;

سندن خيال موجب، بنيادي سياسي، قانوني ۽ سماجي سڌارن کان سواءِ جاپان جون امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون اهڙين سنگين حالتن کي منهن ڏيڻ لاءِ مڪمل طور تي تيار ناهن، جتي جان ليوا طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ ضروري بڻجي وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Edward Walsh and Jeremy Taylor (December 23, 2013), ''[http://africanarguments.org/2013/12/23/time-to-reconsider-the-japanese-peacekeeping-mission-in-south-sudan-by-michael-edward-walsh-jeremy-taylor/ Time to Reconsider the Japanese Peacekeeping Mission in South Sudan]'', retrieved February 7, 2014.&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن ڪري، اهي دليل ڏين ٿا ته گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين ۾ جاپان جي مسلسل شرڪت آخرڪار اهڙين پاليسي تبديلين جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿي، جن کان پوءِ جاپان جي فوج کي معمول مطابق فوجي حيثيت ڏيڻ ئي واحد ممڪن نتيجو رهجي وڃي.&lt;ref name=&quot;nbr.org&quot;/&gt;

=== فوج موڪليندڙ ملڪن تي سياسي اثر ===

[[ڊيانا ميور ايپل بام]] خدشو ظاهر ڪيو آهي ته [[فجي]] ۾ عالمي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين لاءِ فوج تيار ڪرڻ جي نتيجي ۾ فوج ايتري طاقتور بڻجي وئي، جو هن 1987ع، 1999–2000ع، 2006ع ۽ 2009ع ۾ چار فوجي بغاوتون ڪيون ۽ ويهن سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين فجي تي فوجي آمريت قائم رکي.&lt;ref&gt;Appelbaum, Diana Muir (August 27, 2012), ''[http://www.jewishideasdaily.com/4867/features/how-the-sinai-peacekeeping-force-staged-a-military-coup-in-fiji/ How the Sinai Peacekeeping Force Staged a Military Coup in Fiji]'', retrieved September 7, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt;

بهرحال، ''جرنل آف پيس ريسرچ'' ۾ 2018ع ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ مطالعي موجب، اهي ملڪ جن جون فوجون گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين مان حاصل ٿيندڙ مالي وسيلن تي وڌيڪ ڀاڙين ٿيون، انهن ۾ فوجي بغاوتن جا امڪان انهن ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهڙن مالي وسيلن تي گهٽ ڀاڙين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lundgren|first=Magnus|date=2018|title=Backdoor peacekeeping: Does participation in UN peacekeeping reduce coups at home?|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume=55|issue=4|pages=508–523|doi=10.1177/0022343317747668|s2cid=116168984}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ وارن فردن تي اثر ===

[[File:UNAMIR Blue Berets memorial Kigali (4).jpg|thumb|[[روانڊا]] جي شهر [[ڪيگالي]] ۾ [[يو اين اي ايم آء آر]] (UNAMIR) جي ڏهن بيلجيمي امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي يادگار، جيڪي 1994ع ۾ هوتو نيم فوجي گروهن هٿان مارجي ويا.]]

امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين بابت ٿيل تحقيق مان معلوم ٿئي ٿو ته انهن تي مثبت ۽ منفي، ٻئي قسم جا اثر پون ٿا. بوسنيا ۾ مقرر آمريڪي فوج جي 951 سپاهين تي ٿيل هڪ مطالعي مطابق، 77 سيڪڙو فوجين مثبت اثرن جي نشاندهي ڪئي، 63 سيڪڙو منفي اثرن جو ذڪر ڪيو، جڏهن ته 47 سيڪڙو ٻنهي قسمن جي تجربن بابت ٻڌايو.&lt;ref&gt;Newby, John H., et al. &quot;Positive and negative consequences of a military deployment.&quot; ''Military Medicine'' (2005) 170#10 pp: 815-819.&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار گهڻو ڪري ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي حملن جي خطري ۽ اڻڄاتل موسمي حالتن کي منهن ڏيندا آهن. انهن سببن ڪري ذهني صحت جا مسئلا، خودڪشي جا واقعا ۽ منشيات جي استعمال جا خطرا وڌي سگهن ٿا. ڊگهي عرصي تائين ٻاهرين ملڪن ۾ مقرر رهڻ امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي خاندانن، خاص طور تي سندن ٻارن ۽ گهروارن، لاءِ پڻ ذهني دٻاءُ جو سبب بڻجي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1 = Fernandes Souza | first1 = Wanderson |display-authors=etal  | year = 2011 | title = Posttraumatic stress disorder in peacekeepers: a meta-analysis | journal = The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease | volume = 199 | issue = 5| pages = 309–312 | doi=10.1097/nmd.0b013e3182175180| pmid = 21543949 | s2cid = 28713512 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

هڪ ٻيو نقطه نظر اهو به آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون ذميواريون فوجين جي جنگي صلاحيتن کي ڪمزور ڪري سگهن ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ امن قائم رکڻ واري دستي جون ذميواريون مڪمل جنگ وڙهندڙ فوجي يونٽ کان ڪافي مختلف هونديون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20070926001502/http://www.usafa.af.mil/jscope/ISME2007/Papers/Prof%20Paulin%20Kaurin%20War%20Stories.doc Kaurin, P. M. (2007) War Stories: Narrative, Identity and (Recasting) Military Ethics Pedagogy. Pacific Lutheran University. ISME 2007. Retrieved 9-3-2007].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Liu, H. C. K., The war that could destroy both armies, ''Asia Times'', October 23, 2003. Retrieved March 9, 2007.&lt;/ref&gt;

== تنقيد ==

=== امن قائم رکڻ، انساني اسمگلنگ ۽ جبري جسم فروشي ===
{{Main|امن قائم رکڻ وارن پاران ٻارن سان جنسي زيادتي جو اسڪينڊل}}

1990ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن تي مختلف قسمن جي زيادتين جا ڪيترائي الزام لڳندا رهيا آهن، جن ۾ [[زنا بالجبر]]، [[جنسي زيادتي]]، [[ٻارن سان جنسي زيادتي]] ۽ [[انساني اسمگلنگ]] شامل آهن. اهڙيون شڪايتون [[ڪمبوڊيا]]، [[اوڀر تيمور]] ۽ [[اولهه آفريڪا]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علائقن مان سامهون آيون آهن.

[[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ اسمگل ٿيل عورتن سان لاڳاپيل جسم فروشي ۾ تيزي سان واڌ آئي، ۽ ڪيترائي اهڙا اڏا گڏيل قومن جي ڪئمپن جي ويجهو قائم ٿيا. بوسنيا ۾ 2000ع کان 2001ع تائين علائقائي انساني حقن جي آفيسر ڊيوڊ ليمب جو چوڻ هو ته، &quot;بوسنيا ۾ جنسي غلاميءَ جي واپار جو وڏو سبب گڏيل قومن جون امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون آهن. جيڪڏهن اهي فوجون نه هجن ها ته بوسنيا ۾ جبري جسم فروشي تمام گهٽ يا بلڪل نه هجي ها.&quot; ان کان علاوه، 2002ع ۾ [[آمريڪا جي ايوانِ نمائندگان]] ۾ ٿيل ٻڌڻي دوران اهو به سامهون آيو ته SFOR جا ڪجهه اهلڪار بوسنيا جي جسم فروشي جي مرڪزن تي ويندا هئا ۽ اسمگل ٿيل عورتن ۽ نابالغ ڇوڪرين سان جنسي لاڳاپا رکندا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Allred2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Allred|first=KJ|date=2006|title=Peacekeepers And Prostitutes: How Deployed Forces Fuel the Demand for Trafficked Women and New Hope for Stopping It|journal=Armed Forces &amp; Society|volume=33|issue=1|page=7|doi=10.1177/0095327X06288803|s2cid=71430076}}&lt;/ref&gt;

صحافين پڻ رپورٽ ڪيو ته گڏيل قومن يا، بوسنيا ۽ [[ڪوسوو]] جي صورت ۾، [[نيٽو]] جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي اچڻ کان پوءِ [[ڪمبوڊيا]]، [[موزمبيق]]، [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۽ [[ڪوسوو]] ۾ جسم فروشي ۾ تيزي سان اضافو ٿيو. 1996ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي رپورٽ ''دي امپيڪٽ آف آرمڊ ڪنفلڪٽ آن چلڊرين'' ۾ موزمبيق جي اڳوڻي خاتون اول [[گراسا ماچيل]] لکيو ته هن رپورٽ لاءِ تيار ڪيل 12 ملڪن مان 6 مطالعي ۾ هٿياربند تڪرارن دوران ٻارن جي جنسي استحصال ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي اچڻ کان پوءِ [[ٻارن جي جسم فروشي]] ۾ تيز واڌ ڏٺي وئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;unicef.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/graca/a51-306_en.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030316210918/http://www.unicef.org/graca/a51-306_en.pdf|url-status=dead|title=The Impact of Armed Conflict on Children|archive-date=March 16, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گيتا سهگل]] 2004ع ۾ چيو ته جتي به [[انساني همدرديءَ واري مداخلت]] يا امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون ٿين ٿيون، اتي جسم فروشي ۽ [[جنسي استحصال]] جا مسئلا به ظاهر ٿين ٿا. سندس خيال هو ته گڏيل قومن بابت بنيادي مسئلو اهو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون به ٻين فوجن وانگر ساڳين مسئلن ۾ ملوث ٿي سگهن ٿيون، تنهنڪري &quot;نگهبانن جي به نگراني ڪرڻي پوي ٿي&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.csmonitor.com/2004/1126/p06s02-wogi.html Sex charges haunt UN forces; In places like Congo and Kosovo, peacekeepers have been accused of abusing the people they're protecting,&quot;] ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'', November 26, 2004, accessed February 16, 2010.&lt;/ref&gt;

2006ع ۾ گڏيل قومن ۾ [[اردن]] جي مستقل نمائندي [[شهزادو زيد رعد زيد الحسين]] جي سربراهيءَ ۾ ٿيل جاچ جي نتيجي ۾ هڪ تفصيلي رپورٽ جاري ٿي، جنهن ۾ خاص طور تي [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] ۾ ٿيل جنسي استحصال جي ڪيترن ئي واقعن کي بيان ڪيو ويو. رپورٽ موجب، جنسي استحصال گهڻو ڪري جسم فروشي جي صورت ۾ ٿيندو هو، جتي جنسي لاڳاپن جي بدلي اوسطاً هڪ کان ٽي آمريڪي ڊالر ادا ڪيا ويندا هئا. ڪن حالتن ۾ عورتن کي کاڌي يا روزگار جو لالچ ڏئي جنسي لاڳاپن تي مجبور ڪيو ويندو هو، جڏهن ته ڪجهه نوجوان عورتن ٻڌايو ته کين زبردستي جنسي زيادتي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ڪجهه رقم يا کاڌو ڏنو ويندو هو ته جيئن اهو عمل رضامنديءَ وارو لڳي.&lt;ref&gt;al-Hussein, Prince Zeid Ra'ad Zeid. (2005) &quot;A Comprehensive Strategy to Eliminate Future Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations.&quot; Report to the UN Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations: 8.&lt;/ref&gt;

مئي کان سيپٽمبر 2004ع تائين جنسي استحصال جا 72 الزام سامهون آيا، جن مان 68 فوجي اهلڪارن ۽ 4 شهري عملي خلاف هئا. سال جي آخر تائين اهڙن الزامن جو انگ 105 تائين پهچي ويو. انهن مان 45 سيڪڙو الزام 18 سالن کان گهٽ عمر وارن سان جنسي لاڳاپن بابت هئا، جڏهن ته 31 سيڪڙو بالغ جسم فروش عورتن سان لاڳاپيل هئا. زنا بالجبر تقريباً 13 سيڪڙو ۽ جنسي زيادتي 5 سيڪڙو الزامن تي مشتمل هئي، جڏهن ته باقي 6 سيڪڙو ٻئي قسم جي جنسي استحصال سان واسطو رکندا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;al-Hussein, Prince Zeid Ra'ad Zeid. (2005) &quot;A Comprehensive Strategy to Eliminate Future Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations.&quot; Report to the UN Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations: 8-9.&lt;/ref&gt; گهڻا الزام [[پاڪستان]]، [[يوراگوئي]]، [[مراڪش]]، [[تيونس]]، [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] ۽ [[نيپال]] سان تعلق رکندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Allred2006&quot;/&gt;

[[يوراگوئي]] جي صدر [[خوسي موخيڪا]]، گڏيل قومن جي يوراگوئي فوجين تي 18 سالن جي هڪ هيٽي نوجوان سان مبينا زنا بالجبر جي واقعي تي [[هيٽي]] جي صدر [[ميشيل مارٽيلي]] کان معافي ورتي. مارٽيلي چيو ته &quot;هڪ نوجوان هيٽي شهري سان ٿيل اجتماعي زنا بالجبر کي بنا سزا نه ڇڏيو ويندو.&quot; واقعي ۾ ملوث هجڻ جي شڪ ۾ چار فوجين کي حراست ۾ ورتو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-haiti-uruguay-un-idUSTRE78603I20110907|title=Uruguay apologises over alleged rape by U.N. peacekeepers|newspaper=Reuters|access-date=October 23, 2014|date=September 7, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/Headlines/Article.aspx?id=236953|title=Uruguay to apologise over alleged rape by UN peacekeepers|date=September 21, 2010 |access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جولاءِ 2007ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي [[امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون کاتو]] (DPKO) [[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]] ۾ مقرر 734 مراڪشي فوجين جي پوري دستي کي الزام سامهون اچڻ کان پوءِ ڪئمپن تائين محدود ڪري ڇڏيو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن مان ڪجهه تي نابالغ ڇوڪرين سان جنسي زيادتي جا الزام هئا. ايندڙ سالن دوران گڏيل قومن جي [[گڏيل قومن جي اندروني نگراني جون خدمتون کاتو]] (OIOS) اهڙن 80 ڪيسن جي جاچ ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Simic|first=Olivera|title=Regulation of Sexual Conduct in UN Peacekeeping Operations |chapter=UN Peacekeeping Operations: The Emerging Problem of Sexual Exploitation |date=2012|pages=13–38|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-28484-7_2|isbn=978-3-642-28483-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ [[مرڪزي آفريقي جمهوريه]] ۾ ڪم ڪندڙ [[فرانس]]، [[گيبون]] ۽ [[برونڊي]] جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف پڻ الزام لڳا. انهن ۾ [[ڪيمو صوبو|ڪيمو صوبي]] ۾ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 108 ماڻهن سان جنسي استحصال ۽ جنسي زيادتي جا الزام شامل هئا، جن مان اڪثريت نابالغ هئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/01/world/africa/un-peacekeeping-hit-by-new-allegations-of-sickening-sex-abuse.html?_r=0|title=U.N. Peacekeeping Hit By New Allegations of 'Sickening' Sex Abuse|last=Gladstone|first=Rick|date=2016|access-date=April 17, 2016|newspaper=The New York Times}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2016ع ۾ [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] جي اوڀر واري [[اتر ڪيئو]] صوبي ۾ مقرر امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف به نوان الزام لڳا. [[تنزانيا]] ۽ گڏيل قومن گڏيل جاچ شروع ڪئي، جنهن ۾ تنزاني فوجين تي جنسي استحصال جا 18 الزام شامل هئا، جن مان اٺ نابالغن سان لاڳاپيل هئا. انهن الزامن ۾ 16 تنزاني، هڪ [[ملاوي]] ۽ هڪ ڏکڻ آفريقي فوجي جو نالو آيو. گڏيل قومن مارچ 2016ع ۾ ٻڌايو ته جنسي استحصال بابت الزامن ۾ نمايان واڌ ٿي آهي، جنهن ۾ 21 ملڪن جا فوجي شامل هئا. انهن مان گهڻا الزام آفريقي ملڪن جهڙوڪ [[ڪيمرون]]، [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]]، [[تنزانيا]]، [[بينن]]، [[برڪينا فاسو]]، [[برونڊي]]، [[گھانا]]، [[مڊگاسڪر]]، [[نائيجر]]، [[نائيجيريا]]، [[روانڊا]]، [[سينيگال]] ۽ [[ٽوگو]] سان تعلق رکندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/probe-opens-un-troops-alleged-sex-abuse-dr-155023758.html|title=Probe Opens into UN Troops' Alleged Sex Abuse in DR Congo|date=2016|access-date=April 17, 2016|via=Yahoo News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ وارا ۽ هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جو بحران ===

پهرين [[ايسوسيئيٽيڊ پريس]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Katz |first=Jonathan M. |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/health/2013276274_apcbhaitidiseaseoutbreak.html |title=Nation &amp; World &amp;#124; UN probes base as source of Haiti cholera outbreak &amp;#124; Seattle Times Newspaper |publisher=Seattletimes.com |date=October 27, 2010 |access-date=July 28, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پوءِ ''[[نيو يارڪ ٽائيمز]]''،&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/01/world/americas/haitis-cholera-outraced-the-experts-and-tainted-the-un.html?pagewanted=all In Haiti, Global Failures on a Cholera Epidemic; In-depth New York Times piece investigating UN role in introducing cholera] ''[[New York Times]]'', March 31, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; ''[[الجزيره عربي]]''،&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.aljazeera.com/video/americas/2012/03/201237194798262.html UN likely to blame for Haiti Cholera Outbreak] ''[[الجزيره عربي]]'', March 7, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اي بي سي نيوز]]&lt;ref&gt;[https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/scientists-soldiers-brought-deadly-superbug-americas/story?id=15341129 Scientists: UN Soldiers Brought Deadly Superbug to Americas] ''[[اي بي سي نيوز]]'', January 12, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; پاران شايع ٿيل اهم سائنسي ثبوتن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته [[نيپال]] سان تعلق رکندڙ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا، جيڪي [[هيٽي]] جي [[ميريباليه]] واري علائقي ۾ هڪ ڏورانهين اڏي تي مقرر هئا، 2010ع جي آڪٽوبر کان ملڪ کي متاثر ڪندڙ خطرناڪ [[هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا (2010ع واري ڏهاڪي)|ڪالرا جي وبا]] جو سبب بڻيا.

[[ڪالرا]] پاڻيءَ وسيلي پکڙجندڙ بيماري آهي، جيڪا سخت دستن ۽ الٽين جو سبب بڻجي ٿي، ۽ جيڪڏهن مريض کي بروقت جسم ۾ پاڻي ۽ لوڻ جي کوٽ پوري ڪرڻ وارو علاج (rehydration) نه ملي ته ڪجهه ئي ڪلاڪن اندر موت جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿي. جولاءِ 2012ع تائين هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا دنيا جي سڀ کان وڏي وبا بڻجي چڪي هئي، جنهن ۾ لڳ ڀڳ 7,500 ماڻهو فوت ٿي چڪا هئا، جڏهن ته تقريباً 585,000 هيٽي وارا (يعني هر ويهن مان هڪ ماڻهو) هن بيماري ۾ مبتلا ٿي چڪا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.cdc.gov/haiticholera/haiti_cholera.htm Haiti Cholera: One Year Later], [[بيمارين جي ضابطي ۽ روڪٿام جا مرڪز]] October 25, 2011, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.mspp.gouv.ht/site/downloads/Rapport%20journalier%20MSPP%20du%2022%20juillet%202012.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407031228/http://www.mspp.gouv.ht/site/downloads/Rapport%20journalier%20MSPP%20du%2022%20juillet%202012.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Haitian Ministry of Public Health and Population Cholera Report of July 22, 2012, 22 July 2011, accessed 30 July 2012|archive-date=April 7, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا بابت گڏيل قومن پاران مقرر ڪيل آزاد ماهرن جي پينل موجب، امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جي اڏي تي صفائي ۽ نيڪال جا انتظام غير محفوظ هئا، جنهن سبب گهٽ ۾ گهٽ ٻن طريقن سان هيٽي جي دريائي نظام ۾ آلودگي پکڙجي. رپورٽ موجب، &quot;مکيه غسل خاني ۽ ٽوائليٽن واري حصي ۾ پاڻيءَ جي پائيپن جي جوڙجڪ بي ترتيب هئي، جنهن سبب آلودگي ملڻ جو وڏو خطرو موجود هو، خاص طور تي اهي پائيپ جيڪي هڪ کليل نيڪال واري نالي جي مٿان گذرندا هئا، جيڪو سڄي ڪئمپ مان وهي سڌو [[ميئي ندي]] جي معاون نديءَ ۾ ڇوڙ ڪندو هو.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;UNCholeraReport&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/haiti/UN-cholera-report-final.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110506001548/https://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/haiti/UN-cholera-report-final.pdf|url-status=live|title=Final Report of the Independent Panel of Experts on the Cholera Outbreak in Haiti, pages 21-22, July 2011, accessed 30 July 2012|archive-date=May 6, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

پينل اهو پڻ ٻڌايو ته ميريباليه واري اڏي ۽ ٻن ٻين اڏن مان نڪرندڙ گندو پاڻي باقاعدگي سان هڪ کليل، غير محفوظ سيپٽڪ کڏ ۾ وڌو ويندو هو، جيڪا ٻوڏ اچڻ وقت پاڻيءَ سان ڀرجي ويندي هئي ۽ برساتن دوران ان جو گندو پاڻي ميئي نديءَ جي معاون وهڪري ۾ داخل ٿي ويندو هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;UNCholeraReport&quot; /&gt;

نومبر 2011ع ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا کان متاثر ٿيل 5,000 کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن گڏيل قومن جي اندروني دعوائن واري نظام ۾ درخواست داخل ڪئي. هنن وبا تي ضابطو آڻڻ لاءِ صاف پاڻي ۽ صفائي جي بنيادي ڍانچي جي فراهمي، ذاتي نقصانن جو معاوضو ۽ گڏيل قومن کان باضابطه معافي جو مطالبو ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15648110|title=Haiti cholera demand against UN|date=November 9, 2011|work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جولاءِ 2012ع ۾ [[آمريڪا جي گڏيل رياستن جي ڪانگريس]] جي 104 ميمبرن هڪ خط تي صحيون ڪيون، جنهن ۾ چيو ويو ته &quot;گڏيل قومن جي قدمن&quot; سبب هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا پکڙيو، ۽ گڏيل قومن کي گهر ڪئي وئي ته هو پنهنجي ذميواري قبول ڪري ۽ وبا جي خاتمي لاءِ عملي قدم کڻي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18928405|title=Haiti cholera 'UN responsibility'|first=Mark|last=Doyle|date=July 20, 2012|work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ گڏيل قومن انهن دعوائن کي رد ڪري ڇڏيو، جنهن کان پوءِ متاثرن جي وڪيلن اعلان ڪيو ته هو گڏيل قومن خلاف عدالت ۾ مقدمو داخل ڪندا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ijdh.org/cholera-litigation/ |title=Institute for Justice and Democracy in Haiti: Cholera Litigation |publisher=Ijdh.org |date=October 21, 2010 |access-date=July 28, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== جديد امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائين سان لاڳاپيل ثقافتي خدشا ===

امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائين ۾ مختلف ثقافتن جو پاڻ ۾ گهرو ميل جول هوندو آهي. ان جو سبب اهو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون، پوليس ۽ ٻيو عملو دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي ملڪن مان اچي گڏ ٿيندو آهي، جڏهن ته اهي اڪثر انهن علائقن ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن، جتي نسلي ۽ ثقافتي تنوع تمام گهڻو هوندو آهي. اهڙي صورتحال ۾ مختلف ثقافتن جي وچ ۾ پيچيده لاڳاپا پيدا ٿيندا آهن، جيڪي نه رڳو مشن جي اثرائتي تي اثر انداز ٿيندا آهن، پر ڪڏهن ڪڏهن انهن مقامي ماڻهن سان به تڪرار جو سبب بڻجندا آهن، جن جي مدد لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارا موڪليا ويندا آهن.

1988ع کان اڳ اڪثر امن قائم رکڻ وارا هڪ محدود تعداد وارن ملڪن مان ايندا هئا. ان وقت تائين رڳو 26 ملڪن پنهنجو عملو امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون ۾ موڪليو هو، پر هاڻي اهو انگ 80 کان وڌيڪ ملڪن تائين پهچي ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=146–147}} نتيجي طور، گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون انتهائي گهڻ ثقافتي بڻجي ويون آهن. اهڙي صورتحال ۾ انهن کي نه رڳو ٻولين جي فرق سان منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، پر سماجي ۽ ثقافتي اختلافن سان به، جيڪي اهڙيون عملي مشڪلاتون پيدا ڪن ٿا، جن تي ضابطو آڻڻ آسان نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Pendlebury |first1=Jarrod |last2=Stott |first2=Neil |last3=Tracey |first3=Paul |date=2025 |title=The peacekeeper's challenge: innovation in meta-organisations |journal=Peacebuiding |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1080/21647259.2025.2501873|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; اهي اختلاف ذاتي يا اداري سطح جي رابطن، غلط فهمين، اڻڄاتل طور تي توهين جو سبب بڻجندڙ روين ۽ مخصوص ملڪن جي دستن بابت اڳواٽ قائم ٿيل تعصبن کي جنم ڏئي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=146–147}}

عملياتي لحاظ کان به مشن جي اثرائتي متاثر ٿي سگهي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ مختلف ملڪن جي فوجي ۽ پوليس اهلڪار پنهنجا پنهنجا طريقا، حڪمت عمليون ۽ ضابطا استعمال ڪندا آهن. گڏيل قومن جون فوجون مختلف ذريعن مان گڏ ڪيون وينديون آهن، جنهن سبب انهن جي صلاحيت، تربيت، سامان، معيارن ۽ ڪارروائي جي طريقن ۾ نمايان فرق موجود هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot; /&gt; ان کان علاوه، حصو وٺندڙ ملڪن جي ڪمان ۽ ڪنٽرول جي نظام ۾ به وڏا فرق هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot; /&gt; ڪجهه ملڪ ٻين ملڪن جي ماتحت ڪم ڪرڻ کان به ڪيٻائيندا آهن، جنهن سبب [[ڪمان جي وحدت]] برقرار رکڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي. اهڙي صورتحال گڏيل قومن جي مختلف دستن جي وچ ۾ اختلاف پيدا ڪري سگهي ٿي، جنهن جو نتيجو ميدان ۾ هڪ ٻئي جي سهڪار جي کوٽ جي صورت ۾ نڪري سگهي ٿو. ان جو مثال [[اوڀر تيمور]] ۾ گڏيل قومن جي مشن دوران ڏٺو ويو، جتي آسٽريليا جي فوج [[اوڀر تيمور ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مشن]] تحت پنهنجي فوجين جي تحفظ تي زور ڏيندي سخت فوجي حڪمت عملي اختيار ڪئي، جڏهن ته برطانيا جي [[گورکا]] فوجين مقامي ماڻهن سان ويجها لاڳاپا قائم ڪرڻ واري پاليسي تي عمل ڪيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=146–147}}

جديد امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائين ۾ مقامي آبادي ۽ حڪومت جي رضامندي برقرار رکڻ بنيادي اهميت رکي ٿي. خاص طور تي [[بوسنيا ۾ گڏيل قومن جي تحفظ واري فوج]]، [[سوماليا ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ٻيون آپريشن]] ۽ [[روانڊا ۾ گڏيل قومن جو امدادي مشن]] دوران انسانيت جي بنياد تي مداخلت جي نالي ۾ هن اصول کي نظرانداز ڪيو ويو، جيڪو گڏيل قومن جي منشور جي باب ستين هيٺ ٿيندڙ مداخلتن جي نوعيت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو. بهرحال، اهڙين ڪارروائين جي قانوني حيثيت ۽ مقبوليت برقرار رکڻ لاءِ ضروري آهي ته گڏيل قومن جون فوجون انهيءَ ملڪ جي عوام ۽ حڪومت جي رضامندي حاصل ڪن، جتي اهي مقرر ٿيل هجن. ان لاءِ ضروري آهي ته مقامي ماڻهن کي امن قائم رکڻ واري عمل جو حصو محسوس ڪرايو وڃي ۽ امن قائم رکڻ وارن کي مقامي ثقافت بابت مناسب ڄاڻ هجي، جيئن مقامي آبادي سان ڇڪتاڻ گهٽجي ۽ مشن ڪامياب بڻجي سگهي.

امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج ۽ مقامي آبادي جي ثقافتي لاڳاپن بابت اڃا تائين گهڻي تحقيق نه ٿي آهي. 1976ع ۾ [[يوهان گالٽونگ]] ۽ [[هيلگه هويم]] انهن نارويجي اهلڪارن جو مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (غزه) ۽ [[ڪانگو ۾ گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيا هئا. هنن جو نتيجو هو ته ڪنهن ملڪ جي ثقافت ۽ اتان جي ماڻهن بابت ڄاڻ صرف مفيد نه، پر مشن جي ڪاميابي لاءِ لازمي آهي. مطالعي موجب نارويجي اهلڪارن مقامي ثقافت ۽ تڪرار بابت وڌيڪ ڄاڻ حاصل ڪرڻ جي خواهش ظاهر ڪئي ۽ ٻين ملڪن جي اهلڪارن سان گڏ ڪم ڪرڻ بابت وڌيڪ تربيت به گهربل سمجهي. بهرحال، کين اهڙي تربيت تمام محدود ملي، ۽ تڪرار بابت گهڻي ڄاڻ کين خبرن، ڪتابن يا ٻين گڏيل قومن جي اهلڪارن کان ملي، نه ڪي گڏيل قومن جي ڪنهن منظم تربيتي پروگرام مان.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=150–151}}

لبنان ۾ [[لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن جي عبوري فوج]] (UNIFIL) ۽ مقامي آبادي جي لاڳاپن بابت هيبرگ ۽ هولسٽ جي مطالعي به ساڳيا نتيجا ظاهر ڪيا. هنن ڏٺو ته جيڪي ملڪ مقامي آباديءَ سان وڌيڪ ويجها لاڳاپا قائم ڪرڻ ۽ مقامي ثقافت کي سمجهڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿيا، انهن جا مشن وڌيڪ اثرائتا ثابت ٿيا؛ جڏهن ته جيڪي دستا مقامي سماج کان الڳ رهيا، اهي انهن ماڻهن کان به پري رهيا، جن سان کين ڪم ڪرڻو هو، ۽ ان جو اثر سندن ڪاميابي تي پيو.

{{Quote|
صرف اٽليءَ جو لڳ ڀڳ 2,200 اهلڪارن تي ٻڌل دستو مقامي سماج جو حصو بڻجي ويو ۽ معمول جي زندگي بحال ڪرڻ ۾ سرگرم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. انهن جي فوجين کي مقامي ماڻهن جي ثقافتي، سياسي ۽ سماجي حالتن بابت مناسب تربيت ڏني وئي هئي. لڳ ڀڳ 600,000 آبادي واري علائقي، جنهن ۾ اڪثريت شيعن جي هئي، ۾ اٽليءَ جي فوجين عام ماڻهن ۽ سياسي اڳواڻن سان ويجها لاڳاپا قائم رکيا. ان جي ابتڙ آمريڪي فوجين اهو سمجهيو ته هو لبناني سياست ۾ شامل ٿي رهيا آهن، پر انهن وٽ لبناني ثقافت ۽ تاريخ بابت تمام محدود ڄاڻ هئي. گهڻن آمريڪن کي مختصر مدي وارن اتحادين، پراڻين دشمنيُن، عرب سماج ۾ خانداني لاڳاپن جي اهميت ۽ مذهبي اختلافن جي نزاڪتن جي صحيح سمجهه نه هئي.
|&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=150–151}}
}}

هي مثال ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته ڪامياب امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائي لاءِ مقامي ثقافت جي ڄاڻ انتهائي اهم آهي. جيتوڻيڪ گڏيل قومن وٽ هڪ تربيتي رهنما موجود آهي، جيڪو امن قائم رکڻ وارن کي ضروري طريقن بابت هدايتون ڏئي ٿو، پر مختلف دستن لاءِ ڪو گڏيل نظريو يا معياري ڪارروائي جو طريقو موجود ناهي، جيڪو آخرڪار امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن جي ڪاميابيءَ ۾ رڪاوٽ بڻجي سگهي ٿو.

=== جديد مداخلت ۽ تڪرار جي حل جون حدون ===

[[سرد جنگ]] دوران گهرو تڪرارن ۾ ٻاهرين مداخلت ۽ ثالثي گهڻو ڪري رياست-مرڪز طريقي تي ٻڌل هئي، جنهن ۾ [[خودمختياري]] کي ناقابلِ ڀڃڪڙي سمجهيو ويندو هو. بين الاقوامي برادري رياست جي حڪومت ۽ ان جي مخالف گهريلو ويڙهاڪ ڌرين وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ اندروني تڪرارن ۾ تمام گهٽ مداخلت ڪندي هئي. پر سرد جنگ جي پڄاڻي کان پوءِ اها صورتحال بدلجي وئي. اڄڪلهه گهرو تڪرارن ۾ بين الاقوامي ڌرين جي ثالثي هڪ اهڙي معياري حل واري طريقي تي ٻڌل آهي، جيڪو تڪرار ۾ شامل سڀني ڌرين کي مجموعي طور برابر حيثيت ڏئي ٿو ۽ اهڙو ٺاهه حاصل ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿو، جيڪو سڀني لاءِ قبولڻ جوڳو هجي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Clapham|first=Christopher|date=1998|title=Rwanda: The Perils of Peace|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume=35|issue=2|pages=193–210|doi=10.1177/0022343398035002003|s2cid=110533606}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سرد جنگ جي خاتمي سان بين الاقوامي نظام کي نئين سر ترتيب ڏيڻ جو موقعو پيدا ٿيو. اهو موقعو سرد جنگ جي فاتح ڌرين، يعني [[آمريڪا]] ۽ ٻين اولهه جي سرمائيدار رياستن، وٽ هو، جيڪي آزاد جمهوري قدرن تحت هلنديون هيون ۽ [[انساني حق]]ن ۽ [[جمهوريت سازي]] کي وڏي اهميت ڏينديون هيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt; ان کان اڳ وارن ڏهاڪن ۾ رياست ئي واحد اهڙي وحدت هئي، جنهن کي خاص قانوني ۽ سياسي حيثيت حاصل هئي. جيتوڻيڪ ڪجهه استثنا، جهڙوڪ نوآبادياتي طاقتن خلاف جدوجهد ڪندڙ تحريڪون، موجود هيون، پر حتمي قانوني جواز رياست وٽ ئي هوندو هو. ان ڪري بين الاقوامي برادري عام طور ڪنهن ملڪ جي اندروني معاملن ۾ مداخلت نه ڪندي هئي. خودمختياريءَ جي ڀڃڪڙي نه ڪرڻ وارو هي نظام ٻنهي سپر طاقتن، سندن اتحادين ۽ [[ٽين دنيا]] جي حڪومتن لاءِ فائديمند هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt;

پر هاڻي غير رياستي ڌرين کي به سياسي جواز ملڻ ۽ ڪنهن اقليتي گروهه کي موجود رياست کان ڌار ٿي نئون ملڪ قائم ڪرڻ جي امڪان سبب بين الاقوامي صورتحال ۾ وڏي تبديلي آئي آهي. ان کان علاوه، بين الاقوامي برادري جو تڪرار حل ڪرڻ وارو نمونو گهڻو ڪري اولهه جي ملڪن ۾ تيار ٿيل علمي سوچ کان متاثر آهي. هي نمونو سياسي تشدد روڪڻ ۽ ڳالهين ذريعي ٺاهه حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ گهرو جنگين ۾ مداخلت جي همٿ افزائي ڪري ٿو، ۽ اهڙي ٺاهه ۾ اڪثر جمهوريت سازيءَ جا قدم به شامل هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt;

[[ڪرسٽوفر ڪلافم]] ۽ [[ڊيوڊ شيئرر]] جهڙا نقاد دليل ڏين ٿا ته اهڙي مداخلت ڪڏهن ڪڏهن عام شهرين جي نقصان تي تڪرار کي جاري رکڻ جا وسيلا فراهم ڪري سگهي ٿي. ڪلافم جو دليل بنيادي طور [[روانڊا]] ۾ [[روانڊا نسل ڪشي|نسل ڪشي]] کان اڳ واري صورتحال سان لاڳاپيل آهي،&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt; جڏهن ته شيئرر خاص طور [[سيرا ليون]] جي حوالي سان مداخلت جي منفي پهلوئن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو. سندس خيال موجب مداخلت ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي مڪمل فتح کي روڪي سگهي ٿي ۽ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ طاقت جو غيرمتوازن ڍانچو پيدا ڪري سگهي ٿي، جنهن سان وڌيڪ خونريزيءَ جو رستو کلي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Shearer|first=David|date=1997|title=Exploring the Limits of Consent: Conflict Resolution in Sierra Leone|journal=Millennium: Journal of International Studies|volume=26|issue=3|pages=845–860|doi=10.1177/03058298970260030601|s2cid=144940982}}&lt;/ref&gt;

روانڊا ۾ [[هوتو]] ۽ [[توتسي]] ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ڳالهين وسيلي ٺاهه ڪرائڻ جي ٽئين ڌر واري ڪوشش هوتو انتهاپسندن کي اعتدال پسند هوتو ماڻهن جي قتل ۽ توتسين جي نسل ڪشيءَ جي تياري ڪرڻ جو موقعو ڏنو. [[آفريقي اتحاد جي تنظيم]] جي علائقائي رياستن جي اڳواڻيءَ ۾ بين الاقوامي برادري [[اروشا امن عمل]] وسيلي هوتو ۽ توتسي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ جاري نسلي تشدد جو ڳالهين سان حل ڳولڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي. هي عمل هڪ سال کان ڪجهه وڌيڪ عرصي تائين هليو، جنهن ۾ وڏي بين الاقوامي شموليت ۽ [[تنزانيا]]، جيڪو ڳالهين جو ميزبان هو، [[برونڊي]]، [[يوگنڊا]] ۽ [[زائير]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علائقائي ڌرين حصو ورتو.

جيتوڻيڪ [[روانڊا محب وطن محاذ]] (RPF) [[اروشا معاهدا (روانڊا)|اروشا معاهدن]] مان سڀ کان وڌيڪ فائدو وٺندڙ ڌر هئي ۽ پنهنجون ڪيتريون شڪايتون حل ڪرائڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿي، پر ڪلافم موجب انهن مان ڪيترائي فائدا فوجي ڪارروائيءَ وسيلي به حاصل ڪري سگهجن پيا. ڪلافم جو چوڻ آهي ته اروشا معاهدن شرڪت ڪندڙ ڌرين جي پاڻ ۾ طاقت کي ٻن طريقن سان متاثر ڪيو: پهريون، جنگبنديءَ تڪرار جي هڪ مخصوص مرحلي تي علائقائي قبضي جي ورڇ کي منجمد ڪري ڇڏيو؛ ٻيو، ڳالهين ۾ شامل ڌرين کي ثالثن طرفان مقرر ڪيل اهميت ڏني وئي.

ان جو مطلب اهو هو ته تڪرار منجمد ٿي ويو ۽ RPF کي وڌيڪ علائقائي ڪاميابيون حاصل ڪرڻ کان روڪيو ويو. ڳالهين ۾ ڪنهن ڌر جي اهميت ان جي عوامي مقبوليت يا فوجي طاقت جي بنياد تي نه، پر ثالثن طرفان مصنوعي طور ڏنل وزن موجب طئي ڪئي وئي. نتيجي طور، سڄي عمل RPF جي حيثيت کي ڪمزور ڪيو، ان جي اڳ تائين ڪامياب فوجي مهم کي روڪيو ۽ هوتو انتهاپسندن کي [[روانڊا نسل ڪشي]] جي تياريءَ لاءِ وقت ڏنو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt;

شيئرر دليل ڏئي ٿو ته جديد حڪمت عمليون، جيڪي رڳو ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل ڳالهين تي ڀاڙين ٿيون، تمام گهڻيون محدود آهن، ۽ فوجي فتح کي تڪرار جي حل جي امڪاني طريقي طور نظرانداز نه ڪرڻ گهرجي. سندس چوڻ موجب جنگي ميدان ۾ طاقت جي توازن جي تبديلي اڪثر ڪنهن ويڙهاڪ ڌر کي ڳالهين جي ميز تائين آڻي سگهي ٿي ۽ ان جي مطالبن کي به نرم ڪري سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

ڳالهين ۽ ثالثيءَ ۾ رضامندي وڏي اهميت رکي ٿي. موجوده بين الاقوامي نظام ۽ سرد جنگ کان پوءِ بين الاقوامي برادريءَ طرفان گهڻو استعمال ٿيندڙ تڪرار حل ڪرڻ وارو نمونو رضامنديءَ کي بنيادي اهميت ڏئي ٿو. پر شيئرر سوال ڪري ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ويڙهاڪ ڌر ڳالهين ۽ جنگبنديءَ کي رڳو وقت حاصل ڪرڻ، پنهنجي فوج کي نئين سر ترتيب ڏيڻ ۽ پوءِ جنگ جاري رکڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري ٿي، ته ڇا تڪرار کي ڊگهو ڪرڻ ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل انساني نقصان جي خطري باوجود رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل حڪمت عملي جاري رکڻ گهرجي؟&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

شيئرر پاران ڄاڻايل تجرباتي تجزيي موجب، ڳالهين وسيلي ختم ٿيل اڳوڻين گهرو جنگين جي ڪاميابي محدود رهي آهي. هو جان اسٽيڊمين جي هڪ مطالعي جو حوالو ڏئي ٿو، جنهن مطابق 1900ع کان 1980ع تائين 85 سيڪڙو گهرو جنگيون ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي مڪمل فتح سان ختم ٿيون، جڏهن ته نوآبادياتي جنگين کي ڇڏي رڳو 15 سيڪڙو جنگيون ڳالهين وسيلي پڄاڻيءَ تي پهتيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

رائي لِڪلائيڊر جو مطالعو پڻ انهن نتيجن جي حمايت ڪري ٿو:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
1945ع کان 1989ع تائين سندس درجابندي موجب 93 گهرو تڪرارن مان 58 ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ ختم ٿيا، جڏهن ته باقي جاري رهيا. پر ختم ٿيل تڪرارن مان رڳو 14، يعني 24 سيڪڙو، ڳالهين وسيلي حل ٿيا. باقي 76 سيڪڙو فوجي فتحن سان ختم ٿيا. ان کان علاوه، ڳالهين وسيلي ختم ڪيل 14 تڪرارن مان 7 ۾ ويڙهه ٻيهر شروع ٿي وئي. تنهنڪري ختم ٿيل گهرو جنگين جي لحاظ کان ڳالهين وسيلي ٿيل ٺاهن جي مجموعي ڪاميابيءَ جي شرح لڳ ڀڳ 12 سيڪڙو هئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

سيرا ليون ۾ [[انقلابي گڏيل محاذ]] (RUF)، جنهن جي اڳواڻي [[فوڊي سنڪوه]] ڪري رهيو هو، 1991ع کان 1996ع تائين حڪومت خلاف [[سيرا ليون گهرو جنگ|رتوڇاڻ واري گهرو جنگ]] وڙهي. هن تڪرار ڏانهن بين الاقوامي ڌيان تمام گهٽ ويو، پر جنگ ملڪ کي تباهه ڪري ڇڏيو ۽ ان جي معيشت کي سخت نقصان پهچايو. ڳالهين وسيلي ٺاهه لاءِ ڪيترين ئي ڪوششن باوجود ڪنهن به ڌر پنهنجن مطالبن تان هٿ کڻڻ يا سمجهوتو ڪرڻ لاءِ تيار نه هئي.

سنڪوه [[نجي فوجي ڪمپني]] [[ايگزيڪيوٽو آئوٽڪمز]] جي مداخلت ۽ جنگي ميدان ۾ RUF جي ڪمزور ٿيڻ کان پوءِ ڳالهين جي ميز تي آيو. ان کان پوءِ RUF جو خطرو گهڻو گهٽجي ويو، عام ماڻهو پناهگير ڪئمپن مان واپس اچڻ ۽ پنهنجي زندگي نئين سر جوڙڻ لڳا. پر امن ڪمزور هو ۽ ڳالهين جو سلسلو جاري رهيو. RUF هٿيار ڦٽا ڪرڻ لاءِ تيار نه هو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان کي فوج ۽ شهري مليشيا ٻنهي کان انتقامي ڪاررواين جو خدشو هو.

انهن خدشن کي گهٽائڻ ۽ امن ڏانهن منتقليءَ ۾ مدد ڏيڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا موڪلڻ جو منصوبو هو، پر پوءِ صورتحال خراب ٿيڻ لڳي. بين الاقوامي ڌريون وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪوششن کان پوئتي هٽڻ لڳيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ حڪمت عمليءَ جي لحاظ کان گهٽ اهم ملڪ ۾ هڪ مهانگو ۽ اڻڄاتل مدي وارو مشن شروع ڪرڻ ۾ سندن دلچسپي نه هئي. نتيجي طور گڏيل قومن جي مداخلتي فوج جي جوڙجڪ سست ٿي وئي ۽ پوءِ مڪمل طور رڪجي وئي، جڏهن سنڪوه دليل ڏنو ته گڏيل قومن جي 740 امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جو دستو تمام وڏو هو.

گڏيل قومن ٻنهي ڌرين جي مڪمل رضامندي کان سواءِ ڪارروائي ڪرڻ کان انڪار ڪيو، جنهن سبب امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جي مقرري نه ٿي سگهي. شيئرر موجب رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هي طريقو ڏيکاري ٿو ته گهرو جنگ دوران ۽ ان کان پوءِ واري غير مستحڪم ۽ نازڪ صورتحال ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ڪردار ڪيترو محدود ٿي سگهي ٿو. سندس لفظن ۾، سيرا ليون ۾ ان جو مطلب اهو هو ته امن تعمير واري عمل کي مضبوط ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ اهم جزو موجود نه رهيو، ۽ سنڪوه پاڻ شرطون مقرر ڪرڻ لڳو. اهڙي طريقي سان هڪ ظالم باغي گروهه جي قيادت کي امن جا امڪان روڪڻ جي طاقت ملي وئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

صورتحال وڌيڪ خراب ٿي، جڏهن سيرا ليون جي نئين چونڊيل صدر [[احمد تيجان ڪباه]] ايگزيڪيوٽو آئوٽڪمز سان ٿيل معاهدو ختم ڪري ڇڏيو ۽ اهڙي طرح پنهنجي [[سخت طاقت]] واري فوجي برتري ڪمزور ڪري ڇڏي. 1997ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون جمهوريه جون هٿياربند فوجون|فوج]] جي ناراض آفيسرن حڪومت جو تختو اونڌو ڪيو، جنهن سان تڪرار ٻيهر تيز ٿي ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

سلامتيءَ جي صورتحال جي نگراني لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو هڪ ننڍو مبصر دستو موڪليو ويو. [[سيرا ليون ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مبصر مشن|UNOMSIL]] نالي هي مشن جولاءِ 1998ع کان آڪٽوبر 1999ع تائين موجود رهيو، پر RUF طرفان ملڪ جي گاديءَ واري شهر [[فري ٽائون]] تي قبضو ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ان کي واپس وڃڻو پيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna2008123–124&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=123–124}}&lt;/ref&gt;

نيٺ 1999ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مشن|UNAMSIL]] قائم ڪري موڪليو ويو. هن مشن کي گڏيل قومن جي منشور جي ستين باب تحت اختيار حاصل هو ۽ ان جو مقصد لومه معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ هو، پر تشدد جاري رهيو. شروعات کان ئي RUF تعاون ڪرڻ لاءِ تيار نه هو، ۽ [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري جو نگراني گروهه|ECOMOG]] جي دستي جي واپسيءَ کان پوءِ RUF گڏيل قومن جي فوجين تي حملو ڪيو ۽ سوين اهلڪارن کي يرغمال بڻائي ڇڏيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna2008123–124&quot; /&gt;

ان واقعي تي بين الاقوامي برادريءَ جو اهڙو سخت ردعمل سامهون آيو، جنهن جي RUF قيادت کي توقع نه هئي. ان جو خيال هو ته بين الاقوامي برادري صوماليا وانگر يا فري ٽائون مان UNOMSIL جي واپسيءَ وقت وانگر ٻيهر پوئتي هٽي ويندي. پر ان جي ابتڙ، برطانيه جي مدد سان RUF خلاف سخت [[سيرا ليون گهرو جنگ ۾ برطانوي فوجي مداخلت|فوجي مهم]] هلائي وئي. UNAMSIL جا اختيار وڌايا ويا ۽ ان جي اهلڪارن جو تعداد به وڌايو ويو. 2000ع جي پڇاڙيءَ ۽ 2001ع جي شروعات تائين RUF جي فوجي طاقت تمام گهڻي ڪمزور ٿي چڪي هئي. پوءِ [[ابوجا معاهدو|ابوجا معاهدا]] ڪيا ويا ۽ UNAMSIL ڊسمبر 2005ع ۾ پنهنجو مشن مڪمل ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unamsil/|title=UNAMSIL: United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone|website=www.un.org|access-date=May 5, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيتوڻيڪ اڄ سيرا ليون ۾ امن قائم آهي ۽ گڏيل قومن جي مشن کي ڪامياب سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، پر صورتحال جي ارتقا شيئرر جي ان دليل کي واضح ڪري ٿي ته رڳو رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل، سڀني ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي مفادن کي شامل ڪندڙ ڳالهين وارو طريقو لازمي طور ڪاميابيءَ تائين نٿو پهچي. UNOMSIL جي موجودگيءَ باوجود جنگ جاري رهي. حقيقت ۾، ستين باب تحت وڌيڪ مضبوط UNAMSIL اچڻ کان پوءِ به تشدد ختم نه ٿيو. جڏهن برطانيا فوجي مداخلت ڪري RUF جي تڪرار جاري رکڻ واري صلاحيت کي سخت نقصان پهچايو، جيئن ان کان اڳ ايگزيڪيوٽو آئوٽڪمز ڪيو هو، تڏهن RUF آخرڪار ڳالهين جي ميز تي آيو ۽ امن قائم ٿيڻ ممڪن ٿيو.

ڪجهه ليکڪ اصولي طور بين الاقوامي مداخلت جي خيال تي ئي سوال اٿارين ٿا. 2005ع ۾ [[عالمي ترقي مرڪز]] لاءِ تيار ڪيل هڪ تحقيقي مقالي ۾ [[اسٽينفورڊ يونيورسٽي]] جي [[جيريمي وائينسٽين]] ”خودمختيار بحالي“ جو نظريو پيش ڪيو، جنهن موجب رياستون بين الاقوامي مداخلت کان سواءِ به پائيدار امن حاصل ڪري سگهن ٿيون. [[يوگنڊا]]، [[ايريٽريا]] ۽ [[صوماليا]] جي ڪيس مطالعي ذريعي وائينسٽين ڏيکاريو ته رياستون جنگ مان به اثرائتا ادارا پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿيون.

هن طريقي جا فائدا ۽ نقصان آهن، جن کي بين الاقوامي مداخلت جي امڪاني نتيجن سان ڀيٽڻ گهرجي. ٻاهرين مداخلت وڏي پيماني تي ٿيندڙ ظلمن کي روڪي سگهي ٿي، پر اها ادارتي تبديليءَ کي به روڪي سگهي ٿي. خودمختيار بحالي سڀ کان طاقتور اڳواڻ کي مٿانهون ڪري ٿي، پر گڏوگڏ سڀ کان طاقتور ويڙهاڪن کي به انعام ڏئي ٿي، جيڪي اقتدار ورهائڻ لاءِ گهٽ تيار ٿي سگهن ٿا. ان کان علاوه، مداخلت ٻاهرين اثر تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جڏهن ته خودمختيار بحالي اندروني عنصرن تي ٻڌل هوندي آهي.

وائينسٽين جي دليل مان اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته مداخلت هميشه بهترين پاليسي ناهي. تنهن هوندي به سندس چوڻ آهي ته بين الاقوامي برادريءَ جي [[تحفظ جي ذميواري]] واري اصول کي اخلاقي اهميت حاصل آهي، جڏهن ته خودمختيار بحاليءَ لاءِ گهربل حالتون تمام گهٽ ملن ٿيون. سندس نظر ۾ بنيادي مسئلو اهو آهي ته سٺي حڪمرانيءَ کي ڪيئن همٿايو وڃي ۽ باغي گروهن جي مدد اهڙي نموني ڪيئن ڪئي وڃي، جو آمدني گڏ ڪرڻ ۽ حڪمرانن کي جوابده بڻائڻ واري شهرين ۽ حڪمرانن جي لاڳاپي کي نقصان نه پهچي.&lt;ref&gt;Weinstein, Jeremy M. 2005. &quot;Autonomous Recovery and International Intervention in Comparative Perspective.&quot; Center for Global Development Working Paper 57. https://www.cgdev.org/files/2731_file_WP57.pdf.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== مشن جي دائري جو وڌڻ ===

جيتوڻيڪ [[جيمس فيئرون]] ۽ [[ڊيوڊ ليٽن]] امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين لاءِ ڪيترن ئي عملي ۽ اخلاقي سببن کي تسليم ڪن ٿا، پر سندن خيال آهي ته ڪجهه حالتن ۾ اهي ڪارروايون آهستي آهستي [[رياست سازي]] جي ڪوششن سان ڳنڍجي وڃن ٿيون. ڪمزور رياستن ۾، جتي باغي گروهه ڪامياب گوريلا مهمون هلائي رهيا هجن، امن قائم رکڻ وارن دستن تي اهو دٻاءُ وڌي وڃي ٿو ته هو پائيدار امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ رياستي ادارن ۽ انتظامي صلاحيتن کي به مضبوط ڪن. اهڙو دٻاءُ اصل امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن جي دائري کان ٻاهر نڪري وڃي ٿو، جنهن کي &quot;مشن جي دائري جو وڌڻ&quot; (Mission creep) چيو وڃي ٿو.

جيڪڏهن امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون رياست سازي جي عمل ۾ حصو نه وٺن، ته انهن جي واپسي کان پوءِ لاڳاپيل ملڪ ۾ ٻيهر تشدد ڀڙڪڻ جو خطرو وڌي سگهي ٿو. تنهن ڪري فيئرون ۽ ليٽن امن قائم رکڻ جي ڪوششن ۾ رياست سازي کي وڌيڪ مربوط ڪرڻ جي حمايت ڪن ٿا. هو ان مقصد لاءِ &quot;نيو ٽرسٽيشپ&quot; (''Neotrusteeship'') نالي هڪ نئين فريم ورڪ جي تجويز پيش ڪن ٿا، جنهن تحت پرڏيهي طاقتون ڪمزور رياست جي گهرو معاملن تي نمايان حد تائين نگراني ۽ اختيار رکن، جيئن مستقبل ۾ تشدد جي ٻيهر اُڀار کي روڪي سگهجي.&lt;ref name=&quot;FearonLaitin2004&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Fearon|first1=James D.|last2=Laitin|first2=David D.|date=2004|title=Neotrusteeship and the Problem of Weak States|journal=International Security|volume=28|issue=4|pages=5–43|doi=10.1162/0162288041588296|s2cid=57559356}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== مقامي آبادي سان لاڳاپي جي کوٽ ===

امن قائم رکڻ بابت وڌندڙ تنقيدن مان هڪ اهم تنقيد اها آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارن عملدارن ۽ مقامي آبادي جي وچ ۾ اثرائتي رابطي ۽ شموليت جي کوٽ هوندي آهي. [[سيورين اوٽيسر]] 2015ع ۾ ''فارين پاليسي'' ۾ شايع ٿيل پنهنجي مقالي ۾ وضاحت ڪري ٿي ته اهڙي صورتحال سبب امن قائم رکڻ وارا عملدار امن برقرار رکڻ جا منصوبا ته تيار ڪن ٿا، پر اهي زميني حقيقتن کان ڪٽيل هوندا آهن، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ عملي طور انهن منصوبن جا اثر اڪثر ابتا نڪرندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;trouble&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/10/06/trouble-in-peaceland-united-nations-congo-development/|title=Trouble in Peaceland|last=Autesserre|first=Severine|website=Foreign Policy|date=October 6, 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

اوٽيسر موجب، اهڙي طريقي سان هڪ اهڙو خودتقويت ڏيندڙ نظام به وجود ۾ اچي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ميدان تي ڪم ڪندڙ عملدار پنهنجي منصوبن کي ڪامياب قرار ڏئي رپورٽون موڪلين ٿا، جڏهن ته حقيقت ۾ انهن جا نتيجا مقامي سطح تي نقصانڪار ثابت ٿيندا آهن. جيڪڏهن بعد ۾ صورتحال ٻيهر تشدد ۾ تبديل ٿي وڃي، ته ان جو ذميوار مقامي آبادي کي ٺهرايو ويندو آهي، نه ته انهن پاليسين يا منصوبن کي، جيڪي حقيقت کان ڪٽيل هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;trouble&quot; /&gt;

هي تنقيد گهڻي حد تائين اُن تنقيد سان ملي ٿي، جيڪا ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾ ترقياتي منصوبن بابت [[جيمس سي. اسڪاٽ]]، [[جيمس فرگوسن]] ۽ [[ايل. لوهمان]] جهڙن ليکڪن پيش ڪئي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Scott1998&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed|url=https://archive.org/details/seeinglikestateh00scot|url-access=limited|last=Scott|first=James C.|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1998|location=New Haven|pages=[https://archive.org/details/seeinglikestateh00scot/page/n17 1]–10|isbn=9780300078152}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Ferguson|last2=Lohman|first1=James|first2=L.|date=1994|title=The anti-politics machine: 'development' and bureaucratic power in Lesotho.|journal=The Ecologist|volume=24}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ ۽ ترقياتي سرگرميون ٻه الڳ شعبا آهن، پر هن تنقيد جي بنيادي منطق ساڳي آهي. ٽئين ڌر جا عملدار—چاهي اهي امن قائم رکڻ وارا هجن يا ترقياتي ادارن جا نمائندا—عام ماڻهن کان پري رهندا آهن. هو اهو سمجهندا آهن ته کين بهتر خبر آهي ته مقامي ماڻهن لاءِ ڇا مناسب آهي، ۽ ان ڪري هو زميني سطح تي رهندڙ ماڻهن کان معلومات يا راءِ حاصل ڪرڻ کي ضروري نه سمجهندا آهن. ليکڪن موجب، اها روش عام طور بدنِيتي يا سامراجيت جي نتيجي ۾ نه هوندي آهي، پر ان يقين مان پيدا ٿيندي آهي ته اعليٰ تعليم يافته عملدار، جيڪي ٻين ماهرن تائين رسائي رکن ٿا ۽ امن قائم رکڻ ۽ ترقي بابت علمي ادب کان واقف آهن، مقامي ماڻهن کان وڌيڪ بهتر فيصلا ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Scott1998&quot; /&gt;

=== ميٽا-تنظيمي چئلينج ===

تنقيد جو هڪ ٻيو اهم رخ انهن رڪاوٽن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، جيڪي گڏيل قومن جي پنهنجي تنظيمي ڍانچي مان پيدا ٿين ٿيون ۽ امن قائم رکڻ جي اثرائتي صلاحيت کي محدود ڪن ٿيون. [[جيروڊ پينڊلبري]]، [[نيل اسٽاٽ]] ۽ [[پال ٽريسي]] دليل ڏين ٿا ته گڏيل قومن جي [[ميٽا-تنظيم]] (ميٽا-آرگنائيزيشن) هجڻ—يعني اهڙي تنظيم جيڪا پاڻ به ڪيترين ئي خودمختيار تنظيمن تي مشتمل هجي—امن قائم رکڻ جي ڪارڪردگيءَ کي خاص طور ٻن اهم شعبن ۾ متاثر ڪري ٿي: فيصلا سازي ۽ نواڻ (Innovation).&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot; /&gt;

انهن ليکڪن موجب، پيچيده تنظيمي لاڳاپا، ادارتي سڃاڻپ جا ٽڪراءُ، حڪم ۽ ڪنٽرول جون ورهايل زنجيرون، مختلف ادارن جي وچ ۾ محدود افقي هم آهنگي، مالي وسيلا فراهم ڪرڻ جا پيچيده طريقا ۽ اداري جي اندر موجود جمود (سسٽميٽڪ انرشيا) گڏيل قومن لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي منصوبابندي، فوج ۽ ٻين وسيلن جي فراهمي، ۽ مشنن جي مؤثر عملدرآمد کي وڌيڪ ڏکيو بڻائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot; /&gt;

== سڌارن جون تجويزون ==

=== برهيمي تجزيو ===

خاص طور امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن تي لڳندڙ جنسي استحصال جي الزامن سميت مختلف تنقيدن جي جواب ۾، گڏيل قومن پنهنجي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين ۾ سڌارا آڻڻ لاءِ ڪيترائي قدم کنيا. [[گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ بابت پينل جي رپورٽ|برهيمي رپورٽ]] انهن قدمن مان پهرين اهم ڪوشش هئي، جنهن جو مقصد اڳوڻين امن قائم رکڻ وارين مشنن جو جائزو وٺڻ، انهن جي خامين جي سڃاڻپ ڪرڻ ۽ مستقبل جي مشنن کي وڌيڪ مؤثر بڻائڻ لاءِ ضروري سڌارا تجويز ڪرڻ هو. گڏيل قومن اهو عزم ظاهر ڪيو ته مستقبل ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين دوران انهن سڌارن تي عمل جاري رکيو ويندو.

سڌارن جي هن فني عمل کي [[گڏيل قومن جو امن قائم رکڻ وارو کاتو]] (DPKO) پنهنجي **&quot;امن ڪارروايون 2010&quot;** (''Peace Operations 2010'') واري سڌاري جي ايجنڊا ذريعي اڳتي وڌايو ۽ وڌيڪ مضبوط بڻايو. ان ۾ عملي جي تعداد ۾ واڌ، ميداني ۽ هيڊڪوارٽر عملي جي خدمتن جي شرطن ۾ هم آهنگي، رهنما اصولن ۽ معياري عملي طريقن (اسٽينڊرڊ آپريٽنگ پروسيجر) جي تياري، ۽ DPKO، [[گڏيل قومن جو ترقياتي پروگرام]] (UNDP)، [[آفريقي اتحاد]] ۽ [[يورپي اتحاد]] جي وچ ۾ شراڪتداري کي وڌيڪ بهتر بڻائڻ شامل هو. 2008ع ۾ جاري ڪيل بنيادي دستاويز **&quot;گڏيل قومن جون امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون: اصول ۽ رهنما هدايتون&quot;** انهن ئي برهيمي تجزين کي وڌيڪ وسيع ۽ مضبوط بنياد فراهم ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://pbpu.unlb.org/pbps/Library/Capstone_Doctrine_ENG.pdf|title=Peacekeeping Resource Hub|website=pbpu.unlb.org|access-date=July 8, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819214105/http://pbpu.unlb.org/pbps/Library/Capstone_Doctrine_ENG.pdf|archive-date=August 19, 2008|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

برهيمي رپورٽ جن بنيادي مسئلن جي نشاندهي ڪئي، انهن مان هڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين جي منصوبابندي ۽ هم آهنگيءَ جي کوٽ هئي. رپورٽ اهو پڻ واضح ڪيو ته ڪيترن ئي مشنن جا مقرر ڪيل مقصد انهن لاءِ مهيا ڪيل وسيلن ۽ مالي امداد سان هم آهنگ نه هئا. ان ڪري رپورٽ سفارش ڪئي ته [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] هر مشن جا مقصد، اختيار ۽ انهن جي عملدرآمد لاءِ گهربل وسيلا واضح نموني طئي ڪري.

[[جيمس فيئرون]] ۽ [[ڊيوڊ ليٽن]] جي خيال موجب، برهيمي رپورٽ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل لاءِ هڪ اهم سياسي اوزار فراهم ڪيو، جنهن ذريعي هو سلامتي ڪائونسل سان امن قائم رکڻ وارين مشنن جي مقصدن، گهربل فوجين ۽ مالي وسيلن بابت وڌيڪ مؤثر نموني ڳالهين ڪري سگهي ٿو. هن اوزار جو مقصد انهن حالتن کان بچڻ هو، جتي [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا|بوسنيا]]، [[صوماليا]] ۽ [[سيرا ليون]] جهڙن مشنن کي ناڪافي مالي ۽ انساني وسيلا فراهم ڪيا ويا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;FearonLaitin2004&quot;/&gt;

[[ڪرسٽين گري]] برهيمي رپورٽ جي سفارشن تي عملدرآمد سان لاڳاپيل مسئلن جو جائزو وٺندي بيان ڪري ٿي ته انهن تجويزن کي عملي جامو پارائڻ آسان نه هو. خاص طور تي، [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] طرفان جاري ڪيل وسيع اختيارن (مينڊيٽ) ۽ انهن تي عملدرآمد لاءِ حقيقت ۾ مهيا ڪيل محدود وسيلن جي وچ ۾ موجود فرق کي گهٽائڻ هڪ وڏو چئلينج ثابت ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1 = Gray | first1 = Christine | year = 2001 | title = Peacekeeping After the ''Brahimi Report'': Is There a Crisis of Credibility for the UN?. | journal = J Conflict Security Law | volume = 6 | issue = 2| pages = 267–288 | doi=10.1093/jcsl/6.2.267}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== پڻ ڏسو ==
{{Portal|سياست}}
{{Commons category|امن قائم رکڻ}}
* [[بنگلاديش گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج]]
* [[ڪينيڊا جي امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون]]
* [[گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين مشنن جي فهرست]]
* [[گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي تعداد موجب ملڪن جي فهرست]]
* [[اهي ملڪ جتي هن وقت گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا مقرر آهن]]
* [[غير گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين مشنن جي فهرست]]
* [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]]
* [[جنگ کان سواءِ فوجي ڪارروايون]]
* [[هيبرون ۾ عارضي بين الاقوامي موجودگي]]
* [[گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين مشنن جي وقتوار فهرست]]

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:امن]]
[[زمرو:تنظيمون]]
[[زمرو:گڏيل قومون]]
[[زمرو:عالمي سياست]]
[[زمرو:بين الاقوامي لاڳاپا]]</text>
      <sha1>81jj7tgcb61cno563rn9jdrjvf6uawo</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399335</id>
      <parentid>399334</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T22:07:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399335</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="154279" sha1="16anuh9fv1actxqqqb7zx47v5pp90vx" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|دائمي امن لاءِ سازگار حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ خاطر ڪيل سرگرميون}}


[[File:Italian Soldier UNIFIL 2 Lebanon 2007.jpg|thumb|[[اطالوي فوج]] جو هڪ [[سپاهي]] لبنان ۾ [[يونيفل]] مشن دوران پهرو ڏئي رهيو آهي.]]

'''امن قائم رکندڙ فوج''' (Peacekeeping Force) انهن سرگرمين، خاص طور فوجي سرگرمين،&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Peacekeeping&quot;. Oxford Languages. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; تي مشتمل هوندو آهي، جن جو مقصد اهڙيون حالتون پيدا ڪرڻ هوندو آهي جيڪي پائيدار [[امن]] جي قيام لاءِ سازگار هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/|title=United Nations Peacekeeping|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; تحقيق مان عام طور اهو ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون [[شهري جاني نقصان|شهري]] ۽ جنگي ميدان ۾ ٿيندڙ جاني نقصان کي گهٽائين ٿيون ۽ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي پڻ گهٽائين ٿيون.

[[گڏيل قومون]] (UN) ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل [[قومي رياست]]ن جي حڪومتن ۽ [[تنظيم]]ن جي وچ ۾ عام طور اهو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو ته عالمي سطح تي امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا جنگ کان پوءِ وارن علائقن ۾ امن جي عمل جي نگراني ۽ مشاهدو ڪندا آهن، ۽ اڳوڻن ويڙهاڪن کي انهن امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ ۾ مدد ڏيندا آهن، جن جا هو پابند بڻيل هوندا آهن. اهڙي مدد ڪيترين ئي صورتن ۾ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ اعتماد سازي جا قدم، اقتدار جي ورهاست جا انتظام، چونڊن ۾ مدد، [[قانون جي حڪمراني]] کي مضبوط بڻائڻ، ۽ معاشي ۽ سماجي ترقي کي هٿي ڏيڻ. ان ڪري [[گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا]] (جن کي سندن هلڪي نيري [[بيريٽ]] يا هيلمٽ سبب اڪثر '''نيري بيريٽ''' يا '''نيرا هيلمٽ''' چيو ويندو آهي) ۾ فوجي، [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس آفيسر]] ۽ شهري عملي جا ميمبر شامل ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;dpko&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dpko/ |title=Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=United Nations Peacekeeping |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/about/dfs/ |title=Department of Field Support (DFS) |publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping |access-date=October 3, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جا مشن هلائيندڙ واحد تنظيم گڏيل قومون نه آهن. گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم ڪندڙ قوتن ۾ [[ڪوسوو فورس]] جي [[نيٽو]] مشن (گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان)، [[سينا ٻيٽ نما]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]]، ۽ [[يورپي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[EUFOR RCA]]، گڏيل قومن جي اجازت سان) ۽ [[آفريقي يونين]] (جهڙوڪ [[سوڊان ۾ آفريقي يونين مشن]]) پاران منظم ڪيل امن مشن شامل آهن.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

[[بين الاقوامي قانون]] موجب، امن قائم ڪندڙ پنهنجي غيرجانبدار حيثيت سبب [[غير جنگجو]] (non-combatants) شمار ٿيندا آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي ٻن يا وڌيڪ [[جنگ ڪندڙ ڌر]]ن جي وچ ۾ تڪرار ۾ غيرجانبدار هوندا آهن (بلڪل اهڙيءَ طرح جيئن امن قائم رکڻ جي ذميوارين کان ٻاهر موجود غيرجانبدار ماڻهو ۽ ملڪيت). تنهنڪري انهن کي هر حال ۾ حملن کان تحفظ حاصل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule33 |title=Rule 33. Personnel and Objects Involved in a Peacekeeping Mission|publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]|access-date=April 7, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فائل:UN Soldiers in Eritrea.jpeg|thumb|right|upright=1.00|نيدرلينڊز جا ڊچ فوجي اقوام متحده جي امن جي قيام جي فورس ۾ ايٿوپيا ۽ ايريٽيريا جي سرحد تي گڏيل قومن پاران چوڪسي ڪندي]]

'''امن جي بحالي واري فوج'''{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي=Peace Keeping Force}}
ٻن ملڪن ياڌرين جي وچ ۾ ڪو به تڪرار ايترو زور وٺي وڃي، جو ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت کانسواءِ اهو ٽري نه سگهي، ته ٽين ڌر امن قائم ڪرڻ (Peace Keeping) لاءِ مُختلف اُپاءُ وٺندي آهي. ڪنهن به تڪرار جي حل لاءِ ٽين ڌر جي مداخلت جو مقصد ٻن ڌُرين ۾ رڳو صُلح ڪرائڻ هوندو آهي، جنهن لاءِ فوجي ۽ سُفارتي طريقا ڪتب آندا ويندا آهن. ان کان سواءِ گھُرج پوڻ تي ٽين ڌر (يا وچين ڌر) جهيڙو ڪندڙ ڌرين تي مُختلف قسمن جو دٻاءُ رکندي آهي، جيڪڏهن ڌريون پوءِ به جهيڙي کي نه ٿيون ختم ڪن، ته مٿانئن فوجي قدم کڻڻ لاءِ به اڳڀرائي ڪئي ويندي آهي. جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جو عالمي ادارو|گڏيل قومن]] جو ادارو قائم ڪيو ويو هيو ته ان وقت ٻي عالمي جنگ ختم ٿي هئي، پر ملڪن جا پاڻ ۾ تڪرار پوءِ به هلي رهيا هئا ۽ ”سرد جنگ“ به شروع ٿي چڪي هئي، دُنيا جي امن کي گهڻن قسمن جا خطرا پيدا ٿي چڪا هئا. 1950ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل بين الاقوامي جهيڙن کي پاسيرو ڪرڻ ۽ امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ”احتياطي سفارتڪاري“ (Preventive Diplomacy) جو اصطلاح اڳيان آندو هو. انهيءَ قسم جي حڪمت عملي ۾ ڪنهن به تڪرار کي رڳو ٺارڻ جو حل ڏنل هيو، پر جهيڙي کي مستقل طور ختم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪجهه واڌو قدم به گهربل هئا. انهيءَ ڪري اهڙي صورتحال ۾ اڳتي هلي ”مشن ڪريپ“ (Mission Creep) جو اصطلاح ڪتب آندو ويو، جنهن ۾ جهيڙي کي مڪمل طور ختم ڪرڻ جي تجويز ڏني وئي. انهيءَ حوالي سان 1956ع ۾ ڪئناڊا جي پرڏيهي معاملن جي وزير ۽ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”ڊگ هئمرشولڊ“ گڏيل قومن جي اداري جي پلئٽفارم تان ”امن قائم ڪرڻ واري فوج“ (Peace Keeping Force) قائم ڪئي، جنهن جي شعبا بندي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ان جي ورديءَ کانسواءِ خاص قسم جي ٽوپي به تيار ڪرائي وئي ۽ ان خاص ٽوپيءَ جو رنگ ”نيرو“ مقرر ڪيو ويو. ٽوپيءَ کي ٻين فوجي ٽوپين کان الڳ رنگ ڏيڻ جو مقصد، بين الاقوامي امن فوج جي انفراديت کي ظاهر ڪرڻ آهي. ان هوندي به ”امن فوج“ جي طريقيڪار ۽ اختيارن کي اڃا تائين چڱيءَ ريت گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر ۾ بيان نه ڪيو ويو آهي. گڏيل قومن جي چارٽر جي 6 ۽ 7 باب ۾، امن جي ڪوشش وٺڻ لاءِ جيڪي تفصيل بيان ڪيا ويا آهن، انهن سان امن جي بحاليءَ واري عمل کي به جوڙيو ويو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن جي بحاليءَ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي پڌرنامي جي روح مطابق جوڙجڪ ضروري آهي. انهن کوٽن جي باوجود، گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج، دُنيا ۾ امن ۽ صلح جي لاءِ گھڻن هنڌن مثال طور؛ ڪمبوڊيا، نميبيا، انگولا، لبنان، ايراني نار ۽ [[سوماليا|صوماليا]] وغيره ۾ ڪاميابيءَ سان پنهنجون ذميواريون پوريون ڪري چڪي آهي. امن فوج جي اهڙي اهميت کي محسوس ڪندي، گڏيل قومن جي اداري ڪيترن مُتاثر ملڪن جي داخلي معاملن ۾ به هن فوج جو استعمال مُناسب ۽ بهتر سمجهيو. منڍ ۾ اها فوج ٻن تڪراري ڌُر جي وچ ۾ هلندڙ جهيِڙو ٽارڻ لاءِ ڪتب آندي ويندي هئي، پر 1988ع کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جي اداري اهڙن ملڪن ۾ به کيس ذميواري سونپيون، جتي گهرو ويڙھ ۾ اَڙيل مُختلف ڌرين ۾ جنگ جاري هُئي ۽ اُتي انتظامي معاملا هيٺ مٿي لڳا پيا هُئا. اهڙن مُلڪن ۾ امن فوج کي گڏيل قومن طرفان چونڊون ڪرائڻ، انتظامي معاملن کي سُڌارڻ، عوام کي تحفظ ڏيڻ ۽ جهيڙن کان تنگ اچي ملڪ ڇڏي ويل ماڻهن کي واپس پنهنجي اباڻي وطن ۾ ٻيهر آباد ڪرائڻ جا اختيار به ڏنا ويا. ٻئي طرف اها به حقيقت آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن بحال ڪرائيندڙ فوج کي گھڻن معاملن ۽ هنڌن تي ڪن ملڪن پنهنجن خاص مقصدن لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو. ان کانسواءِ گھڻن علائقن (جهڙوڪ ڪشمير) ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن فوج پنهنجي مقصد حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام وئي آهي. سندس مُقابلي ۾ اولھ جي مُلڪن جي فوجي اتحاد نيٽو امن فوج جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ متحرڪ ۽ اثرائتي رهي آهي. 1992ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل ”بترس غالي“، امن جي آڻڻ لاءِ خاص علائقي ۽ خاص حالتن آهر مداخلت ڪرڻ ۽ نون اختيار ڏيڻ لاءِ اداري آڏو تجويزون پيش ڪيون، پر ان ڏس ۾ مڪمل سوڀاري ٿيڻ لاءِ ”پيس ڪيپگ“ جو عمل نون ضابطن، اختيارن ۽ قانونن جي انتظار ۾ آهي. 
&lt;ref&gt;[http://dic.sindhila.edu.pk/define/Peace%20Keeping%20Force.php سنڌي آنلائين ڊڪشنري]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} پاران [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد&lt;/ref&gt;

== وصفون ۽ امن قائم رکڻ جي عمل جا قسم ==

=== گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ===
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن}}

==== ڇهون باب ۽ ستون باب وارا مشن ====

امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن جا ڪيترائي مختلف قسم آهن. مثال طور، پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي ڪتاب ''Does Peacekeeping Work?'' ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جي عملن کي چئن مختلف قسمن ۾ ورهايو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=Chapter 7}}&lt;/ref&gt; انهن مشنن جو قسم ۽ انهن تي عملدرآمد جو طريقو گهڻي حد تائين ان اختيارنامي (mandate) تي دارومدار رکي ٿو، جنهن تحت انهن کي اختيار ڏنو ويندو آهي.

فورٽنا جي بيان ڪيل چئن قسمن مان ٽي اهڙا آهن، جيڪي ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا آهن ۽ انهن کي عام طور ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ڇهون باب|ڇهين باب]]'' وارا مشن چيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته چوٿون قسم ''[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]]'' وارو مشن هوندو آهي.

ڇهين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشنن لاءِ جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي لازمي هوندي آهي؛ جيڪڏهن اها رضامندي ختم ٿي وڃي ته امن قائم ڪندڙ دستن کي علائقو ڇڏڻو پوندو. ان جي ابتڙ، ستين باب وارن مشنن کي قانوني طور رضامندي جي ضرورت نه هوندي آهي، جيتوڻيڪ عملي طور اها موجود ٿي سگهي ٿي. جيڪڏهن رضامندي بعد ۾ ختم به ٿي وڃي ته به اهڙن مشنن کي واپس وڃڻ ضروري نه هوندو.

# '''مشاهدي وارا مشن''' (Observation Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي يا شهري مبصرن جا ننڍا دستا شامل هوندا آهن، جيڪي جنگبندي، فوجن جي واپسي يا جنگبندي واري معاهدي ۾ ڄاڻايل ٻين شرطن جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. اهي عام طور بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا آهن ۽ سندن بنيادي ذميواري رڳو مشاهدو ڪرڻ ۽ رپورٽون تيار ڪرڻ هوندي آهي؛ تنهن ڪري جيڪڏهن ڪا ڌر معاهدي جي ڀڃڪڙي ڪري ته اهي مداخلت ڪرڻ جا مجاز نه هوندا آهن. مثال طور [[انگولا]] ۾ 1991ع وارو [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن II]] (UNAVEM II) ۽ [[اولهه صحارا]] ۾ [[اولهه صحارا بابت راءِ شماري لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو مشن]] (MINURSO).

# '''وچٿري مشن''' (Interpositional Missions)، جن کي روايتي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، نسبتاً وڏن ۽ هلڪي هٿياربند فوجي دستن تي مشتمل هوندا آهن، جيڪي تڪرار کان پوءِ ٻن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ طور مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن. اهي ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ بفر زون جو ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪندا آهن. مثال طور 1994ع ۾ [[انگولا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو انگولا تصديقي مشن III]] (UNAVEM III) ۽ 1996ع ۾ [[گوئٽي مالا]] ۾ [[MINUGUA]].

# '''گهڻ رخا مشن''' (Multidimensional Missions): انهن ۾ فوجي ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي پوليس|پوليس]] عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو جامع امن معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪندو آهي. اهي رڳو مشاهدو يا ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رڪاوٽ بڻجڻ تائين محدود نه هوندا آهن، پر چونڊن جي نگراني، پوليس ۽ سلامتي ادارن جي سڌارن، ادارن جي تعمير، معاشي ترقي ۽ ٻين ڪيترن ئي شعبن ۾ پڻ حصو وٺندا آهن. مثال طور [[نيميبيا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو عبوري امدادي گروهه]] (UNTAG)، [[ايل سلواڊور]] ۾ [[ONUSAL]] ۽ [[موزمبيق]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUMOZ).

# '''[[امن لاڳو ڪندڙ]] مشن''' (Peace Enforcement Missions): اهي ستين باب هيٺ هلندڙ مشن هوندا آهن ۽ اڳين ٽن قسمن جي ابتڙ، جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ جا پابند نه هوندا آهن. اهي شهري ۽ فوجي ٻنهي قسمن جي عملي تي مشتمل گهڻ رخا مشن هوندا آهن. انهن وٽ نسبتاً وڏي ۽ بهتر هٿياربند فوج هوندي آهي ۽ انهن کي صرف پنهنجي بچاءَ کان وڌيڪ مقصدن لاءِ به طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ جو اختيار حاصل هوندو آهي. مثال طور [[اولهه آفريڪا]] ۾ [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري جو نگراني گروهه]] (ECOMOG)، 1999ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو سيرا ليون مشن]] (UNAMSIL)، ۽ [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ [[نيٽو]] جا [[IFOR]] ۽ [[SFOR]] آپريشن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot;/&gt;

==== سرد جنگ دوران ۽ ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ====

[[سرد جنگ]] جي دور ۾ امن قائم رکڻ جا اڪثر مشن روايتي نوعيت جا هئا، جن ۾ امن قائم ڪندڙ دستا ملڪن جي وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ جنگن کان پوءِ مقرر ڪيا ويندا هئا ته جيئن جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ حفاظتي رڪاوٽ بڻجن ۽ امن معاهدن تي عملدرآمد کي يقيني بڻائين. اهي مشن رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هوندا هئا ۽ گهڻو ڪري مبصر بنا هٿيارن جي هوندا هئا، جيئن [[وچ اوڀر]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) ۽ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] بابت [[ڪشمير بابت گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP). ڪجهه مشن هٿياربند به هئا، جهڙوڪ [[سوئيز بحران]] دوران قائم ڪيل [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I). مجموعي طور اهي مشن پنهنجي مقرر ڪيل ڪردار ۾ ڪامياب رهيا.

[[سرد جنگ کان پوءِ وارو دور|سرد جنگ کان پوءِ]] گڏيل قومن امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ جامع ۽ گهڻ رخي طريقيڪار اختيار ڪيو. 1992ع ۾ ان وقت جي [[گڏيل قومن جو سيڪريٽري جنرل|سيڪريٽري جنرل]] [[بوتروس بوتروس غالي]] هڪ رپورٽ تيار ڪئي، جنهن ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ امن قائم رکڻ بابت پنهنجو جامع تصور پيش ڪيو. ''[[امن لاءِ ايجنڊا]]'' (An Agenda for Peace) نالي هن رپورٽ ۾ هن احتياطي سفارتڪاري، امن لاڳو ڪرڻ، امن ڪرائڻ، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ بحاليءَ کي هڪ ٻئي سان ڳنڍيل قدمن طور بيان ڪيو، جن جي ذريعي سرد جنگ کان پوءِ واري عالمي سياست ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ڪردار وڌيڪ اثرائتو بڻجي سگهي.

==== گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جا وسيع مقصد ====

[[مائيڪل ڊوئل]] ۽ نڪولس سامبانس پنهنجي ڪتاب ''The UN Record on Peacekeeping Operations'' ۾ بوتروس غالي جي رپورٽ جو خلاصو پيش ڪندي احتياطي سفارتڪاري، اعتماد سازي جي قدمن (جهڙوڪ حقيقت معلوم ڪرڻ وارا مشن)، مبصر مشن، ۽ تشدد جي خطري کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جي اختيار هيٺ فوج مقرر ڪرڻ کي پائيدار امن لاءِ اهم ذريعا قرار ڏين ٿا. سندن بيان موجب:

# '''امن لاڳو ڪرڻ''' (Peace Enforcement): گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي منظور ڪيل جنگبندي يا معاهدي تي عمل ڪرائڻ لاءِ، ضرورت پوڻ تي ڌرين جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به فوجي طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ. اهڙا مشن عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون باب|ستين باب]] تحت هلندا آهن ۽ انهن ۾ مقرر فوجون نسبتاً وڌيڪ هٿياربند هونديون آهن.

# '''امن ڪرائڻ''' (Peacemaking): گڏيل قومن جي سرپرستي هيٺ ثالثي ۽ ڳالهين ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين کي پرامن حل تي راضي ڪرڻ. هي عمل عام طور [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] جي ڇهين باب تحت ڪيو ويندو آهي.

# '''امن قائم رکڻ''' (Peacekeeping): جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي رضامندي سان هلڪي هٿياربند گڏيل قومن جي موجودگي قائم ڪرڻ، اعتماد پيدا ڪرڻ ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ٿيل معاهدن جي نگراني ڪرڻ. ان سان گڏ سفارتي ڪوششون پڻ جاري رهنديون آهن ته جيئن جامع ۽ پائيدار امن حاصل ڪري سگهجي.

# '''تڪرار کان پوءِ بحالي''' (Post-Conflict Reconstruction): معاشي ۽ سماجي سهڪار ذريعي جنگ ڪندڙ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي بحال ڪرڻ، سياسي، سماجي ۽ معاشي ادارن کي مضبوط ڪرڻ، مستقبل ۾ تشدد جي امڪان کي گهٽائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|date=2007|title=The UN Record On Peacekeeping Operations|journal=International Journal|volume=63|issue=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ ۾ غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) سان گڏجي [[ثقافتي ورثو|ثقافتي ورثي]] جي تحفظ لاءِ ڪم ڪرڻ پڻ شامل آهي. ثقافتي ورثي جي حفاظت بابت گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري وابستگي 2012ع کان جاري آهي ۽ ان کي آهستي آهستي وڌايو پيو وڃي. ان سلسلي ۾ 2019ع ۾ [[يونيفل]] ۽ [[بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل]] جو لبنان ۾ [[يونيسڪو عالمي ورثو]] جي تحفظ لاءِ گڏيل مشن نمايان مثال آهي. فوجي ۽ شهري ماهرن پاران مقامي آباديءَ سان گڏجي ثقافتي ورثي جو تحفظ ڪيترن ئي تڪراري علائقن ۾ مستقبل جي پرامن ۽ معاشي ترقيءَ جو بنياد بڻجي ٿو. بلو شيلڊ انٽرنيشنل جي صدر [[ڪارل فون هيبسبرگ]]، اپريل 2019ع ۾ لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن ۽ [[يونيسڪو]] جي مشن دوران چيو: ''&quot;ثقافتي ورثو ڪنهن به علائقي ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جي سڃاڻپ جو حصو هوندو آهي. جيڪڏهن توهان انهن جي ثقافت تباهه ڪريو ٿا ته سندن سڃاڻپ به ختم ٿي وڃي ٿي. نتيجي ۾ ڪيترائي ماڻهو بي گهر ٿي وڃن ٿا، سندن مستقبل بابت اميدون ختم ٿي وڃن ٿيون ۽ هو آخرڪار پنهنجو وطن ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ٿين ٿا.&quot;''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Karl von Habsburg auf Mission im Libanon|date=April 28, 2019 |url=https://www.krone.at/1911689|language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Jyot Hosagrahar: ''Culture: at the heart of SDGs.'' UNESCO-Kurier, April-Juni 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rick Szostak: ''The Causes of Economic Growth: Interdisciplinary Perspectives.'' Springer Science &amp; Business Media, 2009, {{ISBN|9783540922827}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bundesheer.at/cms/artikel.php?ID=10118 &quot;Blue Helmet Forum 2019 - Protection of Cultural Heritage in Peace Operations&quot;, Austrian Armed Forces].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017nian-di-3qi/historic-resolution-protect-cultural-heritage|title=A historic resolution to protect cultural heritage, The UNESCO Courier}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/action-plan-to-preserve-heritage-sites-during-conflict|title=Action plan to preserve heritage sites during conflict|website=United Nations Peacekeeping}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''UNESCO Director-General calls for stronger cooperation for heritage protection at the Blue Shield International General Assembly.'' UNESCO, September 13, 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر امن قائم رکڻ ===
{{See also|غير گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي فهرست|نيٽو امن قائم رکڻ|يورپي يونين جي فوجي ۽ شهري مشنن جي فهرست|آفريقي يونين جي فوجي مداخلتن جي فهرست}}

[[File:En-MFO1.JPG|thumb|right|1989ع ۾ [[مصر]] جي [[سنائي اپٻيٽ|سنائي]] واري علائقي جي [[ايل گوراح]] ۾ [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) جي غير گڏيل قومن واري امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن سان مقرر ڪيل ڪينيڊا جا [[CH135 ٽوئن هيوئي]] هيليڪاپٽر.]]

[[File:75Parad 04.jpg|thumb|[[آذربائيجان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جا ميمبر، [[2020 ماسڪو فتح پريڊ]] دوران مڪمل فوجي ورديءَ ۾.]]

سڀئي بين الاقوامي امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا سڌي طرح گڏيل قومن جي ڪنٽرول هيٺ ڪم نٿا ڪن. 1981ع ۾ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ [[مصر]] جي وچ ۾ ٿيل هڪ معاهدي تحت [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]] (ملٽي نيشنل فورس اينڊ آبزرورز) قائم ڪئي وئي، جيڪا اڄ تائين [[سنائي اپٻيٽ]] ۾ امن معاهدي تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;10TAGpgA-1&quot;&gt;10 Tactical Air Group: ''Canadian Contingent Multinational Force and Observers Handbook'' (unclassified), page A-1. DND, Ottawa, 1986.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[آفريقي يونين]] (AU) آفريقي امن ۽ سلامتي جو اهڙو ڍانچو (آفريڪن پيس اينڊ سڪيورٽي آرڪيٽيڪچر) قائم ڪرڻ تي ڪم ڪري رهي آهي، جيڪو براعظم ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري نڀائي سگهي. جيڪڏهن ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ [[نسل ڪشي]] يا انساني حقن جون ٻيون سنگين ڀڃڪڙيون ٿين، ته آفريقي يونين جي جنرل اسيمبلي جي منظوري سان، ان ملڪ جي حڪومت جي رضامندي کان سواءِ به امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن موڪلي سگهجي ٿو. هن نظام، جنهن ۾ [[آفريقي اسٽينڊ بائي فورس]] (ASF) پڻ شامل آهي، جي قيام جو منصوبو 2015ع کان اڳ نه هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/african-peace-and-security-architecture-already-proving-useful-even-though-it-still-work |title=The African Peace and Security Architecture is already proving useful even though it is still work in progress |publisher=dandc.eu |date=August 27, 2013 |access-date=November 14, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

علائقائي سطح تي [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري]] (ECOWAS) پنهنجي ڪجهه ميمبر ملڪن ۾ ڪيترائي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا آهن، ۽ ان کي &quot;آفريڪا جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ ترقي يافته علائقائي امن ۽ سلامتي وارو نظام&quot; قرار ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Oni|first1=Cyril I.|date=2009|journal=African Security|volume=2|pages=119–135|doi=10.1080/19362200903361945|title=Economic Community of West African States on the Ground: Comparing Peacekeeping in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea Bissau, and Côte D'Ivoire|issue=2–3|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''غير هٿياربند شهري امن قائم رکڻ''' (ان آرمڊ سويلين پيس ڪيپنگ، UCP) ۾ شهري عملو شامل هوندو آهي، جيڪو تڪراري علائقن ۾ شهرين کي تشدد کان بچائڻ ۽ پائيدار امن جي قيام جي ڪوششن جي سهائتا لاءِ غير تشدد، غير مداخلت ۽ غير جانبداريءَ تي ٻڌل حڪمت عمليون اختيار ڪندو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ UCP جو اصطلاح سڀني غير سرڪاري تنظيمن (NGOs) ۾ هڪجهڙو عام نه آهي، پر ڪيترائي ادارا ساڳين طريقن سان ڪم ڪندا آهن ۽ امن بابت هڪجهڙا مقصد رکندا آهن. انهن طريقن ۾ متاثر ماڻهن سان گڏ رهڻ، مستقل موجودگي، افواهن تي ضابطو آڻڻ، برادريءَ جي سلامتي بابت گڏجاڻيون، محفوظ لنگهن جو بندوبست ڪرڻ ۽ نگراني ڪرڻ شامل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rachel|first1=Julian|last2=Schweitzer|first2=Christine|date=2015|title=The Origins And Development of Unarmed Civilian Peacekeeping|url=http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|journal=Peace Review|volume=27|issue=1|pages=1–8|doi=10.1080/10402659.2015.1000181|s2cid=144911738|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719124249/http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|archive-date=July 19, 2018|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== مختصر تاريخ ==
{{Main|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي تاريخ}}

=== قيام ۽ شروعاتي سال ===

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري نظام جي شروعات 1948ع ۾ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] [[1948ع جي عرب-اسرائيل جنگ]] کان پوءِ [[اسرائيل]] ۽ ان جي عرب پاڙيسري ملڪن وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي واري معاهدي جي نگراني لاءِ وچ اوڀر ۾ گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن کي مقرر ڪرڻ جي منظوري ڏني. هن مشن کي [[گڏيل قومن جي جنگبندي نگراني تنظيم]] (UNTSO) سڏيو ويو، جيڪو اڄ تائين جاري آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/history.shtml|title=History of Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آگسٽ 1949ع ۾ سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 73 (1949ع) منظور ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNTSO کي اسرائيل ۽ انهن عرب رياستن جي وچ ۾ ٿيل چئن جنگبندي معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني جي ذميواري ڏني وئي، جيڪي ان جنگ ۾ شامل هيون. نتيجي طور، UNTSO جون سرگرميون علائقي جي پنجن رياستن، يعني [[اسرائيل]]، [[مصر]]، [[اردن]]، [[لبنان]] ۽ [[شام]] تائين ڦهلجي ويون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/untso/background.shtml|title=UNTSO Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== سرد جنگ دوران امن قائم رکڻ ===

آگسٽ 1947ع ۾ [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[پاڪستان]] جي آزادي ۽ ان کان پوءِ ٿيل وڏي پيماني تي خونريزيءَ کان پوءِ، سلامتي ڪائونسل جنوري 1948ع ۾ قرارداد 39 (1948ع) منظور ڪري [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو ڪميشن]] (UNCIP) قائم ڪيو، جنهن جو مقصد [[ڪشمير]] بابت ٻنهي ملڪن جي وچ ۾ پيدا ٿيل تڪرار ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل ويڙهه ۾ ثالثي ڪرڻ هو.

هي مشن غير مداخلتي نوعيت جو هو ۽ ان کي [[ڄمون ۽ ڪشمير]] ۾ ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان جي وچ ۾ ٿيل جنگبندي جي نگراني جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي. جولاءِ 1949ع ۾ [[ڪراچي معاهدو]] ٿيڻ کان پوءِ، UNCIP جنگبندي واري لڪير جي نگراني شروع ڪئي، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي غير هٿياربند فوجي مبصرن ۽ ٻنهي ڌرين جي مقامي فوجي ڪمانڊرن جي گڏيل نگراني هيٺ هئي. هن مشن جو تسلسل اڄ به [[ڀارت ۽ پاڪستان ۾ گڏيل قومن جو فوجي مبصر گروپ]] (UNMOGIP) جي نالي سان جاري آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unmogip/background.shtml|title=UNMOGIP Background|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان پوءِ گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف ملڪن ۾ ڪُل 69 امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي منظوري ڏني.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;/&gt; انهن مان گهڻا مشن سرد جنگ جي خاتمي کان پوءِ قائم ٿيا. 1988ع کان 1998ع جي وچ ۾ گڏيل قومن 35 نوان امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن شروع ڪيا، جڏهن ته 1948ع کان 1978ع تائين صرف 13 مشن قائم ٿيا هئا، ۽ 1978ع کان 1988ع جي وچ واري ڏهاڪي دوران ڪو به نئون مشن قائم نه ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Duffey|first=Tamara|date=2000|title=Cultural Issues in Contemporary Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=7|issue=1|pages=142–168|doi=10.1080/13533310008413823|s2cid=145210823}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|142–168}}

گڏيل قومن جي پهرين هٿياربند مداخلت 1956ع جي [[سوئيز بحران]] کان پوءِ ٿي، جڏهن [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (UNEF-I) قائم ڪئي وئي. هي فوج نومبر 1956ع کان جون 1967ع تائين موجود رهي ۽ ان کي [[مصر]]، [[برطانيه]]، [[فرانس]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] جي وچ ۾ جنگبندي برقرار رکڻ، مصري علائقي مان برطانوي، فرينچ ۽ اسرائيلي فوجن جي واپسي جي نگراني ڪرڻ، ۽ پوءِ مصر ۽ اسرائيل جي فوجن جي وچ ۾ بفر فورس طور ڪم ڪندي جنگبندي جي شرطن تي عملدرآمد ۽ پائيدار امن کي هٿي ڏيڻ جو مينڊيٽ ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unef1mandate.html|title=UNEF Mandate|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ان کان ٿوري ئي عرصي بعد 1960ع ۾ [[ڪانگو ۾ گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] (ONUC) شروع ڪيو ويو. پنهنجي عروج تي هن مشن ۾ ويهه هزار کان وڌيڪ فوجي اهلڪار شامل هئا، ۽ ان دوران 250 گڏيل قومن جا اهلڪار مارجي ويا، جن ۾ ان وقت جو سيڪريٽري جنرل [[ڊيگ هيملشولڊ]] پڻ شامل هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/early.shtml|title=The Early Years of UN Peacekeeping|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ONUC جو مقصد [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] مان بيلجيم جي فوجن جي واپسي کي يقيني بڻائڻ هو، جيڪي [[فورس پبليڪ]] جي بغاوت کان پوءِ بيلجيم جي شهرين ۽ اقتصادي مفادن جي تحفظ لاءِ ٻيهر داخل ٿي ويون هيون. هن مشن کي قانون ۽ امن امان بحال ڪرڻ، بغاوت ۽ نسلي تشدد کي ختم ڪرڻ، ڪانگولي سلامتي فورسن کي فني مدد ۽ تربيت ڏيڻ، ۽ ملڪ جي علائقائي سالميت ۽ سياسي خودمختياري کي برقرار رکڻ جي ذميواري پڻ ڏني وئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/onuc.htm|title=ONUC|publisher=United Nations|access-date=April 17, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي ذميواري خاص طور تي [[ڪتانگا]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪاسائي]] جهڙن معدني وسيلن سان مالامال صوبن جي علحدگيءَ واري تحريڪ جي پسمنظر ۾ شامل ڪئي وئي. ان دور ۾ گڏيل قومن جون فوجون، ڪجهه تڪراري انداز ۾، ڪانگو جي حڪومت جي مدد ڪندي ٻنهي صوبن جي علحدگي ختم ڪرائڻ ۾ به ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

1960ع ۽ 1970ع واري ڏهاڪن دوران گڏيل قومن دنيا جي مختلف علائقن ۾ ڪيترائي مختصر مدي وارا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن قائم ڪيا، جن ۾ [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريه ۾ سيڪريٽري جنرل جي نمائندي جو مشن]] (DOMREP)، [[اولهه نيو گني ۾ گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي فورس]] (UNSF) ۽ [[يمن ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مبصر مشن]] (UNYOM) شامل هئا. ساڳئي وقت ڪجهه ڊگهي مدي وارا مشن پڻ جاري رهيا، جهڙوڪ [[قبرص ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج]] (UNFICYP)، [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج II]] (UNEF II)، [[گڏيل قومن جي ڌرين جي الڳ ٿيڻ جي نگراني ڪندڙ فوج]] (UNDOF)، ۽ [[لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن جي عبوري فوج]] (UNIFIL).&lt;ref name=&quot;early&quot;/&gt;

=== 1991ع کان پوءِ ===

[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-un-holds-head.jpg|thumb|[[سراييوو جو گهيرو|سراييوو جي گهيري]] (1992ع–1993ع) دوران هڪ [[ناروي]] جو امن قائم رکڻ وارو اهلڪار؛ تصوير: [[ميخائل اِوستافيئف]].]]

[[يوگوسلاو جنگين]] دوران امن قائم رکڻ جي تجربن، خاص طور تي [[سربرينيتسا قتلِ عام]] جهڙين ناڪامين، جزوي طور [[گڏيل قومن جي امن تعمير ڪميشن]] (يونائيٽيڊ نيشنز پيس بلڊنگ ڪميشن) جي قيام جو سبب بڻيا. هي ڪميشن چونڊن ۽ ٻين شهري ادارن جي مضبوطي جهڙين سرگرمين وسيلي پائيدار امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪم ڪري ٿي، جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پڻ انجام ڏيندا آهن. هن وقت اها ڪميشن آفريڪا جي ڇهن ملڪن سان ڪم ڪري رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/projects/africa/beyond-peace-deals-united-nations-experiment-peacebuilding |title=Beyond Peace Deals: The United Nations Experiment in &quot;Peacebuilding&quot;|date=June 22, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ ٻين ڳالهين سان گڏ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، ۾ عورتن جي وڌيڪ مؤثر شرڪت، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهرن جي مقرري، هٿياربند تڪرارن جا عورتن تي پوندڙ اثرن بابت وڌيڪ معلومات، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |title=UN Security Council Takes a Historic Stand Supporting Abortion Access for Women Raped in War / Library / Homepage |publisher=AWID |access-date=October 28, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203101025/http://www.awid.org/Library/UN-Security-Council-Takes-a-Historic-Stand-Supporting-Abortion-Access-for-Women-Raped-in-War |archive-date=December 3, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن سان امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW)، جيڪا گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن بابت ڪميٽي آهي، هڪ عام سفارش جاري ڪئي، جنهن موجب اهي رياستون، جيڪي گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جون ڌريون آهن، پابند آهن ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌيءَ طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ لاءِ فوجون موڪلين، يا تڪرارن جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مالي يا ٻئي قسم جي مدد فراهم ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=13885&amp;LangID=E|title=OHCHR -|website=www.ohchr.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪميٽي اهو پڻ واضح ڪيو ته اهڙين رياستن کي مناسب احتياط اختيار ڪرڻ گهرجي ته جيئن [[غير رياستي ڌريون]]، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي سلامتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ٿيندڙ ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

[[پيج فورٽنا]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي مقرري بابت اهو نتيجو ڪڍيو ته ''&quot;امن قائم رکڻ رسد ۽ طلب جو معاملو آهي.&quot;'' رسد جي لحاظ کان سندس مشاهدو آهي ته سلامتي ڪائونسل جي مستقل ميمبرن مان ڪنهن هڪ جي ويجهن ملڪن ۾ هلندڙ گهرو ويڙهن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارو مشن مقرر ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن. جڏهن ته طلب جي لحاظ کان مختلف تحقيقون ظاهر ڪن ٿيون ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن گهڻو ڪري انهن ملڪن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن، جتي انهن جي ضرورت سڀ کان وڌيڪ هوندي آهي، يعني جتي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تمام گهڻو هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 6–7&quot; /&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي جوڙجڪ ==

=== اهي ملڪ جيڪي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺن ٿا ===
{{See also|گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي تعداد موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Irish troops UNMIL.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|جولاءِ 2006ع ۾ [[لائبيريا]] ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جو مشن لائبيريا]] (UNMIL) سان مقرر آئرش فوجي گشت ڪندي.]]

[[گڏيل قومن جي منشور]] موجب، دنيا ۾ امن ۽ سلامتي برقرار رکڻ ۾ مدد ڏيڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا سڀئي ميمبر ملڪ سلامتي ڪائونسل کي ضرورت موجب فوجي دستا ۽ ٻيون سهولتون فراهم ڪندا. 1948ع کان وٺي لڳ ڀڳ 130 ملڪن امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن لاءِ فوجي اهلڪار، شهري پوليس ۽ ٻيو عملو فراهم ڪيو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ 1948ع کان وٺي سڀني امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏيندڙ اهلڪارن جو مڪمل رڪارڊ موجود ناهي، پر اندازو آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي 71 مشنن ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه لک فوجين، پوليس اهلڪارن ۽ شهرين گڏيل قومن جي جهنڊي هيٺ خدمتون انجام ڏنيون آهن. سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين 122 ملڪ گڏيل طور لڳ ڀڳ 76,000 فوجي مبصر، پوليس اهلڪار ۽ فوجي مهيا ڪري رهيا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Troop and police contributors|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/troop-and-police-contributors|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

شرڪت ڪندڙ ملڪن جو تعداد گهڻو هجڻ باوجود، امن قائم رکڻ جو وڏو بار اڃا تائين [[ترقي پذير ملڪ|ترقي پذير ملڪن]] جي هڪ بنيادي گروهه تي آهي. آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي، پوليس ۽ فوجي ماهر موڪليندڙ ڏهه ملڪ [[بنگلاديش]] (6,447)، [[نيپال]] (5,536)، [[ڀارت]] (5,481)، [[روانڊا]] (5,263)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (4,856)، [[پاڪستان]] (3,949)، [[مصر]] (2,818)، [[انڊونيشيا]] (2,818)، [[گهانا]] (2,296) ۽ [[چين]] (2,248) هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

آڪٽوبر 2021ع تائين 14,000 کان وڌيڪ شهري اهلڪار به امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ قانوني يا طبي ماهرن، استادن، مواصلاتي ٽيڪنالاجي جي ماهرن ۽ انتظامي عملي طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/civilians|title=Civilians|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

30 سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن دوران 100 کان وڌيڪ ملڪن سان تعلق رکندڙ 4,147 ماڻهو پنهنجون حياتيون وڃائي چڪا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/fatalities|title=Fatalities|publisher=UN Peacekeeping|access-date=October 30, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان وڌيڪ جاني نقصان [[ڀارت]] جو ٿيو، جنهن جا 174 امن اهلڪار مارجي ويا، ان کان پوءِ [[بنگلاديش]] (159)، [[پاڪستان]] (159)، [[نائيجيريا]] (157)، [[گهانا]] (145)، [[ايٿوپيا]] (138)، [[ڪينيڊا]] (123)، [[فرانس]] (115) ۽ [[برطانيه]] (106) شامل آهن. 1948ع کان وٺي سراسري طور هر سال 56 امن اهلڪار ماريا ويا، پر 2001ع کان پوءِ هي انگ لڳ ڀڳ ٻيڻو ٿي هر سال 110 تائين پهچي ويو. گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ جي پهرين 55 سالن دوران ٿيل ڪل جاني نقصان جو 30 سيڪڙو حصو صرف 1993ع کان 1995ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;fatalities&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ جي شعبي ۾ عالمي اتر ۽ عالمي ڏکڻ (Global North ۽ Global South) جي وچ ۾ واضح فرق موجود آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي وڏي اڪثريت [[عالمي ڏکڻ]] جي ترقي پذير ملڪن مان ايندي آهي. [[ٿامس جي. وائيس]] ۽ جيووانا ڪيولي موجب، ان جا ٽي اهم سبب علائقائي مفاد، بين الاقوامي وقار ۽ مالي فائدا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=February 3, 2019|title=The Global South and UN Peace Operations|url=https://www.e-ir.info/2019/02/03/the-global-south-and-un-peace-operations/|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=E-International Relations|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آفريقي ملڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا سڀ کان وڌيڪ اهلڪار فراهم ڪن ٿا، پر ساڳئي وقت آفريڪا ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جو تعداد به سڀ کان وڌيڪ آهي، ۽ گهڻا آفريقي امن اهلڪار آفريڪا جي اندر ئي مقرر ٿيندا آهن. مثال طور، ايٿوپيا جا لڳ ڀڳ سڀئي 4,800 امن اهلڪار پاڙيسري ملڪن [[سوڊان]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ مقرر هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ حصو وٺڻ سان ترقي پذير ملڪن کي بين الاقوامي وقار پڻ حاصل ٿيندو آهي، ۽ اهو [[عظيم طاقت]] طور پنهنجون دعوائون مضبوط ڪرڻ ۾ مددگار ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيئن [[برازيل]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جي صورت ۾ ڏٺو ويو آهي. ان کان علاوه، غريب ملڪن لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين کي موڪلڻ مالي لحاظ کان به فائديمند هوندو آهي. هر امن اهلڪار لاءِ ماهوار واپسيءَ جي رقم ۾ پگهار ۽ الائونس لاءِ 1,028 آمريڪي ڊالر، ماهرن لاءِ اضافي 303 آمريڪي ڊالر، ذاتي لباس، سامان ۽ اوزارن لاءِ 68 آمريڪي ڊالر، ۽ ذاتي هٿيار لاءِ 5 آمريڪي ڊالر شامل هوندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/faq/q10.htm|title=United Nations Peacekeepers - How are peacekeepers compensated?|access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; گڏيل قومن طرفان فراهم ڪيل اهي ادائيگيون، تربيت ۽ سامان، انفرادي فوجين سان گڏ ترقي پذير ملڪن لاءِ به مالي طور پرڪشش هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;globalsouth&quot; /&gt;

گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ مقرر ڪيل فوجي ۽ شهري پوليس اهلڪارن مان لڳ ڀڳ 4.5 سيڪڙو [[يورپي يونين]] مان ايندا آهن، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو حصو هڪ سيڪڙو کان به گهٽ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;factsheet&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/overview.shtml |title=Peacekeeping Fact Sheet |publisher=United Nations|access-date=December 20, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

مشنن جي قيادت بابت عام طور تي فوجي ڪمانڊر انهن ملڪن مان چونڊيا ويندا آهن، جيڪي سڀ کان وڌيڪ فوجي دستا فراهم ڪندا آهن، جڏهن ته سيڪريٽري جنرل جا خاص نمائندا گهڻو ڪري ترقي يافته ملڪن مان مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Oksamytna |first1= Kseniya|last2= Bove |first2= Vincenzo|last3= Lundgren |first3= Magnus|date= 2021 |title=Leadership selection in United Nations peacekeeping |journal= International Studies Quarterly|volume= 65|pages= 16–28|doi= 10.1093/isq/sqaa023 |doi-access= free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت ===
{{See also|امن قائم رکڻ ۾ عورتون}}

[[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جي قرارداد 1325]] عورتن کي تڪرارن جي روڪٿام ۽ حل، امن ڳالهين، امن جي تعمير، امن قائم رکڻ، انساني امداد ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ ۾ سرگرم ۽ برابر ڌر طور شامل ڪرڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو پهريون اهم قدم هو. هن قرارداد ۾ زور ڏنو ويو ته امن ۽ سلامتي جي قيام ۽ واڌاري لاءِ ٿيندڙ سڀني ڪوششن ۾ عورتن جي برابر شرڪت ۽ مڪمل شموليت کي يقيني بڻايو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and the Advancement of Women. &quot;[http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/wps/#resolution Landmark resolution on Women, Peace and Security]&quot;, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Security Council (October 31, 2000) &quot;Resolution 1325&quot;, S/RES/1325, United Nations.&lt;/ref&gt;

هن قرارداد تي هڪ تنقيد اها به ڪئي وئي آهي ته ان ۾ صنفي مرڪزي ڌارا (جينڊر مين اسٽريمنگ) کي لاڳو ڪرڻ جي ڳالهه ڪئي وئي، پر عملي طور گهڻو ڌيان صرف عورتن جي شموليت وڌائڻ تي ڏنو ويو، جڏهن ته مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي تي پاليسين جي اثرن جو مناسب جائزو نه ورتو ويو. 2010ع ۾ هن قرارداد جي ڏهن سالن جي اثرن بابت هڪ جامع جائزو ورتو ويو، جنهن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ان تي عملدرآمد محدود حد تائين ڪامياب رهيو، خاص طور تي امن ڳالهين ۽ امن معاهدن ۾ عورتن جي شرڪت وڌائڻ جي حوالي سان، جڏهن ته جنسي ۽ صنفي بنياد تي تشدد گهٽائڻ جي ڪوششن باوجود اهو مسئلو برقرار رهيو.&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations and Department of Field Support (2010). &quot;Ten-year Impact Study on Implementation of UN Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) on Women, Peace and Security in Peacekeeping&quot;, United Nations, p. 9-10. https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/documents/10year_impact_study_1325.pdf.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Ghana IntPeaceCorps 2016-05-29 B002a.jpg|thumb|گھانا جون عورتون گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن طور خدمتون سرانجام ڏينديون.]]

2013ع ۾ [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] متفقه طور قرارداد 2122 منظور ڪئي، جنهن ۾ تڪرارن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ جي مرحلن، جهڙوڪ امن ڳالهين، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ۾ صنفي ماهريت، هٿياربند تڪرارن جي عورتن تي اثرن بابت بهتر ڄاڻ، ۽ انهن معاملن بابت سلامتي ڪائونسل کي وڌيڪ سڌي ريت آگاهه ڪرڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ مؤثر قدمن تي زور ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;AWID&quot;/&gt;

ساڳئي سال [[عورتن خلاف امتيازي سلوڪ جي خاتمي بابت ڪميٽي]] (CEDAW) پڻ پنهنجي هڪ عام سفارش ۾ چيو ته جن رياستن گڏيل قومن جي عورتن جي حقن واري ڪنوينشن جي توثيق ڪئي آهي، انهن تي لازم آهي ته هو تڪرار کان اڳ، دوران ۽ پوءِ عورتن جي حقن جو تحفظ ڪن، خاص طور تي جڏهن اهي جنگي ڪاررواين ۾ سڌي طرح شامل هجن يا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا، تڪرار جي روڪٿام، انساني امداد يا تڪرار کان پوءِ جي بحاليءَ لاءِ مدد فراهم ڪري رهيون هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

ڪميٽي وڌيڪ چيو ته توثيق ڪندڙ رياستن کي مناسب احتياط سان اهو به يقيني بڻائڻ گهرجي ته غير رياستي ڌريون، جهڙوڪ هٿياربند گروهه ۽ نجي حفاظتي ڪمپنيون، عورتن خلاف ڏوهن بابت جوابده بڻايون وڃن.&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt;

جولاءِ 2016ع تائين عورتون گڏيل قومن جي هر امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن ۾ فوجي، پوليس يا شهري عملي جي حيثيت سان خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيون هيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/resources/statistics/gender.shtml|title=Gender statistics. United Nations Peacekeeping|website=www.un.org|access-date=September 6, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

1993ع ۾ مقرر ٿيل يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن مان رڳو 1 سيڪڙو عورتون هيون. 2020ع تائين لڳ ڀڳ 95,000 امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن مان عورتون فوجي عملي جو 4.8 سيڪڙو، پوليس عملي جو 10.9 سيڪڙو، ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عملي جو 34 سيڪڙو هيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Women in peacekeeping|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/women-peacekeeping|access-date=October 31, 2021|website=United Nations Peacekeeping|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سيپٽمبر 2021ع تائين اهڙو ڪو به ملڪ، جيڪو گڏيل قومن لاءِ 100 کان وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار موڪلي ٿو، پنهنجي دستي ۾ 25 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ عورتون نامزد نه ڪندو هو. حقيقي انگن اکرن موجب سڀ کان وڏا عورتن جا دستا [[ايٿوپيا]] (578 عورتون، يعني ان جي ڪل دستي جو 12 سيڪڙو)، [[روانڊا]] (500، يعني 10 سيڪڙو) ۽ [[گهانا]] (389، يعني 17 سيڪڙو) طرفان فراهم ڪيا ويا.&lt;ref name=&quot;troop-and-police-contributors&quot; /&gt;

جيتوڻيڪ فوجي عملي ۾ عورتن جي مقرر تناسب بابت گڏيل قومن ڪو لازمي هدف مقرر نه ڪيو آهي، پر ميمبر رياستن کان درخواست ڪئي وئي آهي ته اهي پوليس آفيسرن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 20 سيڪڙو ۽ انصاف ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن جي عهدن لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 30 سيڪڙو عورتون نامزد ڪن.&lt;ref name=&quot;women&quot; /&gt;

2024ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجي دستن ۾ عورتن جو ڪل انگ گهٽجي ويو، پر انهن جو تناسب وڌيو. يونيفارم پائيندڙ اهلڪارن ۾ صنفي برابري واري حڪمت عملي (يونيفارمڊ جينڊر پئرٽي اسٽريٽجي) شروع ٿيڻ کان پوءِ عورتن جو تناسب مسلسل وڌندو رهيو آهي. عورتن جي ڪل تعداد ۾ گهٽتائي جو وڏو سبب [[گڏيل قومن جو مالي ۾ ڪثيرالجہتي مربوط استحڪامي مشن]] (MINUSMA) جو خاتمو هو. جون 2024ع تائين گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن آپريشنن ۾ مقرر فوجي عملي مان عورتن جو تناسب 8.6 سيڪڙو هو، جيڪو گذريل سال جي ڀيٽ ۾ 1.3 سيڪڙو وڌيڪ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pfeifer Cruz |first=Claudia |title=Women in Multilateral Peace Operations in 2024: What is the State of Play? |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241031064944/https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/women_in_multilateral_peace_operations_in_2024-what_is_the_state_of_play.pdf |archive-date=October 31, 2024 |date=October 2024 |doi=10.55163/VYHM5282 |doi-access=free |location=Stockholm |publisher=SIPRI}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ جو نظرياتي بنياد ==


جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ ۽ امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي ڪردار بابت گهڻو ڪجهه لکيو ويو آهي، پر اهڙي تجرباتي تحقيق نسبتاً گهٽ ٿي آهي، جيڪا اهو واضح ڪري سگهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول ۾ ڪهڙي نموني اثرانداز ٿين ٿا. [[ڪولمبيا يونيورسٽي]] جي پروفيسر [[ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا]] چار اهڙن سببن (ڪيئيوئل ميڪينزم) جي سڃاڻپ ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي، جن جي ذريعي امن قائم رکڻ وارا پائيدار امن لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices After Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|location=Princeton|pages=175}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا موجب اهي چار بنيادي طريقا هي آهن:

# تازن ويڙهاڪن جي ترغيبي عنصرن ۾ تبديلي آڻڻ، جيئن امن وڌيڪ فائديمند ۽ جنگ وڌيڪ مهانگي محسوس ٿئي.
# غير يقيني صورتحال ۽ خوف کي گهٽائڻ، جيڪي سلامتي جي مخمصي (سڪيورٽي ڊليما) کي وڌائين ٿا.
# حادثاتي واقعن يا بي ضابطه هٿياربند گروهن جي ڪاررواين کي روڪڻ يا ضابطي ۾ آڻڻ، جيڪي ٻيهر جنگ جو سبب بڻجي سگهن.
# ڪنهن هڪ ڌر (خاص طور حڪومت) طرفان سياسي زيادتين کي روڪڻ، جيڪي امن کان محروم ڌرين کي ٻيهر هٿيار کڻڻ تي مجبور ڪري سگهن.

فورٽنا جو دليل آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا امن جي عمل تي مثبت اثر ڇڏين ٿا، جيتوڻيڪ انهن کي اڪثر اهڙن هنڌن تي موڪليو ويندو آهي، جتي امن قائم رکڻ سڀ کان وڌيڪ ڏکيو هوندو آهي. امن قائم رکڻ تي تنقيد ڪندڙ اڪثر چوندا آهن ته اهي مشن غير مؤثر يا غير ضروري آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيڪڏهن ويڙهاڪ ڌريون پاڻ امن برقرار رکڻ ۾ دلچسپي رکن ٿيون ته امن قائم رهندو. تنهن هوندي به، فورٽنا جو خيال آهي ته مٿي بيان ڪيل سبب ڏيکارين ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا پائيدار امن کي يقيني بڻائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿا، خاص طور تي انهن حالتن جي ڀيٽ ۾ جتي ويڙهاڪ ڌريون مڪمل طور پنهنجي حال تي ڇڏيل هجن. اهي سبب اهو به واضح ڪن ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ جي ضرورت ڇو آهي ۽ اهو تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول تي ڪيئن اثرانداز ٿي سگهي ٿو.

جنگ جي ترغيبن کي گهٽائڻ ۽ امن کي وڌيڪ پرڪشش بڻائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومون نفاذي اختيارن (انفورسمينٽ مينڊيٽ) تحت فوجي قوت مقرر ڪري سگهي ٿي، جيڪا امن خراب ڪندڙ ڌرين لاءِ روڪ جو سبب بڻجي. اهڙا دستا حالتن جي نگراني ڪري سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي اوچتي حملي جو امڪان گهٽجي وڃي ٿو يا اهڙو حملو ڪرڻ وڌيڪ ڏکيو ٿي وڃي ٿو. هلڪي هٿيارن سان ليس مشاهدي وارو مشن پڻ ابتدائي خبرداري واري قوت (ارلي-وارننگ فورس) يا &quot;ٽرپ وائر&quot; طور ڪم ڪري سگهي ٿو. بين الاقوامي برادري طرفان ڏني ويندڙ امداد ۽ سياسي سڃاڻپ کي به ان ڳالهه سان مشروط ڪيو وڃي ته ڌريون ڳالهين دوران طئي ٿيل شرطن تي عمل ڪن. ان سان گڏ، روزگار، عوامي ترقياتي منصوبن ۽ ٻين فائدن جي صورت ۾ &quot;امن جا فائدا&quot; (پيس ڊويڊينڊس) پڻ فراهم ڪيا وڃن.

غير يقيني صورتحال ۽ خوف کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا معاهدن تي عملدرآمد جي نگراني ڪري سگهن ٿا، ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ رابطي کي آسان بڻائي سگهن ٿا ته جيئن سلامتي بابت خدشا گهٽجن، ۽ هر ڌر کي اها خاطري ملي ته ٻي ڌر پنهنجن واعدن کان نه ڦرندي. اهڙي طرح اهي ٻنهي ڌرين کي پنهنجي امن پسند ارادن کي واضح ۽ قابل اعتماد نموني ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ مؤثر ذريعو مهيا ڪن ٿا.

امن جي عمل کي پٽڙي تان لاهي ڇڏيندڙ حادثن يا بي ضابطه گروهن جي ڪاررواين کي روڪڻ لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهڙن گروهن کي روڪي سگهن ٿا. ويڙهاڪ قوتون اڪثر مضبوط قيادت ۽ [[حڪم ۽ ضابطي]] (ڪمانڊ اينڊ ڪنٽرول) کان محروم هونديون آهن، تنهنڪري امن ڳالهين دوران ڪنهن بي ضابطه گروهه جي معاهدي کان انڪار ڪرڻ يا امن جي عمل کي ناڪام بڻائڻ جو خطرو موجود هوندو آهي. گڏيل قومن جا دستا اهڙين حالتن کي روڪڻ سان گڏ ٻنهي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ثالثي ۽ رابطي کي پڻ آسان بڻائي سگهن ٿا ۽ سياسي اعتدال پسند قوتن کي اڳتي آڻي سگهن ٿا. قانون ۽ امن امان برقرار رکندي اهي عارضي طور رياستي حفاظتي ادارن جي ذميواري سنڀالي سگهن ٿا، جنهن سان ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي مبينا ڀڃڪڙي تي غيرجانبدار رويو اختيار ڪيو وڃي ۽ تشدد جي ٻيهر شروعات کان بچي سگهجي.

سياسي زيادتين جي روڪٿام لاءِ حڪومت سان لاڳاپيل ادارن ۾ سڌارا آندا وڃن ٿا. فوج ۽ پوليس جهڙن حفاظتي ادارن کي تربيت ڏيڻ ۽ انهن جي نگراني ڪرڻ سان کين حڪمرانن جي دٻاءَ جو اوزار بڻجڻ بدران عوام جا غيرجانبدار محافظ بڻائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي ويندي آهي. اهڙي تربيت عوام جو اعتماد وڌائڻ ۾ مددگار ثابت ٿي سگهي ٿي. گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا آزاد ۽ منصفاڻي چونڊون ڪرائڻ ۽ انهن جي نگراني پڻ ڪري سگهن ٿا. ڪجهه حالتن ۾ گڏيل قومون عبوري دور دوران غيرجانبدار عبوري حڪومت پڻ قائم ڪري سگهي ٿي، جيڪا ملڪ جو انتظام سنڀالي، جڏهن ته سرڪاري ادارن کي ٻيهر منظم، سڌاريو يا وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪيو وڃي. ان کان سواءِ هٿياربند باغي گروهن کي هٿيار ڦٽا ڪرڻ، انهن کي سياسي تنظيمن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ ۽ پرامن جمهوري عمل وسيلي پنهنجا مطالبا پيش ڪرڻ لاءِ همٿايو وڃي ٿو. اهو خاص طور اهم آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي باغي گروهه حڪومت جي اهم مخالف قوت هوندا آهن، پر سياسي تنظيم طور مؤثر نموني ڪم ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت کان محروم هوندا آهن.

مختلف امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن مختلف سببن ۽ ضرورتن جي بنياد تي قائم ڪيا ويندا آهن. [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VII]] تحت هلندڙ مشنن ۾ فوجي روڪ ۽ نفاذ تي وڌيڪ زور هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VI]] تحت مشن بنيادي طور نگراني ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ غيرجانبدار موجودگي برقرار رکڻ لاءِ هوندا آهن. سياسي زيادتين جي روڪٿام لاءِ قائم ڪيل مشن گهڻ رخي نوعيت جا هوندا آهن ۽ تڪرار کان پوءِ واري سياسي عمل ۾ سرگرم ڪردار ادا ڪندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|chapter=4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي اثرائتي ==

علمي تحقيق جي جائزي مان مضبوط ثبوت مليا آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن امن جي استحڪام ۾ واڌارو آڻين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Walter|first1=Barbara F.|last2=Howard|first2=Lise Morje|last3=Fortna|first3=V. Page|date=2020|title=The Extraordinary Relationship between Peacekeeping and Peace|journal=British Journal of Political Science|volume=51|issue=4|language=en|pages=1705–1722|doi=10.1017/S000712342000023X|s2cid=229469021 |issn=0007-1234|doi-access=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hoeffler|first=Anke|date=March 11, 2014|title=Can international interventions secure the peace?|journal=International Area Studies Review|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=75–94|doi=10.1177/2233865914525380|s2cid=16303210|url=http://www.econrsa.org/node/700|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا]] موجب مضبوط ثبوت موجود آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جي خطري کي نمايان طور گهٽائي ٿي. امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين جو تعداد جيترو وڌيڪ هوندو، اوترا ئي جنگي محاذ تي مارجي ويل ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽ ٿيندو، ۽ عام شهرين جي جاني نقصان ۾ به گهٽتائي ايندي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://politicalviolenceataglance.org/2015/09/24/enough-with-the-pessimism-about-peacekeeping/|title=Enough with the Pessimism about Peacekeeping|date=September 24, 2015|website=Political Violence at a Glance|access-date=January 26, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[اپسالا يونيورسٽي]] ۽ [[اوسلو امن تحقيقاتي اداري]] جي سياسي سائنسدانن جي هڪ مطالعي موجب، جيڪڏهن گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري پاليسي کي وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪيو وڃي، امن قائم رکڻ وارن دستن جو تعداد ٻيڻو ڪيو وڃي ۽ انهن کي وڌيڪ وسيع اختيار ڏنا وڃن، ته هٿياربند تڪرارن جي عالمي شرح، امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي غير موجودگي واري صورتحال جي ڀيٽ ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ٻه ٽيون حصو گهٽجي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Hegre|first1=Håvard|last2=Hultman|first2=Lisa|last3=Nygård|first3=Håvard Mokleiv|date=November 28, 2018|title=Evaluating the Conflict-Reducing Effect of UN Peacekeeping Operations|journal=The Journal of Politics|volume=81|language=en|pages=215–232|doi=10.1086/700203|s2cid=13894244|issn=0022-3816|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[فورڊهم يونيورسٽي]] جي سياسي سائنسدان [[انجلي ديال]] موجب، تحقيق مان ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن جنگ کي سرحدن کان ٻاهر پکڙجڻ کان روڪين ٿا. زمين تي وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار هجڻ سان عام شهرين خلاف تشدد جا واقعا پڻ گهٽ ٿيندا آهن، ۽ ڪيترين حالتن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن ڪاميابي سان عبوري انتظاميا جو ڪردار ادا ڪندي اقتدار ٻيهر مقامي اختيارين حوالي ڪيو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ هاڻي اهڙو عمل اڳ جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ڏسڻ ۾ اچي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/02/01/is-u-n-peacekeeping-under-fire-heres-what-you-need-to-know/|title=Is U.N. peacekeeping under fire? Here's what you need to know.|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=February 1, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2018ع جي هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن پنهنجي سر به گهرو ويڙهه جي شدت کي گهٽائين ٿا، پر جڏهن انهن کي ثالثي سان گڏ استعمال ڪيو وڃي ٿو ته انهن جو اثر وڌيڪ نمايان ٿي وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Mediation, Peacekeeping, and the Severity of Civil War|journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution|volume=63|issue=7|pages=1682–1709|language=en|doi=10.1177/0022002718817092|year=2018|last1=Beardsley|first1=Kyle|last2=Cunningham|first2=David E.|last3=White|first3=Peter B.|s2cid=202164361}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهڙا به ثبوت موجود آهن ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا موڪلڻ جو واعدو ئي ويڙهاڪ ڌرين کي ڳالهين جي ميز تي آڻڻ ۽ جنگبندي تي راضي ٿيڻ جا امڪان وڌائي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lundgren|first=Magnus|year=2016|title=Which international organizations can settle civil wars?|journal=Review of International Organizations|volume=DOI 10.1007/s11558-016-9253-0|issue=4|pages=613–641|doi=10.1007/s11558-016-9253-0|s2cid=152898046}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ورجينيا پيج فورٽنا پنهنجي شمارياتي تحقيق ۾ انهن عنصرن کي به نظر ۾ رکيو، جيڪي اهو طئي ڪن ٿا ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن ڪٿي مقرر ڪيا وڃن ۽ ڪٿي امن قائم ٿيڻ جا امڪان ڪيترا آهن. هن جي نتيجن موجب، امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ۽ پائيدار امن جي وچ ۾ شمارياتي طور اهم لاڳاپو موجود آهي. جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن عام طور تي انهن علائقن ۾ موڪليا ويندا آهن جتي امن قائم ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽ هوندا آهن، فورٽنا جو اندازو آهي ته گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي موجودگي ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 55 کان 60 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽائي ٿي، جڏهن ته ڪجهه وڌيڪ پراميد اندازن موجب اها گهٽتائي 75 کان 85 سيڪڙو تائين ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 116&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=116}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا جي تجزيي موجب [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VI]] تحت رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل مشنن ۽ [[گڏيل قومن جي منشور جو ستون VII]] تحت نفاذي مشنن جي اثرائتي ۾ گهڻو فرق نظر نٿو اچي. البته نفاذي مشن تڏهن ئي اثرائتا ثابت ٿين ٿا، جڏهن امن قائم رکڻ واري قوت طاقت جي استعمال بابت پنهنجي اعتبار ۽ صلاحيت برقرار رکي سگهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=109, 116, 125}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهو ان ڳالهه جي اهميت کي اجاگر ڪري ٿو ته گڏيل قومن جا مشن مقامي ڌرين جي رضامندي برقرار رکن. مجموعي طور فورٽنا جو نتيجو آهي ته جيڪڏهن ويڙهاڪ ڌريون مڪمل طور پنهنجي حال تي نه ڇڏيون وڃن، ته امن قائم رکڻ پائيدار امن کي يقيني بڻائڻ جو هڪ مؤثر اوزار آهي. هن اڳ بيان ڪيل سببن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن تڪرار کان پوءِ واري ماحول ۾ امن جي استحڪام تي نمايان اثر وجهي سگهن ٿا. فورٽنا ۽ [[ليز مورجي هاورڊ]] جو چوڻ آهي ته هاڻي تحقيق جو ڌيان امن قائم رکڻ جي بنيادي اثرائتي کان اڳتي وڌي، مختلف قسمن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن، عبوري انتظاميائن، امن قائم رکڻ ۽ جمهوريت جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن، ۽ انهن ماڻهن جي نظرين ڏانهن منتقل ٿي رهيو آهي، جن جي لاءِ امن قائم رکيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Pitfalls and Prospects in the Peacekeeping Literature*|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|volume=11|pages=283–301|last1=Fortna|first1=Virginia Page|last2=Howard|first2=Lise Morjé|date=May 20, 2008|language=en|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.9.041205.103022|s2cid=15740415|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[مائيڪل ڊبليو ڊائل]] ۽ [[نيڪولس سامبانس]] جي تجزيي موجب، انهن ملڪن ۾، جتي نسلي بنيادن تي جنگ نه هجي، معاشي ترقي جو سطح نسبتاً بهتر هجي ۽ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا ۽ مالي امداد موجود هجن، اتي پائيدار امن قائم رهڻ جا امڪان وڌيڪ هوندا آهن. انهن جو نتيجو آهي ته مختصر مدي ۾ پائيدار امن جو دارومدار گڏيل قومن جي مضبوط موجودگي ۽ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ گهٽ دشمني تي هوندو آهي، جڏهن ته ڊگهي مدي ۾ معاشي صلاحيت وڌيڪ اهم عنصر بڻجي ويندي آهي ۽ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ دشمني جي شدت نسبتاً گهٽ اهم رهندي آهي. سندن خيال ۾، جيتوڻيڪ گڏيل قومن جا مشن ڪافي حد تائين ڪامياب رهيا آهن، پر اهي مداخلت هيٺ آيل ملڪن ۾ خودمختيار معاشي ترقي کي ڪافي حد تائين هٿي نه ڏئي سگهيا آهن. تنهنڪري گڏيل قومون امن برقرار رکڻ ۾ هڪ مضبوط پر اڻ سڌو ڪردار ادا ڪن ٿيون، جڏهن ته پائيدار امن جو اصل دارومدار اهڙن ادارن جي قيام تي هوندو آهي، جيڪي امن کي ڊگهي عرصي تائين برقرار رکي سگهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Making War and Building Peace : United Nations Peace Operations|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2010|pages=336–337}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ٻين علمي تحقيقن ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي ڪاميابيءَ بابت مختلف نتيجا سامهون آيا آهن، جن موجب انهن جي ڪاميابيءَ جي شرح تقريباً 31 سيڪڙو کان 85 سيڪڙو تائين رهي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Autesserre|first1=Severine|title=Peaceland: Conflict Resolution and the Everyday Politics of International Intervention|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2020ع جي هڪ مطالعي موجب، گڏيل قومن کان ٻاهر هلندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن به اثرائتي جي لحاظ کان گڏيل قومن جي مشنن جيترا ئي مؤثر آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Bara|first1=Corinne|last2=Hultman|first2=Lisa|date=March 20, 2020|title=Just Different Hats? Comparing UN and Non-UN Peacekeeping|journal=International Peacekeeping|volume=27|issue=3|pages=341–368|doi=10.1080/13533312.2020.1737023|issn=1353-3312|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; ساڳئي سال شايع ٿيل هڪ ٻي تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو ته امن قائم رکڻ وارا مشن عام شهرين جي تحفظ ۾ به ڪامياب رهيا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Carnegie|first1=Allison|last2=Mikulaschek|first2=Christoph|date=2020|title=The Promise of Peacekeeping: Protecting Civilians in Civil Wars|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-organization/article/promise-of-peacekeeping-protecting-civilians-in-civil-wars/2BA3A91C26CF29480409B1FFB64F7E40|journal=International Organization|volume=74|issue=4|language=en|pages=810–832|doi=10.1017/S0020818320000442|s2cid=232253107|issn=0020-8183|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2021ع ۾ ''[[آمريڪن جرنل آف پوليٽيڪل سائنس]]'' ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن مقامي معيشت تي مثبت اثر وڌو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Bove|first1=Vincenzo|last2=Salvatore|first2=Jessica Di|last3=Elia|first3=Leandro|date=2021|title=UN Peacekeeping and Households' Well-Being in Civil Wars|journal=American Journal of Political Science|volume=66|issue=2|pages=402–417|language=en|doi=10.1111/ajps.12644|issn=1540-5907|doi-access=free|hdl=10281/458537|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== پائيدار امن تي اثرانداز ٿيندڙ عنصر ===

ڪيترائي عنصر پائيدار امن تي منفي اثر وجهي سگهن ٿا. انهن ۾ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي حقيقي فوجي طاقت بابت لڪل معلومات، باغي گروهن جي هيرن، ٻين معدنيات يا غيرقانوني واپار وسيلي مالي وسيلا حاصل ڪرڻ، منشيات، هٿيارن ۽ انساني اسمگلنگ ۾ سندن شموليت، ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي فوجي فتح يا شڪست، جنگ جو عرصو ۽ ان جي قيمت، ٻنهي ڌرين کي درپيش واعدن تي عملدرآمد جا مسئلا (ڪمٽمينٽ پرابلم) ۽ سلامتي جو مخمصو (سڪيورٽي ڊليما)، جنگبندي يا امن معاهدي جي موجودگي، تڪرار ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ ڌرين جي ارادن ۽ ڪاررواين بابت شفافيت جي کوٽ، امن کي نقصان پهچائيندڙ انتهاپسند گروهه، اهڙا ڌر يا فرد جيڪي جنگ جاري رهڻ مان فائدو حاصل ڪن، ۽ اهڙا تڪراري مسئلا جيڪي ورهائي يا سمجهوتي ذريعي حل نٿا ٿي سگهن شامل آهن.

فورٽنا جي تحقيق موجب، پائيدار امن جو سڀ کان اهم شمارياتي عنصر اهو آهي ته ڇا جنگ ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي فوجي فتح تي ختم ٿي آهي يا نه. جيڪڏهن گهرو ويڙهه ۾ هڪ ڌر واضح فوجي فتح حاصل ڪري ۽ ان کان پوءِ جنگبندي يا صلح جو معاهدو ٿئي، ته ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو تقريباً 85 کان 90 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽجي ويندو آهي. ان کان علاوه، رسمي امن معاهدا ٻيهر تڪرار جي خطري کي لڳ ڀڳ 60 کان 70 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna 2008 116&quot;/&gt;

جيڪڏهن ڪو هٿياربند گروهه منشيات، هيرن يا ٻين غيرقانوني واپاري ذريعن مان مالي مدد حاصل ڪري ٿو، ته ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان نمايان طور وڌي وڃن ٿا. فورٽنا موجب اهڙين حالتن ۾ جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جو خطرو 100 کان 250 سيڪڙو تائين وڌي سگهي ٿو، يعني اهڙي جنگ ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان عام حالتن جي ڀيٽ ۾ ٻه کان ساڍا ٽي ڀيرا وڌيڪ هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choice after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=117}}&lt;/ref&gt;

فورٽنا جو خيال آهي ته جن جنگين ۾ ڪيترائي ڌر شامل هجن، اهي ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان نسبتاً گهٽ رکن ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; ان جي ابتڙ، [[مائيڪل ڊبليو ڊائل]] ۽ [[نيڪولس سامبانس]] پنهنجي تحقيق ۾ نتيجو ڪڍيو ته گهڻ ڌرين وارا تڪرار ٻيهر شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان وڌيڪ رکن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Making War and Building Peace : United Nations Peace Operations|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2010|pages=336}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڊگهي عرصي تائين هلندڙ جنگين ۽ سڃاڻپ يا قومي/نسلي بنيادن تي وڙهيل جنگين ۾ ٻيهر تشدد شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. بهرحال، ڊگهيون جنگيون ۽ اهي امن معاهدا جيڪي فوجي فتح کان پوءِ وجود ۾ اچن، عام طور تي مستقبل ۾ ٻيهر جنگ شروع ٿيڻ جا امڪان گهٽائين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=117–119}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪاررواين جا حصو وٺندڙ فوجن تي اثر ==

=== فوجي معمول تي آڻڻ ===

ڪجهه محققن جو خيال آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون فوج جي &quot;معمول تي آڻڻ&quot; (مليٽري نارملائيزيشن) کي اڳتي وڌائڻ جو هڪ ذريعو بڻجي سگهن ٿيون. مائيڪل ايڊورڊ والش ۽ جيريمي ٽيلر دليل ڏين ٿا ته [[ڏکڻ سوڊان]] ۾ [[جاپان]] جي امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون انهن حلقن لاءِ هڪ منفرد موقعو فراهم ڪن ٿيون، جيڪي جاپان جي فوجي ڪردار کي عام ۽ معمول مطابق بڻائڻ چاهين ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهڙي عمل سان ملڪ جي امن پسند آئين کي تدريجي طور ڪمزور ڪرڻ جو امڪان پيدا ٿئي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;nbr.org&quot;&gt;Jeremy Taylor and Michael Edward Walsh (January 7, 2014), ''[http://www.nbr.org/downloads/pdfs/psa/taylor-walsh_commentary_010714.pdf UN Operations in Africa Provide a Mechanism for Japan’s Military Normalization Agenda]'', {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303010649/http://www.nbr.org/downloads/pdfs/psa/taylor-walsh_commentary_010714.pdf |date=March 3, 2014 }}, retrieved February 7, 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;

سندن خيال موجب، بنيادي سياسي، قانوني ۽ سماجي سڌارن کان سواءِ جاپان جون امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون اهڙين سنگين حالتن کي منهن ڏيڻ لاءِ مڪمل طور تي تيار ناهن، جتي جان ليوا طاقت استعمال ڪرڻ ضروري بڻجي وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Edward Walsh and Jeremy Taylor (December 23, 2013), ''[http://africanarguments.org/2013/12/23/time-to-reconsider-the-japanese-peacekeeping-mission-in-south-sudan-by-michael-edward-walsh-jeremy-taylor/ Time to Reconsider the Japanese Peacekeeping Mission in South Sudan]'', retrieved February 7, 2014.&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن ڪري، اهي دليل ڏين ٿا ته گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين ۾ جاپان جي مسلسل شرڪت آخرڪار اهڙين پاليسي تبديلين جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿي، جن کان پوءِ جاپان جي فوج کي معمول مطابق فوجي حيثيت ڏيڻ ئي واحد ممڪن نتيجو رهجي وڃي.&lt;ref name=&quot;nbr.org&quot;/&gt;

=== فوج موڪليندڙ ملڪن تي سياسي اثر ===

[[ڊيانا ميور ايپل بام]] خدشو ظاهر ڪيو آهي ته [[فجي]] ۾ عالمي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين لاءِ فوج تيار ڪرڻ جي نتيجي ۾ فوج ايتري طاقتور بڻجي وئي، جو هن 1987ع، 1999–2000ع، 2006ع ۽ 2009ع ۾ چار فوجي بغاوتون ڪيون ۽ ويهن سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين فجي تي فوجي آمريت قائم رکي.&lt;ref&gt;Appelbaum, Diana Muir (August 27, 2012), ''[http://www.jewishideasdaily.com/4867/features/how-the-sinai-peacekeeping-force-staged-a-military-coup-in-fiji/ How the Sinai Peacekeeping Force Staged a Military Coup in Fiji]'', retrieved September 7, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt;

بهرحال، ''جرنل آف پيس ريسرچ'' ۾ 2018ع ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ مطالعي موجب، اهي ملڪ جن جون فوجون گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين مان حاصل ٿيندڙ مالي وسيلن تي وڌيڪ ڀاڙين ٿيون، انهن ۾ فوجي بغاوتن جا امڪان انهن ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ هوندا آهن، جيڪي اهڙن مالي وسيلن تي گهٽ ڀاڙين ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lundgren|first=Magnus|date=2018|title=Backdoor peacekeeping: Does participation in UN peacekeeping reduce coups at home?|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume=55|issue=4|pages=508–523|doi=10.1177/0022343317747668|s2cid=116168984}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ وارن فردن تي اثر ===

[[File:UNAMIR Blue Berets memorial Kigali (4).jpg|thumb|[[روانڊا]] جي شهر [[ڪيگالي]] ۾ [[يو اين اي ايم آء آر]] (UNAMIR) جي ڏهن بيلجيمي امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي يادگار، جيڪي 1994ع ۾ هوتو نيم فوجي گروهن هٿان مارجي ويا.]]

امن قائم رکڻ وارن فوجين بابت ٿيل تحقيق مان معلوم ٿئي ٿو ته انهن تي مثبت ۽ منفي، ٻئي قسم جا اثر پون ٿا. بوسنيا ۾ مقرر آمريڪي فوج جي 951 سپاهين تي ٿيل هڪ مطالعي مطابق، 77 سيڪڙو فوجين مثبت اثرن جي نشاندهي ڪئي، 63 سيڪڙو منفي اثرن جو ذڪر ڪيو، جڏهن ته 47 سيڪڙو ٻنهي قسمن جي تجربن بابت ٻڌايو.&lt;ref&gt;Newby, John H., et al. &quot;Positive and negative consequences of a military deployment.&quot; ''Military Medicine'' (2005) 170#10 pp: 815-819.&lt;/ref&gt;

امن قائم رکڻ وارا اهلڪار گهڻو ڪري ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي حملن جي خطري ۽ اڻڄاتل موسمي حالتن کي منهن ڏيندا آهن. انهن سببن ڪري ذهني صحت جا مسئلا، خودڪشي جا واقعا ۽ منشيات جي استعمال جا خطرا وڌي سگهن ٿا. ڊگهي عرصي تائين ٻاهرين ملڪن ۾ مقرر رهڻ امن قائم رکڻ وارن جي خاندانن، خاص طور تي سندن ٻارن ۽ گهروارن، لاءِ پڻ ذهني دٻاءُ جو سبب بڻجي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1 = Fernandes Souza | first1 = Wanderson |display-authors=etal  | year = 2011 | title = Posttraumatic stress disorder in peacekeepers: a meta-analysis | journal = The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease | volume = 199 | issue = 5| pages = 309–312 | doi=10.1097/nmd.0b013e3182175180| pmid = 21543949 | s2cid = 28713512 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

هڪ ٻيو نقطه نظر اهو به آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون ذميواريون فوجين جي جنگي صلاحيتن کي ڪمزور ڪري سگهن ٿيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ امن قائم رکڻ واري دستي جون ذميواريون مڪمل جنگ وڙهندڙ فوجي يونٽ کان ڪافي مختلف هونديون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20070926001502/http://www.usafa.af.mil/jscope/ISME2007/Papers/Prof%20Paulin%20Kaurin%20War%20Stories.doc Kaurin, P. M. (2007) War Stories: Narrative, Identity and (Recasting) Military Ethics Pedagogy. Pacific Lutheran University. ISME 2007. Retrieved 9-3-2007].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Liu, H. C. K., The war that could destroy both armies, ''Asia Times'', October 23, 2003. Retrieved March 9, 2007.&lt;/ref&gt;

== تنقيد ==

=== امن قائم رکڻ، انساني اسمگلنگ ۽ جبري جسم فروشي ===
{{Main|امن قائم رکڻ وارن پاران ٻارن سان جنسي زيادتي جو اسڪينڊل}}

1990ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن تي مختلف قسمن جي زيادتين جا ڪيترائي الزام لڳندا رهيا آهن، جن ۾ [[زنا بالجبر]]، [[جنسي زيادتي]]، [[ٻارن سان جنسي زيادتي]] ۽ [[انساني اسمگلنگ]] شامل آهن. اهڙيون شڪايتون [[ڪمبوڊيا]]، [[اوڀر تيمور]] ۽ [[اولهه آفريڪا]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علائقن مان سامهون آيون آهن.

[[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۾ اسمگل ٿيل عورتن سان لاڳاپيل جسم فروشي ۾ تيزي سان واڌ آئي، ۽ ڪيترائي اهڙا اڏا گڏيل قومن جي ڪئمپن جي ويجهو قائم ٿيا. بوسنيا ۾ 2000ع کان 2001ع تائين علائقائي انساني حقن جي آفيسر ڊيوڊ ليمب جو چوڻ هو ته، &quot;بوسنيا ۾ جنسي غلاميءَ جي واپار جو وڏو سبب گڏيل قومن جون امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون آهن. جيڪڏهن اهي فوجون نه هجن ها ته بوسنيا ۾ جبري جسم فروشي تمام گهٽ يا بلڪل نه هجي ها.&quot; ان کان علاوه، 2002ع ۾ [[آمريڪا جي ايوانِ نمائندگان]] ۾ ٿيل ٻڌڻي دوران اهو به سامهون آيو ته SFOR جا ڪجهه اهلڪار بوسنيا جي جسم فروشي جي مرڪزن تي ويندا هئا ۽ اسمگل ٿيل عورتن ۽ نابالغ ڇوڪرين سان جنسي لاڳاپا رکندا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Allred2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Allred|first=KJ|date=2006|title=Peacekeepers And Prostitutes: How Deployed Forces Fuel the Demand for Trafficked Women and New Hope for Stopping It|journal=Armed Forces &amp; Society|volume=33|issue=1|page=7|doi=10.1177/0095327X06288803|s2cid=71430076}}&lt;/ref&gt;

صحافين پڻ رپورٽ ڪيو ته گڏيل قومن يا، بوسنيا ۽ [[ڪوسوو]] جي صورت ۾، [[نيٽو]] جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي اچڻ کان پوءِ [[ڪمبوڊيا]]، [[موزمبيق]]، [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا]] ۽ [[ڪوسوو]] ۾ جسم فروشي ۾ تيزي سان اضافو ٿيو. 1996ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي رپورٽ ''دي امپيڪٽ آف آرمڊ ڪنفلڪٽ آن چلڊرين'' ۾ موزمبيق جي اڳوڻي خاتون اول [[گراسا ماچيل]] لکيو ته هن رپورٽ لاءِ تيار ڪيل 12 ملڪن مان 6 مطالعي ۾ هٿياربند تڪرارن دوران ٻارن جي جنسي استحصال ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارين فوجن جي اچڻ کان پوءِ [[ٻارن جي جسم فروشي]] ۾ تيز واڌ ڏٺي وئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;unicef.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/graca/a51-306_en.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030316210918/http://www.unicef.org/graca/a51-306_en.pdf|url-status=dead|title=The Impact of Armed Conflict on Children|archive-date=March 16, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گيتا سهگل]] 2004ع ۾ چيو ته جتي به [[انساني همدرديءَ واري مداخلت]] يا امن قائم رکڻ جون ڪارروايون ٿين ٿيون، اتي جسم فروشي ۽ [[جنسي استحصال]] جا مسئلا به ظاهر ٿين ٿا. سندس خيال هو ته گڏيل قومن بابت بنيادي مسئلو اهو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون به ٻين فوجن وانگر ساڳين مسئلن ۾ ملوث ٿي سگهن ٿيون، تنهنڪري &quot;نگهبانن جي به نگراني ڪرڻي پوي ٿي&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.csmonitor.com/2004/1126/p06s02-wogi.html Sex charges haunt UN forces; In places like Congo and Kosovo, peacekeepers have been accused of abusing the people they're protecting,&quot;] ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'', November 26, 2004, accessed February 16, 2010.&lt;/ref&gt;

2006ع ۾ گڏيل قومن ۾ [[اردن]] جي مستقل نمائندي [[شهزادو زيد رعد زيد الحسين]] جي سربراهيءَ ۾ ٿيل جاچ جي نتيجي ۾ هڪ تفصيلي رپورٽ جاري ٿي، جنهن ۾ خاص طور تي [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] ۾ ٿيل جنسي استحصال جي ڪيترن ئي واقعن کي بيان ڪيو ويو. رپورٽ موجب، جنسي استحصال گهڻو ڪري جسم فروشي جي صورت ۾ ٿيندو هو، جتي جنسي لاڳاپن جي بدلي اوسطاً هڪ کان ٽي آمريڪي ڊالر ادا ڪيا ويندا هئا. ڪن حالتن ۾ عورتن کي کاڌي يا روزگار جو لالچ ڏئي جنسي لاڳاپن تي مجبور ڪيو ويندو هو، جڏهن ته ڪجهه نوجوان عورتن ٻڌايو ته کين زبردستي جنسي زيادتي ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ڪجهه رقم يا کاڌو ڏنو ويندو هو ته جيئن اهو عمل رضامنديءَ وارو لڳي.&lt;ref&gt;al-Hussein, Prince Zeid Ra'ad Zeid. (2005) &quot;A Comprehensive Strategy to Eliminate Future Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations.&quot; Report to the UN Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations: 8.&lt;/ref&gt;

مئي کان سيپٽمبر 2004ع تائين جنسي استحصال جا 72 الزام سامهون آيا، جن مان 68 فوجي اهلڪارن ۽ 4 شهري عملي خلاف هئا. سال جي آخر تائين اهڙن الزامن جو انگ 105 تائين پهچي ويو. انهن مان 45 سيڪڙو الزام 18 سالن کان گهٽ عمر وارن سان جنسي لاڳاپن بابت هئا، جڏهن ته 31 سيڪڙو بالغ جسم فروش عورتن سان لاڳاپيل هئا. زنا بالجبر تقريباً 13 سيڪڙو ۽ جنسي زيادتي 5 سيڪڙو الزامن تي مشتمل هئي، جڏهن ته باقي 6 سيڪڙو ٻئي قسم جي جنسي استحصال سان واسطو رکندا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;al-Hussein, Prince Zeid Ra'ad Zeid. (2005) &quot;A Comprehensive Strategy to Eliminate Future Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations.&quot; Report to the UN Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations: 8-9.&lt;/ref&gt; گهڻا الزام [[پاڪستان]]، [[يوراگوئي]]، [[مراڪش]]، [[تيونس]]، [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] ۽ [[نيپال]] سان تعلق رکندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Allred2006&quot;/&gt;

[[يوراگوئي]] جي صدر [[خوسي موخيڪا]]، گڏيل قومن جي يوراگوئي فوجين تي 18 سالن جي هڪ هيٽي نوجوان سان مبينا زنا بالجبر جي واقعي تي [[هيٽي]] جي صدر [[ميشيل مارٽيلي]] کان معافي ورتي. مارٽيلي چيو ته &quot;هڪ نوجوان هيٽي شهري سان ٿيل اجتماعي زنا بالجبر کي بنا سزا نه ڇڏيو ويندو.&quot; واقعي ۾ ملوث هجڻ جي شڪ ۾ چار فوجين کي حراست ۾ ورتو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-haiti-uruguay-un-idUSTRE78603I20110907|title=Uruguay apologises over alleged rape by U.N. peacekeepers|newspaper=Reuters|access-date=October 23, 2014|date=September 7, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/Headlines/Article.aspx?id=236953|title=Uruguay to apologise over alleged rape by UN peacekeepers|date=September 21, 2010 |access-date=October 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جولاءِ 2007ع ۾ گڏيل قومن جي [[امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون کاتو]] (DPKO) [[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]] ۾ مقرر 734 مراڪشي فوجين جي پوري دستي کي الزام سامهون اچڻ کان پوءِ ڪئمپن تائين محدود ڪري ڇڏيو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن مان ڪجهه تي نابالغ ڇوڪرين سان جنسي زيادتي جا الزام هئا. ايندڙ سالن دوران گڏيل قومن جي [[گڏيل قومن جي اندروني نگراني جون خدمتون کاتو]] (OIOS) اهڙن 80 ڪيسن جي جاچ ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Simic|first=Olivera|title=Regulation of Sexual Conduct in UN Peacekeeping Operations |chapter=UN Peacekeeping Operations: The Emerging Problem of Sexual Exploitation |date=2012|pages=13–38|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-28484-7_2|isbn=978-3-642-28483-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ [[مرڪزي آفريقي جمهوريه]] ۾ ڪم ڪندڙ [[فرانس]]، [[گيبون]] ۽ [[برونڊي]] جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف پڻ الزام لڳا. انهن ۾ [[ڪيمو صوبو|ڪيمو صوبي]] ۾ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 108 ماڻهن سان جنسي استحصال ۽ جنسي زيادتي جا الزام شامل هئا، جن مان اڪثريت نابالغ هئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/01/world/africa/un-peacekeeping-hit-by-new-allegations-of-sickening-sex-abuse.html?_r=0|title=U.N. Peacekeeping Hit By New Allegations of 'Sickening' Sex Abuse|last=Gladstone|first=Rick|date=2016|access-date=April 17, 2016|newspaper=The New York Times}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2016ع ۾ [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]] جي اوڀر واري [[اتر ڪيئو]] صوبي ۾ مقرر امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف به نوان الزام لڳا. [[تنزانيا]] ۽ گڏيل قومن گڏيل جاچ شروع ڪئي، جنهن ۾ تنزاني فوجين تي جنسي استحصال جا 18 الزام شامل هئا، جن مان اٺ نابالغن سان لاڳاپيل هئا. انهن الزامن ۾ 16 تنزاني، هڪ [[ملاوي]] ۽ هڪ ڏکڻ آفريقي فوجي جو نالو آيو. گڏيل قومن مارچ 2016ع ۾ ٻڌايو ته جنسي استحصال بابت الزامن ۾ نمايان واڌ ٿي آهي، جنهن ۾ 21 ملڪن جا فوجي شامل هئا. انهن مان گهڻا الزام آفريقي ملڪن جهڙوڪ [[ڪيمرون]]، [[ڪانگو جي جمهوري جمهوريه]]، [[تنزانيا]]، [[بينن]]، [[برڪينا فاسو]]، [[برونڊي]]، [[گھانا]]، [[مڊگاسڪر]]، [[نائيجر]]، [[نائيجيريا]]، [[روانڊا]]، [[سينيگال]] ۽ [[ٽوگو]] سان تعلق رکندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارن خلاف هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/probe-opens-un-troops-alleged-sex-abuse-dr-155023758.html|title=Probe Opens into UN Troops' Alleged Sex Abuse in DR Congo|date=2016|access-date=April 17, 2016|via=Yahoo News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== امن قائم رکڻ وارا ۽ هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جو بحران ===

پهرين [[ايسوسيئيٽيڊ پريس]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Katz |first=Jonathan M. |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/health/2013276274_apcbhaitidiseaseoutbreak.html |title=Nation &amp; World &amp;#124; UN probes base as source of Haiti cholera outbreak &amp;#124; Seattle Times Newspaper |publisher=Seattletimes.com |date=October 27, 2010 |access-date=July 28, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پوءِ ''[[نيو يارڪ ٽائيمز]]''،&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/01/world/americas/haitis-cholera-outraced-the-experts-and-tainted-the-un.html?pagewanted=all In Haiti, Global Failures on a Cholera Epidemic; In-depth New York Times piece investigating UN role in introducing cholera] ''[[New York Times]]'', March 31, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; ''[[الجزيره عربي]]''،&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.aljazeera.com/video/americas/2012/03/201237194798262.html UN likely to blame for Haiti Cholera Outbreak] ''[[الجزيره عربي]]'', March 7, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اي بي سي نيوز]]&lt;ref&gt;[https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/scientists-soldiers-brought-deadly-superbug-americas/story?id=15341129 Scientists: UN Soldiers Brought Deadly Superbug to Americas] ''[[اي بي سي نيوز]]'', January 12, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; پاران شايع ٿيل اهم سائنسي ثبوتن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته [[نيپال]] سان تعلق رکندڙ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا، جيڪي [[هيٽي]] جي [[ميريباليه]] واري علائقي ۾ هڪ ڏورانهين اڏي تي مقرر هئا، 2010ع جي آڪٽوبر کان ملڪ کي متاثر ڪندڙ خطرناڪ [[هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا (2010ع واري ڏهاڪي)|ڪالرا جي وبا]] جو سبب بڻيا.

[[ڪالرا]] پاڻيءَ وسيلي پکڙجندڙ بيماري آهي، جيڪا سخت دستن ۽ الٽين جو سبب بڻجي ٿي، ۽ جيڪڏهن مريض کي بروقت جسم ۾ پاڻي ۽ لوڻ جي کوٽ پوري ڪرڻ وارو علاج (rehydration) نه ملي ته ڪجهه ئي ڪلاڪن اندر موت جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿي. جولاءِ 2012ع تائين هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا دنيا جي سڀ کان وڏي وبا بڻجي چڪي هئي، جنهن ۾ لڳ ڀڳ 7,500 ماڻهو فوت ٿي چڪا هئا، جڏهن ته تقريباً 585,000 هيٽي وارا (يعني هر ويهن مان هڪ ماڻهو) هن بيماري ۾ مبتلا ٿي چڪا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.cdc.gov/haiticholera/haiti_cholera.htm Haiti Cholera: One Year Later], [[بيمارين جي ضابطي ۽ روڪٿام جا مرڪز]] October 25, 2011, accessed July 30, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.mspp.gouv.ht/site/downloads/Rapport%20journalier%20MSPP%20du%2022%20juillet%202012.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407031228/http://www.mspp.gouv.ht/site/downloads/Rapport%20journalier%20MSPP%20du%2022%20juillet%202012.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Haitian Ministry of Public Health and Population Cholera Report of July 22, 2012, 22 July 2011, accessed 30 July 2012|archive-date=April 7, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا بابت گڏيل قومن پاران مقرر ڪيل آزاد ماهرن جي پينل موجب، امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جي اڏي تي صفائي ۽ نيڪال جا انتظام غير محفوظ هئا، جنهن سبب گهٽ ۾ گهٽ ٻن طريقن سان هيٽي جي دريائي نظام ۾ آلودگي پکڙجي. رپورٽ موجب، &quot;مکيه غسل خاني ۽ ٽوائليٽن واري حصي ۾ پاڻيءَ جي پائيپن جي جوڙجڪ بي ترتيب هئي، جنهن سبب آلودگي ملڻ جو وڏو خطرو موجود هو، خاص طور تي اهي پائيپ جيڪي هڪ کليل نيڪال واري نالي جي مٿان گذرندا هئا، جيڪو سڄي ڪئمپ مان وهي سڌو [[ميئي ندي]] جي معاون نديءَ ۾ ڇوڙ ڪندو هو.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;UNCholeraReport&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/haiti/UN-cholera-report-final.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110506001548/https://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/haiti/UN-cholera-report-final.pdf|url-status=live|title=Final Report of the Independent Panel of Experts on the Cholera Outbreak in Haiti, pages 21-22, July 2011, accessed 30 July 2012|archive-date=May 6, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

پينل اهو پڻ ٻڌايو ته ميريباليه واري اڏي ۽ ٻن ٻين اڏن مان نڪرندڙ گندو پاڻي باقاعدگي سان هڪ کليل، غير محفوظ سيپٽڪ کڏ ۾ وڌو ويندو هو، جيڪا ٻوڏ اچڻ وقت پاڻيءَ سان ڀرجي ويندي هئي ۽ برساتن دوران ان جو گندو پاڻي ميئي نديءَ جي معاون وهڪري ۾ داخل ٿي ويندو هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;UNCholeraReport&quot; /&gt;

نومبر 2011ع ۾ ڪالرا جي وبا کان متاثر ٿيل 5,000 کان وڌيڪ ماڻهن گڏيل قومن جي اندروني دعوائن واري نظام ۾ درخواست داخل ڪئي. هنن وبا تي ضابطو آڻڻ لاءِ صاف پاڻي ۽ صفائي جي بنيادي ڍانچي جي فراهمي، ذاتي نقصانن جو معاوضو ۽ گڏيل قومن کان باضابطه معافي جو مطالبو ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15648110|title=Haiti cholera demand against UN|date=November 9, 2011|work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جولاءِ 2012ع ۾ [[آمريڪا جي گڏيل رياستن جي ڪانگريس]] جي 104 ميمبرن هڪ خط تي صحيون ڪيون، جنهن ۾ چيو ويو ته &quot;گڏيل قومن جي قدمن&quot; سبب هيٽي ۾ ڪالرا پکڙيو، ۽ گڏيل قومن کي گهر ڪئي وئي ته هو پنهنجي ذميواري قبول ڪري ۽ وبا جي خاتمي لاءِ عملي قدم کڻي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18928405|title=Haiti cholera 'UN responsibility'|first=Mark|last=Doyle|date=July 20, 2012|work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2013ع ۾ گڏيل قومن انهن دعوائن کي رد ڪري ڇڏيو، جنهن کان پوءِ متاثرن جي وڪيلن اعلان ڪيو ته هو گڏيل قومن خلاف عدالت ۾ مقدمو داخل ڪندا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ijdh.org/cholera-litigation/ |title=Institute for Justice and Democracy in Haiti: Cholera Litigation |publisher=Ijdh.org |date=October 21, 2010 |access-date=July 28, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== جديد امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائين سان لاڳاپيل ثقافتي خدشا ===

امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائين ۾ مختلف ثقافتن جو پاڻ ۾ گهرو ميل جول هوندو آهي. ان جو سبب اهو آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون، پوليس ۽ ٻيو عملو دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي ملڪن مان اچي گڏ ٿيندو آهي، جڏهن ته اهي اڪثر انهن علائقن ۾ مقرر ڪيا ويندا آهن، جتي نسلي ۽ ثقافتي تنوع تمام گهڻو هوندو آهي. اهڙي صورتحال ۾ مختلف ثقافتن جي وچ ۾ پيچيده لاڳاپا پيدا ٿيندا آهن، جيڪي نه رڳو مشن جي اثرائتي تي اثر انداز ٿيندا آهن، پر ڪڏهن ڪڏهن انهن مقامي ماڻهن سان به تڪرار جو سبب بڻجندا آهن، جن جي مدد لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارا موڪليا ويندا آهن.

1988ع کان اڳ اڪثر امن قائم رکڻ وارا هڪ محدود تعداد وارن ملڪن مان ايندا هئا. ان وقت تائين رڳو 26 ملڪن پنهنجو عملو امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون ۾ موڪليو هو، پر هاڻي اهو انگ 80 کان وڌيڪ ملڪن تائين پهچي ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=146–147}} نتيجي طور، گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون انتهائي گهڻ ثقافتي بڻجي ويون آهن. اهڙي صورتحال ۾ انهن کي نه رڳو ٻولين جي فرق سان منهن ڏيڻو پوي ٿو، پر سماجي ۽ ثقافتي اختلافن سان به، جيڪي اهڙيون عملي مشڪلاتون پيدا ڪن ٿا، جن تي ضابطو آڻڻ آسان نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Pendlebury |first1=Jarrod |last2=Stott |first2=Neil |last3=Tracey |first3=Paul |date=2025 |title=The peacekeeper's challenge: innovation in meta-organisations |journal=Peacebuiding |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1080/21647259.2025.2501873|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; اهي اختلاف ذاتي يا اداري سطح جي رابطن، غلط فهمين، اڻڄاتل طور تي توهين جو سبب بڻجندڙ روين ۽ مخصوص ملڪن جي دستن بابت اڳواٽ قائم ٿيل تعصبن کي جنم ڏئي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=146–147}}

عملياتي لحاظ کان به مشن جي اثرائتي متاثر ٿي سگهي ٿي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ مختلف ملڪن جي فوجي ۽ پوليس اهلڪار پنهنجا پنهنجا طريقا، حڪمت عمليون ۽ ضابطا استعمال ڪندا آهن. گڏيل قومن جون فوجون مختلف ذريعن مان گڏ ڪيون وينديون آهن، جنهن سبب انهن جي صلاحيت، تربيت، سامان، معيارن ۽ ڪارروائي جي طريقن ۾ نمايان فرق موجود هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot; /&gt; ان کان علاوه، حصو وٺندڙ ملڪن جي ڪمان ۽ ڪنٽرول جي نظام ۾ به وڏا فرق هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot; /&gt; ڪجهه ملڪ ٻين ملڪن جي ماتحت ڪم ڪرڻ کان به ڪيٻائيندا آهن، جنهن سبب [[ڪمان جي وحدت]] برقرار رکڻ ڏکيو ٿي پوندو آهي. اهڙي صورتحال گڏيل قومن جي مختلف دستن جي وچ ۾ اختلاف پيدا ڪري سگهي ٿي، جنهن جو نتيجو ميدان ۾ هڪ ٻئي جي سهڪار جي کوٽ جي صورت ۾ نڪري سگهي ٿو. ان جو مثال [[اوڀر تيمور]] ۾ گڏيل قومن جي مشن دوران ڏٺو ويو، جتي آسٽريليا جي فوج [[اوڀر تيمور ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مشن]] تحت پنهنجي فوجين جي تحفظ تي زور ڏيندي سخت فوجي حڪمت عملي اختيار ڪئي، جڏهن ته برطانيا جي [[گورکا]] فوجين مقامي ماڻهن سان ويجها لاڳاپا قائم ڪرڻ واري پاليسي تي عمل ڪيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=146–147}}

جديد امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائين ۾ مقامي آبادي ۽ حڪومت جي رضامندي برقرار رکڻ بنيادي اهميت رکي ٿي. خاص طور تي [[بوسنيا ۾ گڏيل قومن جي تحفظ واري فوج]]، [[سوماليا ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ٻيون آپريشن]] ۽ [[روانڊا ۾ گڏيل قومن جو امدادي مشن]] دوران انسانيت جي بنياد تي مداخلت جي نالي ۾ هن اصول کي نظرانداز ڪيو ويو، جيڪو گڏيل قومن جي منشور جي باب ستين هيٺ ٿيندڙ مداخلتن جي نوعيت کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو. بهرحال، اهڙين ڪارروائين جي قانوني حيثيت ۽ مقبوليت برقرار رکڻ لاءِ ضروري آهي ته گڏيل قومن جون فوجون انهيءَ ملڪ جي عوام ۽ حڪومت جي رضامندي حاصل ڪن، جتي اهي مقرر ٿيل هجن. ان لاءِ ضروري آهي ته مقامي ماڻهن کي امن قائم رکڻ واري عمل جو حصو محسوس ڪرايو وڃي ۽ امن قائم رکڻ وارن کي مقامي ثقافت بابت مناسب ڄاڻ هجي، جيئن مقامي آبادي سان ڇڪتاڻ گهٽجي ۽ مشن ڪامياب بڻجي سگهي.

امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج ۽ مقامي آبادي جي ثقافتي لاڳاپن بابت اڃا تائين گهڻي تحقيق نه ٿي آهي. 1976ع ۾ [[يوهان گالٽونگ]] ۽ [[هيلگه هويم]] انهن نارويجي اهلڪارن جو مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪي [[گڏيل قومن جي هنگامي فوج]] (غزه) ۽ [[ڪانگو ۾ گڏيل قومن جو آپريشن]] ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏئي رهيا هئا. هنن جو نتيجو هو ته ڪنهن ملڪ جي ثقافت ۽ اتان جي ماڻهن بابت ڄاڻ صرف مفيد نه، پر مشن جي ڪاميابي لاءِ لازمي آهي. مطالعي موجب نارويجي اهلڪارن مقامي ثقافت ۽ تڪرار بابت وڌيڪ ڄاڻ حاصل ڪرڻ جي خواهش ظاهر ڪئي ۽ ٻين ملڪن جي اهلڪارن سان گڏ ڪم ڪرڻ بابت وڌيڪ تربيت به گهربل سمجهي. بهرحال، کين اهڙي تربيت تمام محدود ملي، ۽ تڪرار بابت گهڻي ڄاڻ کين خبرن، ڪتابن يا ٻين گڏيل قومن جي اهلڪارن کان ملي، نه ڪي گڏيل قومن جي ڪنهن منظم تربيتي پروگرام مان.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=150–151}}

لبنان ۾ [[لبنان ۾ گڏيل قومن جي عبوري فوج]] (UNIFIL) ۽ مقامي آبادي جي لاڳاپن بابت هيبرگ ۽ هولسٽ جي مطالعي به ساڳيا نتيجا ظاهر ڪيا. هنن ڏٺو ته جيڪي ملڪ مقامي آباديءَ سان وڌيڪ ويجها لاڳاپا قائم ڪرڻ ۽ مقامي ثقافت کي سمجهڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿيا، انهن جا مشن وڌيڪ اثرائتا ثابت ٿيا؛ جڏهن ته جيڪي دستا مقامي سماج کان الڳ رهيا، اهي انهن ماڻهن کان به پري رهيا، جن سان کين ڪم ڪرڻو هو، ۽ ان جو اثر سندن ڪاميابي تي پيو.

{{Quote|
صرف اٽليءَ جو لڳ ڀڳ 2,200 اهلڪارن تي ٻڌل دستو مقامي سماج جو حصو بڻجي ويو ۽ معمول جي زندگي بحال ڪرڻ ۾ سرگرم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. انهن جي فوجين کي مقامي ماڻهن جي ثقافتي، سياسي ۽ سماجي حالتن بابت مناسب تربيت ڏني وئي هئي. لڳ ڀڳ 600,000 آبادي واري علائقي، جنهن ۾ اڪثريت شيعن جي هئي، ۾ اٽليءَ جي فوجين عام ماڻهن ۽ سياسي اڳواڻن سان ويجها لاڳاپا قائم رکيا. ان جي ابتڙ آمريڪي فوجين اهو سمجهيو ته هو لبناني سياست ۾ شامل ٿي رهيا آهن، پر انهن وٽ لبناني ثقافت ۽ تاريخ بابت تمام محدود ڄاڻ هئي. گهڻن آمريڪن کي مختصر مدي وارن اتحادين، پراڻين دشمنيُن، عرب سماج ۾ خانداني لاڳاپن جي اهميت ۽ مذهبي اختلافن جي نزاڪتن جي صحيح سمجهه نه هئي.
|&lt;ref name=&quot;Duffey2000&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pages=150–151}}
}}

هي مثال ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته ڪامياب امن قائم رکڻ واري ڪارروائي لاءِ مقامي ثقافت جي ڄاڻ انتهائي اهم آهي. جيتوڻيڪ گڏيل قومن وٽ هڪ تربيتي رهنما موجود آهي، جيڪو امن قائم رکڻ وارن کي ضروري طريقن بابت هدايتون ڏئي ٿو، پر مختلف دستن لاءِ ڪو گڏيل نظريو يا معياري ڪارروائي جو طريقو موجود ناهي، جيڪو آخرڪار امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن جي ڪاميابيءَ ۾ رڪاوٽ بڻجي سگهي ٿو.

=== جديد مداخلت ۽ تڪرار جي حل جون حدون ===

[[سرد جنگ]] دوران گهرو تڪرارن ۾ ٻاهرين مداخلت ۽ ثالثي گهڻو ڪري رياست-مرڪز طريقي تي ٻڌل هئي، جنهن ۾ [[خودمختياري]] کي ناقابلِ ڀڃڪڙي سمجهيو ويندو هو. بين الاقوامي برادري رياست جي حڪومت ۽ ان جي مخالف گهريلو ويڙهاڪ ڌرين وچ ۾ ٿيندڙ اندروني تڪرارن ۾ تمام گهٽ مداخلت ڪندي هئي. پر سرد جنگ جي پڄاڻي کان پوءِ اها صورتحال بدلجي وئي. اڄڪلهه گهرو تڪرارن ۾ بين الاقوامي ڌرين جي ثالثي هڪ اهڙي معياري حل واري طريقي تي ٻڌل آهي، جيڪو تڪرار ۾ شامل سڀني ڌرين کي مجموعي طور برابر حيثيت ڏئي ٿو ۽ اهڙو ٺاهه حاصل ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪري ٿو، جيڪو سڀني لاءِ قبولڻ جوڳو هجي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Clapham|first=Christopher|date=1998|title=Rwanda: The Perils of Peace|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume=35|issue=2|pages=193–210|doi=10.1177/0022343398035002003|s2cid=110533606}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سرد جنگ جي خاتمي سان بين الاقوامي نظام کي نئين سر ترتيب ڏيڻ جو موقعو پيدا ٿيو. اهو موقعو سرد جنگ جي فاتح ڌرين، يعني [[آمريڪا]] ۽ ٻين اولهه جي سرمائيدار رياستن، وٽ هو، جيڪي آزاد جمهوري قدرن تحت هلنديون هيون ۽ [[انساني حق]]ن ۽ [[جمهوريت سازي]] کي وڏي اهميت ڏينديون هيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt; ان کان اڳ وارن ڏهاڪن ۾ رياست ئي واحد اهڙي وحدت هئي، جنهن کي خاص قانوني ۽ سياسي حيثيت حاصل هئي. جيتوڻيڪ ڪجهه استثنا، جهڙوڪ نوآبادياتي طاقتن خلاف جدوجهد ڪندڙ تحريڪون، موجود هيون، پر حتمي قانوني جواز رياست وٽ ئي هوندو هو. ان ڪري بين الاقوامي برادري عام طور ڪنهن ملڪ جي اندروني معاملن ۾ مداخلت نه ڪندي هئي. خودمختياريءَ جي ڀڃڪڙي نه ڪرڻ وارو هي نظام ٻنهي سپر طاقتن، سندن اتحادين ۽ [[ٽين دنيا]] جي حڪومتن لاءِ فائديمند هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt;

پر هاڻي غير رياستي ڌرين کي به سياسي جواز ملڻ ۽ ڪنهن اقليتي گروهه کي موجود رياست کان ڌار ٿي نئون ملڪ قائم ڪرڻ جي امڪان سبب بين الاقوامي صورتحال ۾ وڏي تبديلي آئي آهي. ان کان علاوه، بين الاقوامي برادري جو تڪرار حل ڪرڻ وارو نمونو گهڻو ڪري اولهه جي ملڪن ۾ تيار ٿيل علمي سوچ کان متاثر آهي. هي نمونو سياسي تشدد روڪڻ ۽ ڳالهين ذريعي ٺاهه حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ گهرو جنگين ۾ مداخلت جي همٿ افزائي ڪري ٿو، ۽ اهڙي ٺاهه ۾ اڪثر جمهوريت سازيءَ جا قدم به شامل هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt;

[[ڪرسٽوفر ڪلافم]] ۽ [[ڊيوڊ شيئرر]] جهڙا نقاد دليل ڏين ٿا ته اهڙي مداخلت ڪڏهن ڪڏهن عام شهرين جي نقصان تي تڪرار کي جاري رکڻ جا وسيلا فراهم ڪري سگهي ٿي. ڪلافم جو دليل بنيادي طور [[روانڊا]] ۾ [[روانڊا نسل ڪشي|نسل ڪشي]] کان اڳ واري صورتحال سان لاڳاپيل آهي،&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt; جڏهن ته شيئرر خاص طور [[سيرا ليون]] جي حوالي سان مداخلت جي منفي پهلوئن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو. سندس خيال موجب مداخلت ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي مڪمل فتح کي روڪي سگهي ٿي ۽ ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي وچ ۾ طاقت جو غيرمتوازن ڍانچو پيدا ڪري سگهي ٿي، جنهن سان وڌيڪ خونريزيءَ جو رستو کلي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Shearer|first=David|date=1997|title=Exploring the Limits of Consent: Conflict Resolution in Sierra Leone|journal=Millennium: Journal of International Studies|volume=26|issue=3|pages=845–860|doi=10.1177/03058298970260030601|s2cid=144940982}}&lt;/ref&gt;

روانڊا ۾ [[هوتو]] ۽ [[توتسي]] ڌرين جي وچ ۾ ڳالهين وسيلي ٺاهه ڪرائڻ جي ٽئين ڌر واري ڪوشش هوتو انتهاپسندن کي اعتدال پسند هوتو ماڻهن جي قتل ۽ توتسين جي نسل ڪشيءَ جي تياري ڪرڻ جو موقعو ڏنو. [[آفريقي اتحاد جي تنظيم]] جي علائقائي رياستن جي اڳواڻيءَ ۾ بين الاقوامي برادري [[اروشا امن عمل]] وسيلي هوتو ۽ توتسي ڌرين جي وچ ۾ جاري نسلي تشدد جو ڳالهين سان حل ڳولڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي. هي عمل هڪ سال کان ڪجهه وڌيڪ عرصي تائين هليو، جنهن ۾ وڏي بين الاقوامي شموليت ۽ [[تنزانيا]]، جيڪو ڳالهين جو ميزبان هو، [[برونڊي]]، [[يوگنڊا]] ۽ [[زائير]] سميت ڪيترن ئي علائقائي ڌرين حصو ورتو.

جيتوڻيڪ [[روانڊا محب وطن محاذ]] (RPF) [[اروشا معاهدا (روانڊا)|اروشا معاهدن]] مان سڀ کان وڌيڪ فائدو وٺندڙ ڌر هئي ۽ پنهنجون ڪيتريون شڪايتون حل ڪرائڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿي، پر ڪلافم موجب انهن مان ڪيترائي فائدا فوجي ڪارروائيءَ وسيلي به حاصل ڪري سگهجن پيا. ڪلافم جو چوڻ آهي ته اروشا معاهدن شرڪت ڪندڙ ڌرين جي پاڻ ۾ طاقت کي ٻن طريقن سان متاثر ڪيو: پهريون، جنگبنديءَ تڪرار جي هڪ مخصوص مرحلي تي علائقائي قبضي جي ورڇ کي منجمد ڪري ڇڏيو؛ ٻيو، ڳالهين ۾ شامل ڌرين کي ثالثن طرفان مقرر ڪيل اهميت ڏني وئي.

ان جو مطلب اهو هو ته تڪرار منجمد ٿي ويو ۽ RPF کي وڌيڪ علائقائي ڪاميابيون حاصل ڪرڻ کان روڪيو ويو. ڳالهين ۾ ڪنهن ڌر جي اهميت ان جي عوامي مقبوليت يا فوجي طاقت جي بنياد تي نه، پر ثالثن طرفان مصنوعي طور ڏنل وزن موجب طئي ڪئي وئي. نتيجي طور، سڄي عمل RPF جي حيثيت کي ڪمزور ڪيو، ان جي اڳ تائين ڪامياب فوجي مهم کي روڪيو ۽ هوتو انتهاپسندن کي [[روانڊا نسل ڪشي]] جي تياريءَ لاءِ وقت ڏنو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clapham1998&quot; /&gt;

شيئرر دليل ڏئي ٿو ته جديد حڪمت عمليون، جيڪي رڳو ڌرين جي رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل ڳالهين تي ڀاڙين ٿيون، تمام گهڻيون محدود آهن، ۽ فوجي فتح کي تڪرار جي حل جي امڪاني طريقي طور نظرانداز نه ڪرڻ گهرجي. سندس چوڻ موجب جنگي ميدان ۾ طاقت جي توازن جي تبديلي اڪثر ڪنهن ويڙهاڪ ڌر کي ڳالهين جي ميز تائين آڻي سگهي ٿي ۽ ان جي مطالبن کي به نرم ڪري سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

ڳالهين ۽ ثالثيءَ ۾ رضامندي وڏي اهميت رکي ٿي. موجوده بين الاقوامي نظام ۽ سرد جنگ کان پوءِ بين الاقوامي برادريءَ طرفان گهڻو استعمال ٿيندڙ تڪرار حل ڪرڻ وارو نمونو رضامنديءَ کي بنيادي اهميت ڏئي ٿو. پر شيئرر سوال ڪري ٿو ته جيڪڏهن ڪا ويڙهاڪ ڌر ڳالهين ۽ جنگبنديءَ کي رڳو وقت حاصل ڪرڻ، پنهنجي فوج کي نئين سر ترتيب ڏيڻ ۽ پوءِ جنگ جاري رکڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري ٿي، ته ڇا تڪرار کي ڊگهو ڪرڻ ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل انساني نقصان جي خطري باوجود رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل حڪمت عملي جاري رکڻ گهرجي؟&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

شيئرر پاران ڄاڻايل تجرباتي تجزيي موجب، ڳالهين وسيلي ختم ٿيل اڳوڻين گهرو جنگين جي ڪاميابي محدود رهي آهي. هو جان اسٽيڊمين جي هڪ مطالعي جو حوالو ڏئي ٿو، جنهن مطابق 1900ع کان 1980ع تائين 85 سيڪڙو گهرو جنگيون ڪنهن هڪ ڌر جي مڪمل فتح سان ختم ٿيون، جڏهن ته نوآبادياتي جنگين کي ڇڏي رڳو 15 سيڪڙو جنگيون ڳالهين وسيلي پڄاڻيءَ تي پهتيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

رائي لِڪلائيڊر جو مطالعو پڻ انهن نتيجن جي حمايت ڪري ٿو:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
1945ع کان 1989ع تائين سندس درجابندي موجب 93 گهرو تڪرارن مان 58 ڪنهن نه ڪنهن صورت ۾ ختم ٿيا، جڏهن ته باقي جاري رهيا. پر ختم ٿيل تڪرارن مان رڳو 14، يعني 24 سيڪڙو، ڳالهين وسيلي حل ٿيا. باقي 76 سيڪڙو فوجي فتحن سان ختم ٿيا. ان کان علاوه، ڳالهين وسيلي ختم ڪيل 14 تڪرارن مان 7 ۾ ويڙهه ٻيهر شروع ٿي وئي. تنهنڪري ختم ٿيل گهرو جنگين جي لحاظ کان ڳالهين وسيلي ٿيل ٺاهن جي مجموعي ڪاميابيءَ جي شرح لڳ ڀڳ 12 سيڪڙو هئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

سيرا ليون ۾ [[انقلابي گڏيل محاذ]] (RUF)، جنهن جي اڳواڻي [[فوڊي سنڪوه]] ڪري رهيو هو، 1991ع کان 1996ع تائين حڪومت خلاف [[سيرا ليون گهرو جنگ|رتوڇاڻ واري گهرو جنگ]] وڙهي. هن تڪرار ڏانهن بين الاقوامي ڌيان تمام گهٽ ويو، پر جنگ ملڪ کي تباهه ڪري ڇڏيو ۽ ان جي معيشت کي سخت نقصان پهچايو. ڳالهين وسيلي ٺاهه لاءِ ڪيترين ئي ڪوششن باوجود ڪنهن به ڌر پنهنجن مطالبن تان هٿ کڻڻ يا سمجهوتو ڪرڻ لاءِ تيار نه هئي.

سنڪوه [[نجي فوجي ڪمپني]] [[ايگزيڪيوٽو آئوٽڪمز]] جي مداخلت ۽ جنگي ميدان ۾ RUF جي ڪمزور ٿيڻ کان پوءِ ڳالهين جي ميز تي آيو. ان کان پوءِ RUF جو خطرو گهڻو گهٽجي ويو، عام ماڻهو پناهگير ڪئمپن مان واپس اچڻ ۽ پنهنجي زندگي نئين سر جوڙڻ لڳا. پر امن ڪمزور هو ۽ ڳالهين جو سلسلو جاري رهيو. RUF هٿيار ڦٽا ڪرڻ لاءِ تيار نه هو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان کي فوج ۽ شهري مليشيا ٻنهي کان انتقامي ڪاررواين جو خدشو هو.

انهن خدشن کي گهٽائڻ ۽ امن ڏانهن منتقليءَ ۾ مدد ڏيڻ لاءِ گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا موڪلڻ جو منصوبو هو، پر پوءِ صورتحال خراب ٿيڻ لڳي. بين الاقوامي ڌريون وڌيڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪوششن کان پوئتي هٽڻ لڳيون، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ حڪمت عمليءَ جي لحاظ کان گهٽ اهم ملڪ ۾ هڪ مهانگو ۽ اڻڄاتل مدي وارو مشن شروع ڪرڻ ۾ سندن دلچسپي نه هئي. نتيجي طور گڏيل قومن جي مداخلتي فوج جي جوڙجڪ سست ٿي وئي ۽ پوءِ مڪمل طور رڪجي وئي، جڏهن سنڪوه دليل ڏنو ته گڏيل قومن جي 740 امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جو دستو تمام وڏو هو.

گڏيل قومن ٻنهي ڌرين جي مڪمل رضامندي کان سواءِ ڪارروائي ڪرڻ کان انڪار ڪيو، جنهن سبب امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج جي مقرري نه ٿي سگهي. شيئرر موجب رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل هي طريقو ڏيکاري ٿو ته گهرو جنگ دوران ۽ ان کان پوءِ واري غير مستحڪم ۽ نازڪ صورتحال ۾ گڏيل قومن جو ڪردار ڪيترو محدود ٿي سگهي ٿو. سندس لفظن ۾، سيرا ليون ۾ ان جو مطلب اهو هو ته امن تعمير واري عمل کي مضبوط ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ اهم جزو موجود نه رهيو، ۽ سنڪوه پاڻ شرطون مقرر ڪرڻ لڳو. اهڙي طريقي سان هڪ ظالم باغي گروهه جي قيادت کي امن جا امڪان روڪڻ جي طاقت ملي وئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

صورتحال وڌيڪ خراب ٿي، جڏهن سيرا ليون جي نئين چونڊيل صدر [[احمد تيجان ڪباه]] ايگزيڪيوٽو آئوٽڪمز سان ٿيل معاهدو ختم ڪري ڇڏيو ۽ اهڙي طرح پنهنجي [[سخت طاقت]] واري فوجي برتري ڪمزور ڪري ڇڏي. 1997ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون جمهوريه جون هٿياربند فوجون|فوج]] جي ناراض آفيسرن حڪومت جو تختو اونڌو ڪيو، جنهن سان تڪرار ٻيهر تيز ٿي ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shearer1997&quot; /&gt;

سلامتيءَ جي صورتحال جي نگراني لاءِ گڏيل قومن جو هڪ ننڍو مبصر دستو موڪليو ويو. [[سيرا ليون ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مبصر مشن|UNOMSIL]] نالي هي مشن جولاءِ 1998ع کان آڪٽوبر 1999ع تائين موجود رهيو، پر RUF طرفان ملڪ جي گاديءَ واري شهر [[فري ٽائون]] تي قبضو ڪرڻ کان پوءِ ان کي واپس وڃڻو پيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna2008123–124&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Virginia|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=123–124}}&lt;/ref&gt;

نيٺ 1999ع ۾ [[سيرا ليون ۾ گڏيل قومن جو مشن|UNAMSIL]] قائم ڪري موڪليو ويو. هن مشن کي گڏيل قومن جي منشور جي ستين باب تحت اختيار حاصل هو ۽ ان جو مقصد لومه معاهدن تي عمل ڪرائڻ هو، پر تشدد جاري رهيو. شروعات کان ئي RUF تعاون ڪرڻ لاءِ تيار نه هو، ۽ [[اولهه آفريقي رياستن جي اقتصادي برادري جو نگراني گروهه|ECOMOG]] جي دستي جي واپسيءَ کان پوءِ RUF گڏيل قومن جي فوجين تي حملو ڪيو ۽ سوين اهلڪارن کي يرغمال بڻائي ڇڏيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortna2008123–124&quot; /&gt;

ان واقعي تي بين الاقوامي برادريءَ جو اهڙو سخت ردعمل سامهون آيو، جنهن جي RUF قيادت کي توقع نه هئي. ان جو خيال هو ته بين الاقوامي برادري صوماليا وانگر يا فري ٽائون مان UNOMSIL جي واپسيءَ وقت وانگر ٻيهر پوئتي هٽي ويندي. پر ان جي ابتڙ، برطانيه جي مدد سان RUF خلاف سخت [[سيرا ليون گهرو جنگ ۾ برطانوي فوجي مداخلت|فوجي مهم]] هلائي وئي. UNAMSIL جا اختيار وڌايا ويا ۽ ان جي اهلڪارن جو تعداد به وڌايو ويو. 2000ع جي پڇاڙيءَ ۽ 2001ع جي شروعات تائين RUF جي فوجي طاقت تمام گهڻي ڪمزور ٿي چڪي هئي. پوءِ [[ابوجا معاهدو|ابوجا معاهدا]] ڪيا ويا ۽ UNAMSIL ڊسمبر 2005ع ۾ پنهنجو مشن مڪمل ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unamsil/|title=UNAMSIL: United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone|website=www.un.org|access-date=May 5, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيتوڻيڪ اڄ سيرا ليون ۾ امن قائم آهي ۽ گڏيل قومن جي مشن کي ڪامياب سمجهي سگهجي ٿو، پر صورتحال جي ارتقا شيئرر جي ان دليل کي واضح ڪري ٿي ته رڳو رضامنديءَ تي ٻڌل، سڀني ويڙهاڪ ڌرين جي مفادن کي شامل ڪندڙ ڳالهين وارو طريقو لازمي طور ڪاميابيءَ تائين نٿو پهچي. UNOMSIL جي موجودگيءَ باوجود جنگ جاري رهي. حقيقت ۾، ستين باب تحت وڌيڪ مضبوط UNAMSIL اچڻ کان پوءِ به تشدد ختم نه ٿيو. جڏهن برطانيا فوجي مداخلت ڪري RUF جي تڪرار جاري رکڻ واري صلاحيت کي سخت نقصان پهچايو، جيئن ان کان اڳ ايگزيڪيوٽو آئوٽڪمز ڪيو هو، تڏهن RUF آخرڪار ڳالهين جي ميز تي آيو ۽ امن قائم ٿيڻ ممڪن ٿيو.

ڪجهه ليکڪ اصولي طور بين الاقوامي مداخلت جي خيال تي ئي سوال اٿارين ٿا. 2005ع ۾ [[عالمي ترقي مرڪز]] لاءِ تيار ڪيل هڪ تحقيقي مقالي ۾ [[اسٽينفورڊ يونيورسٽي]] جي [[جيريمي وائينسٽين]] ”خودمختيار بحالي“ جو نظريو پيش ڪيو، جنهن موجب رياستون بين الاقوامي مداخلت کان سواءِ به پائيدار امن حاصل ڪري سگهن ٿيون. [[يوگنڊا]]، [[ايريٽريا]] ۽ [[صوماليا]] جي ڪيس مطالعي ذريعي وائينسٽين ڏيکاريو ته رياستون جنگ مان به اثرائتا ادارا پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿيون.

هن طريقي جا فائدا ۽ نقصان آهن، جن کي بين الاقوامي مداخلت جي امڪاني نتيجن سان ڀيٽڻ گهرجي. ٻاهرين مداخلت وڏي پيماني تي ٿيندڙ ظلمن کي روڪي سگهي ٿي، پر اها ادارتي تبديليءَ کي به روڪي سگهي ٿي. خودمختيار بحالي سڀ کان طاقتور اڳواڻ کي مٿانهون ڪري ٿي، پر گڏوگڏ سڀ کان طاقتور ويڙهاڪن کي به انعام ڏئي ٿي، جيڪي اقتدار ورهائڻ لاءِ گهٽ تيار ٿي سگهن ٿا. ان کان علاوه، مداخلت ٻاهرين اثر تي ڀاڙي ٿي، جڏهن ته خودمختيار بحالي اندروني عنصرن تي ٻڌل هوندي آهي.

وائينسٽين جي دليل مان اهو نتيجو ڪڍي سگهجي ٿو ته مداخلت هميشه بهترين پاليسي ناهي. تنهن هوندي به سندس چوڻ آهي ته بين الاقوامي برادريءَ جي [[تحفظ جي ذميواري]] واري اصول کي اخلاقي اهميت حاصل آهي، جڏهن ته خودمختيار بحاليءَ لاءِ گهربل حالتون تمام گهٽ ملن ٿيون. سندس نظر ۾ بنيادي مسئلو اهو آهي ته سٺي حڪمرانيءَ کي ڪيئن همٿايو وڃي ۽ باغي گروهن جي مدد اهڙي نموني ڪيئن ڪئي وڃي، جو آمدني گڏ ڪرڻ ۽ حڪمرانن کي جوابده بڻائڻ واري شهرين ۽ حڪمرانن جي لاڳاپي کي نقصان نه پهچي.&lt;ref&gt;Weinstein, Jeremy M. 2005. &quot;Autonomous Recovery and International Intervention in Comparative Perspective.&quot; Center for Global Development Working Paper 57. https://www.cgdev.org/files/2731_file_WP57.pdf.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== مشن جي دائري جو وڌڻ ===

جيتوڻيڪ [[جيمس فيئرون]] ۽ [[ڊيوڊ ليٽن]] امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين لاءِ ڪيترن ئي عملي ۽ اخلاقي سببن کي تسليم ڪن ٿا، پر سندن خيال آهي ته ڪجهه حالتن ۾ اهي ڪارروايون آهستي آهستي [[رياست سازي]] جي ڪوششن سان ڳنڍجي وڃن ٿيون. ڪمزور رياستن ۾، جتي باغي گروهه ڪامياب گوريلا مهمون هلائي رهيا هجن، امن قائم رکڻ وارن دستن تي اهو دٻاءُ وڌي وڃي ٿو ته هو پائيدار امن قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ رياستي ادارن ۽ انتظامي صلاحيتن کي به مضبوط ڪن. اهڙو دٻاءُ اصل امن قائم رکڻ واري مشن جي دائري کان ٻاهر نڪري وڃي ٿو، جنهن کي &quot;مشن جي دائري جو وڌڻ&quot; (Mission creep) چيو وڃي ٿو.

جيڪڏهن امن قائم رکڻ واريون فوجون رياست سازي جي عمل ۾ حصو نه وٺن، ته انهن جي واپسي کان پوءِ لاڳاپيل ملڪ ۾ ٻيهر تشدد ڀڙڪڻ جو خطرو وڌي سگهي ٿو. تنهن ڪري فيئرون ۽ ليٽن امن قائم رکڻ جي ڪوششن ۾ رياست سازي کي وڌيڪ مربوط ڪرڻ جي حمايت ڪن ٿا. هو ان مقصد لاءِ &quot;نيو ٽرسٽيشپ&quot; (''Neotrusteeship'') نالي هڪ نئين فريم ورڪ جي تجويز پيش ڪن ٿا، جنهن تحت پرڏيهي طاقتون ڪمزور رياست جي گهرو معاملن تي نمايان حد تائين نگراني ۽ اختيار رکن، جيئن مستقبل ۾ تشدد جي ٻيهر اُڀار کي روڪي سگهجي.&lt;ref name=&quot;FearonLaitin2004&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Fearon|first1=James D.|last2=Laitin|first2=David D.|date=2004|title=Neotrusteeship and the Problem of Weak States|journal=International Security|volume=28|issue=4|pages=5–43|doi=10.1162/0162288041588296|s2cid=57559356}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== مقامي آبادي سان لاڳاپي جي کوٽ ===

امن قائم رکڻ بابت وڌندڙ تنقيدن مان هڪ اهم تنقيد اها آهي ته امن قائم رکڻ وارن عملدارن ۽ مقامي آبادي جي وچ ۾ اثرائتي رابطي ۽ شموليت جي کوٽ هوندي آهي. [[سيورين اوٽيسر]] 2015ع ۾ ''فارين پاليسي'' ۾ شايع ٿيل پنهنجي مقالي ۾ وضاحت ڪري ٿي ته اهڙي صورتحال سبب امن قائم رکڻ وارا عملدار امن برقرار رکڻ جا منصوبا ته تيار ڪن ٿا، پر اهي زميني حقيقتن کان ڪٽيل هوندا آهن، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ عملي طور انهن منصوبن جا اثر اڪثر ابتا نڪرندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;trouble&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/10/06/trouble-in-peaceland-united-nations-congo-development/|title=Trouble in Peaceland|last=Autesserre|first=Severine|website=Foreign Policy|date=October 6, 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

اوٽيسر موجب، اهڙي طريقي سان هڪ اهڙو خودتقويت ڏيندڙ نظام به وجود ۾ اچي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ميدان تي ڪم ڪندڙ عملدار پنهنجي منصوبن کي ڪامياب قرار ڏئي رپورٽون موڪلين ٿا، جڏهن ته حقيقت ۾ انهن جا نتيجا مقامي سطح تي نقصانڪار ثابت ٿيندا آهن. جيڪڏهن بعد ۾ صورتحال ٻيهر تشدد ۾ تبديل ٿي وڃي، ته ان جو ذميوار مقامي آبادي کي ٺهرايو ويندو آهي، نه ته انهن پاليسين يا منصوبن کي، جيڪي حقيقت کان ڪٽيل هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;trouble&quot; /&gt;

هي تنقيد گهڻي حد تائين اُن تنقيد سان ملي ٿي، جيڪا ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾ ترقياتي منصوبن بابت [[جيمس سي. اسڪاٽ]]، [[جيمس فرگوسن]] ۽ [[ايل. لوهمان]] جهڙن ليکڪن پيش ڪئي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Scott1998&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed|url=https://archive.org/details/seeinglikestateh00scot|url-access=limited|last=Scott|first=James C.|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1998|location=New Haven|pages=[https://archive.org/details/seeinglikestateh00scot/page/n17 1]–10|isbn=9780300078152}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Ferguson|last2=Lohman|first1=James|first2=L.|date=1994|title=The anti-politics machine: 'development' and bureaucratic power in Lesotho.|journal=The Ecologist|volume=24}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيتوڻيڪ امن قائم رکڻ ۽ ترقياتي سرگرميون ٻه الڳ شعبا آهن، پر هن تنقيد جي بنيادي منطق ساڳي آهي. ٽئين ڌر جا عملدار—چاهي اهي امن قائم رکڻ وارا هجن يا ترقياتي ادارن جا نمائندا—عام ماڻهن کان پري رهندا آهن. هو اهو سمجهندا آهن ته کين بهتر خبر آهي ته مقامي ماڻهن لاءِ ڇا مناسب آهي، ۽ ان ڪري هو زميني سطح تي رهندڙ ماڻهن کان معلومات يا راءِ حاصل ڪرڻ کي ضروري نه سمجهندا آهن. ليکڪن موجب، اها روش عام طور بدنِيتي يا سامراجيت جي نتيجي ۾ نه هوندي آهي، پر ان يقين مان پيدا ٿيندي آهي ته اعليٰ تعليم يافته عملدار، جيڪي ٻين ماهرن تائين رسائي رکن ٿا ۽ امن قائم رکڻ ۽ ترقي بابت علمي ادب کان واقف آهن، مقامي ماڻهن کان وڌيڪ بهتر فيصلا ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Scott1998&quot; /&gt;

=== ميٽا-تنظيمي چئلينج ===

تنقيد جو هڪ ٻيو اهم رخ انهن رڪاوٽن تي ڌيان ڏئي ٿو، جيڪي گڏيل قومن جي پنهنجي تنظيمي ڍانچي مان پيدا ٿين ٿيون ۽ امن قائم رکڻ جي اثرائتي صلاحيت کي محدود ڪن ٿيون. [[جيروڊ پينڊلبري]]، [[نيل اسٽاٽ]] ۽ [[پال ٽريسي]] دليل ڏين ٿا ته گڏيل قومن جي [[ميٽا-تنظيم]] (ميٽا-آرگنائيزيشن) هجڻ—يعني اهڙي تنظيم جيڪا پاڻ به ڪيترين ئي خودمختيار تنظيمن تي مشتمل هجي—امن قائم رکڻ جي ڪارڪردگيءَ کي خاص طور ٻن اهم شعبن ۾ متاثر ڪري ٿي: فيصلا سازي ۽ نواڻ (Innovation).&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot; /&gt;

انهن ليکڪن موجب، پيچيده تنظيمي لاڳاپا، ادارتي سڃاڻپ جا ٽڪراءُ، حڪم ۽ ڪنٽرول جون ورهايل زنجيرون، مختلف ادارن جي وچ ۾ محدود افقي هم آهنگي، مالي وسيلا فراهم ڪرڻ جا پيچيده طريقا ۽ اداري جي اندر موجود جمود (سسٽميٽڪ انرشيا) گڏيل قومن لاءِ امن قائم رکڻ وارن مشنن جي منصوبابندي، فوج ۽ ٻين وسيلن جي فراهمي، ۽ مشنن جي مؤثر عملدرآمد کي وڌيڪ ڏکيو بڻائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;PendleburyStottTracey2025&quot; /&gt;

== سڌارن جون تجويزون ==

=== برهيمي تجزيو ===

خاص طور امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن تي لڳندڙ جنسي استحصال جي الزامن سميت مختلف تنقيدن جي جواب ۾، گڏيل قومن پنهنجي امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين ۾ سڌارا آڻڻ لاءِ ڪيترائي قدم کنيا. [[گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ بابت پينل جي رپورٽ|برهيمي رپورٽ]] انهن قدمن مان پهرين اهم ڪوشش هئي، جنهن جو مقصد اڳوڻين امن قائم رکڻ وارين مشنن جو جائزو وٺڻ، انهن جي خامين جي سڃاڻپ ڪرڻ ۽ مستقبل جي مشنن کي وڌيڪ مؤثر بڻائڻ لاءِ ضروري سڌارا تجويز ڪرڻ هو. گڏيل قومن اهو عزم ظاهر ڪيو ته مستقبل ۾ امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين دوران انهن سڌارن تي عمل جاري رکيو ويندو.

سڌارن جي هن فني عمل کي [[گڏيل قومن جو امن قائم رکڻ وارو کاتو]] (DPKO) پنهنجي **&quot;امن ڪارروايون 2010&quot;** (''Peace Operations 2010'') واري سڌاري جي ايجنڊا ذريعي اڳتي وڌايو ۽ وڌيڪ مضبوط بڻايو. ان ۾ عملي جي تعداد ۾ واڌ، ميداني ۽ هيڊڪوارٽر عملي جي خدمتن جي شرطن ۾ هم آهنگي، رهنما اصولن ۽ معياري عملي طريقن (اسٽينڊرڊ آپريٽنگ پروسيجر) جي تياري، ۽ DPKO، [[گڏيل قومن جو ترقياتي پروگرام]] (UNDP)، [[آفريقي اتحاد]] ۽ [[يورپي اتحاد]] جي وچ ۾ شراڪتداري کي وڌيڪ بهتر بڻائڻ شامل هو. 2008ع ۾ جاري ڪيل بنيادي دستاويز **&quot;گڏيل قومن جون امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون: اصول ۽ رهنما هدايتون&quot;** انهن ئي برهيمي تجزين کي وڌيڪ وسيع ۽ مضبوط بنياد فراهم ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://pbpu.unlb.org/pbps/Library/Capstone_Doctrine_ENG.pdf|title=Peacekeeping Resource Hub|website=pbpu.unlb.org|access-date=July 8, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819214105/http://pbpu.unlb.org/pbps/Library/Capstone_Doctrine_ENG.pdf|archive-date=August 19, 2008|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

برهيمي رپورٽ جن بنيادي مسئلن جي نشاندهي ڪئي، انهن مان هڪ امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين جي منصوبابندي ۽ هم آهنگيءَ جي کوٽ هئي. رپورٽ اهو پڻ واضح ڪيو ته ڪيترن ئي مشنن جا مقرر ڪيل مقصد انهن لاءِ مهيا ڪيل وسيلن ۽ مالي امداد سان هم آهنگ نه هئا. ان ڪري رپورٽ سفارش ڪئي ته [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] هر مشن جا مقصد، اختيار ۽ انهن جي عملدرآمد لاءِ گهربل وسيلا واضح نموني طئي ڪري.

[[جيمس فيئرون]] ۽ [[ڊيوڊ ليٽن]] جي خيال موجب، برهيمي رپورٽ گڏيل قومن جي سيڪريٽري جنرل لاءِ هڪ اهم سياسي اوزار فراهم ڪيو، جنهن ذريعي هو سلامتي ڪائونسل سان امن قائم رکڻ وارين مشنن جي مقصدن، گهربل فوجين ۽ مالي وسيلن بابت وڌيڪ مؤثر نموني ڳالهين ڪري سگهي ٿو. هن اوزار جو مقصد انهن حالتن کان بچڻ هو، جتي [[بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگووينا|بوسنيا]]، [[صوماليا]] ۽ [[سيرا ليون]] جهڙن مشنن کي ناڪافي مالي ۽ انساني وسيلا فراهم ڪيا ويا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;FearonLaitin2004&quot;/&gt;

[[ڪرسٽين گري]] برهيمي رپورٽ جي سفارشن تي عملدرآمد سان لاڳاپيل مسئلن جو جائزو وٺندي بيان ڪري ٿي ته انهن تجويزن کي عملي جامو پارائڻ آسان نه هو. خاص طور تي، [[گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل]] طرفان جاري ڪيل وسيع اختيارن (مينڊيٽ) ۽ انهن تي عملدرآمد لاءِ حقيقت ۾ مهيا ڪيل محدود وسيلن جي وچ ۾ موجود فرق کي گهٽائڻ هڪ وڏو چئلينج ثابت ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1 = Gray | first1 = Christine | year = 2001 | title = Peacekeeping After the ''Brahimi Report'': Is There a Crisis of Credibility for the UN?. | journal = J Conflict Security Law | volume = 6 | issue = 2| pages = 267–288 | doi=10.1093/jcsl/6.2.267}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== پڻ ڏسو ==
{{Portal|سياست}}
{{Commons category|امن قائم رکڻ}}
* [[بنگلاديش گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ واري فوج]]
* [[ڪينيڊا جي امن قائم رکڻ واريون ڪارروايون]]
* [[گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين مشنن جي فهرست]]
* [[گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارن اهلڪارن جي تعداد موجب ملڪن جي فهرست]]
* [[اهي ملڪ جتي هن وقت گڏيل قومن جا امن قائم رکڻ وارا دستا مقرر آهن]]
* [[غير گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين مشنن جي فهرست]]
* [[گهڻ قومي فوج ۽ مبصر]]
* [[جنگ کان سواءِ فوجي ڪارروايون]]
* [[هيبرون ۾ عارضي بين الاقوامي موجودگي]]
* [[گڏيل قومن جي امن قائم رکڻ وارين مشنن جي وقتوار فهرست]]

==حوالا==
{{Reflist}}

== وڌيڪ مطالعي لاءِ ==
* Aoi, Chiyuki؛ Coning, Cedric de؛ Thakur, Ramesh (ايڊيٽر). ''Unintended Consequences of Peacekeeping Operations''. گڏيل قومن جي يونيورسٽي، 2007ع.
* [[سيورين اوٽيسر]]، 2014ع. ''Peaceland: Conflict Resolution and the Everyday Politics of International Intervention''. ڪيمبرج يونيورسٽي پريس. {{ISBN|9781107632042}}
* Barnett, Michael. 2002ع. ''Eyewitness to a Genocide: The United Nations and Rwanda''. ڪارنيل يونيورسٽي پريس.
* Bastaki, Basil؛ Staniland, Paul؛ Popoola, Bryan (2024). &quot;[[doi:10.1162/isec_a_00489|Peacekeeping کان سواءِ گهرو جنگين کي مستحڪم بڻائڻ: ڏکڻ ايشيا مان ثبوت]]&quot;. ''International Security''. '''49''' (1): 133–170.
* {{cite journal
 | last = Bureš
 | first = Oldřich
 |date= June 2006
 | title = Regional Peacekeeping Operations: Complementing or Undermining the United Nations Security Council?
 | journal = Global Change, Peace &amp; Security
 | volume = 18
 | issue = 2
 | pages = 83–99
 | doi = 10.1080/14781150600687775
 | s2cid = 154982851
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | last1 = Dandeker
 | first1 = Christopher
 | last2 = Gow
 | first2 = James
 | year = 1997
 | title = The Future of Peace Support Operations: Strategic Peacekeeping and Success
 | journal = Armed Forces &amp; Society
 | volume = 23
 | issue = 3
 | pages = 327–347
 | doi = 10.1177/0095327X9702300302
 | s2cid = 145191919
 }}
* Doyle, Michael W.؛ Sambanis, Nicholas. 2006ع. ''Making War and Building Peace''. پرنسٽن يونيورسٽي پريس.
* Evelegh, Robin. 1978ع. ''Peace Keeping in a Democratic Society: The Lessons of Northern Ireland''. McGill-Queen's University Press.
* {{cite journal
 | last = Fortna
 | first = Virginia Page
 | year = 2004
 | title = Does Peacekeeping Keep Peace? International Intervention and the Duration of Peace After Civil War
 | journal = International Studies Quarterly
 | volume = 48
 | issue = 2
 | pages = 269–292
 | doi = 10.1111/j.0020-8833.2004.00301.x
 | url = http://www.columbia.edu/~vpf4/ISQ%20offprint.PDF
 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.489.1831
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | last1 = Fortna
 | first1 = Virginia Page
 | last2 = Howard
 | first2 = Lise Morjé
 | year = 2008
 | title = Pitfalls and Prospects in the Peacekeeping Future
 | journal = Annual Review of Political Science
 | volume = 11
 | pages = 283–301
 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.polisci.9.041205.103022
 | s2cid = 15740415
 | doi-access = free
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | last = Goulding
 | first = Marrack
 | author-link = Marrack Goulding
 | date = July 1993
 | title = The Evolution of United Nations Peacekeeping
 | journal = International Affairs
 | volume = 69
 | issue = 3
 | pages = 451–464
 | doi = 10.2307/2622309
 | jstor = 2622309
 | s2cid = 156682195
 }}
* Anja Jetschke؛ Bernd Schlipphak. 2019ع. ''MILINDA: گڏيل قومن جي اڳواڻيءَ هيٺ ۽ ان کان ٻاهر ٿيندڙ امن قائم رکڻ وارين ڪاررواين بابت نئون ڊيٽا سيٽ''. ''Conflict Management and Peace Science''.
* Howard, Lise Morjé. 2008ع. ''UN Peacekeeping in Civil Wars''. ڪيمبرج يونيورسٽي پريس.
* [[ڪمبرلي مارٽن]]، 2004ع. ''Enforcing the Peace: Learning from the Imperial Past''. ڪولمبيا يونيورسٽي پريس.
* Paris, Roland. 2010ع. ''At War's End''. ڪيمبرج يونيورسٽي پريس.
* {{cite journal
 | last = Pushkina
 | first = Darya
 | date = June 2006
 | title = A Recipe for Success? Ingredients of a Successful Peacekeeping Mission
 | journal = International Peacekeeping
 | volume = 13
 | issue = 2
 | pages = 133–149
 | doi = 10.1080/13533310500436508
 | s2cid = 144299591
 }}
* Tudor, Margot. 2023ع. ''Blue Helmet Bureaucrats: United Nations Peacekeeping and the Reinvention of Colonialism, 1945–1971''. ڪيمبرج يونيورسٽي پريس.
* {{cite journal
 | last1 = Worboys
 | first1 = Katherine
 | year = 2007
 | title = The Traumatic Journey from Dictatorship to Democracy: Peacekeeping Operations and Civil-Military Relations in Argentina, 1989–1999
 | journal = Armed Forces &amp; Society
 | volume = 33
 | issue = 2
 | pages = 149–168
 | doi = 10.1177/0095327X05283843
 | s2cid = 144147291
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | last1 = Reed
 | first1 = Brian
 | last2 = Segal
 | first2 = David
 | year = 2000
 | title = The Impact of Multiple Deployments on Soldiers' Peacekeeping Attitudes, Morale and Retention
 | journal = Armed Forces &amp; Society
 | volume = 27
 | issue = 1
 | pages = 57–78
 | doi = 10.1177/0095327X0002700105
 | s2cid = 143556366
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | year = 2006
 | title = 'Too Sweet and Innocent for War'?: Dutch Peacekeepers and the Use of Violence
 | journal = Armed Forces &amp; Society
 | volume = 32
 | issue = 3
 | pages = 454–474
 | doi = 10.1177/0095327X05281453
 | last1 = Sion
 | first1 = Liora
 | s2cid = 145272144
 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/896301
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | last1 = Blocq
 | first1 = Daniel
 | year = 2010
 | title = Western Soldiers and the Protection of Local Civilians in UN Peacekeeping Operations: Is a Nationalist Orientation in the Armed Forces Hindering Our Preparedness to Fight?
 | journal = Armed Forces &amp; Society
 | volume = 36
 | issue = 2
 | pages = 290–309
 | doi = 10.1177/0095327X08330816
 | s2cid = 146797513
 }}

== ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا ==
* {{Commons category-inline}}

{{امن}}
{{گڏيل قومون}}
{{نوبل امن انعام حاصل ڪندڙ 1976–2000}}
{{Authority control}}

[[زمرو:امن قائم رکڻ]]
[[زمرو:جنگ کان سواءِ فوجي ڪارروايون]]
[[زمرو:امن]]
[[زمرو:تنظيمون]]
[[زمرو:گڏيل قومون]]
[[زمرو:عالمي سياست]]
[[زمرو:بين الاقوامي لاڳاپا]]</text>
      <sha1>16anuh9fv1actxqqqb7zx47v5pp90vx</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>پشاور</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>38388</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399288</id>
      <parentid>369833</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:13:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>399288</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="21094" sha1="2r7y7spw4js5fznsky4oh9h3k35mejw" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
| name = '''پشاور'''
| other_name = 
| native_name = پېښور (پشتو)
| settlement_type = [[شھري ضلعو]]
| image_skyline = فائل:PeshawarCollage.jpg
| image_caption = گھڙيالي چڪر وانگر مٿان کان هيٺ: [[اسلاميه ڪاليج يونيورسٽي|اسلاميه ڪاليج]]، [[ڪننگھم گھنٽا گھر]]، [[سونھري مسجد]]، [[بالا حصار قلعو]]، [[باب خيبر]]، [[مھابت خان مسجد]]
| image_size = 300px
| image_flag = 
| image_seal = 
| image_shield = 
| nickname = ''گلن جو شھر''
| motto = 
| image_map = 
| map_caption = 
| pushpin_map = Khyber Pakhtunkhwa#Pakistan#Asia
| pushpin_label_position = &lt;!-- the position of the pushpin label: left, right, top, bottom, none --&gt;
| pushpin_map_caption = پشاور جو پاڪستان ۽ خيبرپختونخوا ۾ مقام
| coordinates = {{coord|34|01|N|71|35|E|region:PK|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = ملڪ
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| subdivision_type1 = صوبو
| subdivision_type2 = ضلعو
| subdivision_name1 = {{Flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}
| subdivision_name2 = [[پشاور ضلعو]]
| established_title = &lt;!-- Settled --&gt;
| established_date = &lt;!-- Smaller parts (e.g., boroughs of a city) and seat of government --&gt;
| seat_type = 
| seat = 
| parts_type = [[پاڪستان جون يونين ڪاؤنسلون|يونين ڪاؤنسل]]
| parts = 92 &lt;!-- parts text, or header for parts list --&gt;
| government_footnotes = &lt;!-- Area    ----&gt;
| government_type = ميٽروپوليٽن شھر
| leader_title = [[پشاور جا ميئر|ميئر]]
| leader_name = ارباب عاصم
| leader_title1 = ڊپٽي ميئر
| leader_name1 = سيد قاسم علي شاهه
| unit_pref = &lt;!--Enter: Imperial, to display imperial  before metric--&gt;
| area_footnotes = 
| area_total_km2 = 1257 &lt;!-- ALL fields with measurements are subject to automatic unit conversion--&gt;
| area_land_km2 = &lt;!--See table @ Template:Infobox Settlement for details on unit conversion--&gt;
| area_water_km2 = 
| area_water_percent = &lt;!-- Elevation ----&gt;
| elevation_footnotes = &lt;!--for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags--&gt;
| elevation_m = 331
| elevation_max_m = 450
| elevation_min_m = &lt;!-- Population   ----&gt;
| population_total = 1,970,042
| population_as_of = [[پاڪستان جي آدمشماري،2017|2017]]
| population_rank = 1st, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa&lt;br/&gt;[[List of most populous cities in Pakistan|6th, Pakistan]]
| population_footnotes = &lt;ref name=&quot;census2017&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/bwpsr/kp/PESHAWAR_BLOCKWISE.pdf|title=POPULATION AND HOUSEHOLD DETAIL FROM BLOCK TO DISTRICT LEVEL: KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA (PESHAWAR DISTRICT)|date=2018-01-03|access-date=2018-04-23|publisher=[[Pakistan Bureau of Statistics]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_metro = 4,269,079
| population_note = '''پشاور ميونسپل ڪارپوريشن ''': 1,893,361&lt;br/&gt;'''[[پشاور يونيورسٽي]] ٽائون ڪائونسل
''': 5,940&lt;br/&gt;'''[[پشاور ڇانوڻي]]''': 70,741
| postal_code_type = &lt;!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --&gt;
| postal_code = 25000
| area_code = 092
| unemployment_rate = 
| blank_name_sec1 = Languages
| blank_info_sec1 = [[پشتو ٻولي|پشتو]]، [ ھندڪو ٻولي|&lt;nowiki&gt;ھندڪو[]]، &lt;/nowiki&gt;[[اردو]]
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[List of districts of Pakistan by Human Development Index|HDI]]
| blank1_info_sec1 = 0.55 &lt;small&gt;(data for 2012–2013)&lt;/small&gt; {{increase}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.spdc.org.pk/Data/Publication/PDF/AR2014-15.pdf|title=SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN ANNUAL REVIEW 2014–15|date=2016|publisher=SOCIAL POLICY AND DEVELOPMENT CENTRE|accessdate=26 March 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| blank2_name_sec1 = HDI Category
| blank2_info_sec1 = وچولو
&lt;!-- General information  ----&gt;| website = &lt;small&gt;[http://cdgpeshawar.gov.pk/ City District Government of Peshawar]&lt;/small&gt;
| footnotes = 
| title = 
| leader_title2 = ڊپٽي ڪمشنر
| leader_name2 = 
| leader_title3 = 
| leader_name3 = &lt;!-- parts text, or header for parts list --&gt;
&lt;!-- Politics ----&gt;| timezone = [[پاڪستان جو معياري وقت]]
| utc_offset = +5
| timezone_DST = 
| utc_offset_DST = &lt;!-- Area/postal codes &amp; others ----&gt;
}}
'''پشاور''' (پشتو: پېښور؛ ھندڪو: پشور؛ اردو: پشاور؛ انگريزي: Peshawar) خيبرپختونخواه صوبي جي گادي جو هنڌ آهي. سياسي ڳڙه هئڻ سان گڏوگڏ معاشي حب پڻ آهي. پشاور پاڪستان جو ڇھون سڀ کان وڌيڪ آبادي وارو شھر آھي، جنھن جي آبادي 2023 جي مردم شماري ۾ 47 لک کان مٿي آھي. اهو خيبر پختون خواه صوبي جو سڀ کان وڏو شهر آهي. اهو ملڪ جي اتر۔اولهه ۾، پشاور جي وادي ۾ واقع آهي. پشاور بنيادي طور تي پختونن جي آبادي وارو شھر آهي، جيڪو ملڪ ۾ ٻيو نمبر وڏو نسلي گروهه تي مشتمل آهي.
[[فائل:Takht-e-bahi.jpg|thumb]]
پشاور جو هڪ پراڻي فوٽو پوسٽ ڪارڊ. پنجاب ڊجيٽل لائبريري پاران ترتيب ڏنل.

==نالو==
هن شهر جو جديد نالو ”پشاور“ ممڪن آهي ته سنسڪرت جي لفظ ”پورشاپورا“ مان ورتل هجي. اهو نالو مغل شهنشاهه اڪبر ان جي پراڻي نالي پارشاور تان رکيو، جنهن جي معنيٰ اڪبر سمجهي نه سگهيو. هن شهر جو حڪمران شايد ان جي بنياد تي هڪ هندو راجا (بادشاهه) هو، جنهن جو نالو &quot;پروش&quot; ء &quot;پور&quot; سنسڪرت ۾  لفظ جي معنيٰ ”شهر“ آهي. سنسڪرت، خروشتي رسم الخط ۾ لکيل، اها ادبي ٻولي هئي جيڪا ٻڌ ڌرم جي بادشاهن طرفان استعمال ڪئي وئي، جيڪا هن علائقي تي پنهنجي ابتدائي رڪارڊ ٿيل دور ۾ حڪومت ڪندي هئي. شهر جو نالو شايد سنسڪرت ٻوليءَ جي نالي &quot;پوشاپورا&quot; (گلن جو شھر) مان نڪتل هجي، اهو نالو هڪ قديم خروشتي لکت ۾ ملي ٿو جيڪو شايد پشاور ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. چين جي ٻڌ ڌرم جي راهب، زوان زانگ (Xuanzang) جو ستين صدي ۾ گندھارا جي هڪ شهر جو احوال هن شهر کي پولاشاپولو (چيني: 布路沙布邏، bùlùshābùló) سڏيو ويو آهي، ۽ پنجين صديءَ جو هڪ اڳوڻو احوال فاهيان جي رڪارڊ ۾ هن شهر جو نالو فولوشا (چيني:弗樓 fùlóshā) آهي، جیکا شهر جي سنسڪرت نالي پروشاپورا جي چيني برابر آهي. شاپور دور جو هڪ قديم لکت گنڌارا وادي ۾ پ س ق ب و ر جي نالي سان هڪ شهر جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو، جيڪو شايد پشاور ڏانهن اشارو هجي. عرب مورخ ۽ جاگرافي دان المسعودي ياد ڪيو ته ڏهين صديءَ جي وچ ڌاري اهو شهر پاراشور جي نالي سان مشهور هو. البيروني ان جو نالو پوروشور ۽ پوروشور رکيو آهي. شهنشاهه اڪبر جي دور ۾ هي شهر پشاور جي نالي سان مشهور ٿيو. موجوده نالو ڪجهه ماڻهن طرفان چيو ويو آهي ته فارسيءَ ۾ ”سرحدی قصبو“ يا لفظي معنيٰ ۾ ”اڳتي شهر“ لاءِ رکيو ويو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ٽرانسڪرپشن جون غلطيون ۽ لساني ڦيرڦار شهر جي نئين نالي جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿي. هڪ نظريو اهو ٻڌائي ٿو ته هن شهر جو نالو فارسي نالو ”پيش اوارڊان“ مان ورتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي ”پهريون آمد جي جاءِ“ يا ”سرحدی شھر“، جيئن ته پشاور برصغير ​​۾ خيبر لڪ پار ڪرڻ کان پوءِ پهريون شهر هو. اڪبر جي ڪتاب نگار، ابوالفضل ابن مبارڪ، شهر جو نالو ٻنهي پارشاور جي نالي سان درج ڪيو آهي، جيڪو فارسيءَ ۾ پَرَشَاوَر ۽ پشاور ۾ نقل ٿيل آهي. 
==تاريخ==
===قديم تاريخ===
پشاور سان گڏ جديد دور جي گنڌارا علائقي کي ويدڪ ڪتاب ۾ پشڪلاوتي جي نالي سان ملي ٿو.
===بنياد===
پشاور 100ع ۾ پشاور جي وسيع وادي ۾ گنڌارا جي ميدانن تي پروشپورا جي شهر جي طور تي قائم ڪيو ويو. ٿي سگهي ٿو ته اهو نالو ڪنهن هندو راجا جي نالي تي رکيو ويو هجي، جنهن شهر تي حڪومت ڪئي، جنهن کي &quot;پوروش&quot; چيو ويندو هو. شهر ممڪن طور تي پهريون ڀيرو پنجين صدي قبل مسيح ۾، قديم هندستان جي ثقافتي دائري ۾، هڪ ننڍڙي ڳوٺ جي حيثيت ۾ موجود هو. پروشپور جو بنياد قديم گنڌارن جي گاديءَ واري شهر پشڪلاوتي، موجوده چارسده جي ويجهو هو. 
===يوناني دور=== 
سال 327 ق.م کان 26 ق.م جي سياري ۾، سڪندر اعظم سنڌو ماٿريءَ تي حملي دوران پشاور جي واديءَ کي پنهنجي قبضي ۾ ڪري ورتو، ان سان گڏ ويجهن سوات ۽ بونير وادين کي به پنهنجي قبضي ۾ ڪري ورتو. سڪندر جي فتح کان پوءِ، پشاور جي وادي سيليوسڊ سلطنت (Seleucid Empire) جي باني، 
سيليوسڊ اول نیڪاٽور (Seleucus I Nicator) جي قبضي هيٺ آئي. مقامي طور تي ٺهيل گلدان جو ٽڪرو جيڪو پشاور ۾ مليو هو سوفوڪلس جي ڊرامي اينٽيگون جو هڪ منظر ڏيکاري ٿو. 
===موريا سلطنت=== 
سيلیوسڊ۔موريا جنگ (Seleucid-Mauryan War) جي پٺيان، علائقو 303 ق.م ۾ موريا سلطنت جي حوالي ڪيو ويو. سال 300 ق.م جي لڳ ڀڳ، يوناني سفارتڪار ۽ مورخ ميگاٿينيز نوٽ ڪيو ته پورشاپورا (قديم پشاور) مورين سلطنت جی روڊ جو الهندو ٽرمينس هو جيڪو شهر کي ڳنڍيندو هو. سلطنت جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ پاٽلي پترا، اڄوڪي هندستاني رياست بهار جي شهر پٽنا جي ويجهو ھو. جيئن ئي موريا جي طاقت جو زوال ٿيو، جديد افغانستان ۾ موجود گريڪو-بڪٽارين بادشاهت سليوسڊ سلطنت کان پنهنجي آزاديءَ جو اعلان ڪيو ۽ جلد سال 190 ق.م ڌاري قديم پشاور تي قبضو ڪيو. ان کان پوءِ هن شهر تي هندو-پارٿين بادشاهت جو باني، گونڊوفريس قبضو ڪيو. گونڊوفریس سال 46ع ۾ ڀرسان تخت بائي (مردان) جی خانقاهه قائم ڪيو.

===ڪشان سلطنت===
پهرين صدي عيسويءَ ۾ پروشپورا ڪاجولا ڪڊفيسس جي قبضي هيٺ آيو، جيڪو ڪشان سلطنت جو باني هو. هن شهر کي سلطنت جي سياري جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ بڻايو ويو. ڪپیسي (جديد بگرام، افغانستان) ۾ ڪشان جي اونهاري جي گاديءَ واري هنڌ کي سلطنت جي ثانوي راڄڌاني طور ڏٺو ويندو هو، جڏهن ته پروشپورا کي سلطنت جي بنيادي راڄڌاني سمجهيو ويندو هو. قديم پشاور جي آبادي اندازي مطابق 1,20,000 هئي، جيڪا ان وقت دنيا جو ستين نمبر تي سڀ کان وڌيڪ آبادي وارو شهر بڻجندو ھو. ٻڌ ڌرم جي هڪ عقيدتمند حيثيت سان، شهنشاهه عظيم ڪنشڪا مهاويرا خانقاه ٺاهي. سندس وفات کان پوءِ پشاور ۾ ٻڌمت جا آثار رکڻ لاءِ شاندار ڪنشڪا اسٽوپا تعمير ڪرايو ويو. پشاور ۾ ڪشان سلطنت جو سونهري دور 232ع ۾ آخري عظيم ڪشن بادشاهه واسوديو اول جي وفات سان ختم ٿيو. سال 260ع ڌاري، ساساني شهنشاهه شاپور اول جي لشڪر پشاور تي حملو ڪيو، ۽ پشاور جي وادي ۾ ٻڌمت جي يادگارن ۽ خانقاهن کي سخت نقصان پهچايو. شاپور جي مهم جي نتيجي ۾ شهر جي يادگار اسٽوپا ۽ خانقاه کي به نقصان پهتو. ڪشن کي ساسانين جي ماتحت ڪيو ويو ۽ سندن طاقت تيزيءَ سان گهٽجڻ لڳي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ساسانين شهر کان اولهه طرف منافعي بخش واپاري رستا بند ڪري ڇڏيا هئا. ڪشان شهنشاهه ڪنشڪا ٽيون، شاپور جي حملي کان پوءِ عارضي طور تي پشاور جي سموري وادي تي ڪنٽرول بحال ڪرڻ جي قابل ٿي ويو، پر پوءِ سال 400ع جي شروعات ۾ هن شهر تي وچ ايشيائي ڪيڊرائي سلطنت قبضو ڪري ورتو.
 
===سفيد هن=== 
سفيد هنن 460ع ۾ قديم پشاور کي تباهه ڪري ڇڏيو ۽ گنڌارا جي سموري علائقي کي تباهه ڪري، ان جي ڪيترن ئي خانقاهن کي تباهه ڪري ڇڏيو. ڪنشڪا اسٽوپا سفيد هن جي دور ۾ هڪ ڊگھي ڪاٺ جي تعمير سان، هڪ پٿر جي بنياد تي ٻيهر تعمير ڪيو ويو ۽ 13 پرت ٽامي جي گولڊ ٿيل چتر سان تاج ڪيو ويو. سال 400ع ۾، چيني ٻڌ ڌرم جي زيارت ڪندڙ فاهيان ان اڏاوت جو دورو ڪيو ۽ ان کي بيان ڪيو ته &quot;زميني دنيا&quot; ۾ &quot;سڀني مینارن کان بلند ترين&quot;، جنهن جي قديم سياحن دعويٰ ڪئي آهي ته 560 فوٽ (170 ميٽر) ڊگهو هو، جيتوڻيڪ جديد اندازي مطابق 400 فوٽ (120 ميٽر) جي اوچائي آهي. سال 520ع ۾ چيني راهب سونگ يون سفيد هن جي دور ۾ گنڌارا ۽ قديم پشاور جو دورو ڪيو، ۽ ياد ڪيو ته اهو ويجهي ڪپيسا سان تڪرار ۾ هو. چيني راهب ۽ سياح زوان زانگ سال 630ع ڌاري، ڪپيسا جي فتح کان پوءِ قديم پشاور جو دورو ڪيو، ۽ افسوس جو اظهار ڪيو ته شهر ۽ ان جي ٻڌمت جا عظيم يادگار تباهه ٿي ويا آهن. جيتوڻيڪ ڪي راهب جيڪي ٿیراويدا ٻڌمت جو اڀياس ڪن ٿا، انهن خانقاهه جي ٿرن تي پڙهائي جاري رکي. زوان زيانگ (Xuanzang) اندازو لڳايو ته اڳوڻي وڏي راڄڌاني جي بربادن جي وچ ۾ صرف 1,000 خاندانن جي هڪ ننڍڙي چوٿين ۾ جاري رهي.  

===اسلامي دور===
سترهين صديءَ جي وچ تائين، قديم پشاور جي رهاڪن وٽ وچ ايشيائي سیٿئين (Scythian) نسل جي حڪمران اشرافيه هئي، جن کي پوءِ ڪابل جي هندو شاهي بي گهر ڪيو. مڃيو وڃي ٿو ته اسلام پهريون ڀيرو ٻڌمت، هندو ۽ پوروشپور جي ٻين مقامي رهاڪن کي ستين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ متعارف ڪرايو ويو. علائقي کي آباد ڪرڻ واري پهرين پختون قبيلو طور، دلزاڪ پختون پشاور جي وادي ۾ آباد ٿيڻ شروع ڪيا ۽ مڃيو وڃي ٿو ته 11 صدي عيسويءَ تائين سنڌو درياءَ تائين علائقا آباد ٿيا. عرب مورخ ۽ جاگرافي دان المسعودي ياد ڪيو ته ڏهين صديءَ جي وچ ڌاري اهو شهر پاراشاور جي نالي سان مشهور ٿيو. 

===غزنوي سلطنت=== 
سال 986ع کان 987ع ۾ پشاور جو پهريون مقابلو مسلمان لشڪر سان ٿيو، جڏهن سبڪتگين ان علائقي تي ڪاهه ڪئي ۽ هندو شاهي سان سندن بادشاهه آنند پال جي ماتحت جنگ ڪئي. 28 نومبر، 1001ع تي سبڪتگين جي پٽ محمود غزنوي پشاور جي جنگ ۾ راجا جئي پال جی پٽ آنند پال جي فوج کي فيصلي سان شڪست ڏني ۽ پشاور جي علائقي ۾ غزنوي سلطنت جو راڄ قائم ڪيو. غزنوي دور ۾، پشاور افغان پليٽیو ۽ لاهور جي غزنوي فوجن جي شهر جي وچ ۾ هڪ اهم اسٽاپ طور ڪم ڪيو. ڏهين کان ٻارهين صدي عيسويءَ دوران، پشاور هندو ناٿ پنٿي يوگين لاءِ هيڊڪوارٽر طور ڪم ڪيو، جن کي مڃيو وڃي ٿو ته ان جي نتيجي ۾ مسلمان صوفين سان وڏي ڳالهه ٻولهه ٿي. 

===دهلي سلطنت===
هيڊڪوارٽر

==جاگرافي==
پشاور شھر، پشاور جي وسيع وادي ۾ واقع آهي، جيڪا ٽن پاسن کان جبلن جي قطارن سان گهيريل آهي، جنهن جو چوٿون پاسو پنجاب جي ميدانن ڏانهن آهي. شهر عام طور تي وادي جي سطح جي بنياد تي واقع آهي، جيڪو گندھارا ميدانن جي نالي سان مشهور آهي. 

===موسم===
مقامي اسٽيپي آبهوا جي اثر سان، پشاور ۾ گرم نيم خشڪ آبهوا (ڪپن اسڪيل) آهي، جنهن ۾ تمام گرم، ڊگھي اونهاري ۽ مختصر، هلڪي کان ٿڌي سياري جي موسم آهي. پشاور ۾ سيارو نومبر ۾ شروع ٿئي ٿو ۽ مارچ جي آخر ۾ ختم ٿئي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ اهو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اپريل جي وچ تائين وڌندو آهي، جڏهن ته اونهاري جا مهينا مئي جي وچ کان سيپٽمبر جي وچ تائين هوندا آهن. سراسري گرميءَ جو وڌ ۾ وڌ گرمي پد °40 سينٽي گريڊ (°104 فارن هائيٽ) کان وڌيڪ گرم مهيني دوران، ۽ اوسط گهٽ ۾ گهٽ گرمي پد °25 سينٽي گريڊ (°77 فارن هائيٽ) آهي. ٿڌي مھيني دوران گھٽ ۾ گھٽ گرمي جی پد °4 سينٽي گريڊ (°39 فارن ھائيٽ) آھي، جڏھن ته وڌ ۾ وڌ °18.3 سينٽي گريڊ (°64.9 فارن ھائيٽ) آھي. پشاور پاڪستان جي ٻين حصن جي ڀيٽ ۾ مون سون وارو علائقو نه آهي. بهرحال، برسات سياري ۽ اونهاري ٻنهي ۾ ٿيندي آهي. مغربي خرابين جي ڪري، سياري جي برسات فيبروري ۽ اپريل جي مهينن جي وچ ۾ وڌيڪ رڪارڊ ڏيکاري ٿي. سياري جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ برسات، جيڪا 236 ملي ميٽر (9.3 انچ) هئي، فيبروري، 2007ع ۾ رڪارڊ ڪئي وئي، جڏهن ته سڀ کان وڌيڪ اونهاري جي برسات 402 ملي ميٽر (15.8 انچ) جولاءِ، 2010ع ۾ رڪارڊ ڪئي وئي. هن مهيني دوران، 29 جولاءِ، 2010ع تي 24 ڪلاڪن جي عرصي ۾ 274 ملي ميٽر (10.8 انچ) جي رڪارڊ ٽوڙ برسات ٿي. اڳوڻو رڪارڊ 187 ملي ميٽر (7.4 انچ) مينهن جو هو، جيڪو اپريل، 2009ع ۾ رڪارڊ ڪيو ويو هو. سياري جي سراسري برسات اونهاري جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي. 30 سالن جي رڪارڊ جي بنياد تي، سراسري سالياني ورن جي سطح 400 ملي ميٽر (16 انچ) رڪارڊ ڪئي وئي ۽ سال 2003ع ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ سالياني برسات جي سطح 904.5 ملي ميٽر (35.61 انچ) رڪارڊ ڪئي وئي. هوا جي رفتار سال دوران مختلف رهي ٿي، ڊسمبر ۾   9.3 ڪلوميٽر في ڪلاڪ کان جون ۾ 44 ڪلوميٽر في ڪلاڪ. نسبتا نمي جون ۾ 46 سيڪڙو کان آگسٽ ۾ 76 سيڪڙو تائين مختلف آهي. 18 جون، 1995ع تي سڀ کان وڌيڪ °50 سينٽي گريڊ (°122 فارن هائيٽ) رڪارڊ ڪيو ويو، جڏهن ته گهٽ ۾ گهٽ °3.9- سينٽي گريڊ (°25.0 فارن هائيٽ) 7 جنوري، 1970ع تي ٿيو.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:پشاور]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان جا شهر]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان جي راڄڌانيون]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا شهر]]
[[زمرو:سلڪ روڊ سان گڏ آباد هنڌ]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان جا ميٽروپوليٽن علائقا]]</text>
      <sha1>2r7y7spw4js5fznsky4oh9h3k35mejw</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399362</id>
      <parentid>399288</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T07:56:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399362</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="21154" sha1="kw3ec5qggjxe1t4ldiqjkv2axmhggo3" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
| name = '''پشاور'''
| other_name = 
| native_name = پېښور (پشتو)
| settlement_type = [[شھري ضلعو]]
| image_skyline = فائل:PeshawarCollage.jpg
| image_caption = گھڙيالي چڪر وانگر مٿان کان هيٺ: [[اسلاميه ڪاليج يونيورسٽي|اسلاميه ڪاليج]]، [[ڪننگھم گھنٽا گھر]]، [[سونھري مسجد]]، [[بالا حصار قلعو]]، [[باب خيبر]]، [[مھابت خان مسجد]]
| image_size = 300px
| image_flag = 
| image_seal = 
| image_shield = 
| nickname = ''گلن جو شھر''
| motto = 
| image_map = 
| map_caption = 
| pushpin_map = Khyber Pakhtunkhwa#Pakistan#Asia
| pushpin_label_position = &lt;!-- the position of the pushpin label: left, right, top, bottom, none --&gt;
| pushpin_map_caption = پشاور جو پاڪستان ۽ خيبرپختونخوا ۾ مقام
| coordinates = {{coord|34|01|N|71|35|E|region:PK|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = ملڪ
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| subdivision_type1 = صوبو
| subdivision_type2 = ضلعو
| subdivision_name1 = {{Flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}
| subdivision_name2 = [[پشاور ضلعو]]
| established_title = &lt;!-- Settled --&gt;
| established_date = &lt;!-- Smaller parts (e.g., boroughs of a city) and seat of government --&gt;
| seat_type = 
| seat = 
| parts_type = [[پاڪستان جون يونين ڪاؤنسلون|يونين ڪاؤنسل]]
| parts = 92 &lt;!-- parts text, or header for parts list --&gt;
| government_footnotes = &lt;!-- Area    ----&gt;
| government_type = ميٽروپوليٽن شھر
| leader_title = [[پشاور جا ميئر|ميئر]]
| leader_name = ارباب عاصم
| leader_title1 = ڊپٽي ميئر
| leader_name1 = سيد قاسم علي شاهه
| unit_pref = &lt;!--Enter: Imperial, to display imperial  before metric--&gt;
| area_footnotes = 
| area_total_km2 = 1257 &lt;!-- ALL fields with measurements are subject to automatic unit conversion--&gt;
| area_land_km2 = &lt;!--See table @ Template:Infobox Settlement for details on unit conversion--&gt;
| area_water_km2 = 
| area_water_percent = &lt;!-- Elevation ----&gt;
| elevation_footnotes = &lt;!--for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags--&gt;
| elevation_m = 331
| elevation_max_m = 450
| elevation_min_m = &lt;!-- Population   ----&gt;
| population_total = 1,970,042
پشاور شهر تعلقو 176 2,113,596 12,009.07 60.88%
| population_as_of = [[پاڪستان جي آدمشماري،2017|2017]]
| population_rank = 1st, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa&lt;br/&gt;[[List of most populous cities in Pakistan|6th, Pakistan]]
| population_footnotes = &lt;ref name=&quot;census2017&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/bwpsr/kp/PESHAWAR_BLOCKWISE.pdf|title=POPULATION AND HOUSEHOLD DETAIL FROM BLOCK TO DISTRICT LEVEL: KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA (PESHAWAR DISTRICT)|date=2018-01-03|access-date=2018-04-23|publisher=[[Pakistan Bureau of Statistics]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_metro = 4,269,079
| population_note = '''پشاور ميونسپل ڪارپوريشن ''': 1,893,361&lt;br/&gt;'''[[پشاور يونيورسٽي]] ٽائون ڪائونسل
''': 5,940&lt;br/&gt;'''[[پشاور ڇانوڻي]]''': 70,741
| postal_code_type = &lt;!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --&gt;
| postal_code = 25000
| area_code = 092
| unemployment_rate = 
| blank_name_sec1 = Languages
| blank_info_sec1 = [[پشتو ٻولي|پشتو]]، [ ھندڪو ٻولي|&lt;nowiki&gt;ھندڪو[]]، &lt;/nowiki&gt;[[اردو]]
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[List of districts of Pakistan by Human Development Index|HDI]]
| blank1_info_sec1 = 0.55 &lt;small&gt;(data for 2012–2013)&lt;/small&gt; {{increase}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.spdc.org.pk/Data/Publication/PDF/AR2014-15.pdf|title=SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN ANNUAL REVIEW 2014–15|date=2016|publisher=SOCIAL POLICY AND DEVELOPMENT CENTRE|accessdate=26 March 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| blank2_name_sec1 = HDI Category
| blank2_info_sec1 = وچولو
&lt;!-- General information  ----&gt;| website = &lt;small&gt;[http://cdgpeshawar.gov.pk/ City District Government of Peshawar]&lt;/small&gt;
| footnotes = 
| title = 
| leader_title2 = ڊپٽي ڪمشنر
| leader_name2 = 
| leader_title3 = 
| leader_name3 = &lt;!-- parts text, or header for parts list --&gt;
&lt;!-- Politics ----&gt;| timezone = [[پاڪستان جو معياري وقت]]
| utc_offset = +5
| timezone_DST = 
| utc_offset_DST = &lt;!-- Area/postal codes &amp; others ----&gt;
}}
'''پشاور''' (پشتو: پېښور؛ ھندڪو: پشور؛ اردو: پشاور؛ انگريزي: Peshawar) خيبرپختونخواه صوبي جي گادي جو هنڌ آهي. سياسي ڳڙه هئڻ سان گڏوگڏ معاشي حب پڻ آهي. پشاور پاڪستان جو ڇھون سڀ کان وڌيڪ آبادي وارو شھر آھي، جنھن جي آبادي 2023 جي مردم شماري ۾ 47 لک کان مٿي آھي. اهو خيبر پختون خواه صوبي جو سڀ کان وڏو شهر آهي. اهو ملڪ جي اتر۔اولهه ۾، پشاور جي وادي ۾ واقع آهي. پشاور بنيادي طور تي پختونن جي آبادي وارو شھر آهي، جيڪو ملڪ ۾ ٻيو نمبر وڏو نسلي گروهه تي مشتمل آهي.
[[فائل:Takht-e-bahi.jpg|thumb]]
پشاور جو هڪ پراڻي فوٽو پوسٽ ڪارڊ. پنجاب ڊجيٽل لائبريري پاران ترتيب ڏنل.

==نالو==
هن شهر جو جديد نالو ”پشاور“ ممڪن آهي ته سنسڪرت جي لفظ ”پورشاپورا“ مان ورتل هجي. اهو نالو مغل شهنشاهه اڪبر ان جي پراڻي نالي پارشاور تان رکيو، جنهن جي معنيٰ اڪبر سمجهي نه سگهيو. هن شهر جو حڪمران شايد ان جي بنياد تي هڪ هندو راجا (بادشاهه) هو، جنهن جو نالو &quot;پروش&quot; ء &quot;پور&quot; سنسڪرت ۾  لفظ جي معنيٰ ”شهر“ آهي. سنسڪرت، خروشتي رسم الخط ۾ لکيل، اها ادبي ٻولي هئي جيڪا ٻڌ ڌرم جي بادشاهن طرفان استعمال ڪئي وئي، جيڪا هن علائقي تي پنهنجي ابتدائي رڪارڊ ٿيل دور ۾ حڪومت ڪندي هئي. شهر جو نالو شايد سنسڪرت ٻوليءَ جي نالي &quot;پوشاپورا&quot; (گلن جو شھر) مان نڪتل هجي، اهو نالو هڪ قديم خروشتي لکت ۾ ملي ٿو جيڪو شايد پشاور ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. چين جي ٻڌ ڌرم جي راهب، زوان زانگ (Xuanzang) جو ستين صدي ۾ گندھارا جي هڪ شهر جو احوال هن شهر کي پولاشاپولو (چيني: 布路沙布邏، bùlùshābùló) سڏيو ويو آهي، ۽ پنجين صديءَ جو هڪ اڳوڻو احوال فاهيان جي رڪارڊ ۾ هن شهر جو نالو فولوشا (چيني:弗樓 fùlóshā) آهي، جیکا شهر جي سنسڪرت نالي پروشاپورا جي چيني برابر آهي. شاپور دور جو هڪ قديم لکت گنڌارا وادي ۾ پ س ق ب و ر جي نالي سان هڪ شهر جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو، جيڪو شايد پشاور ڏانهن اشارو هجي. عرب مورخ ۽ جاگرافي دان المسعودي ياد ڪيو ته ڏهين صديءَ جي وچ ڌاري اهو شهر پاراشور جي نالي سان مشهور هو. البيروني ان جو نالو پوروشور ۽ پوروشور رکيو آهي. شهنشاهه اڪبر جي دور ۾ هي شهر پشاور جي نالي سان مشهور ٿيو. موجوده نالو ڪجهه ماڻهن طرفان چيو ويو آهي ته فارسيءَ ۾ ”سرحدی قصبو“ يا لفظي معنيٰ ۾ ”اڳتي شهر“ لاءِ رکيو ويو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ٽرانسڪرپشن جون غلطيون ۽ لساني ڦيرڦار شهر جي نئين نالي جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿي. هڪ نظريو اهو ٻڌائي ٿو ته هن شهر جو نالو فارسي نالو ”پيش اوارڊان“ مان ورتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي ”پهريون آمد جي جاءِ“ يا ”سرحدی شھر“، جيئن ته پشاور برصغير ​​۾ خيبر لڪ پار ڪرڻ کان پوءِ پهريون شهر هو. اڪبر جي ڪتاب نگار، ابوالفضل ابن مبارڪ، شهر جو نالو ٻنهي پارشاور جي نالي سان درج ڪيو آهي، جيڪو فارسيءَ ۾ پَرَشَاوَر ۽ پشاور ۾ نقل ٿيل آهي. 
==تاريخ==
===قديم تاريخ===
پشاور سان گڏ جديد دور جي گنڌارا علائقي کي ويدڪ ڪتاب ۾ پشڪلاوتي جي نالي سان ملي ٿو.
===بنياد===
پشاور 100ع ۾ پشاور جي وسيع وادي ۾ گنڌارا جي ميدانن تي پروشپورا جي شهر جي طور تي قائم ڪيو ويو. ٿي سگهي ٿو ته اهو نالو ڪنهن هندو راجا جي نالي تي رکيو ويو هجي، جنهن شهر تي حڪومت ڪئي، جنهن کي &quot;پوروش&quot; چيو ويندو هو. شهر ممڪن طور تي پهريون ڀيرو پنجين صدي قبل مسيح ۾، قديم هندستان جي ثقافتي دائري ۾، هڪ ننڍڙي ڳوٺ جي حيثيت ۾ موجود هو. پروشپور جو بنياد قديم گنڌارن جي گاديءَ واري شهر پشڪلاوتي، موجوده چارسده جي ويجهو هو. 
===يوناني دور=== 
سال 327 ق.م کان 26 ق.م جي سياري ۾، سڪندر اعظم سنڌو ماٿريءَ تي حملي دوران پشاور جي واديءَ کي پنهنجي قبضي ۾ ڪري ورتو، ان سان گڏ ويجهن سوات ۽ بونير وادين کي به پنهنجي قبضي ۾ ڪري ورتو. سڪندر جي فتح کان پوءِ، پشاور جي وادي سيليوسڊ سلطنت (Seleucid Empire) جي باني، 
سيليوسڊ اول نیڪاٽور (Seleucus I Nicator) جي قبضي هيٺ آئي. مقامي طور تي ٺهيل گلدان جو ٽڪرو جيڪو پشاور ۾ مليو هو سوفوڪلس جي ڊرامي اينٽيگون جو هڪ منظر ڏيکاري ٿو. 
===موريا سلطنت=== 
سيلیوسڊ۔موريا جنگ (Seleucid-Mauryan War) جي پٺيان، علائقو 303 ق.م ۾ موريا سلطنت جي حوالي ڪيو ويو. سال 300 ق.م جي لڳ ڀڳ، يوناني سفارتڪار ۽ مورخ ميگاٿينيز نوٽ ڪيو ته پورشاپورا (قديم پشاور) مورين سلطنت جی روڊ جو الهندو ٽرمينس هو جيڪو شهر کي ڳنڍيندو هو. سلطنت جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ پاٽلي پترا، اڄوڪي هندستاني رياست بهار جي شهر پٽنا جي ويجهو ھو. جيئن ئي موريا جي طاقت جو زوال ٿيو، جديد افغانستان ۾ موجود گريڪو-بڪٽارين بادشاهت سليوسڊ سلطنت کان پنهنجي آزاديءَ جو اعلان ڪيو ۽ جلد سال 190 ق.م ڌاري قديم پشاور تي قبضو ڪيو. ان کان پوءِ هن شهر تي هندو-پارٿين بادشاهت جو باني، گونڊوفريس قبضو ڪيو. گونڊوفریس سال 46ع ۾ ڀرسان تخت بائي (مردان) جی خانقاهه قائم ڪيو.

===ڪشان سلطنت===
پهرين صدي عيسويءَ ۾ پروشپورا ڪاجولا ڪڊفيسس جي قبضي هيٺ آيو، جيڪو ڪشان سلطنت جو باني هو. هن شهر کي سلطنت جي سياري جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ بڻايو ويو. ڪپیسي (جديد بگرام، افغانستان) ۾ ڪشان جي اونهاري جي گاديءَ واري هنڌ کي سلطنت جي ثانوي راڄڌاني طور ڏٺو ويندو هو، جڏهن ته پروشپورا کي سلطنت جي بنيادي راڄڌاني سمجهيو ويندو هو. قديم پشاور جي آبادي اندازي مطابق 1,20,000 هئي، جيڪا ان وقت دنيا جو ستين نمبر تي سڀ کان وڌيڪ آبادي وارو شهر بڻجندو ھو. ٻڌ ڌرم جي هڪ عقيدتمند حيثيت سان، شهنشاهه عظيم ڪنشڪا مهاويرا خانقاه ٺاهي. سندس وفات کان پوءِ پشاور ۾ ٻڌمت جا آثار رکڻ لاءِ شاندار ڪنشڪا اسٽوپا تعمير ڪرايو ويو. پشاور ۾ ڪشان سلطنت جو سونهري دور 232ع ۾ آخري عظيم ڪشن بادشاهه واسوديو اول جي وفات سان ختم ٿيو. سال 260ع ڌاري، ساساني شهنشاهه شاپور اول جي لشڪر پشاور تي حملو ڪيو، ۽ پشاور جي وادي ۾ ٻڌمت جي يادگارن ۽ خانقاهن کي سخت نقصان پهچايو. شاپور جي مهم جي نتيجي ۾ شهر جي يادگار اسٽوپا ۽ خانقاه کي به نقصان پهتو. ڪشن کي ساسانين جي ماتحت ڪيو ويو ۽ سندن طاقت تيزيءَ سان گهٽجڻ لڳي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ساسانين شهر کان اولهه طرف منافعي بخش واپاري رستا بند ڪري ڇڏيا هئا. ڪشان شهنشاهه ڪنشڪا ٽيون، شاپور جي حملي کان پوءِ عارضي طور تي پشاور جي سموري وادي تي ڪنٽرول بحال ڪرڻ جي قابل ٿي ويو، پر پوءِ سال 400ع جي شروعات ۾ هن شهر تي وچ ايشيائي ڪيڊرائي سلطنت قبضو ڪري ورتو.
 
===سفيد هن=== 
سفيد هنن 460ع ۾ قديم پشاور کي تباهه ڪري ڇڏيو ۽ گنڌارا جي سموري علائقي کي تباهه ڪري، ان جي ڪيترن ئي خانقاهن کي تباهه ڪري ڇڏيو. ڪنشڪا اسٽوپا سفيد هن جي دور ۾ هڪ ڊگھي ڪاٺ جي تعمير سان، هڪ پٿر جي بنياد تي ٻيهر تعمير ڪيو ويو ۽ 13 پرت ٽامي جي گولڊ ٿيل چتر سان تاج ڪيو ويو. سال 400ع ۾، چيني ٻڌ ڌرم جي زيارت ڪندڙ فاهيان ان اڏاوت جو دورو ڪيو ۽ ان کي بيان ڪيو ته &quot;زميني دنيا&quot; ۾ &quot;سڀني مینارن کان بلند ترين&quot;، جنهن جي قديم سياحن دعويٰ ڪئي آهي ته 560 فوٽ (170 ميٽر) ڊگهو هو، جيتوڻيڪ جديد اندازي مطابق 400 فوٽ (120 ميٽر) جي اوچائي آهي. سال 520ع ۾ چيني راهب سونگ يون سفيد هن جي دور ۾ گنڌارا ۽ قديم پشاور جو دورو ڪيو، ۽ ياد ڪيو ته اهو ويجهي ڪپيسا سان تڪرار ۾ هو. چيني راهب ۽ سياح زوان زانگ سال 630ع ڌاري، ڪپيسا جي فتح کان پوءِ قديم پشاور جو دورو ڪيو، ۽ افسوس جو اظهار ڪيو ته شهر ۽ ان جي ٻڌمت جا عظيم يادگار تباهه ٿي ويا آهن. جيتوڻيڪ ڪي راهب جيڪي ٿیراويدا ٻڌمت جو اڀياس ڪن ٿا، انهن خانقاهه جي ٿرن تي پڙهائي جاري رکي. زوان زيانگ (Xuanzang) اندازو لڳايو ته اڳوڻي وڏي راڄڌاني جي بربادن جي وچ ۾ صرف 1,000 خاندانن جي هڪ ننڍڙي چوٿين ۾ جاري رهي.  

===اسلامي دور===
سترهين صديءَ جي وچ تائين، قديم پشاور جي رهاڪن وٽ وچ ايشيائي سیٿئين (Scythian) نسل جي حڪمران اشرافيه هئي، جن کي پوءِ ڪابل جي هندو شاهي بي گهر ڪيو. مڃيو وڃي ٿو ته اسلام پهريون ڀيرو ٻڌمت، هندو ۽ پوروشپور جي ٻين مقامي رهاڪن کي ستين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ متعارف ڪرايو ويو. علائقي کي آباد ڪرڻ واري پهرين پختون قبيلو طور، دلزاڪ پختون پشاور جي وادي ۾ آباد ٿيڻ شروع ڪيا ۽ مڃيو وڃي ٿو ته 11 صدي عيسويءَ تائين سنڌو درياءَ تائين علائقا آباد ٿيا. عرب مورخ ۽ جاگرافي دان المسعودي ياد ڪيو ته ڏهين صديءَ جي وچ ڌاري اهو شهر پاراشاور جي نالي سان مشهور ٿيو. 

===غزنوي سلطنت=== 
سال 986ع کان 987ع ۾ پشاور جو پهريون مقابلو مسلمان لشڪر سان ٿيو، جڏهن سبڪتگين ان علائقي تي ڪاهه ڪئي ۽ هندو شاهي سان سندن بادشاهه آنند پال جي ماتحت جنگ ڪئي. 28 نومبر، 1001ع تي سبڪتگين جي پٽ محمود غزنوي پشاور جي جنگ ۾ راجا جئي پال جی پٽ آنند پال جي فوج کي فيصلي سان شڪست ڏني ۽ پشاور جي علائقي ۾ غزنوي سلطنت جو راڄ قائم ڪيو. غزنوي دور ۾، پشاور افغان پليٽیو ۽ لاهور جي غزنوي فوجن جي شهر جي وچ ۾ هڪ اهم اسٽاپ طور ڪم ڪيو. ڏهين کان ٻارهين صدي عيسويءَ دوران، پشاور هندو ناٿ پنٿي يوگين لاءِ هيڊڪوارٽر طور ڪم ڪيو، جن کي مڃيو وڃي ٿو ته ان جي نتيجي ۾ مسلمان صوفين سان وڏي ڳالهه ٻولهه ٿي. 

===دهلي سلطنت===
هيڊڪوارٽر

==جاگرافي==
پشاور شھر، پشاور جي وسيع وادي ۾ واقع آهي، جيڪا ٽن پاسن کان جبلن جي قطارن سان گهيريل آهي، جنهن جو چوٿون پاسو پنجاب جي ميدانن ڏانهن آهي. شهر عام طور تي وادي جي سطح جي بنياد تي واقع آهي، جيڪو گندھارا ميدانن جي نالي سان مشهور آهي. 

===موسم===
مقامي اسٽيپي آبهوا جي اثر سان، پشاور ۾ گرم نيم خشڪ آبهوا (ڪپن اسڪيل) آهي، جنهن ۾ تمام گرم، ڊگھي اونهاري ۽ مختصر، هلڪي کان ٿڌي سياري جي موسم آهي. پشاور ۾ سيارو نومبر ۾ شروع ٿئي ٿو ۽ مارچ جي آخر ۾ ختم ٿئي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ اهو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اپريل جي وچ تائين وڌندو آهي، جڏهن ته اونهاري جا مهينا مئي جي وچ کان سيپٽمبر جي وچ تائين هوندا آهن. سراسري گرميءَ جو وڌ ۾ وڌ گرمي پد °40 سينٽي گريڊ (°104 فارن هائيٽ) کان وڌيڪ گرم مهيني دوران، ۽ اوسط گهٽ ۾ گهٽ گرمي پد °25 سينٽي گريڊ (°77 فارن هائيٽ) آهي. ٿڌي مھيني دوران گھٽ ۾ گھٽ گرمي جی پد °4 سينٽي گريڊ (°39 فارن ھائيٽ) آھي، جڏھن ته وڌ ۾ وڌ °18.3 سينٽي گريڊ (°64.9 فارن ھائيٽ) آھي. پشاور پاڪستان جي ٻين حصن جي ڀيٽ ۾ مون سون وارو علائقو نه آهي. بهرحال، برسات سياري ۽ اونهاري ٻنهي ۾ ٿيندي آهي. مغربي خرابين جي ڪري، سياري جي برسات فيبروري ۽ اپريل جي مهينن جي وچ ۾ وڌيڪ رڪارڊ ڏيکاري ٿي. سياري جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ برسات، جيڪا 236 ملي ميٽر (9.3 انچ) هئي، فيبروري، 2007ع ۾ رڪارڊ ڪئي وئي، جڏهن ته سڀ کان وڌيڪ اونهاري جي برسات 402 ملي ميٽر (15.8 انچ) جولاءِ، 2010ع ۾ رڪارڊ ڪئي وئي. هن مهيني دوران، 29 جولاءِ، 2010ع تي 24 ڪلاڪن جي عرصي ۾ 274 ملي ميٽر (10.8 انچ) جي رڪارڊ ٽوڙ برسات ٿي. اڳوڻو رڪارڊ 187 ملي ميٽر (7.4 انچ) مينهن جو هو، جيڪو اپريل، 2009ع ۾ رڪارڊ ڪيو ويو هو. سياري جي سراسري برسات اونهاري جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي. 30 سالن جي رڪارڊ جي بنياد تي، سراسري سالياني ورن جي سطح 400 ملي ميٽر (16 انچ) رڪارڊ ڪئي وئي ۽ سال 2003ع ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ سالياني برسات جي سطح 904.5 ملي ميٽر (35.61 انچ) رڪارڊ ڪئي وئي. هوا جي رفتار سال دوران مختلف رهي ٿي، ڊسمبر ۾   9.3 ڪلوميٽر في ڪلاڪ کان جون ۾ 44 ڪلوميٽر في ڪلاڪ. نسبتا نمي جون ۾ 46 سيڪڙو کان آگسٽ ۾ 76 سيڪڙو تائين مختلف آهي. 18 جون، 1995ع تي سڀ کان وڌيڪ °50 سينٽي گريڊ (°122 فارن هائيٽ) رڪارڊ ڪيو ويو، جڏهن ته گهٽ ۾ گهٽ °3.9- سينٽي گريڊ (°25.0 فارن هائيٽ) 7 جنوري، 1970ع تي ٿيو.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:پشاور]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان جا شهر]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان جي راڄڌانيون]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا شهر]]
[[زمرو:سلڪ روڊ سان گڏ آباد هنڌ]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان جا ميٽروپوليٽن علائقا]]</text>
      <sha1>kw3ec5qggjxe1t4ldiqjkv2axmhggo3</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399365</id>
      <parentid>399362</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T08:27:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399365</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="21054" sha1="dt1o3mk33qckfu30c0rp2sdtk7wmawe" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
| name = '''پشاور'''
| other_name = 
| native_name = پېښور (پشتو)
| settlement_type = [[شهر]] [[تعلقو]]
| image_skyline = فائل:PeshawarCollage.jpg
| image_caption = گھڙيالي چڪر وانگر مٿان کان هيٺ: [[اسلاميه ڪاليج يونيورسٽي|اسلاميه ڪاليج]]، گھنٽا گھر، سونھري مسجد، بالا حصار قلعو، باب خيبر، [[مهابت خان مسجد]]
| image_size = 300px
| image_flag = 
| image_seal = 
| image_shield = 
| nickname = ''گلن جو شھر''
| motto = 
| image_map = 
| map_caption = 
| pushpin_map = Khyber Pakhtunkhwa#Pakistan#Asia
| pushpin_label_position = &lt;!-- the position of the pushpin label: left, right, top, bottom, none --&gt;
| pushpin_map_caption = پشاور جو پاڪستان ۽ خيبرپختونخوا ۾ مقام
| coordinates = {{coord|34|01|N|71|35|E|region:PK|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = [[ملڪ]]
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[صوبو]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[ضلعو]]
| subdivision_name1 = {{Flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}
| subdivision_name2 = [[پشاور ضلعو]]
| established_title = &lt;!-- Settled --&gt;
| established_date = &lt;!-- Smaller parts (e.g., boroughs of a city) and seat of government --&gt;
| seat_type = 
| seat = 
| parts_type = [[پاڪستان جون يونين ڪاؤنسلون|يونين ڪاؤنسل]]
| parts = 92 &lt;!-- parts text, or header for parts list --&gt;
| government_footnotes = &lt;!-- Area    ----&gt;
| government_type = ميٽروپوليٽن شھر
| leader_title = ميئر
| leader_name = ارباب عاصم
| leader_title1 = ڊپٽي ميئر
| leader_name1 = سيد قاسم علي شاهه
| unit_pref = &lt;!--Enter: Imperial, to display imperial  before metric--&gt;
| area_footnotes = 
| area_total_km2 = 1257 &lt;!-- ALL fields with measurements are subject to automatic unit conversion--&gt;
| area_land_km2 = &lt;!--See table @ Template:Infobox Settlement for details on unit conversion--&gt;
| area_water_km2 = 
| area_water_percent = &lt;!-- Elevation ----&gt;
| elevation_footnotes = &lt;!--for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags--&gt;
| elevation_m = 331
| elevation_max_m = 450
| elevation_min_m = &lt;!-- Population   ----&gt;
| population_total = 2,113,596
| population_as_of = [[پاڪستان جي آدمشماري،2017|2017]]
| population_rank = 1st, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa&lt;br/&gt;[[List of most populous cities in Pakistan|6th, Pakistan]]
| population_footnotes = &lt;ref name=&quot;census2017&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/bwpsr/kp/PESHAWAR_BLOCKWISE.pdf|title=POPULATION AND HOUSEHOLD DETAIL FROM BLOCK TO DISTRICT LEVEL: KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA (PESHAWAR DISTRICT)|date=2018-01-03|access-date=2018-04-23|publisher=[[Pakistan Bureau of Statistics]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_density_km2 = 12,009.07
| population_metro = 4,269,079
| population_note = '''پشاور ميونسپل ڪارپوريشن ''': 1,893,361&lt;br/&gt;'''[[پشاور يونيورسٽي]] ٽائون ڪائونسل
''': 5,940&lt;br/&gt;'''[[پشاور ڇانوڻي]]''': 70,741
| postal_code_type = &lt;!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --&gt;
| postal_code = 25000
| area_code = 092
| unemployment_rate = 
| blank_name_sec1 = Languages
| blank_info_sec1 = [[پشتو ٻولي|پشتو]]، [[ھندڪو]]|&lt;nowiki&gt;[[ھندڪو[]]، &lt;/nowiki&gt;[[اردو]]
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[List of districts of Pakistan by Human Development Index|HDI]]
| blank1_info_sec1 = 0.55 &lt;small&gt;(data for 2012–2013)&lt;/small&gt; {{increase}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.spdc.org.pk/Data/Publication/PDF/AR2014-15.pdf|title=SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN ANNUAL REVIEW 2014–15|date=2016|publisher=SOCIAL POLICY AND DEVELOPMENT CENTRE|accessdate=26 March 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| blank2_name_sec1 = HDI Category
| blank2_info_sec1 = وچولو
&lt;!-- General information  ----&gt;| website = &lt;small&gt;[http://cdgpeshawar.gov.pk/ City District Government of Peshawar]&lt;/small&gt;
| footnotes = 
| title = 
| leader_title2 = ڊپٽي ڪمشنر
| leader_name2 = 
| leader_title3 = 
| leader_name3 = &lt;!-- parts text, or header for parts list --&gt;
&lt;!-- Politics ----&gt;| timezone = [[پاڪستان جو معياري وقت]]
| utc_offset = +5
| timezone_DST = 
| utc_offset_DST = &lt;!-- Area/postal codes &amp; others ----&gt;
}}
'''پشاور''' (پشتو: پېښور؛ ھندڪو: پشور؛ اردو: پشاور) [[خيبر پختونخوا|خيبرپختونخوا]] صوبي جي گادي جو هنڌ آهي. سياسي ڳڙه هئڻ سان گڏوگڏ معاشي حب پڻ آهي. پشاور [[پاڪستان]] جو ڇھون سڀ کان وڌيڪ آبادي وارو شھر آھي، جنھن جي آبادي 2023 جي مردم شماري ۾ 47 لک کان مٿي آھي. اهو خيبر پختونخوا صوبي جو سڀ کان وڏو شهر آهي. اهو ملڪ جي اتر۔اولهه ۾، پشاور جي وادي ۾ واقع آهي. پشاور بنيادي طور تي پختونن جي آبادي وارو شھر آهي، جيڪو ملڪ ۾ ٻيو نمبر وڏو نسلي گروهه تي مشتمل آهي.
[[فائل:Takht-e-bahi.jpg|thumb]]
پشاور جو هڪ پراڻي فوٽو پوسٽ ڪارڊ. پنجاب ڊجيٽل لائبريري پاران ترتيب ڏنل.

==نالو==
هن شهر جو جديد نالو ”پشاور“ ممڪن آهي ته سنسڪرت جي لفظ ”پورشاپورا“ مان ورتل هجي. اهو نالو مغل شهنشاهه اڪبر ان جي پراڻي نالي پارشاور تان رکيو، جنهن جي معنيٰ اڪبر سمجهي نه سگهيو. هن شهر جو حڪمران شايد ان جي بنياد تي هڪ هندو راجا (بادشاهه) هو، جنهن جو نالو &quot;پروش&quot; ء &quot;پور&quot; سنسڪرت ۾  لفظ جي معنيٰ ”شهر“ آهي. سنسڪرت، خروشتي رسم الخط ۾ لکيل، اها ادبي ٻولي هئي جيڪا ٻڌ ڌرم جي بادشاهن طرفان استعمال ڪئي وئي، جيڪا هن علائقي تي پنهنجي ابتدائي رڪارڊ ٿيل دور ۾ حڪومت ڪندي هئي. شهر جو نالو شايد سنسڪرت ٻوليءَ جي نالي &quot;پوشاپورا&quot; (گلن جو شھر) مان نڪتل هجي، اهو نالو هڪ قديم خروشتي لکت ۾ ملي ٿو جيڪو شايد پشاور ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. چين جي ٻڌ ڌرم جي راهب، زوان زانگ (Xuanzang) جو ستين صدي ۾ گندھارا جي هڪ شهر جو احوال هن شهر کي پولاشاپولو (چيني: 布路沙布邏، bùlùshābùló) سڏيو ويو آهي، ۽ پنجين صديءَ جو هڪ اڳوڻو احوال فاهيان جي رڪارڊ ۾ هن شهر جو نالو فولوشا (چيني:弗樓 fùlóshā) آهي، جیکا شهر جي سنسڪرت نالي پروشاپورا جي چيني برابر آهي. شاپور دور جو هڪ قديم لکت گنڌارا وادي ۾ پ س ق ب و ر جي نالي سان هڪ شهر جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو، جيڪو شايد پشاور ڏانهن اشارو هجي. عرب مورخ ۽ جاگرافي دان المسعودي ياد ڪيو ته ڏهين صديءَ جي وچ ڌاري اهو شهر پاراشور جي نالي سان مشهور هو. البيروني ان جو نالو پوروشور ۽ پوروشور رکيو آهي. شهنشاهه اڪبر جي دور ۾ هي شهر پشاور جي نالي سان مشهور ٿيو. موجوده نالو ڪجهه ماڻهن طرفان چيو ويو آهي ته فارسيءَ ۾ ”سرحدی قصبو“ يا لفظي معنيٰ ۾ ”اڳتي شهر“ لاءِ رکيو ويو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ٽرانسڪرپشن جون غلطيون ۽ لساني ڦيرڦار شهر جي نئين نالي جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿي. هڪ نظريو اهو ٻڌائي ٿو ته هن شهر جو نالو فارسي نالو ”پيش اوارڊان“ مان ورتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي ”پهريون آمد جي جاءِ“ يا ”سرحدی شھر“، جيئن ته پشاور برصغير ​​۾ خيبر لڪ پار ڪرڻ کان پوءِ پهريون شهر هو. اڪبر جي ڪتاب نگار، ابوالفضل ابن مبارڪ، شهر جو نالو ٻنهي پارشاور جي نالي سان درج ڪيو آهي، جيڪو فارسيءَ ۾ پَرَشَاوَر ۽ پشاور ۾ نقل ٿيل آهي. 
==تاريخ==
===قديم تاريخ===
پشاور سان گڏ جديد دور جي گنڌارا علائقي کي ويدڪ ڪتاب ۾ پشڪلاوتي جي نالي سان ملي ٿو.
===بنياد===
پشاور 100ع ۾ پشاور جي وسيع وادي ۾ گنڌارا جي ميدانن تي پروشپورا جي شهر جي طور تي قائم ڪيو ويو. ٿي سگهي ٿو ته اهو نالو ڪنهن هندو راجا جي نالي تي رکيو ويو هجي، جنهن شهر تي حڪومت ڪئي، جنهن کي &quot;پوروش&quot; چيو ويندو هو. شهر ممڪن طور تي پهريون ڀيرو پنجين صدي قبل مسيح ۾، قديم هندستان جي ثقافتي دائري ۾، هڪ ننڍڙي ڳوٺ جي حيثيت ۾ موجود هو. پروشپور جو بنياد قديم گنڌارن جي گاديءَ واري شهر پشڪلاوتي، موجوده چارسده جي ويجهو هو. 
===يوناني دور=== 
سال 327 ق.م کان 26 ق.م جي سياري ۾، سڪندر اعظم سنڌو ماٿريءَ تي حملي دوران پشاور جي واديءَ کي پنهنجي قبضي ۾ ڪري ورتو، ان سان گڏ ويجهن سوات ۽ بونير وادين کي به پنهنجي قبضي ۾ ڪري ورتو. سڪندر جي فتح کان پوءِ، پشاور جي وادي سيليوسڊ سلطنت (Seleucid Empire) جي باني، 
سيليوسڊ اول نیڪاٽور (Seleucus I Nicator) جي قبضي هيٺ آئي. مقامي طور تي ٺهيل گلدان جو ٽڪرو جيڪو پشاور ۾ مليو هو سوفوڪلس جي ڊرامي اينٽيگون جو هڪ منظر ڏيکاري ٿو. 
===موريا سلطنت=== 
سيلیوسڊ۔موريا جنگ (Seleucid-Mauryan War) جي پٺيان، علائقو 303 ق.م ۾ موريا سلطنت جي حوالي ڪيو ويو. سال 300 ق.م جي لڳ ڀڳ، يوناني سفارتڪار ۽ مورخ ميگاٿينيز نوٽ ڪيو ته پورشاپورا (قديم پشاور) مورين سلطنت جی روڊ جو الهندو ٽرمينس هو جيڪو شهر کي ڳنڍيندو هو. سلطنت جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ پاٽلي پترا، اڄوڪي هندستاني رياست بهار جي شهر پٽنا جي ويجهو ھو. جيئن ئي موريا جي طاقت جو زوال ٿيو، جديد افغانستان ۾ موجود گريڪو-بڪٽارين بادشاهت سليوسڊ سلطنت کان پنهنجي آزاديءَ جو اعلان ڪيو ۽ جلد سال 190 ق.م ڌاري قديم پشاور تي قبضو ڪيو. ان کان پوءِ هن شهر تي هندو-پارٿين بادشاهت جو باني، گونڊوفريس قبضو ڪيو. گونڊوفریس سال 46ع ۾ ڀرسان تخت بائي (مردان) جی خانقاهه قائم ڪيو.

===ڪشان سلطنت===
پهرين صدي عيسويءَ ۾ پروشپورا ڪاجولا ڪڊفيسس جي قبضي هيٺ آيو، جيڪو ڪشان سلطنت جو باني هو. هن شهر کي سلطنت جي سياري جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ بڻايو ويو. ڪپیسي (جديد بگرام، افغانستان) ۾ ڪشان جي اونهاري جي گاديءَ واري هنڌ کي سلطنت جي ثانوي راڄڌاني طور ڏٺو ويندو هو، جڏهن ته پروشپورا کي سلطنت جي بنيادي راڄڌاني سمجهيو ويندو هو. قديم پشاور جي آبادي اندازي مطابق 1,20,000 هئي، جيڪا ان وقت دنيا جو ستين نمبر تي سڀ کان وڌيڪ آبادي وارو شهر بڻجندو ھو. ٻڌ ڌرم جي هڪ عقيدتمند حيثيت سان، شهنشاهه عظيم ڪنشڪا مهاويرا خانقاه ٺاهي. سندس وفات کان پوءِ پشاور ۾ ٻڌمت جا آثار رکڻ لاءِ شاندار ڪنشڪا اسٽوپا تعمير ڪرايو ويو. پشاور ۾ ڪشان سلطنت جو سونهري دور 232ع ۾ آخري عظيم ڪشن بادشاهه واسوديو اول جي وفات سان ختم ٿيو. سال 260ع ڌاري، ساساني شهنشاهه شاپور اول جي لشڪر پشاور تي حملو ڪيو، ۽ پشاور جي وادي ۾ ٻڌمت جي يادگارن ۽ خانقاهن کي سخت نقصان پهچايو. شاپور جي مهم جي نتيجي ۾ شهر جي يادگار اسٽوپا ۽ خانقاه کي به نقصان پهتو. ڪشن کي ساسانين جي ماتحت ڪيو ويو ۽ سندن طاقت تيزيءَ سان گهٽجڻ لڳي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ساسانين شهر کان اولهه طرف منافعي بخش واپاري رستا بند ڪري ڇڏيا هئا. ڪشان شهنشاهه ڪنشڪا ٽيون، شاپور جي حملي کان پوءِ عارضي طور تي پشاور جي سموري وادي تي ڪنٽرول بحال ڪرڻ جي قابل ٿي ويو، پر پوءِ سال 400ع جي شروعات ۾ هن شهر تي وچ ايشيائي ڪيڊرائي سلطنت قبضو ڪري ورتو.
 
===سفيد هن=== 
سفيد هنن 460ع ۾ قديم پشاور کي تباهه ڪري ڇڏيو ۽ گنڌارا جي سموري علائقي کي تباهه ڪري، ان جي ڪيترن ئي خانقاهن کي تباهه ڪري ڇڏيو. ڪنشڪا اسٽوپا سفيد هن جي دور ۾ هڪ ڊگھي ڪاٺ جي تعمير سان، هڪ پٿر جي بنياد تي ٻيهر تعمير ڪيو ويو ۽ 13 پرت ٽامي جي گولڊ ٿيل چتر سان تاج ڪيو ويو. سال 400ع ۾، چيني ٻڌ ڌرم جي زيارت ڪندڙ فاهيان ان اڏاوت جو دورو ڪيو ۽ ان کي بيان ڪيو ته &quot;زميني دنيا&quot; ۾ &quot;سڀني مینارن کان بلند ترين&quot;، جنهن جي قديم سياحن دعويٰ ڪئي آهي ته 560 فوٽ (170 ميٽر) ڊگهو هو، جيتوڻيڪ جديد اندازي مطابق 400 فوٽ (120 ميٽر) جي اوچائي آهي. سال 520ع ۾ چيني راهب سونگ يون سفيد هن جي دور ۾ گنڌارا ۽ قديم پشاور جو دورو ڪيو، ۽ ياد ڪيو ته اهو ويجهي ڪپيسا سان تڪرار ۾ هو. چيني راهب ۽ سياح زوان زانگ سال 630ع ڌاري، ڪپيسا جي فتح کان پوءِ قديم پشاور جو دورو ڪيو، ۽ افسوس جو اظهار ڪيو ته شهر ۽ ان جي ٻڌمت جا عظيم يادگار تباهه ٿي ويا آهن. جيتوڻيڪ ڪي راهب جيڪي ٿیراويدا ٻڌمت جو اڀياس ڪن ٿا، انهن خانقاهه جي ٿرن تي پڙهائي جاري رکي. زوان زيانگ (Xuanzang) اندازو لڳايو ته اڳوڻي وڏي راڄڌاني جي بربادن جي وچ ۾ صرف 1,000 خاندانن جي هڪ ننڍڙي چوٿين ۾ جاري رهي.  

===اسلامي دور===
سترهين صديءَ جي وچ تائين، قديم پشاور جي رهاڪن وٽ وچ ايشيائي سیٿئين (Scythian) نسل جي حڪمران اشرافيه هئي، جن کي پوءِ ڪابل جي هندو شاهي بي گهر ڪيو. مڃيو وڃي ٿو ته اسلام پهريون ڀيرو ٻڌمت، هندو ۽ پوروشپور جي ٻين مقامي رهاڪن کي ستين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ متعارف ڪرايو ويو. علائقي کي آباد ڪرڻ واري پهرين پختون قبيلو طور، دلزاڪ پختون پشاور جي وادي ۾ آباد ٿيڻ شروع ڪيا ۽ مڃيو وڃي ٿو ته 11 صدي عيسويءَ تائين سنڌو درياءَ تائين علائقا آباد ٿيا. عرب مورخ ۽ جاگرافي دان المسعودي ياد ڪيو ته ڏهين صديءَ جي وچ ڌاري اهو شهر پاراشاور جي نالي سان مشهور ٿيو. 

===غزنوي سلطنت=== 
سال 986ع کان 987ع ۾ پشاور جو پهريون مقابلو مسلمان لشڪر سان ٿيو، جڏهن سبڪتگين ان علائقي تي ڪاهه ڪئي ۽ هندو شاهي سان سندن بادشاهه آنند پال جي ماتحت جنگ ڪئي. 28 نومبر، 1001ع تي سبڪتگين جي پٽ محمود غزنوي پشاور جي جنگ ۾ راجا جئي پال جی پٽ آنند پال جي فوج کي فيصلي سان شڪست ڏني ۽ پشاور جي علائقي ۾ غزنوي سلطنت جو راڄ قائم ڪيو. غزنوي دور ۾، پشاور افغان پليٽیو ۽ لاهور جي غزنوي فوجن جي شهر جي وچ ۾ هڪ اهم اسٽاپ طور ڪم ڪيو. ڏهين کان ٻارهين صدي عيسويءَ دوران، پشاور هندو ناٿ پنٿي يوگين لاءِ هيڊڪوارٽر طور ڪم ڪيو، جن کي مڃيو وڃي ٿو ته ان جي نتيجي ۾ مسلمان صوفين سان وڏي ڳالهه ٻولهه ٿي. 

===دهلي سلطنت===
هيڊڪوارٽر

==جاگرافي==
پشاور شھر، پشاور جي وسيع وادي ۾ واقع آهي، جيڪا ٽن پاسن کان جبلن جي قطارن سان گهيريل آهي، جنهن جو چوٿون پاسو پنجاب جي ميدانن ڏانهن آهي. شهر عام طور تي وادي جي سطح جي بنياد تي واقع آهي، جيڪو گندھارا ميدانن جي نالي سان مشهور آهي. 

===موسم===
مقامي اسٽيپي آبهوا جي اثر سان، پشاور ۾ گرم نيم خشڪ آبهوا (ڪپن اسڪيل) آهي، جنهن ۾ تمام گرم، ڊگھي اونهاري ۽ مختصر، هلڪي کان ٿڌي سياري جي موسم آهي. پشاور ۾ سيارو نومبر ۾ شروع ٿئي ٿو ۽ مارچ جي آخر ۾ ختم ٿئي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ اهو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اپريل جي وچ تائين وڌندو آهي، جڏهن ته اونهاري جا مهينا مئي جي وچ کان سيپٽمبر جي وچ تائين هوندا آهن. سراسري گرميءَ جو وڌ ۾ وڌ گرمي پد °40 سينٽي گريڊ (°104 فارن هائيٽ) کان وڌيڪ گرم مهيني دوران، ۽ اوسط گهٽ ۾ گهٽ گرمي پد °25 سينٽي گريڊ (°77 فارن هائيٽ) آهي. ٿڌي مھيني دوران گھٽ ۾ گھٽ گرمي جی پد °4 سينٽي گريڊ (°39 فارن ھائيٽ) آھي، جڏھن ته وڌ ۾ وڌ °18.3 سينٽي گريڊ (°64.9 فارن ھائيٽ) آھي. پشاور پاڪستان جي ٻين حصن جي ڀيٽ ۾ مون سون وارو علائقو نه آهي. بهرحال، برسات سياري ۽ اونهاري ٻنهي ۾ ٿيندي آهي. مغربي خرابين جي ڪري، سياري جي برسات فيبروري ۽ اپريل جي مهينن جي وچ ۾ وڌيڪ رڪارڊ ڏيکاري ٿي. سياري جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ برسات، جيڪا 236 ملي ميٽر (9.3 انچ) هئي، فيبروري، 2007ع ۾ رڪارڊ ڪئي وئي، جڏهن ته سڀ کان وڌيڪ اونهاري جي برسات 402 ملي ميٽر (15.8 انچ) جولاءِ، 2010ع ۾ رڪارڊ ڪئي وئي. هن مهيني دوران، 29 جولاءِ، 2010ع تي 24 ڪلاڪن جي عرصي ۾ 274 ملي ميٽر (10.8 انچ) جي رڪارڊ ٽوڙ برسات ٿي. اڳوڻو رڪارڊ 187 ملي ميٽر (7.4 انچ) مينهن جو هو، جيڪو اپريل، 2009ع ۾ رڪارڊ ڪيو ويو هو. سياري جي سراسري برسات اونهاري جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي. 30 سالن جي رڪارڊ جي بنياد تي، سراسري سالياني ورن جي سطح 400 ملي ميٽر (16 انچ) رڪارڊ ڪئي وئي ۽ سال 2003ع ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ سالياني برسات جي سطح 904.5 ملي ميٽر (35.61 انچ) رڪارڊ ڪئي وئي. هوا جي رفتار سال دوران مختلف رهي ٿي، ڊسمبر ۾   9.3 ڪلوميٽر في ڪلاڪ کان جون ۾ 44 ڪلوميٽر في ڪلاڪ. نسبتا نمي جون ۾ 46 سيڪڙو کان آگسٽ ۾ 76 سيڪڙو تائين مختلف آهي. 18 جون، 1995ع تي سڀ کان وڌيڪ °50 سينٽي گريڊ (°122 فارن هائيٽ) رڪارڊ ڪيو ويو، جڏهن ته گهٽ ۾ گهٽ °3.9- سينٽي گريڊ (°25.0 فارن هائيٽ) 7 جنوري، 1970ع تي ٿيو.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:پشاور]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان جا شهر]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان جي راڄڌانيون]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا شهر]]
[[زمرو:سلڪ روڊ سان گڏ آباد هنڌ]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان جا ميٽروپوليٽن علائقا]]</text>
      <sha1>dt1o3mk33qckfu30c0rp2sdtk7wmawe</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399369</id>
      <parentid>399365</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T08:40:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* حوالا */</comment>
      <origin>399369</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="21005" sha1="m81b17ysryhz7q8hqy2vy10ugv0jwob" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
| name = '''پشاور'''
| other_name = 
| native_name = پېښور (پشتو)
| settlement_type = [[شهر]] [[تعلقو]]
| image_skyline = فائل:PeshawarCollage.jpg
| image_caption = گھڙيالي چڪر وانگر مٿان کان هيٺ: [[اسلاميه ڪاليج يونيورسٽي|اسلاميه ڪاليج]]، گھنٽا گھر، سونھري مسجد، بالا حصار قلعو، باب خيبر، [[مهابت خان مسجد]]
| image_size = 300px
| image_flag = 
| image_seal = 
| image_shield = 
| nickname = ''گلن جو شھر''
| motto = 
| image_map = 
| map_caption = 
| pushpin_map = Khyber Pakhtunkhwa#Pakistan#Asia
| pushpin_label_position = &lt;!-- the position of the pushpin label: left, right, top, bottom, none --&gt;
| pushpin_map_caption = پشاور جو پاڪستان ۽ خيبرپختونخوا ۾ مقام
| coordinates = {{coord|34|01|N|71|35|E|region:PK|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = [[ملڪ]]
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[صوبو]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[ضلعو]]
| subdivision_name1 = {{Flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}
| subdivision_name2 = [[پشاور ضلعو]]
| established_title = &lt;!-- Settled --&gt;
| established_date = &lt;!-- Smaller parts (e.g., boroughs of a city) and seat of government --&gt;
| seat_type = 
| seat = 
| parts_type = [[پاڪستان جون يونين ڪاؤنسلون|يونين ڪاؤنسل]]
| parts = 92 &lt;!-- parts text, or header for parts list --&gt;
| government_footnotes = &lt;!-- Area    ----&gt;
| government_type = ميٽروپوليٽن شھر
| leader_title = ميئر
| leader_name = ارباب عاصم
| leader_title1 = ڊپٽي ميئر
| leader_name1 = سيد قاسم علي شاهه
| unit_pref = &lt;!--Enter: Imperial, to display imperial  before metric--&gt;
| area_footnotes = 
| area_total_km2 = 1257 &lt;!-- ALL fields with measurements are subject to automatic unit conversion--&gt;
| area_land_km2 = &lt;!--See table @ Template:Infobox Settlement for details on unit conversion--&gt;
| area_water_km2 = 
| area_water_percent = &lt;!-- Elevation ----&gt;
| elevation_footnotes = &lt;!--for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags--&gt;
| elevation_m = 331
| elevation_max_m = 450
| elevation_min_m = &lt;!-- Population   ----&gt;
| population_total = 2,113,596
| population_as_of = [[پاڪستان جي آدمشماري،2017|2017]]
| population_rank = 1st, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa&lt;br/&gt;[[List of most populous cities in Pakistan|6th, Pakistan]]
| population_footnotes = &lt;ref name=&quot;census2017&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/bwpsr/kp/PESHAWAR_BLOCKWISE.pdf|title=POPULATION AND HOUSEHOLD DETAIL FROM BLOCK TO DISTRICT LEVEL: KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA (PESHAWAR DISTRICT)|date=2018-01-03|access-date=2018-04-23|publisher=[[Pakistan Bureau of Statistics]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_density_km2 = 12,009.07
| population_metro = 4,269,079
| population_note = '''پشاور ميونسپل ڪارپوريشن ''': 1,893,361&lt;br/&gt;'''[[پشاور يونيورسٽي]] ٽائون ڪائونسل
''': 5,940&lt;br/&gt;'''[[پشاور ڇانوڻي]]''': 70,741
| postal_code_type = &lt;!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --&gt;
| postal_code = 25000
| area_code = 092
| unemployment_rate = 
| blank_name_sec1 = Languages
| blank_info_sec1 = [[پشتو ٻولي|پشتو]]، [[ھندڪو]]|&lt;nowiki&gt;[[ھندڪو[]]، &lt;/nowiki&gt;[[اردو]]
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[List of districts of Pakistan by Human Development Index|HDI]]
| blank1_info_sec1 = 0.55 &lt;small&gt;(data for 2012–2013)&lt;/small&gt; {{increase}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.spdc.org.pk/Data/Publication/PDF/AR2014-15.pdf|title=SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN ANNUAL REVIEW 2014–15|date=2016|publisher=SOCIAL POLICY AND DEVELOPMENT CENTRE|accessdate=26 March 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| blank2_name_sec1 = HDI Category
| blank2_info_sec1 = وچولو
&lt;!-- General information  ----&gt;| website = &lt;small&gt;[http://cdgpeshawar.gov.pk/ City District Government of Peshawar]&lt;/small&gt;
| footnotes = 
| title = 
| leader_title2 = ڊپٽي ڪمشنر
| leader_name2 = 
| leader_title3 = 
| leader_name3 = &lt;!-- parts text, or header for parts list --&gt;
&lt;!-- Politics ----&gt;| timezone = [[پاڪستان جو معياري وقت]]
| utc_offset = +5
| timezone_DST = 
| utc_offset_DST = &lt;!-- Area/postal codes &amp; others ----&gt;
}}
'''پشاور''' (پشتو: پېښور؛ ھندڪو: پشور؛ اردو: پشاور) [[خيبر پختونخوا|خيبرپختونخوا]] صوبي جي گادي جو هنڌ آهي. سياسي ڳڙه هئڻ سان گڏوگڏ معاشي حب پڻ آهي. پشاور [[پاڪستان]] جو ڇھون سڀ کان وڌيڪ آبادي وارو شھر آھي، جنھن جي آبادي 2023 جي مردم شماري ۾ 47 لک کان مٿي آھي. اهو خيبر پختونخوا صوبي جو سڀ کان وڏو شهر آهي. اهو ملڪ جي اتر۔اولهه ۾، پشاور جي وادي ۾ واقع آهي. پشاور بنيادي طور تي پختونن جي آبادي وارو شھر آهي، جيڪو ملڪ ۾ ٻيو نمبر وڏو نسلي گروهه تي مشتمل آهي.
[[فائل:Takht-e-bahi.jpg|thumb]]
پشاور جو هڪ پراڻي فوٽو پوسٽ ڪارڊ. پنجاب ڊجيٽل لائبريري پاران ترتيب ڏنل.

==نالو==
هن شهر جو جديد نالو ”پشاور“ ممڪن آهي ته سنسڪرت جي لفظ ”پورشاپورا“ مان ورتل هجي. اهو نالو مغل شهنشاهه اڪبر ان جي پراڻي نالي پارشاور تان رکيو، جنهن جي معنيٰ اڪبر سمجهي نه سگهيو. هن شهر جو حڪمران شايد ان جي بنياد تي هڪ هندو راجا (بادشاهه) هو، جنهن جو نالو &quot;پروش&quot; ء &quot;پور&quot; سنسڪرت ۾  لفظ جي معنيٰ ”شهر“ آهي. سنسڪرت، خروشتي رسم الخط ۾ لکيل، اها ادبي ٻولي هئي جيڪا ٻڌ ڌرم جي بادشاهن طرفان استعمال ڪئي وئي، جيڪا هن علائقي تي پنهنجي ابتدائي رڪارڊ ٿيل دور ۾ حڪومت ڪندي هئي. شهر جو نالو شايد سنسڪرت ٻوليءَ جي نالي &quot;پوشاپورا&quot; (گلن جو شھر) مان نڪتل هجي، اهو نالو هڪ قديم خروشتي لکت ۾ ملي ٿو جيڪو شايد پشاور ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو. چين جي ٻڌ ڌرم جي راهب، زوان زانگ (Xuanzang) جو ستين صدي ۾ گندھارا جي هڪ شهر جو احوال هن شهر کي پولاشاپولو (چيني: 布路沙布邏، bùlùshābùló) سڏيو ويو آهي، ۽ پنجين صديءَ جو هڪ اڳوڻو احوال فاهيان جي رڪارڊ ۾ هن شهر جو نالو فولوشا (چيني:弗樓 fùlóshā) آهي، جیکا شهر جي سنسڪرت نالي پروشاپورا جي چيني برابر آهي. شاپور دور جو هڪ قديم لکت گنڌارا وادي ۾ پ س ق ب و ر جي نالي سان هڪ شهر جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو، جيڪو شايد پشاور ڏانهن اشارو هجي. عرب مورخ ۽ جاگرافي دان المسعودي ياد ڪيو ته ڏهين صديءَ جي وچ ڌاري اهو شهر پاراشور جي نالي سان مشهور هو. البيروني ان جو نالو پوروشور ۽ پوروشور رکيو آهي. شهنشاهه اڪبر جي دور ۾ هي شهر پشاور جي نالي سان مشهور ٿيو. موجوده نالو ڪجهه ماڻهن طرفان چيو ويو آهي ته فارسيءَ ۾ ”سرحدی قصبو“ يا لفظي معنيٰ ۾ ”اڳتي شهر“ لاءِ رکيو ويو آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ٽرانسڪرپشن جون غلطيون ۽ لساني ڦيرڦار شهر جي نئين نالي جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿي. هڪ نظريو اهو ٻڌائي ٿو ته هن شهر جو نالو فارسي نالو ”پيش اوارڊان“ مان ورتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي ”پهريون آمد جي جاءِ“ يا ”سرحدی شھر“، جيئن ته پشاور برصغير ​​۾ خيبر لڪ پار ڪرڻ کان پوءِ پهريون شهر هو. اڪبر جي ڪتاب نگار، ابوالفضل ابن مبارڪ، شهر جو نالو ٻنهي پارشاور جي نالي سان درج ڪيو آهي، جيڪو فارسيءَ ۾ پَرَشَاوَر ۽ پشاور ۾ نقل ٿيل آهي. 
==تاريخ==
===قديم تاريخ===
پشاور سان گڏ جديد دور جي گنڌارا علائقي کي ويدڪ ڪتاب ۾ پشڪلاوتي جي نالي سان ملي ٿو.
===بنياد===
پشاور 100ع ۾ پشاور جي وسيع وادي ۾ گنڌارا جي ميدانن تي پروشپورا جي شهر جي طور تي قائم ڪيو ويو. ٿي سگهي ٿو ته اهو نالو ڪنهن هندو راجا جي نالي تي رکيو ويو هجي، جنهن شهر تي حڪومت ڪئي، جنهن کي &quot;پوروش&quot; چيو ويندو هو. شهر ممڪن طور تي پهريون ڀيرو پنجين صدي قبل مسيح ۾، قديم هندستان جي ثقافتي دائري ۾، هڪ ننڍڙي ڳوٺ جي حيثيت ۾ موجود هو. پروشپور جو بنياد قديم گنڌارن جي گاديءَ واري شهر پشڪلاوتي، موجوده چارسده جي ويجهو هو. 
===يوناني دور=== 
سال 327 ق.م کان 26 ق.م جي سياري ۾، سڪندر اعظم سنڌو ماٿريءَ تي حملي دوران پشاور جي واديءَ کي پنهنجي قبضي ۾ ڪري ورتو، ان سان گڏ ويجهن سوات ۽ بونير وادين کي به پنهنجي قبضي ۾ ڪري ورتو. سڪندر جي فتح کان پوءِ، پشاور جي وادي سيليوسڊ سلطنت (Seleucid Empire) جي باني، 
سيليوسڊ اول نیڪاٽور (Seleucus I Nicator) جي قبضي هيٺ آئي. مقامي طور تي ٺهيل گلدان جو ٽڪرو جيڪو پشاور ۾ مليو هو سوفوڪلس جي ڊرامي اينٽيگون جو هڪ منظر ڏيکاري ٿو. 
===موريا سلطنت=== 
سيلیوسڊ۔موريا جنگ (Seleucid-Mauryan War) جي پٺيان، علائقو 303 ق.م ۾ موريا سلطنت جي حوالي ڪيو ويو. سال 300 ق.م جي لڳ ڀڳ، يوناني سفارتڪار ۽ مورخ ميگاٿينيز نوٽ ڪيو ته پورشاپورا (قديم پشاور) مورين سلطنت جی روڊ جو الهندو ٽرمينس هو جيڪو شهر کي ڳنڍيندو هو. سلطنت جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ پاٽلي پترا، اڄوڪي هندستاني رياست بهار جي شهر پٽنا جي ويجهو ھو. جيئن ئي موريا جي طاقت جو زوال ٿيو، جديد افغانستان ۾ موجود گريڪو-بڪٽارين بادشاهت سليوسڊ سلطنت کان پنهنجي آزاديءَ جو اعلان ڪيو ۽ جلد سال 190 ق.م ڌاري قديم پشاور تي قبضو ڪيو. ان کان پوءِ هن شهر تي هندو-پارٿين بادشاهت جو باني، گونڊوفريس قبضو ڪيو. گونڊوفریس سال 46ع ۾ ڀرسان تخت بائي (مردان) جی خانقاهه قائم ڪيو.

===ڪشان سلطنت===
پهرين صدي عيسويءَ ۾ پروشپورا ڪاجولا ڪڊفيسس جي قبضي هيٺ آيو، جيڪو ڪشان سلطنت جو باني هو. هن شهر کي سلطنت جي سياري جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ بڻايو ويو. ڪپیسي (جديد بگرام، افغانستان) ۾ ڪشان جي اونهاري جي گاديءَ واري هنڌ کي سلطنت جي ثانوي راڄڌاني طور ڏٺو ويندو هو، جڏهن ته پروشپورا کي سلطنت جي بنيادي راڄڌاني سمجهيو ويندو هو. قديم پشاور جي آبادي اندازي مطابق 1,20,000 هئي، جيڪا ان وقت دنيا جو ستين نمبر تي سڀ کان وڌيڪ آبادي وارو شهر بڻجندو ھو. ٻڌ ڌرم جي هڪ عقيدتمند حيثيت سان، شهنشاهه عظيم ڪنشڪا مهاويرا خانقاه ٺاهي. سندس وفات کان پوءِ پشاور ۾ ٻڌمت جا آثار رکڻ لاءِ شاندار ڪنشڪا اسٽوپا تعمير ڪرايو ويو. پشاور ۾ ڪشان سلطنت جو سونهري دور 232ع ۾ آخري عظيم ڪشن بادشاهه واسوديو اول جي وفات سان ختم ٿيو. سال 260ع ڌاري، ساساني شهنشاهه شاپور اول جي لشڪر پشاور تي حملو ڪيو، ۽ پشاور جي وادي ۾ ٻڌمت جي يادگارن ۽ خانقاهن کي سخت نقصان پهچايو. شاپور جي مهم جي نتيجي ۾ شهر جي يادگار اسٽوپا ۽ خانقاه کي به نقصان پهتو. ڪشن کي ساسانين جي ماتحت ڪيو ويو ۽ سندن طاقت تيزيءَ سان گهٽجڻ لڳي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ساسانين شهر کان اولهه طرف منافعي بخش واپاري رستا بند ڪري ڇڏيا هئا. ڪشان شهنشاهه ڪنشڪا ٽيون، شاپور جي حملي کان پوءِ عارضي طور تي پشاور جي سموري وادي تي ڪنٽرول بحال ڪرڻ جي قابل ٿي ويو، پر پوءِ سال 400ع جي شروعات ۾ هن شهر تي وچ ايشيائي ڪيڊرائي سلطنت قبضو ڪري ورتو.
 
===سفيد هن=== 
سفيد هنن 460ع ۾ قديم پشاور کي تباهه ڪري ڇڏيو ۽ گنڌارا جي سموري علائقي کي تباهه ڪري، ان جي ڪيترن ئي خانقاهن کي تباهه ڪري ڇڏيو. ڪنشڪا اسٽوپا سفيد هن جي دور ۾ هڪ ڊگھي ڪاٺ جي تعمير سان، هڪ پٿر جي بنياد تي ٻيهر تعمير ڪيو ويو ۽ 13 پرت ٽامي جي گولڊ ٿيل چتر سان تاج ڪيو ويو. سال 400ع ۾، چيني ٻڌ ڌرم جي زيارت ڪندڙ فاهيان ان اڏاوت جو دورو ڪيو ۽ ان کي بيان ڪيو ته &quot;زميني دنيا&quot; ۾ &quot;سڀني مینارن کان بلند ترين&quot;، جنهن جي قديم سياحن دعويٰ ڪئي آهي ته 560 فوٽ (170 ميٽر) ڊگهو هو، جيتوڻيڪ جديد اندازي مطابق 400 فوٽ (120 ميٽر) جي اوچائي آهي. سال 520ع ۾ چيني راهب سونگ يون سفيد هن جي دور ۾ گنڌارا ۽ قديم پشاور جو دورو ڪيو، ۽ ياد ڪيو ته اهو ويجهي ڪپيسا سان تڪرار ۾ هو. چيني راهب ۽ سياح زوان زانگ سال 630ع ڌاري، ڪپيسا جي فتح کان پوءِ قديم پشاور جو دورو ڪيو، ۽ افسوس جو اظهار ڪيو ته شهر ۽ ان جي ٻڌمت جا عظيم يادگار تباهه ٿي ويا آهن. جيتوڻيڪ ڪي راهب جيڪي ٿیراويدا ٻڌمت جو اڀياس ڪن ٿا، انهن خانقاهه جي ٿرن تي پڙهائي جاري رکي. زوان زيانگ (Xuanzang) اندازو لڳايو ته اڳوڻي وڏي راڄڌاني جي بربادن جي وچ ۾ صرف 1,000 خاندانن جي هڪ ننڍڙي چوٿين ۾ جاري رهي.  

===اسلامي دور===
سترهين صديءَ جي وچ تائين، قديم پشاور جي رهاڪن وٽ وچ ايشيائي سیٿئين (Scythian) نسل جي حڪمران اشرافيه هئي، جن کي پوءِ ڪابل جي هندو شاهي بي گهر ڪيو. مڃيو وڃي ٿو ته اسلام پهريون ڀيرو ٻڌمت، هندو ۽ پوروشپور جي ٻين مقامي رهاڪن کي ستين صديءَ جي آخر ۾ متعارف ڪرايو ويو. علائقي کي آباد ڪرڻ واري پهرين پختون قبيلو طور، دلزاڪ پختون پشاور جي وادي ۾ آباد ٿيڻ شروع ڪيا ۽ مڃيو وڃي ٿو ته 11 صدي عيسويءَ تائين سنڌو درياءَ تائين علائقا آباد ٿيا. عرب مورخ ۽ جاگرافي دان المسعودي ياد ڪيو ته ڏهين صديءَ جي وچ ڌاري اهو شهر پاراشاور جي نالي سان مشهور ٿيو. 

===غزنوي سلطنت=== 
سال 986ع کان 987ع ۾ پشاور جو پهريون مقابلو مسلمان لشڪر سان ٿيو، جڏهن سبڪتگين ان علائقي تي ڪاهه ڪئي ۽ هندو شاهي سان سندن بادشاهه آنند پال جي ماتحت جنگ ڪئي. 28 نومبر، 1001ع تي سبڪتگين جي پٽ محمود غزنوي پشاور جي جنگ ۾ راجا جئي پال جی پٽ آنند پال جي فوج کي فيصلي سان شڪست ڏني ۽ پشاور جي علائقي ۾ غزنوي سلطنت جو راڄ قائم ڪيو. غزنوي دور ۾، پشاور افغان پليٽیو ۽ لاهور جي غزنوي فوجن جي شهر جي وچ ۾ هڪ اهم اسٽاپ طور ڪم ڪيو. ڏهين کان ٻارهين صدي عيسويءَ دوران، پشاور هندو ناٿ پنٿي يوگين لاءِ هيڊڪوارٽر طور ڪم ڪيو، جن کي مڃيو وڃي ٿو ته ان جي نتيجي ۾ مسلمان صوفين سان وڏي ڳالهه ٻولهه ٿي. 

===دهلي سلطنت===
هيڊڪوارٽر

==جاگرافي==
پشاور شھر، پشاور جي وسيع وادي ۾ واقع آهي، جيڪا ٽن پاسن کان جبلن جي قطارن سان گهيريل آهي، جنهن جو چوٿون پاسو پنجاب جي ميدانن ڏانهن آهي. شهر عام طور تي وادي جي سطح جي بنياد تي واقع آهي، جيڪو گندھارا ميدانن جي نالي سان مشهور آهي. 

===موسم===
مقامي اسٽيپي آبهوا جي اثر سان، پشاور ۾ گرم نيم خشڪ آبهوا (ڪپن اسڪيل) آهي، جنهن ۾ تمام گرم، ڊگھي اونهاري ۽ مختصر، هلڪي کان ٿڌي سياري جي موسم آهي. پشاور ۾ سيارو نومبر ۾ شروع ٿئي ٿو ۽ مارچ جي آخر ۾ ختم ٿئي ٿو، جيتوڻيڪ اهو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اپريل جي وچ تائين وڌندو آهي، جڏهن ته اونهاري جا مهينا مئي جي وچ کان سيپٽمبر جي وچ تائين هوندا آهن. سراسري گرميءَ جو وڌ ۾ وڌ گرمي پد °40 سينٽي گريڊ (°104 فارن هائيٽ) کان وڌيڪ گرم مهيني دوران، ۽ اوسط گهٽ ۾ گهٽ گرمي پد °25 سينٽي گريڊ (°77 فارن هائيٽ) آهي. ٿڌي مھيني دوران گھٽ ۾ گھٽ گرمي جی پد °4 سينٽي گريڊ (°39 فارن ھائيٽ) آھي، جڏھن ته وڌ ۾ وڌ °18.3 سينٽي گريڊ (°64.9 فارن ھائيٽ) آھي. پشاور پاڪستان جي ٻين حصن جي ڀيٽ ۾ مون سون وارو علائقو نه آهي. بهرحال، برسات سياري ۽ اونهاري ٻنهي ۾ ٿيندي آهي. مغربي خرابين جي ڪري، سياري جي برسات فيبروري ۽ اپريل جي مهينن جي وچ ۾ وڌيڪ رڪارڊ ڏيکاري ٿي. سياري جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ برسات، جيڪا 236 ملي ميٽر (9.3 انچ) هئي، فيبروري، 2007ع ۾ رڪارڊ ڪئي وئي، جڏهن ته سڀ کان وڌيڪ اونهاري جي برسات 402 ملي ميٽر (15.8 انچ) جولاءِ، 2010ع ۾ رڪارڊ ڪئي وئي. هن مهيني دوران، 29 جولاءِ، 2010ع تي 24 ڪلاڪن جي عرصي ۾ 274 ملي ميٽر (10.8 انچ) جي رڪارڊ ٽوڙ برسات ٿي. اڳوڻو رڪارڊ 187 ملي ميٽر (7.4 انچ) مينهن جو هو، جيڪو اپريل، 2009ع ۾ رڪارڊ ڪيو ويو هو. سياري جي سراسري برسات اونهاري جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ آهي. 30 سالن جي رڪارڊ جي بنياد تي، سراسري سالياني ورن جي سطح 400 ملي ميٽر (16 انچ) رڪارڊ ڪئي وئي ۽ سال 2003ع ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ سالياني برسات جي سطح 904.5 ملي ميٽر (35.61 انچ) رڪارڊ ڪئي وئي. هوا جي رفتار سال دوران مختلف رهي ٿي، ڊسمبر ۾   9.3 ڪلوميٽر في ڪلاڪ کان جون ۾ 44 ڪلوميٽر في ڪلاڪ. نسبتا نمي جون ۾ 46 سيڪڙو کان آگسٽ ۾ 76 سيڪڙو تائين مختلف آهي. 18 جون، 1995ع تي سڀ کان وڌيڪ °50 سينٽي گريڊ (°122 فارن هائيٽ) رڪارڊ ڪيو ويو، جڏهن ته گهٽ ۾ گهٽ °3.9- سينٽي گريڊ (°25.0 فارن هائيٽ) 7 جنوري، 1970ع تي ٿيو.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:پشاور]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان جا شهر]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان جي راڄڌانيون]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا شهر]]
[[زمرو:سلڪ روڊ سان گڏ آباد هنڌ]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان جا ميٽروپوليٽن علائقا]]</text>
      <sha1>m81b17ysryhz7q8hqy2vy10ugv0jwob</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ٿرينجيا</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>38961</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399392</id>
      <parentid>338353</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T10:34:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399392</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2116" sha1="1bx6hoij3bgwkvgxbcewfvaicgfhcxc" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox German state
|Name = فري اسٽيٽ آف ٿورنگيا
|German_name = Freistaat Thüringen
|map = Deutschland Lage von Thüringen.svg
|flag = Flag of Thuringia.svg
|state_coa = Coat of arms of Thuringia.svg
|capital = [[ايرفرٽ]]
|area = 16171
|key = 16
|population = 2278136
|pop_ref = &lt;ref name=&quot;helaba.de&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.helaba.de/en/DieHelaba/MaerkteUndAnalysen/ResearchUndVolkswirtschaft/Bundeslaender/Downloads/20140402-ZahlenundFakten.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2015-10-21 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052707/https://www.helaba.de/en/DieHelaba/MaerkteUndAnalysen/ResearchUndVolkswirtschaft/Bundeslaender/Downloads/20140402-ZahlenundFakten.pdf |archivedate=2016-03-04 |df= }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|pop_date = 2008-09-30
|GDP = 57/ $63
|GDP_year = 2015
|GDP_ref = &lt;ref name=&quot;helaba.de&quot; /&gt;
|GDP_per_capita = 27,000/ $30,000
|GDP_per_capita_year = 2015
|PPP_per_capita =
|PPP_per_capita_year =
|GDP_percent = 
|Website = [http://www.thueringen.de/ thueringen.de]
|governing_body = [[ٿرينجيا جي لينڊٽيگ]]
|leader_title =
|leader = بوڊو  راميلو 
|leader_party = [[The Left (Germany)|The Left]]
|ruling_party1 = [[The Left (Germany)|The Left]]
|ruling_party2 = SPD
|ruling_party3 = [[Alliance '90/The Greens]]
|votes = 4
|NUTS = DEG
|iso region = DE-TH
|coordinates = {{coord|50|51|40|N|11|3|7|E|display=inline}}
|date=August 2010
}}
'''ٿورنجيا''' (&lt;small&gt;'''[[انگريزي ٻولي|انگريزي]]: Thuringia) [[جرمن ٻولي|جرمن]]: ٽيورِنگن: '''&lt;/small&gt;), سرڪاري طور تي &quot;فري اسٽيٽ آف ٽيورِنگن&quot; &lt;small&gt;('''Freistaat''' '''Thüringen''', &quot;'''فريسٽاٽ''' '''ٿرينن'''&quot;)&lt;/small&gt; [[جرمني]] جي &lt;small&gt;'''16'''&lt;/small&gt; رياستن مان هڪ آهي. &lt;small&gt;'''16,171'''&lt;/small&gt; چورس ڪلو ميٽر جي ايراضي سان ۽ 2.1 ملين ماڻهن سان، اهو آبادي جي لحاظ کان &lt;small&gt;'''12'''&lt;/small&gt;هين وڏي رياست آهي.

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:ٿرنجيا]]
[[زمرو:جرمني جي رياستون]]</text>
      <sha1>1bx6hoij3bgwkvgxbcewfvaicgfhcxc</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399394</id>
      <parentid>399392</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T10:40:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399394</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2520" sha1="6eemvtedhm1jxwnq8bpuwys45uhgjwv" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox German state
|Name = فري اسٽيٽ آف ٿورنجيا 
|German_name =  فريسٽاٽ ٽيورِنجن 
|map = Deutschland Lage von Thüringen.svg
|flag = Flag of Thuringia.svg
|state_coa = Coat of arms of Thuringia.svg
|capital = [[ايرفرٽ]]
|area = 16171
|key = 16
|population = 2278136
|pop_ref = &lt;ref name=&quot;helaba.de&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.helaba.de/en/DieHelaba/MaerkteUndAnalysen/ResearchUndVolkswirtschaft/Bundeslaender/Downloads/20140402-ZahlenundFakten.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2015-10-21 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052707/https://www.helaba.de/en/DieHelaba/MaerkteUndAnalysen/ResearchUndVolkswirtschaft/Bundeslaender/Downloads/20140402-ZahlenundFakten.pdf |archivedate=2016-03-04 |df= }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|pop_date = 2008-09-30
|GDP = 57/ $63
|GDP_year = 2015
|GDP_ref = &lt;ref name=&quot;helaba.de&quot; /&gt;
|GDP_per_capita = 27,000/ $30,000
|GDP_per_capita_year = 2015
|PPP_per_capita =
|PPP_per_capita_year =
|GDP_percent = 
|Website = [http://www.thueringen.de/ thueringen.de]
|governing_body = [[ٿورنجيا جي لينڊٽيگ]]
|leader_title =
|leader = بوڊو  راميلو 
|leader_party = [[The Left (Germany)|The Left]]
|ruling_party1 = [[The Left (Germany)|The Left]]
|ruling_party2 = SPD
|ruling_party3 = [[Alliance '90/The Greens]]
|votes = 4
|NUTS = DEG
|iso region = DE-TH
|coordinates = {{coord|50|51|40|N|11|3|7|E|display=inline}}
|date=August 2010
}}
'''ٿورنجيا''' (&lt;small&gt;'''[[انگريزي ٻولي|انگريزي]]: Thuringia) [[جرمن ٻولي|جرمن]]: ٽيورِنگن: '''&lt;/small&gt;), سرڪاري طور تي &quot;فريسٽاٽ ٽيورِنجن&quot; &lt;small&gt;('''Freistaat''' '''Thüringen''', &quot;'''فريسٽاٽ''' '''ٿرينن'''&quot;)&lt;/small&gt; [[جرمني]] جي &lt;small&gt;'''16'''&lt;/small&gt; رياستن مان هڪ آهي. &lt;small&gt;'''16,171'''&lt;/small&gt; چورس ڪلو ميٽر جي ايراضي سان ۽ 2.1 ملين ماڻهن سان، اهو آبادي جي لحاظ کان &lt;small&gt;'''12'''&lt;/small&gt;هين وڏي رياست آهي.

[[جرمني]] جي وچئين حصي ۾ واقع هڪ خشڪيءَ سان گهيريل [[جرمني جون رياستون|وفاقي رياست]] آهي. ايراضيءَ جي لحاظ کان لڳ ڀڳ 16,202 چورس ڪلوميٽر سان يارهين وڏي رياست آهي. ٿورنجيا کي جرمني جي جاگرافيائي مرڪز واري رياست پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:ٿرنجيا]]
[[زمرو:جرمني جي رياستون]]</text>
      <sha1>6eemvtedhm1jxwnq8bpuwys45uhgjwv</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399395</id>
      <parentid>399394</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T10:45:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399395</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5610" sha1="h48dhuq8k5l3mhfb0i7arkjsfakpq1d" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox German state
|Name = فري اسٽيٽ آف ٿورنجيا 
|German_name =  فريسٽاٽ ٽيورِنجن 
|map = Deutschland Lage von Thüringen.svg
|flag = Flag of Thuringia.svg
|state_coa = Coat of arms of Thuringia.svg
|capital = [[ايرفرٽ]]
|area = 16171
|key = 16
|population = 2278136
|pop_ref = &lt;ref name=&quot;helaba.de&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.helaba.de/en/DieHelaba/MaerkteUndAnalysen/ResearchUndVolkswirtschaft/Bundeslaender/Downloads/20140402-ZahlenundFakten.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2015-10-21 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052707/https://www.helaba.de/en/DieHelaba/MaerkteUndAnalysen/ResearchUndVolkswirtschaft/Bundeslaender/Downloads/20140402-ZahlenundFakten.pdf |archivedate=2016-03-04 |df= }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|pop_date = 2008-09-30
|GDP = 57/ $63
|GDP_year = 2015
|GDP_ref = &lt;ref name=&quot;helaba.de&quot; /&gt;
|GDP_per_capita = 27,000/ $30,000
|GDP_per_capita_year = 2015
|PPP_per_capita =
|PPP_per_capita_year =
|GDP_percent = 
|Website = [http://www.thueringen.de/ thueringen.de]
|governing_body = [[ٿورنجيا جي لينڊٽيگ]]
|leader_title =
|leader = بوڊو  راميلو 
|leader_party = [[The Left (Germany)|The Left]]
|ruling_party1 = [[The Left (Germany)|The Left]]
|ruling_party2 = SPD
|ruling_party3 = [[Alliance '90/The Greens]]
|votes = 4
|NUTS = DEG
|iso region = DE-TH
|coordinates = {{coord|50|51|40|N|11|3|7|E|display=inline}}
|date=August 2010
}}
'''ٿورنجيا''' (&lt;small&gt;'''[[انگريزي ٻولي|انگريزي]]: Thuringia) [[جرمن ٻولي|جرمن]]: ٽيورِنگن: '''&lt;/small&gt;), سرڪاري طور تي &quot;فريسٽاٽ ٽيورِنجن&quot; &lt;small&gt;('''Freistaat''' '''Thüringen''', &quot;'''فريسٽاٽ''' '''ٿرينن'''&quot;)&lt;/small&gt; [[جرمني]] جي &lt;small&gt;'''16'''&lt;/small&gt; رياستن مان هڪ آهي. &lt;small&gt;'''16,171'''&lt;/small&gt; چورس ڪلو ميٽر جي ايراضي سان ۽ 2.1 ملين ماڻهن سان، اهو آبادي جي لحاظ کان &lt;small&gt;'''12'''&lt;/small&gt;هين وڏي رياست آهي.
[[جرمني]] جي وچئين حصي ۾ واقع هڪ خشڪيءَ سان گهيريل [[جرمني جون رياستون|وفاقي رياست]] آهي. ايراضيءَ جي لحاظ کان لڳ ڀڳ 16,202 چورس ڪلوميٽر سان يارهين وڏي رياست آهي. ٿورنجيا کي جرمني جي جاگرافيائي مرڪز واري رياست پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.

[[ارفرٽ]] ٿورنجيا جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ ۽ سڀ کان وڏو شهر آهي. ٻين اهم شهرن ۾ [[يينا]]، [[گيرا]] ۽ [[وائيمار]] شامل آهن. ٿورنجيا جون سرحدون [[باويريا]]، [[هيسي]]، [[لوئر سيڪسني]]، [[سيڪسني]] ۽ [[سيڪسني-آنهالٽ]] سان ملن ٿيون. ان کي 19هين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي پنهنجي وسيع ۽ گهاٽن ٻيلن سبب ''&quot;جرمني جي سائي دل&quot;'' (جرمن: ''داس گُروني هيرٽس ڊوئچلانڊس'') سڏيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; ٿورنجيا جو وڏو حصو [[زالي ندي]] جي آبي حوض ۾ واقع آهي، جيڪا [[ايلبي ندي]] جي کاٻي ڪناري واري معاون ندي آهي.

ٿورنجيا جي فرينڪي [[ٿورنجيا جي ڊچي|ڊچي]] لڳ ڀڳ 631ع ۾ بادشاهه [[ڊيگوبرٽ اول]] قائم ڪئي. جديد رياست 1920ع ۾ [[وائيمار جمهوريت]] جي دور ۾ [[ارنيسٽائن ڊچيون|ارنسٽائن ڊچين]] جي انضمام سان قائم ٿي، جڏهن ته [[سيڪس-ڪوبرگ]] ان ۾ شامل نه هو. [[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ ٿورنجيا [[اتحادي قبضي هيٺ جرمني]] جي [[سوويت قبضي وارو علائقو|سوويت قبضي واري علائقي]] جو حصو بڻيو ۽ ان جون سرحدون ٻيهر ترتيب ڏنيون ويون. 1949ع ۾ اها [[جرمن ڊيموڪريٽڪ ريپبلڪ]] (اوڀر جرمني) جو حصو بڻي، پر 1952ع ۾ انتظامي سڌارن دوران رياست ختم ڪري ان کي [[ارفرٽ ضلعو|ارفَرٽ]]، [[زول ضلعو|زول]] ۽ [[گيرا ضلعو|گيرا]] ضلعن ۾ ورهايو ويو. 1990ع ۾ [[جرمني جي ٻيهر وحدت]] کان پوءِ ٿورنجيا کي ٿورين سرحدي تبديلين سان ٻيهر قائم ڪيو ويو ۽ اها [[جرمني جون رياستون|وفاقي جمهوريه جرمني]] جي نون وفاقي رياستن مان هڪ بڻجي وئي.

ٿورنگيا [[رينسٽائيگ]] جو گهر آهي، جيڪو جرمني جو مشهور ترين جابلو پيادل رستو آهي. [[اوبرهوف]] جو سياري وارو تفريحي مرڪز سياري جي راندين لاءِ مشهور آهي؛ 2014ع تائين جرمني جي سياري اولمپڪس ۾ حاصل ڪيل 136 سونن تمغن مان اڌ ٿورنجيا جي رانديگرن کٽيا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; هي رياست ٽن مشهور مفڪرن ۽ ادب و فن جي وڏن شخصيتن سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي: [[يوهان سيباستيان باخ]]، [[يوهان وولفگانگ فون گوئٽي]] ۽ [[فريڊرش شلر]]. ٿورنجيا ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]]، [[ايلميناو ٽيڪنالاجي يونيورسٽي]]، [[ارفرٽ يونيورسٽي]]، [[باوهاوس يونيورسٽي وائيمار]] ۽ [[شمالڪالڊن يونيورسٽي آف اپلائيڊ سائنسز]] واقع آهن.

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:ٿرنجيا]]
[[زمرو:جرمني جي رياستون]]</text>
      <sha1>h48dhuq8k5l3mhfb0i7arkjsfakpq1d</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399396</id>
      <parentid>399395</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T10:52:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399396</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10184" sha1="1u45g92riioxtm89ex30kclwvmt781v" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox German state
|Name = فري اسٽيٽ آف ٿورنجيا 
|German_name =  فريسٽاٽ ٿيورِنجن 
|map = Deutschland Lage von Thüringen.svg
|flag = Flag of Thuringia.svg
|state_coa = Coat of arms of Thuringia.svg
|capital = [[ايرفرٽ]]
|area = 16171
|key = 16
|population = 2278136
|pop_ref = &lt;ref name=&quot;helaba.de&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.helaba.de/en/DieHelaba/MaerkteUndAnalysen/ResearchUndVolkswirtschaft/Bundeslaender/Downloads/20140402-ZahlenundFakten.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2015-10-21 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052707/https://www.helaba.de/en/DieHelaba/MaerkteUndAnalysen/ResearchUndVolkswirtschaft/Bundeslaender/Downloads/20140402-ZahlenundFakten.pdf |archivedate=2016-03-04 |df= }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|pop_date = 2008-09-30
|GDP = 57/ $63
|GDP_year = 2015
|GDP_ref = &lt;ref name=&quot;helaba.de&quot; /&gt;
|GDP_per_capita = 27,000/ $30,000
|GDP_per_capita_year = 2015
|PPP_per_capita =
|PPP_per_capita_year =
|GDP_percent = 
|Website = [http://www.thueringen.de/ thueringen.de]
|governing_body = [[ٿورنجيا جي لينڊٽيگ]]
|leader_title =
|leader = بوڊو  راميلو 
|leader_party = [[The Left (Germany)|The Left]]
|ruling_party1 = [[The Left (Germany)|The Left]]
|ruling_party2 = SPD
|ruling_party3 = [[Alliance '90/The Greens]]
|votes = 4
|NUTS = DEG
|iso region = DE-TH
|coordinates = {{coord|50|51|40|N|11|3|7|E|display=inline}}
|date=August 2010
}}
'''ٿورنجيا''' (&lt;small&gt;'''[[انگريزي ٻولي|انگريزي]]: Thuringia) [[جرمن ٻولي|جرمن]]: ٿيورِنجن: '''&lt;/small&gt;), سرڪاري طور تي &quot;فريسٽاٽ ٽيورِنجن&quot; &lt;small&gt;('''Freistaat''' '''Thüringen''', &quot;'''فريسٽاٽ''' '''ٿيورنجن'''&quot;)&lt;/small&gt; [[جرمني]] جي &lt;small&gt;'''16'''&lt;/small&gt; رياستن مان هڪ آهي. &lt;small&gt;'''16,171'''&lt;/small&gt; چورس ڪلو ميٽر جي ايراضي سان ۽ 2.1 ملين ماڻهن سان، اهو آبادي جي لحاظ کان &lt;small&gt;'''12'''&lt;/small&gt;هين وڏي رياست آهي.
[[جرمني]] جي وچئين حصي ۾ واقع هڪ خشڪيءَ سان گهيريل [[جرمني جون رياستون|وفاقي رياست]] آهي. ايراضيءَ جي لحاظ کان لڳ ڀڳ 16,202 چورس ڪلوميٽر سان يارهين وڏي رياست آهي. ٿورنجيا کي جرمني جي جاگرافيائي مرڪز واري رياست پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.

[[ارفرٽ]] ٿورنجيا جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ ۽ سڀ کان وڏو شهر آهي. ٻين اهم شهرن ۾ [[يينا]]، [[گيرا]] ۽ [[وائيمار]] شامل آهن. ٿورنجيا جون سرحدون [[باويريا]]، [[هيسي]]، [[لوئر سيڪسني]]، [[سيڪسني]] ۽ [[سيڪسني-آنهالٽ]] سان ملن ٿيون. ان کي 19هين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي پنهنجي وسيع ۽ گهاٽن ٻيلن سبب ''&quot;جرمني جي سائي دل&quot;'' (جرمن: ''داس گُروني هيرٽس ڊوئچلانڊس'') سڏيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; ٿورنجيا جو وڏو حصو [[زالي ندي]] جي آبي حوض ۾ واقع آهي، جيڪا [[ايلبي ندي]] جي کاٻي ڪناري واري معاون ندي آهي.

ٿورنجيا جي فرينڪي [[ٿورنجيا جي ڊچي|ڊچي]] لڳ ڀڳ 631ع ۾ بادشاهه [[ڊيگوبرٽ اول]] قائم ڪئي. جديد رياست 1920ع ۾ [[وائيمار جمهوريت]] جي دور ۾ [[ارنيسٽائن ڊچيون|ارنسٽائن ڊچين]] جي انضمام سان قائم ٿي، جڏهن ته [[سيڪس-ڪوبرگ]] ان ۾ شامل نه هو. [[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ ٿورنجيا [[اتحادي قبضي هيٺ جرمني]] جي [[سوويت قبضي وارو علائقو|سوويت قبضي واري علائقي]] جو حصو بڻيو ۽ ان جون سرحدون ٻيهر ترتيب ڏنيون ويون. 1949ع ۾ اها [[جرمن ڊيموڪريٽڪ ريپبلڪ]] (اوڀر جرمني) جو حصو بڻي، پر 1952ع ۾ انتظامي سڌارن دوران رياست ختم ڪري ان کي [[ارفرٽ ضلعو|ارفَرٽ]]، [[زول ضلعو|زول]] ۽ [[گيرا ضلعو|گيرا]] ضلعن ۾ ورهايو ويو. 1990ع ۾ [[جرمني جي ٻيهر وحدت]] کان پوءِ ٿورنجيا کي ٿورين سرحدي تبديلين سان ٻيهر قائم ڪيو ويو ۽ اها [[جرمني جون رياستون|وفاقي جمهوريه جرمني]] جي نون وفاقي رياستن مان هڪ بڻجي وئي.

ٿورنگيا [[رينسٽائيگ]] جو گهر آهي، جيڪو جرمني جو مشهور ترين جابلو پيادل رستو آهي. [[اوبرهوف]] جو سياري وارو تفريحي مرڪز سياري جي راندين لاءِ مشهور آهي؛ 2014ع تائين جرمني جي سياري اولمپڪس ۾ حاصل ڪيل 136 سونن تمغن مان اڌ ٿورنجيا جي رانديگرن کٽيا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; هي رياست ٽن مشهور مفڪرن ۽ ادب و فن جي وڏن شخصيتن سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي: [[يوهان سيباستيان باخ]]، [[يوهان وولفگانگ فون گوئٽي]] ۽ [[فريڊرش شلر]]. ٿورنجيا ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]]، [[ايلميناو ٽيڪنالاجي يونيورسٽي]]، [[ارفرٽ يونيورسٽي]]، [[باوهاوس يونيورسٽي وائيمار]] ۽ [[شمالڪالڊن يونيورسٽي آف اپلائيڊ سائنسز]] واقع آهن.

== نالي جي بڻ ۽ نشان ==

ٿورنجيا (جرمن: ''ٿيورِنجن'') جو نالو جرمني نسل جي [[ٿيورِنجيئي]] (''Thuringii'') قبيلي تان پيو، جيڪو [[هجرتن جو دور|هجرتن جي دور]] ۾ ظاهر ٿيو. هن قبيلي جي اصل بابت اڃا تائين يقيني ڄاڻ موجود ناهي. هڪ پراڻي نظرئي موجب اهي [[هرموندوري]] قبيلي جا جانشين هئا، پر پوءِ جي تحقيق هن خيال کي رد ڪري ڇڏيو. ڪجهه مؤرخن جو خيال آهي ته ٿيورِنجيئي [[هون]]ن جا اتحادي هئا، جيڪي انهن سان گڏ وچ يورپ ۾ آيا ۽ ان کان اڳ اڄوڪي [[گاليشيا (اوڀر يورپ)|گاليشيا]] واري علائقي ۾ رهندا هئا. رومي ليکڪ [[پبليئس فلاويوس ويجيشس ريناتس]] لڳ ڀڳ 400ع ڌاري پهريون ڀيرو ٿيورِنجيئي جو ذڪر ڪيو. ان دور ۾ هي قبيلو پنهنجي اعليٰ نسل جي گهوڙن سبب مشهور هو.

ٿورنگيئي بادشاهت 531ع کان پوءِ ختم ٿي وئي. ان کان پوءِ [[ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريويئيٽ]] 1131ع کان 1247ع تائين هن علائقي جي سڀ کان وڏي رياست رهي. ان جي زوال کان پوءِ &quot;ٿورنجيا&quot; نالي ڪا متحد رياست نه رهي، پر هي نالو اتر ۾ [[هارٽس جبل]]، اوڀر ۾ [[وائيٽ ايلسٽر ندي]]، ڏکڻ ۾ [[فرانڪونين ٻيلو]] ۽ اولهه ۾ [[ويرا ندي]] جي وچ واري علائقي لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو رهيو.

[[ليپزگ جو معاهدو|ليپزگ جي معاهدي]] کان پوءِ [[ويٽن خاندان|ارنيسٽائن ويٽن خاندان]] جي حڪومت هيٺ ٿورنجيا ٻيهر هڪ الڳ حڪمران گهراڻي سان وابسته ٿيو. انهن جي مختلف رياستن ۽ ڪجهه ٻين ننڍين رياستن کي گڏائي 1920ع ۾ [[ٿورنجيا (1920–1952)]] قائم ڪئي وئي. 1945ع ۾ [[پروشيا]] جا [[ارفرٽ]]، [[مولهاوزن]] ۽ [[نورڊهاوزن]] وارا علائقا به ٿورنگيا ۾ شامل ڪيا ويا.

[[ٿورنجيا جي قومي نشان|ٿورنجيا جي سرڪاري نشان]] ۾ 12هين صديءَ جي [[لودووينگي]] لينڊگريوز جو شير ڏيکاريل آهي، جنهن جي چوڌاري اٺ تارا آهن. اهي تارا انهن اٺن اڳوڻين رياستن جي علامت آهن، جن کي گڏائي جديد ٿورنجيا ٺاهي وئي. [[ٿورنجيا جو جهنڊو]] اڇي ۽ ڳاڙهي رنگ جي ٻه-پٽي جهنڊي تي ٻڌل آهي، جيڪو پڻ لودووينگي شير جي رنگن مان ورتل آهي. [[هيسي]] جي جهنڊي ۽ قومي نشان سان به ان جي گهڻي مشابهت آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي به ساڳئي تاريخي نشانين مان نڪتل آهن.

15هين صديءَ دوران ''ٿورنجيا جي پيلائيٽن ڳڻپ'' (جرمن: ''Pfalzgraf von Thüringen'') لاءِ هڪ اضافي قومي نشان تيار ڪيو ويو، جنهن جو مقصد [[ويٽن خاندان]] جي ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريوز جي سياسي حيثيت کي سندن ٿورنجيا ۽ سيڪسني وارن علائقن جي وچ ۾ وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪرڻ هو. ان کان پوءِ [[ٿورنجيا جي پيلائيٽن جا قومي نشان|ٿورنجيا-پيلائيٽن نشان]] ويٽن خاندان جي قومي نشانن ۾ شامل ڪيا ويا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.welt-der-wappen.de/Heraldik/Galerien/galerie1101.htm|title=Heraldik: Photos von Wappen in architektonischem Zusammenhang, Dokumentation und Datenbank|website=Welt der Wappen|access-date=12 June 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ٿورنجيا جي مشهور ثقافتي نشانين ۾ [[ٿورنجيا جي براٽوُرسٽ]] (روايتي ساسيج) ۽ [[ٿورنجيا جو ٻيلو]] شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ رياست جو وڏو حصو ٻيلن سان ڍڪيل آهي.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Vollwappen Wettiner Landgraf Albrecht 1265.png|[[ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريويئيٽ]] جو قومي نشان (1265ع)
File:Wappen-Fürstenzug10.jpg|[[فورسٽنزوگ]] تي ڏيکاريل ٿورنگيا جو لينڊگريويئي شير
File:Wappen-Fürstenzug11.jpg|[[فورسٽنزوگ]] تي ڏيکاريل ٿورنگيا جو پيلائيٽن عقاب
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:ٿرنجيا]]
[[زمرو:جرمني جي رياستون]]</text>
      <sha1>1u45g92riioxtm89ex30kclwvmt781v</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399397</id>
      <parentid>399396</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T10:53:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399397</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10184" sha1="bejc82p9kvsg7zwz6y7svxk1cyqlghc" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox German state
|Name = فري اسٽيٽ آف ٿورنجيا 
|German_name =  فريسٽاٽ ٿيورِنجن 
|map = Deutschland Lage von Thüringen.svg
|flag = Flag of Thuringia.svg
|state_coa = Coat of arms of Thuringia.svg
|capital = [[ايرفرٽ]]
|area = 16171
|key = 16
|population = 2278136
|pop_ref = &lt;ref name=&quot;helaba.de&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.helaba.de/en/DieHelaba/MaerkteUndAnalysen/ResearchUndVolkswirtschaft/Bundeslaender/Downloads/20140402-ZahlenundFakten.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2015-10-21 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052707/https://www.helaba.de/en/DieHelaba/MaerkteUndAnalysen/ResearchUndVolkswirtschaft/Bundeslaender/Downloads/20140402-ZahlenundFakten.pdf |archivedate=2016-03-04 |df= }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|pop_date = 2008-09-30
|GDP = 57/ $63
|GDP_year = 2015
|GDP_ref = &lt;ref name=&quot;helaba.de&quot; /&gt;
|GDP_per_capita = 27,000/ $30,000
|GDP_per_capita_year = 2015
|PPP_per_capita =
|PPP_per_capita_year =
|GDP_percent = 
|Website = [http://www.thueringen.de/ thueringen.de]
|governing_body = [[ٿورنجيا جي لينڊٽيگ]]
|leader_title =
|leader = بوڊو  راميلو 
|leader_party = [[The Left (Germany)|The Left]]
|ruling_party1 = [[The Left (Germany)|The Left]]
|ruling_party2 = SPD
|ruling_party3 = [[Alliance '90/The Greens]]
|votes = 4
|NUTS = DEG
|iso region = DE-TH
|coordinates = {{coord|50|51|40|N|11|3|7|E|display=inline}}
|date=August 2010
}}
'''ٿورنجيا''' (&lt;small&gt;'''[[انگريزي ٻولي|انگريزي]]: Thuringia) [[جرمن ٻولي|جرمن]]: ٿيورِنجن: '''&lt;/small&gt;), سرڪاري طور تي &quot;فريسٽاٽ ٽيورِنجن&quot; &lt;small&gt;('''Freistaat''' '''Thüringen''', &quot;'''فريسٽاٽ''' '''ٿيورنجن'''&quot;)&lt;/small&gt; [[جرمني]] جي &lt;small&gt;'''16'''&lt;/small&gt; رياستن مان هڪ آهي. &lt;small&gt;'''16,171'''&lt;/small&gt; چورس ڪلو ميٽر جي ايراضي سان ۽ 2.1 ملين ماڻهن سان، اهو آبادي جي لحاظ کان &lt;small&gt;'''12'''&lt;/small&gt;هين وڏي رياست آهي.
[[جرمني]] جي وچئين حصي ۾ واقع هڪ خشڪيءَ سان گهيريل [[جرمني جون رياستون|وفاقي رياست]] آهي. ايراضيءَ جي لحاظ کان لڳ ڀڳ 16,202 چورس ڪلوميٽر سان يارهين وڏي رياست آهي. ٿورنجيا کي جرمني جي جاگرافيائي مرڪز واري رياست پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.

[[ارفرٽ]] ٿورنجيا جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ ۽ سڀ کان وڏو شهر آهي. ٻين اهم شهرن ۾ [[يينا]]، [[گيرا]] ۽ [[وائيمار]] شامل آهن. ٿورنجيا جون سرحدون [[باويريا]]، [[هيسي]]، [[لوئر سيڪسني]]، [[سيڪسني]] ۽ [[سيڪسني-آنهالٽ]] سان ملن ٿيون. ان کي 19هين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي پنهنجي وسيع ۽ گهاٽن ٻيلن سبب ''&quot;جرمني جي سائي دل&quot;'' (جرمن: ''داس گُروني هيرٽس ڊوئچلانڊس'') سڏيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; ٿورنجيا جو وڏو حصو [[زالي ندي]] جي آبي حوض ۾ واقع آهي، جيڪا [[ايلبي ندي]] جي کاٻي ڪناري واري معاون ندي آهي.

ٿورنجيا جي فرينڪي [[ٿورنجيا جي ڊچي|ڊچي]] لڳ ڀڳ 631ع ۾ بادشاهه [[ڊيگوبرٽ اول]] قائم ڪئي. جديد رياست 1920ع ۾ [[وائيمار جمهوريت]] جي دور ۾ [[ارنيسٽائن ڊچيون|ارنسٽائن ڊچين]] جي انضمام سان قائم ٿي، جڏهن ته [[سيڪس-ڪوبرگ]] ان ۾ شامل نه هو. [[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ ٿورنجيا [[اتحادي قبضي هيٺ جرمني]] جي [[سوويت قبضي وارو علائقو|سوويت قبضي واري علائقي]] جو حصو بڻيو ۽ ان جون سرحدون ٻيهر ترتيب ڏنيون ويون. 1949ع ۾ اها [[جرمن ڊيموڪريٽڪ ريپبلڪ]] (اوڀر جرمني) جو حصو بڻي، پر 1952ع ۾ انتظامي سڌارن دوران رياست ختم ڪري ان کي [[ارفرٽ ضلعو|ارفَرٽ]]، [[زول ضلعو|زول]] ۽ [[گيرا ضلعو|گيرا]] ضلعن ۾ ورهايو ويو. 1990ع ۾ [[جرمني جي ٻيهر وحدت]] کان پوءِ ٿورنجيا کي ٿورين سرحدي تبديلين سان ٻيهر قائم ڪيو ويو ۽ اها [[جرمني جون رياستون|وفاقي جمهوريه جرمني]] جي نون وفاقي رياستن مان هڪ بڻجي وئي.

ٿورنگيا [[رينسٽائيگ]] جو گهر آهي، جيڪو جرمني جو مشهور ترين جابلو پيادل رستو آهي. [[اوبرهوف]] جو سياري وارو تفريحي مرڪز سياري جي راندين لاءِ مشهور آهي؛ 2014ع تائين جرمني جي سياري اولمپڪس ۾ حاصل ڪيل 136 سونن تمغن مان اڌ ٿورنجيا جي رانديگرن کٽيا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; هي رياست ٽن مشهور مفڪرن ۽ ادب و فن جي وڏن شخصيتن سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي: [[يوهان سيباستيان باخ]]، [[يوهان وولفگانگ فون گوئٽي]] ۽ [[فريڊرش شلر]]. ٿورنجيا ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]]، [[ايلميناو ٽيڪنالاجي يونيورسٽي]]، [[ارفرٽ يونيورسٽي]]، [[باوهاوس يونيورسٽي وائيمار]] ۽ [[شمالڪالڊن يونيورسٽي آف اپلائيڊ سائنسز]] واقع آهن.

== نالي جي بڻ ۽ نشان ==

ٿورنجيا (جرمن: ''ٿيورِنجن'') جو نالو جرمني نسل جي [[ٿيورِنجيئي]] (''Thuringii'') قبيلي تان پيو، جيڪو [[هجرتن جو دور|هجرتن جي دور]] ۾ ظاهر ٿيو. هن قبيلي جي اصل بابت اڃا تائين يقيني ڄاڻ موجود ناهي. هڪ پراڻي نظرئي موجب اهي [[هرموندوري]] قبيلي جا جانشين هئا، پر پوءِ جي تحقيق هن خيال کي رد ڪري ڇڏيو. ڪجهه مؤرخن جو خيال آهي ته ٿيورِنجيئي [[هون]]ن جا اتحادي هئا، جيڪي انهن سان گڏ وچ يورپ ۾ آيا ۽ ان کان اڳ اڄوڪي [[گاليشيا (اوڀر يورپ)|گاليشيا]] واري علائقي ۾ رهندا هئا. رومي ليکڪ [[پبليئس فلاويوس ويجيشس ريناتس]] لڳ ڀڳ 400ع ڌاري پهريون ڀيرو ٿيورِنجيئي جو ذڪر ڪيو. ان دور ۾ هي قبيلو پنهنجي اعليٰ نسل جي گهوڙن سبب مشهور هو.

ٿورنگيئي بادشاهت 531ع کان پوءِ ختم ٿي وئي. ان کان پوءِ [[ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريويئيٽ]] 1131ع کان 1247ع تائين هن علائقي جي سڀ کان وڏي رياست رهي. ان جي زوال کان پوءِ &quot;ٿورنجيا&quot; نالي ڪا متحد رياست نه رهي، پر هي نالو اتر ۾ [[هارٽس جبل]]، اوڀر ۾ [[وائيٽ ايلسٽر ندي]]، ڏکڻ ۾ [[فرانڪونين ٻيلو]] ۽ اولهه ۾ [[ويرا ندي]] جي وچ واري علائقي لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو رهيو.

[[ليپزگ جو معاهدو|ليپزگ جي معاهدي]] کان پوءِ [[ويٽن خاندان|ارنيسٽائن ويٽن خاندان]] جي حڪومت هيٺ ٿورنجيا ٻيهر هڪ الڳ حڪمران گهراڻي سان وابسته ٿيو. انهن جي مختلف رياستن ۽ ڪجهه ٻين ننڍين رياستن کي گڏائي 1920ع ۾ [[ٿورنجيا (1920–1952)]] قائم ڪئي وئي. 1945ع ۾ [[پروشيا]] جا [[ارفرٽ]]، [[مولهاوزن]] ۽ [[نورڊهاوزن]] وارا علائقا به ٿورنگيا ۾ شامل ڪيا ويا.

[[ٿورنجيا جي قومي نشان|ٿورنجيا جي سرڪاري نشان]] ۾ 12هين صديءَ جي [[لودووينگي]] لينڊگريوز جو شير ڏيکاريل آهي، جنهن جي چوڌاري اٺ تارا آهن. اهي تارا انهن اٺن اڳوڻين رياستن جي علامت آهن، جن کي گڏائي جديد ٿورنجيا ٺاهي وئي. [[ٿورنجيا جو جهنڊو]] اڇي ۽ ڳاڙهي رنگ جي ٻه-پٽي جهنڊي تي ٻڌل آهي، جيڪو پڻ لودووينگي شير جي رنگن مان ورتل آهي. [[هيسي]] جي جهنڊي ۽ قومي نشان سان به ان جي گهڻي مشابهت آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي به ساڳئي تاريخي نشانين مان نڪتل آهن.

15هين صديءَ دوران ''ٿورنجيا جي پيلائيٽن ڳڻپ'' (جرمن: ''Pfalzgraf von Thüringen'') لاءِ هڪ اضافي قومي نشان تيار ڪيو ويو، جنهن جو مقصد [[ويٽن خاندان]] جي ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريوز جي سياسي حيثيت کي سندن ٿورنجيا ۽ سيڪسني وارن علائقن جي وچ ۾ وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪرڻ هو. ان کان پوءِ [[ٿورنجيا جي پيلائيٽن جا قومي نشان|ٿورنجيا-پيلائيٽن نشان]] ويٽن خاندان جي قومي نشانن ۾ شامل ڪيا ويا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.welt-der-wappen.de/Heraldik/Galerien/galerie1101.htm|title=Heraldik: Photos von Wappen in architektonischem Zusammenhang, Dokumentation und Datenbank|website=Welt der Wappen|access-date=12 June 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ٿورنجيا جي مشهور ثقافتي نشانين ۾ [[ٿورنجيا جي براٽوُرسٽ]] (روايتي ساسيج) ۽ [[ٿورنجيا جو ٻيلو]] شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ رياست جو وڏو حصو ٻيلن سان ڍڪيل آهي.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Vollwappen Wettiner Landgraf Albrecht 1265.png|[[ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريويئيٽ]] جو قومي نشان (1265ع)
File:Wappen-Fürstenzug10.jpg|[[فورسٽنزوگ]] تي ڏيکاريل ٿورنجيا جو لينڊگريويئي شير
File:Wappen-Fürstenzug11.jpg|[[فورسٽنزوگ]] تي ڏيکاريل ٿورنجيا جو پيلائيٽن عقاب
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:ٿرنجيا]]
[[زمرو:جرمني جي رياستون]]</text>
      <sha1>bejc82p9kvsg7zwz6y7svxk1cyqlghc</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399398</id>
      <parentid>399397</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T10:55:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399398</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="20337" sha1="svu6x3ng8ajikqjxm6t1zkrgrt5e9ql" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox German state
|Name = فري اسٽيٽ آف ٿورنجيا 
|German_name =  فريسٽاٽ ٿيورِنجن 
|map = Deutschland Lage von Thüringen.svg
|flag = Flag of Thuringia.svg
|state_coa = Coat of arms of Thuringia.svg
|capital = [[ايرفرٽ]]
|area = 16171
|key = 16
|population = 2278136
|pop_ref = &lt;ref name=&quot;helaba.de&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.helaba.de/en/DieHelaba/MaerkteUndAnalysen/ResearchUndVolkswirtschaft/Bundeslaender/Downloads/20140402-ZahlenundFakten.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2015-10-21 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052707/https://www.helaba.de/en/DieHelaba/MaerkteUndAnalysen/ResearchUndVolkswirtschaft/Bundeslaender/Downloads/20140402-ZahlenundFakten.pdf |archivedate=2016-03-04 |df= }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|pop_date = 2008-09-30
|GDP = 57/ $63
|GDP_year = 2015
|GDP_ref = &lt;ref name=&quot;helaba.de&quot; /&gt;
|GDP_per_capita = 27,000/ $30,000
|GDP_per_capita_year = 2015
|PPP_per_capita =
|PPP_per_capita_year =
|GDP_percent = 
|Website = [http://www.thueringen.de/ thueringen.de]
|governing_body = [[ٿورنجيا جي لينڊٽيگ]]
|leader_title =
|leader = بوڊو  راميلو 
|leader_party = [[The Left (Germany)|The Left]]
|ruling_party1 = [[The Left (Germany)|The Left]]
|ruling_party2 = SPD
|ruling_party3 = [[Alliance '90/The Greens]]
|votes = 4
|NUTS = DEG
|iso region = DE-TH
|coordinates = {{coord|50|51|40|N|11|3|7|E|display=inline}}
|date=August 2010
}}
'''ٿورنجيا''' (&lt;small&gt;'''[[انگريزي ٻولي|انگريزي]]: Thuringia) [[جرمن ٻولي|جرمن]]: ٿيورِنجن: '''&lt;/small&gt;), سرڪاري طور تي &quot;فريسٽاٽ ٽيورِنجن&quot; &lt;small&gt;('''Freistaat''' '''Thüringen''', &quot;'''فريسٽاٽ''' '''ٿيورنجن'''&quot;)&lt;/small&gt; [[جرمني]] جي &lt;small&gt;'''16'''&lt;/small&gt; رياستن مان هڪ آهي. &lt;small&gt;'''16,171'''&lt;/small&gt; چورس ڪلو ميٽر جي ايراضي سان ۽ 2.1 ملين ماڻهن سان، اهو آبادي جي لحاظ کان &lt;small&gt;'''12'''&lt;/small&gt;هين وڏي رياست آهي.
[[جرمني]] جي وچئين حصي ۾ واقع هڪ خشڪيءَ سان گهيريل [[جرمني جون رياستون|وفاقي رياست]] آهي. ايراضيءَ جي لحاظ کان لڳ ڀڳ 16,202 چورس ڪلوميٽر سان يارهين وڏي رياست آهي. ٿورنجيا کي جرمني جي جاگرافيائي مرڪز واري رياست پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.

[[ارفرٽ]] ٿورنجيا جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ ۽ سڀ کان وڏو شهر آهي. ٻين اهم شهرن ۾ [[يينا]]، [[گيرا]] ۽ [[وائيمار]] شامل آهن. ٿورنجيا جون سرحدون [[باويريا]]، [[هيسي]]، [[لوئر سيڪسني]]، [[سيڪسني]] ۽ [[سيڪسني-آنهالٽ]] سان ملن ٿيون. ان کي 19هين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي پنهنجي وسيع ۽ گهاٽن ٻيلن سبب ''&quot;جرمني جي سائي دل&quot;'' (جرمن: ''داس گُروني هيرٽس ڊوئچلانڊس'') سڏيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; ٿورنجيا جو وڏو حصو [[زالي ندي]] جي آبي حوض ۾ واقع آهي، جيڪا [[ايلبي ندي]] جي کاٻي ڪناري واري معاون ندي آهي.

ٿورنجيا جي فرينڪي [[ٿورنجيا جي ڊچي|ڊچي]] لڳ ڀڳ 631ع ۾ بادشاهه [[ڊيگوبرٽ اول]] قائم ڪئي. جديد رياست 1920ع ۾ [[وائيمار جمهوريت]] جي دور ۾ [[ارنيسٽائن ڊچيون|ارنسٽائن ڊچين]] جي انضمام سان قائم ٿي، جڏهن ته [[سيڪس-ڪوبرگ]] ان ۾ شامل نه هو. [[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ ٿورنجيا [[اتحادي قبضي هيٺ جرمني]] جي [[سوويت قبضي وارو علائقو|سوويت قبضي واري علائقي]] جو حصو بڻيو ۽ ان جون سرحدون ٻيهر ترتيب ڏنيون ويون. 1949ع ۾ اها [[جرمن ڊيموڪريٽڪ ريپبلڪ]] (اوڀر جرمني) جو حصو بڻي، پر 1952ع ۾ انتظامي سڌارن دوران رياست ختم ڪري ان کي [[ارفرٽ ضلعو|ارفَرٽ]]، [[زول ضلعو|زول]] ۽ [[گيرا ضلعو|گيرا]] ضلعن ۾ ورهايو ويو. 1990ع ۾ [[جرمني جي ٻيهر وحدت]] کان پوءِ ٿورنجيا کي ٿورين سرحدي تبديلين سان ٻيهر قائم ڪيو ويو ۽ اها [[جرمني جون رياستون|وفاقي جمهوريه جرمني]] جي نون وفاقي رياستن مان هڪ بڻجي وئي.

ٿورنگيا [[رينسٽائيگ]] جو گهر آهي، جيڪو جرمني جو مشهور ترين جابلو پيادل رستو آهي. [[اوبرهوف]] جو سياري وارو تفريحي مرڪز سياري جي راندين لاءِ مشهور آهي؛ 2014ع تائين جرمني جي سياري اولمپڪس ۾ حاصل ڪيل 136 سونن تمغن مان اڌ ٿورنجيا جي رانديگرن کٽيا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; هي رياست ٽن مشهور مفڪرن ۽ ادب و فن جي وڏن شخصيتن سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي: [[يوهان سيباستيان باخ]]، [[يوهان وولفگانگ فون گوئٽي]] ۽ [[فريڊرش شلر]]. ٿورنجيا ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]]، [[ايلميناو ٽيڪنالاجي يونيورسٽي]]، [[ارفرٽ يونيورسٽي]]، [[باوهاوس يونيورسٽي وائيمار]] ۽ [[شمالڪالڊن يونيورسٽي آف اپلائيڊ سائنسز]] واقع آهن.

== نالي جي بڻ ۽ نشان ==

ٿورنجيا (جرمن: ''ٿيورِنجن'') جو نالو جرمني نسل جي [[ٿيورِنجيئي]] (''Thuringii'') قبيلي تان پيو، جيڪو [[هجرتن جو دور|هجرتن جي دور]] ۾ ظاهر ٿيو. هن قبيلي جي اصل بابت اڃا تائين يقيني ڄاڻ موجود ناهي. هڪ پراڻي نظرئي موجب اهي [[هرموندوري]] قبيلي جا جانشين هئا، پر پوءِ جي تحقيق هن خيال کي رد ڪري ڇڏيو. ڪجهه مؤرخن جو خيال آهي ته ٿيورِنجيئي [[هون]]ن جا اتحادي هئا، جيڪي انهن سان گڏ وچ يورپ ۾ آيا ۽ ان کان اڳ اڄوڪي [[گاليشيا (اوڀر يورپ)|گاليشيا]] واري علائقي ۾ رهندا هئا. رومي ليکڪ [[پبليئس فلاويوس ويجيشس ريناتس]] لڳ ڀڳ 400ع ڌاري پهريون ڀيرو ٿيورِنجيئي جو ذڪر ڪيو. ان دور ۾ هي قبيلو پنهنجي اعليٰ نسل جي گهوڙن سبب مشهور هو.

ٿورنگيئي بادشاهت 531ع کان پوءِ ختم ٿي وئي. ان کان پوءِ [[ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريويئيٽ]] 1131ع کان 1247ع تائين هن علائقي جي سڀ کان وڏي رياست رهي. ان جي زوال کان پوءِ &quot;ٿورنجيا&quot; نالي ڪا متحد رياست نه رهي، پر هي نالو اتر ۾ [[هارٽس جبل]]، اوڀر ۾ [[وائيٽ ايلسٽر ندي]]، ڏکڻ ۾ [[فرانڪونين ٻيلو]] ۽ اولهه ۾ [[ويرا ندي]] جي وچ واري علائقي لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو رهيو.

[[ليپزگ جو معاهدو|ليپزگ جي معاهدي]] کان پوءِ [[ويٽن خاندان|ارنيسٽائن ويٽن خاندان]] جي حڪومت هيٺ ٿورنجيا ٻيهر هڪ الڳ حڪمران گهراڻي سان وابسته ٿيو. انهن جي مختلف رياستن ۽ ڪجهه ٻين ننڍين رياستن کي گڏائي 1920ع ۾ [[ٿورنجيا (1920–1952)]] قائم ڪئي وئي. 1945ع ۾ [[پروشيا]] جا [[ارفرٽ]]، [[مولهاوزن]] ۽ [[نورڊهاوزن]] وارا علائقا به ٿورنگيا ۾ شامل ڪيا ويا.

[[ٿورنجيا جي قومي نشان|ٿورنجيا جي سرڪاري نشان]] ۾ 12هين صديءَ جي [[لودووينگي]] لينڊگريوز جو شير ڏيکاريل آهي، جنهن جي چوڌاري اٺ تارا آهن. اهي تارا انهن اٺن اڳوڻين رياستن جي علامت آهن، جن کي گڏائي جديد ٿورنجيا ٺاهي وئي. [[ٿورنجيا جو جهنڊو]] اڇي ۽ ڳاڙهي رنگ جي ٻه-پٽي جهنڊي تي ٻڌل آهي، جيڪو پڻ لودووينگي شير جي رنگن مان ورتل آهي. [[هيسي]] جي جهنڊي ۽ قومي نشان سان به ان جي گهڻي مشابهت آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي به ساڳئي تاريخي نشانين مان نڪتل آهن.

15هين صديءَ دوران ''ٿورنجيا جي پيلائيٽن ڳڻپ'' (جرمن: ''Pfalzgraf von Thüringen'') لاءِ هڪ اضافي قومي نشان تيار ڪيو ويو، جنهن جو مقصد [[ويٽن خاندان]] جي ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريوز جي سياسي حيثيت کي سندن ٿورنجيا ۽ سيڪسني وارن علائقن جي وچ ۾ وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪرڻ هو. ان کان پوءِ [[ٿورنجيا جي پيلائيٽن جا قومي نشان|ٿورنجيا-پيلائيٽن نشان]] ويٽن خاندان جي قومي نشانن ۾ شامل ڪيا ويا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.welt-der-wappen.de/Heraldik/Galerien/galerie1101.htm|title=Heraldik: Photos von Wappen in architektonischem Zusammenhang, Dokumentation und Datenbank|website=Welt der Wappen|access-date=12 June 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ٿورنجيا جي مشهور ثقافتي نشانين ۾ [[ٿورنجيا جي براٽوُرسٽ]] (روايتي ساسيج) ۽ [[ٿورنجيا جو ٻيلو]] شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ رياست جو وڏو حصو ٻيلن سان ڍڪيل آهي.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Vollwappen Wettiner Landgraf Albrecht 1265.png|[[ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريويئيٽ]] جو قومي نشان (1265ع)
File:Wappen-Fürstenzug10.jpg|[[فورسٽنزوگ]] تي ڏيکاريل ٿورنجيا جو لينڊگريويئي شير
File:Wappen-Fürstenzug11.jpg|[[فورسٽنزوگ]] تي ڏيکاريل ٿورنجيا جو پيلائيٽن عقاب
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==تاريخ==
[[File:Północno-wschodnie Niemcy ok 1000-es.svg|thumb|11هين صديءَ دوران ٿورنگيا (نيري رنگ ۾) ۽ ان جا پاڙيسري علائقا]]
{{Further|ٿورنگيئي|ٿورنگيا جي ڊچي}}

ٿورنگيا جو نالو [[ٿورنگيئي]] (''Thuringii'') نالي هڪ [[جرماني قومون|جرماني]] قبيلي تان پيو، جيڪو لڳ ڀڳ 300ع ڌاري هن علائقي ۾ آباد ٿيو. ڇهين صديءَ ۾ ٿورنگيا [[فرينڪ]]ن جي حڪمراني هيٺ اچي ويو. ٿورنگيا جو پهريون دستاويزي حڪمران [[ٿورنگيا جو راڊولف اول|راڊولف اول]] هو، جنهن کي 630ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات ۾ بادشاهه [[ڊيگوبرٽ اول]] طرفان ڊيوڪ مقرر ڪيو ويو. ان وقت فرينڪ [[سامو جي بغاوت|سامو جي سلاوي اتحاد]] سان جنگ ۾ هئا، جنهن ۾ ٿورنگيا جا پاڙيسري [[سورب (قبيلو)|سورب]] به شامل هئا. راڊولف [[زالي ندي]] جي ڪناري تي سلاوي حملن کي روڪڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿيو، پر پوءِ 641–642ع ڌاري بادشاهه [[سيگبرٽ ٽيون]] خلاف بغاوت ڪري پاڻ کي ٿورنگيا جو بادشاهه (''Rex'') قرار ڏنو ۽ سلاوين سميت ٻين قومن سان معاهدا ڪيا.

[[File:Beatrix Heinrich.jpg|thumb|ٿورنگيا جي لينڊگريو [[هينري راسپي]] ۽ [[براٻانٽ جي بيئٽريس]] جي شادي]]

بعد وارا ٿورنگيا جا ڊيوڪ فرينڪي حڪمرانن جا تابع رهيا. نائين صديءَ جي وچ ڌاري [[ڪارولنگين سلطنت]] ۽ پوءِ [[اوڀر فرينڪ بادشاهت]] جي دور ۾، 843ع جي [[ورڊن جو معاهدو|ورڊن جي معاهدي]] کان پوءِ، ٿورنگيا جي اوڀرئين سرحد کي ''[[سوربيائي سرحد]]'' (''Limes Sorabicus'') جي صورت ۾ منظم ڪيو ويو ۽ ان جي ذميواري [[ٿاخولف]] کي ڏني وئي.

[[File:Die Landgrafschaft Thüringen im Zentrum des Heiligen Römischen Reichs um 1250.png|thumb|13هين صديءَ ۾ ٿورنگيا ۽ پاڙيسري علائقن جي جاگيرداري ورهاست]]

[[مقدس رومي سلطنت]] جي دور ۾ 1130ع ۾ ٿورنگيا کي [[لينڊگريويئيٽ]] جو درجو مليو. ان عرصي دوران [[وائيمار ڪائونٽي|وائيمار]]، [[اورلامونڊي ڪائونٽي|اورلامونڊي]] ۽ ٻين ڪيترين جاگيرن ۾ بار بار ورهاست ۽ انضمام ٿيندا رهيا، جنهن سبب علائقو سياسي طور ٽڪرن ۾ ورهائجي ويو.

1246ع ۾ [[هينري راسپي]] کي [[رومين جو بادشاهه]] چونڊيو ويو، پر هو تخت حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام رهيو. 1247ع ۾ [[لودووينگي]] حڪمران خاندان جي خاتمي ۽ [[ٿورنگيا جي جانشيني جي جنگ]] (1247–1264ع) کان پوءِ علائقي جو اولهه وارو حصو [[هيسي]] جي نالي سان الڳ رياست بڻجي ويو، جڏهن ته باقي [[ٿورنگيا جي لينڊگريويئيٽ]] پاڙيسري [[ميسن جي مارگريويئيٽ]] ۽ [[ويٽن خاندان]] جي قبضي هيٺ اچي ويو.

1423ع ۾ ويٽن خاندان [[سيڪسني جي چونڊيل رياست]] تي به قبضو حاصل ڪيو. 15هين صديءَ دوران هنن ''ٿورنگيا جي پيلائيٽن'' (جرمن: ''Pfalzgrafschaft Thüringen'') جو لقب اختيار ڪيو ته جيئن ٿورنگيا ۽ سيڪسني جي وچ وارن علائقن تي پنهنجي دعويٰ مضبوط ڪري سگهن. 1485ع ۾ [[ليپزگ جو معاهدو|ليپزگ جي معاهدي]] تحت ويٽن خاندان ٻن شاخن ۾ ورهائجي ويو؛ ڏاکڻو ۽ وچ وارو ٿورنگيا [[ارنيسٽائن ويٽن خاندان]] کي مليو، جڏهن ته اتر وارو حصو [[البرٽائن ويٽن خاندان]] جي قبضي ۾ آيو.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Saxony (Division of Leipzig) - DE.png|1485ع جي [[ليپزگ جو معاهدو|ليپزگ جي معاهدي]] کان پوءِ ارنيسٽائن (ڳاڙهو) ۽ البرٽائن (پيلو) علائقا
File:Saxony after the Capitulation of Wittenberg (1547) - DE.png|1547ع جي [[ويٽنبرگ جي صلح]] کان پوءِ ارنيسٽائن (پيلو) ۽ البرٽائن (ڳاڙهو) علائقا
File:Saxony after the Treaty of Naumburg - DE.png|1554ع جي [[نامبرگ جو معاهدو|نامبرگ جي معاهدي]] کان پوءِ ارنيسٽائن (پيلو) ۽ البرٽائن (ڳاڙهو) علائقا
&lt;/gallery&gt;

===شروعاتي جديد دور===
[[File:Map of Thuringia (1680)-DE.svg|thumb|250px|1680ع ۾ [[ٿورنگيا جون رياستون]]]]
[[File:Thuringia 1910 - en.svg|thumb|250px|1910ع ۾ [[ٿورنگيا جون رياستون]]]]
{{Further|ٿورنگيا جون رياستون}}

ٿورنگيا ۾ [[پروٽيسٽنٽ سڌارا]] وڏي پيماني تي قبول ڪيا ويا، ۽ [[رومن ڪيٿولڪ گرجاگھر]] جو اثر 1520ع کان پوءِ تيزيءَ سان گهٽجي ويو. [[1525ع جي جرمن هارين جي جنگ]] دوران ڪيترائي گرجاگھر ۽ خانقاھون تباهه ڪيون ويون. [[مولهاوزن]] سميت ڪيترن شهرن ۾ [[انا بيپٽسٽ]] تحريڪ کي وڏي پذيرائي ملي، ۽ ان جا اهم اڳواڻ [[ٿامس مونٽسر]] هتي سرگرم رهيو. جديد ٿورنگيا ۾ ڪيٿولڪ مذهب خاص طور [[آئشسفيلڊ]] ۽ جزوي طور [[ارفرٽ]] جي آس پاس تائين محدود رهيو.

1547ع جي [[ويٽنبرگ جي صلح]] کان پوءِ ارنيسٽائن حڪمرانن سيڪسني جي چونڊيل رياست ته وڃائي، پر ٿورنگيا جا گهڻا علائقا برقرار رکيا. وراثت کي پٽن ۾ ورهائڻ جي روايت سبب اهي علائقا ڪيترين ننڍين رياستن ۾ ورهائجي ويا، جن کي گڏجي [[ارنيسٽائن ڊچيون]] يا ''سيڪسني ڊچيون'' چيو ويندو آهي. انهن ۾ [[سيڪس-وائيمار]]، [[سيڪس-آئزنآخ]]، [[سيڪس-يينا]]، [[سيڪس-ميننگن]]، [[سيڪس-آلٽنبرگ]]، [[سيڪس-ڪوبرگ]] ۽ [[سيڪس-گوٿا]] شامل هئا.

1778ع ۾ اڄ جي جرمني واري علائقي اندر [[ريس-گرائيتس جي رياست]] ۾ جديد جرمن [[جرمني جو جهنڊو|ڪارو-ڳاڙهو-سونائي ترنگو]] پهريون ڀيرو سرڪاري جهنڊي طور استعمال ٿيو.

1795ع کان 1814ع تائين [[جرمن ميڊياٽائيزيشن]] دوران ٿورنگيا جي رياستن جون حدون ٻيهر ترتيب ڏنيون ويون، ۽ 1806ع ۾ اهي [[رائين جي وفاق]] ۾ شامل ٿي ويون. [[1815ع جي ويانا ڪانگريس]] انهن تبديلين جي تصديق ڪئي ۽ ٿورنگيا جون رياستون [[جرمن وفاق]] جو حصو بڻيون. [[پروشيا]] به ٿورنگيا جا ڪجهه علائقا حاصل ڪري کين [[سيڪسني صوبو]] ۾ شامل ڪيو. 1871ع ۾ [[جرمني جي وحدت]] کان پوءِ ٿورنگيا جون مختلف رياستون [[جرمن سلطنت]] ۾ شامل ٿي ويون.

===ٿورنگيا جي آزاد رياست===
{{Further|ٿورنگيا (1920–1952)}}

[[پهريائين عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ، 1920ع ۾ ٿورنگيا جون ننڍيون رياستون گڏ ٿي [[ٿورنگيا (1920–1952)|ٿورنگيا جي رياست]] بڻيون. صرف [[سيڪس-ڪوبرگ]] عوامي راءِ شماري ذريعي [[باويريا]] سان شامل ٿيڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو. [[وائيمار]] کي نئين رياست جي گادي بڻايو ويو. نئين رياست جو قومي نشان اڳين رياستن جي نشانن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ سادو هو.

[[وائيمار جمهوريت]] جي دور ۾ 1920ع کان 1932ع تائين ٿورنگيا جي [[لينڊٽاگ]] جون ڇهه چونڊون ٿيون. 1929ع جي چونڊن کان پوءِ [[نازي پارٽي]] پهريون ڀيرو هتي اهم سياسي طاقت حاصل ڪئي ۽ [[ولهيلم فريڪ]] کي گهرو وزير مقرر ڪيو ويو. هن پوليس ۽ سرڪاري ادارن مان جمهوري خيال رکندڙ ماڻهن کي هٽائي نازين جا حامي مقرر ڪيا.

1934ع ۾ [[نازي جرمني]] جي مرڪزي حڪومت ''[[ريخ جي ٻيهر تنظيم وارو قانون]]'' تحت ٿورنگيا جي لينڊٽاگ کي ختم ڪري ڇڏيو. انهيءَ دور ۾ [[بوخينوالڊ حراستي ڪئمپ]] ۽ ان جا ڪيترائي ذيلي ڪئمپ ٿورنگيا ۾ قائم ڪيا ويا.

[[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ ٿورڙي عرصي لاءِ آمريڪي قبضي کان پوءِ جولاءِ 1945ع ۾ ٿورنگيا [[سوويت قبضي وارو علائقو|سوويت قبضي واري علائقي]] ۾ شامل ٿي وئي. ساڳئي وقت [[پروشيا]] جي اڳوڻي [[سيڪسني صوبو|سيڪسني صوبي]] جا [[ارفرٽ]]، [[مولهاوزن]] ۽ [[نورڊهاوزن]] وارا علائقا به ان ۾ شامل ڪيا ويا، ۽ [[ارفرٽ]] کي نئين گادي بڻايو ويو.

1952ع ۾ [[اوڀر جرمني]] پنهنجي رياستن کي ختم ڪري انهن جي جاءِ تي انتظامي ضلعا قائم ڪيا. اڳوڻي ٿورنگيا جو علائقو [[ارفرٽ ضلعو]]، [[گيرا ضلعو]] ۽ [[زول ضلعو]] ۾ ورهايو ويو، جڏهن ته [[آلٽنبرگ]] [[ليپزگ ضلعو]] جو حصو بڻيو.

1990ع ۾ [[جرمني جي ٻيهر وحدت]] کان پوءِ ٿورنگيا کي ٿورين سرحدي تبديلين سان ٻيهر [[جرمني جون رياستون|وفاقي رياست]] طور بحال ڪيو ويو.

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:ٿرنجيا]]
[[زمرو:جرمني جي رياستون]]</text>
      <sha1>svu6x3ng8ajikqjxm6t1zkrgrt5e9ql</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399399</id>
      <parentid>399398</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T11:01:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399399</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="20337" sha1="f22ut85ud7m85smaq4rweguvbdztrpv" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox German state
|Name = فري اسٽيٽ آف ٿورنجيا 
|German_name =  فريسٽاٽ ٿيورِنجن 
|map = Deutschland Lage von Thüringen.svg
|flag = Flag of Thuringia.svg
|state_coa = Coat of arms of Thuringia.svg
|capital = [[ايرفرٽ]]
|area = 16171
|key = 16
|population = 2278136
|pop_ref = &lt;ref name=&quot;helaba.de&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.helaba.de/en/DieHelaba/MaerkteUndAnalysen/ResearchUndVolkswirtschaft/Bundeslaender/Downloads/20140402-ZahlenundFakten.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2015-10-21 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052707/https://www.helaba.de/en/DieHelaba/MaerkteUndAnalysen/ResearchUndVolkswirtschaft/Bundeslaender/Downloads/20140402-ZahlenundFakten.pdf |archivedate=2016-03-04 |df= }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|pop_date = 2008-09-30
|GDP = 57/ $63
|GDP_year = 2015
|GDP_ref = &lt;ref name=&quot;helaba.de&quot; /&gt;
|GDP_per_capita = 27,000/ $30,000
|GDP_per_capita_year = 2015
|PPP_per_capita =
|PPP_per_capita_year =
|GDP_percent = 
|Website = [http://www.thueringen.de/ thueringen.de]
|governing_body = [[ٿورنجيا جي لينڊٽيگ]]
|leader_title =
|leader = بوڊو  راميلو 
|leader_party = [[The Left (Germany)|The Left]]
|ruling_party1 = [[The Left (Germany)|The Left]]
|ruling_party2 = SPD
|ruling_party3 = [[Alliance '90/The Greens]]
|votes = 4
|NUTS = DEG
|iso region = DE-TH
|coordinates = {{coord|50|51|40|N|11|3|7|E|display=inline}}
|date=August 2010
}}
'''ٿورنجيا''' (&lt;small&gt;'''[[انگريزي ٻولي|انگريزي]]: Thuringia) [[جرمن ٻولي|جرمن]]: ٿيورِنجن: '''&lt;/small&gt;), سرڪاري طور تي &quot;فريسٽاٽ ٽيورِنجن&quot; &lt;small&gt;('''Freistaat''' '''Thüringen''', &quot;'''فريسٽاٽ''' '''ٿيورنجن'''&quot;)&lt;/small&gt; [[جرمني]] جي &lt;small&gt;'''16'''&lt;/small&gt; رياستن مان هڪ آهي. &lt;small&gt;'''16,171'''&lt;/small&gt; چورس ڪلو ميٽر جي ايراضي سان ۽ 2.1 ملين ماڻهن سان، اهو آبادي جي لحاظ کان &lt;small&gt;'''12'''&lt;/small&gt;هين وڏي رياست آهي.
[[جرمني]] جي وچئين حصي ۾ واقع هڪ خشڪيءَ سان گهيريل [[جرمني جون رياستون|وفاقي رياست]] آهي. ايراضيءَ جي لحاظ کان لڳ ڀڳ 16,202 چورس ڪلوميٽر سان يارهين وڏي رياست آهي. ٿورنجيا کي جرمني جي جاگرافيائي مرڪز واري رياست پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.

[[ارفرٽ]] ٿورنجيا جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ ۽ سڀ کان وڏو شهر آهي. ٻين اهم شهرن ۾ [[يينا]]، [[گيرا]] ۽ [[وائيمار]] شامل آهن. ٿورنجيا جون سرحدون [[باويريا]]، [[هيسي]]، [[لوئر سيڪسني]]، [[سيڪسني]] ۽ [[سيڪسني-آنهالٽ]] سان ملن ٿيون. ان کي 19هين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي پنهنجي وسيع ۽ گهاٽن ٻيلن سبب ''&quot;جرمني جي سائي دل&quot;'' (جرمن: ''داس گُروني هيرٽس ڊوئچلانڊس'') سڏيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; ٿورنجيا جو وڏو حصو [[زالي ندي]] جي آبي حوض ۾ واقع آهي، جيڪا [[ايلبي ندي]] جي کاٻي ڪناري واري معاون ندي آهي.

ٿورنجيا جي فرينڪي [[ٿورنجيا جي ڊچي|ڊچي]] لڳ ڀڳ 631ع ۾ بادشاهه [[ڊيگوبرٽ اول]] قائم ڪئي. جديد رياست 1920ع ۾ [[وائيمار جمهوريت]] جي دور ۾ [[ارنيسٽائن ڊچيون|ارنسٽائن ڊچين]] جي انضمام سان قائم ٿي، جڏهن ته [[سيڪس-ڪوبرگ]] ان ۾ شامل نه هو. [[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ ٿورنجيا [[اتحادي قبضي هيٺ جرمني]] جي [[سوويت قبضي وارو علائقو|سوويت قبضي واري علائقي]] جو حصو بڻيو ۽ ان جون سرحدون ٻيهر ترتيب ڏنيون ويون. 1949ع ۾ اها [[جرمن ڊيموڪريٽڪ ريپبلڪ]] (اوڀر جرمني) جو حصو بڻي، پر 1952ع ۾ انتظامي سڌارن دوران رياست ختم ڪري ان کي [[ارفرٽ ضلعو|ارفَرٽ]]، [[زول ضلعو|زول]] ۽ [[گيرا ضلعو|گيرا]] ضلعن ۾ ورهايو ويو. 1990ع ۾ [[جرمني جي ٻيهر وحدت]] کان پوءِ ٿورنجيا کي ٿورين سرحدي تبديلين سان ٻيهر قائم ڪيو ويو ۽ اها [[جرمني جون رياستون|وفاقي جمهوريه جرمني]] جي نون وفاقي رياستن مان هڪ بڻجي وئي.

ٿورنگيا [[رينسٽائيگ]] جو گهر آهي، جيڪو جرمني جو مشهور ترين جابلو پيادل رستو آهي. [[اوبرهوف]] جو سياري وارو تفريحي مرڪز سياري جي راندين لاءِ مشهور آهي؛ 2014ع تائين جرمني جي سياري اولمپڪس ۾ حاصل ڪيل 136 سونن تمغن مان اڌ ٿورنجيا جي رانديگرن کٽيا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; هي رياست ٽن مشهور مفڪرن ۽ ادب و فن جي وڏن شخصيتن سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي: [[يوهان سيباستيان باخ]]، [[يوهان وولفگانگ فون گوئٽي]] ۽ [[فريڊرش شلر]]. ٿورنجيا ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]]، [[ايلميناو ٽيڪنالاجي يونيورسٽي]]، [[ارفرٽ يونيورسٽي]]، [[باوهاوس يونيورسٽي وائيمار]] ۽ [[شمالڪالڊن يونيورسٽي آف اپلائيڊ سائنسز]] واقع آهن.

== نالي جي بڻ ۽ نشان ==

ٿورنجيا (جرمن: ''ٿيورِنجن'') جو نالو جرمني نسل جي [[ٿيورِنجيئي]] (''Thuringii'') قبيلي تان پيو، جيڪو [[هجرتن جو دور|هجرتن جي دور]] ۾ ظاهر ٿيو. هن قبيلي جي اصل بابت اڃا تائين يقيني ڄاڻ موجود ناهي. هڪ پراڻي نظرئي موجب اهي [[هرموندوري]] قبيلي جا جانشين هئا، پر پوءِ جي تحقيق هن خيال کي رد ڪري ڇڏيو. ڪجهه مؤرخن جو خيال آهي ته ٿيورِنجيئي [[هون]]ن جا اتحادي هئا، جيڪي انهن سان گڏ وچ يورپ ۾ آيا ۽ ان کان اڳ اڄوڪي [[گاليشيا (اوڀر يورپ)|گاليشيا]] واري علائقي ۾ رهندا هئا. رومي ليکڪ [[پبليئس فلاويوس ويجيشس ريناتس]] لڳ ڀڳ 400ع ڌاري پهريون ڀيرو ٿيورِنجيئي جو ذڪر ڪيو. ان دور ۾ هي قبيلو پنهنجي اعليٰ نسل جي گهوڙن سبب مشهور هو.

ٿورنگيئي بادشاهت 531ع کان پوءِ ختم ٿي وئي. ان کان پوءِ [[ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريويئيٽ]] 1131ع کان 1247ع تائين هن علائقي جي سڀ کان وڏي رياست رهي. ان جي زوال کان پوءِ &quot;ٿورنجيا&quot; نالي ڪا متحد رياست نه رهي، پر هي نالو اتر ۾ [[هارٽس جبل]]، اوڀر ۾ [[وائيٽ ايلسٽر ندي]]، ڏکڻ ۾ [[فرانڪونين ٻيلو]] ۽ اولهه ۾ [[ويرا ندي]] جي وچ واري علائقي لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو رهيو.

[[ليپزگ جو معاهدو|ليپزگ جي معاهدي]] کان پوءِ [[ويٽن خاندان|ارنيسٽائن ويٽن خاندان]] جي حڪومت هيٺ ٿورنجيا ٻيهر هڪ الڳ حڪمران گهراڻي سان وابسته ٿيو. انهن جي مختلف رياستن ۽ ڪجهه ٻين ننڍين رياستن کي گڏائي 1920ع ۾ [[ٿورنجيا (1920–1952)]] قائم ڪئي وئي. 1945ع ۾ [[پروشيا]] جا [[ارفرٽ]]، [[مولهاوزن]] ۽ [[نورڊهاوزن]] وارا علائقا به ٿورنگيا ۾ شامل ڪيا ويا.

[[ٿورنجيا جي قومي نشان|ٿورنجيا جي سرڪاري نشان]] ۾ 12هين صديءَ جي [[لودووينگي]] لينڊگريوز جو شير ڏيکاريل آهي، جنهن جي چوڌاري اٺ تارا آهن. اهي تارا انهن اٺن اڳوڻين رياستن جي علامت آهن، جن کي گڏائي جديد ٿورنجيا ٺاهي وئي. [[ٿورنجيا جو جهنڊو]] اڇي ۽ ڳاڙهي رنگ جي ٻه-پٽي جهنڊي تي ٻڌل آهي، جيڪو پڻ لودووينگي شير جي رنگن مان ورتل آهي. [[هيسي]] جي جهنڊي ۽ قومي نشان سان به ان جي گهڻي مشابهت آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي به ساڳئي تاريخي نشانين مان نڪتل آهن.

15هين صديءَ دوران ''ٿورنجيا جي پيلائيٽن ڳڻپ'' (جرمن: ''Pfalzgraf von Thüringen'') لاءِ هڪ اضافي قومي نشان تيار ڪيو ويو، جنهن جو مقصد [[ويٽن خاندان]] جي ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريوز جي سياسي حيثيت کي سندن ٿورنجيا ۽ سيڪسني وارن علائقن جي وچ ۾ وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪرڻ هو. ان کان پوءِ [[ٿورنجيا جي پيلائيٽن جا قومي نشان|ٿورنجيا-پيلائيٽن نشان]] ويٽن خاندان جي قومي نشانن ۾ شامل ڪيا ويا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.welt-der-wappen.de/Heraldik/Galerien/galerie1101.htm|title=Heraldik: Photos von Wappen in architektonischem Zusammenhang, Dokumentation und Datenbank|website=Welt der Wappen|access-date=12 June 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ٿورنجيا جي مشهور ثقافتي نشانين ۾ [[ٿورنجيا جي براٽوُرسٽ]] (روايتي ساسيج) ۽ [[ٿورنجيا جو ٻيلو]] شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ رياست جو وڏو حصو ٻيلن سان ڍڪيل آهي.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Vollwappen Wettiner Landgraf Albrecht 1265.png|[[ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريويئيٽ]] جو قومي نشان (1265ع)
File:Wappen-Fürstenzug10.jpg|[[فورسٽنزوگ]] تي ڏيکاريل ٿورنجيا جو لينڊگريويئي شير
File:Wappen-Fürstenzug11.jpg|[[فورسٽنزوگ]] تي ڏيکاريل ٿورنجيا جو پيلائيٽن عقاب
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==تاريخ==
[[File:Północno-wschodnie Niemcy ok 1000-es.svg|thumb|11هين صديءَ دوران ٿورنجيا (نيري رنگ ۾) ۽ ان جا پاڙيسري علائقا]]
{{Further|ٿورنگيئي|ٿورنگيا جي ڊچي}}

ٿورنجيا جو نالو [[ٿورنگيئي]] (''Thuringii'') نالي هڪ [[جرماني قومون|جرماني]] قبيلي تان پيو، جيڪو لڳ ڀڳ 300ع ڌاري هن علائقي ۾ آباد ٿيو. ڇهين صديءَ ۾ ٿورنجيا [[فرينڪ]]ن جي حڪمراني هيٺ اچي ويو. ٿورنجيا جو پهريون دستاويزي حڪمران [[ٿورنجيا جو راڊولف اول|راڊولف اول]] هو، جنهن کي 630ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات ۾ بادشاهه [[ڊيگوبرٽ اول]] طرفان ڊيوڪ مقرر ڪيو ويو. ان وقت فرينڪ [[سامو جي بغاوت|سامو جي سلاوي اتحاد]] سان جنگ ۾ هئا، جنهن ۾ ٿورنجيا جا پاڙيسري [[سورب (قبيلو)|سورب]] به شامل هئا. راڊولف [[زالي ندي]] جي ڪناري تي سلاوي حملن کي روڪڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿيو، پر پوءِ 641–642ع ڌاري بادشاهه [[سيگبرٽ ٽيون]] خلاف بغاوت ڪري پاڻ کي ٿورنجيا جو بادشاهه (''Rex'') قرار ڏنو ۽ سلاوين سميت ٻين قومن سان معاهدا ڪيا.

[[File:Beatrix Heinrich.jpg|thumb|ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريو [[هينري راسپي]] ۽ [[براٻانٽ جي بيئٽريس]] جي شادي]]

بعد وارا ٿورنجيا جا ڊيوڪ فرينڪي حڪمرانن جا تابع رهيا. نائين صديءَ جي وچ ڌاري [[ڪارولنگين سلطنت]] ۽ پوءِ [[اوڀر فرينڪ بادشاهت]] جي دور ۾، 843ع جي [[ورڊن جو معاهدو|ورڊن جي معاهدي]] کان پوءِ، ٿورنجيا جي اوڀرئين سرحد کي ''[[سوربيائي سرحد]]'' (''Limes Sorabicus'') جي صورت ۾ منظم ڪيو ويو ۽ ان جي ذميواري [[ٿاخولف]] کي ڏني وئي.

[[File:Die Landgrafschaft Thüringen im Zentrum des Heiligen Römischen Reichs um 1250.png|thumb|13هين صديءَ ۾ ٿورنجيا ۽ پاڙيسري علائقن جي جاگيرداري ورهاست]]

[[مقدس رومي سلطنت]] جي دور ۾ 1130ع ۾ ٿورنجيا کي [[لينڊگريويئيٽ]] جو درجو مليو. ان عرصي دوران [[وائيمار ڪائونٽي|وائيمار]]، [[اورلامونڊي ڪائونٽي|اورلامونڊي]] ۽ ٻين ڪيترين جاگيرن ۾ بار بار ورهاست ۽ انضمام ٿيندا رهيا، جنهن سبب علائقو سياسي طور ٽڪرن ۾ ورهائجي ويو.

1246ع ۾ [[هينري راسپي]] کي [[رومين جو بادشاهه]] چونڊيو ويو، پر هو تخت حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام رهيو. 1247ع ۾ [[لودووينگي]] حڪمران خاندان جي خاتمي ۽ [[ٿورنجيا جي جانشيني جي جنگ]] (1247–1264ع) کان پوءِ علائقي جو اولهه وارو حصو [[هيسي]] جي نالي سان الڳ رياست بڻجي ويو، جڏهن ته باقي [[ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريويئيٽ]] پاڙيسري [[ميسن جي مارگريويئيٽ]] ۽ [[ويٽن خاندان]] جي قبضي هيٺ اچي ويو.

1423ع ۾ ويٽن خاندان [[سيڪسني جي چونڊيل رياست]] تي به قبضو حاصل ڪيو. 15هين صديءَ دوران هنن ''ٿورنجيا جي پيلائيٽن'' (جرمن: ''Pfalzgrafschaft Thüringen'') جو لقب اختيار ڪيو ته جيئن ٿورنجيا ۽ سيڪسني جي وچ وارن علائقن تي پنهنجي دعويٰ مضبوط ڪري سگهن. 1485ع ۾ [[ليپزگ جو معاهدو|ليپزگ جي معاهدي]] تحت ويٽن خاندان ٻن شاخن ۾ ورهائجي ويو؛ ڏاکڻو ۽ وچ وارو ٿورنجيا [[ارنيسٽائن ويٽن خاندان]] کي مليو، جڏهن ته اتر وارو حصو [[البرٽائن ويٽن خاندان]] جي قبضي ۾ آيو.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Saxony (Division of Leipzig) - DE.png|1485ع جي [[ليپزگ جو معاهدو|ليپزگ جي معاهدي]] کان پوءِ ارنيسٽائن (ڳاڙهو) ۽ البرٽائن (پيلو) علائقا
File:Saxony after the Capitulation of Wittenberg (1547) - DE.png|1547ع جي [[ويٽنبرگ جي صلح]] کان پوءِ ارنيسٽائن (پيلو) ۽ البرٽائن (ڳاڙهو) علائقا
File:Saxony after the Treaty of Naumburg - DE.png|1554ع جي [[نامبرگ جو معاهدو|نامبرگ جي معاهدي]] کان پوءِ ارنيسٽائن (پيلو) ۽ البرٽائن (ڳاڙهو) علائقا
&lt;/gallery&gt;

===شروعاتي جديد دور===
[[File:Map of Thuringia (1680)-DE.svg|thumb|250px|1680ع ۾ [[ٿورنجيا جون رياستون]]]]
[[File:Thuringia 1910 - en.svg|thumb|250px|1910ع ۾ [[ٿورنجيا جون رياستون]]]]
{{Further|ٿورنجيا جون رياستون}}

ٿورنجيا ۾ [[پروٽيسٽنٽ سڌارا]] وڏي پيماني تي قبول ڪيا ويا، ۽ [[رومن ڪيٿولڪ گرجاگھر]] جو اثر 1520ع کان پوءِ تيزيءَ سان گهٽجي ويو. [[1525ع جي جرمن هارين جي جنگ]] دوران ڪيترائي گرجاگھر ۽ خانقاھون تباهه ڪيون ويون. [[مولهاوزن]] سميت ڪيترن شهرن ۾ [[انا بيپٽسٽ]] تحريڪ کي وڏي پذيرائي ملي، ۽ ان جا اهم اڳواڻ [[ٿامس مونٽسر]] هتي سرگرم رهيو. جديد ٿورنجيا ۾ ڪيٿولڪ مذهب خاص طور [[آئشسفيلڊ]] ۽ جزوي طور [[ارفرٽ]] جي آس پاس تائين محدود رهيو.

1547ع جي [[ويٽنبرگ جي صلح]] کان پوءِ ارنيسٽائن حڪمرانن سيڪسني جي چونڊيل رياست ته وڃائي، پر ٿورنجيا جا گهڻا علائقا برقرار رکيا. وراثت کي پٽن ۾ ورهائڻ جي روايت سبب اهي علائقا ڪيترين ننڍين رياستن ۾ ورهائجي ويا، جن کي گڏجي [[ارنيسٽائن ڊچيون]] يا ''سيڪسني ڊچيون'' چيو ويندو آهي. انهن ۾ [[سيڪس-وائيمار]]، [[سيڪس-آئزنآخ]]، [[سيڪس-يينا]]، [[سيڪس-ميننگن]]، [[سيڪس-آلٽنبرگ]]، [[سيڪس-ڪوبرگ]] ۽ [[سيڪس-گوٿا]] شامل هئا.

1778ع ۾ اڄ جي جرمني واري علائقي اندر [[ريس-گرائيتس جي رياست]] ۾ جديد جرمن [[جرمني جو جهنڊو|ڪارو-ڳاڙهو-سونائي ترنگو]] پهريون ڀيرو سرڪاري جهنڊي طور استعمال ٿيو.

1795ع کان 1814ع تائين [[جرمن ميڊياٽائيزيشن]] دوران ٿورنجيا جي رياستن جون حدون ٻيهر ترتيب ڏنيون ويون، ۽ 1806ع ۾ اهي [[رائين جي وفاق]] ۾ شامل ٿي ويون. [[1815ع جي ويانا ڪانگريس]] انهن تبديلين جي تصديق ڪئي ۽ ٿورنجيا جون رياستون [[جرمن وفاق]] جو حصو بڻيون. [[پروشيا]] به ٿورنجيا جا ڪجهه علائقا حاصل ڪري کين [[سيڪسني صوبو]] ۾ شامل ڪيو. 1871ع ۾ [[جرمني جي وحدت]] کان پوءِ ٿورنجيا جون مختلف رياستون [[جرمن سلطنت]] ۾ شامل ٿي ويون.

===ٿورنجيا جي آزاد رياست===
{{Further|ٿورنگيا (1920–1952)}}

[[پهريائين عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ، 1920ع ۾ ٿورنگيا جون ننڍيون رياستون گڏ ٿي [[ٿورنجيا (1920–1952)|ٿورنجيا جي رياست]] بڻيون. صرف [[سيڪس-ڪوبرگ]] عوامي راءِ شماري ذريعي [[باويريا]] سان شامل ٿيڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو. [[وائيمار]] کي نئين رياست جي گادي بڻايو ويو. نئين رياست جو قومي نشان اڳين رياستن جي نشانن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ سادو هو.

[[وائيمار جمهوريت]] جي دور ۾ 1920ع کان 1932ع تائين ٿورنجيا جي [[لينڊٽاگ]] جون ڇهه چونڊون ٿيون. 1929ع جي چونڊن کان پوءِ [[نازي پارٽي]] پهريون ڀيرو هتي اهم سياسي طاقت حاصل ڪئي ۽ [[ولھيلم فريڪ]] کي گهرو وزير مقرر ڪيو ويو. هن پوليس ۽ سرڪاري ادارن مان جمهوري خيال رکندڙ ماڻهن کي هٽائي نازين جا حامي مقرر ڪيا.

1934ع ۾ [[نازي جرمني]] جي مرڪزي حڪومت ''[[ريخ جي ٻيهر تنظيم وارو قانون]]'' تحت ٿورنجيا جي لينڊٽاگ کي ختم ڪري ڇڏيو. انهيءَ دور ۾ [[بوخينوالڊ حراستي ڪئمپ]] ۽ ان جا ڪيترائي ذيلي ڪئمپ ٿورنجيا ۾ قائم ڪيا ويا.

[[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ ٿورڙي عرصي لاءِ آمريڪي قبضي کان پوءِ جولاءِ 1945ع ۾ ٿورنجيا [[سوويت قبضي وارو علائقو|سوويت قبضي واري علائقي]] ۾ شامل ٿي وئي. ساڳئي وقت [[پروشيا]] جي اڳوڻي [[سيڪسني صوبو|سيڪسني صوبي]] جا [[ارفرٽ]]، [[مولهاوزن]] ۽ [[نورڊهاوزن]] وارا علائقا به ان ۾ شامل ڪيا ويا، ۽ [[ارفرٽ]] کي نئين گادي بڻايو ويو.

1952ع ۾ [[اوڀر جرمني]] پنهنجي رياستن کي ختم ڪري انهن جي جاءِ تي انتظامي ضلعا قائم ڪيا. اڳوڻي ٿورنجيا جو علائقو [[ارفرٽ ضلعو]]، [[گيرا ضلعو]] ۽ [[زول ضلعو]] ۾ ورهايو ويو، جڏهن ته [[آلٽنبرگ]] [[ليپزگ ضلعو]] جو حصو بڻيو.

1990ع ۾ [[جرمني جي ٻيهر وحدت]] کان پوءِ ٿورنجيا کي ٿورين سرحدي تبديلين سان ٻيهر [[جرمني جون رياستون|وفاقي رياست]] طور بحال ڪيو ويو.

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:ٿرنجيا]]
[[زمرو:جرمني جي رياستون]]</text>
      <sha1>f22ut85ud7m85smaq4rweguvbdztrpv</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399400</id>
      <parentid>399399</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T11:04:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399400</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="29093" sha1="6pfvi9t664bqrf94hnsolc6rrzy20j2" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox German state
|Name = فري اسٽيٽ آف ٿورنجيا 
|German_name =  فريسٽاٽ ٿيورِنجن 
|map = Deutschland Lage von Thüringen.svg
|flag = Flag of Thuringia.svg
|state_coa = Coat of arms of Thuringia.svg
|capital = [[ايرفرٽ]]
|area = 16171
|key = 16
|population = 2278136
|pop_ref = &lt;ref name=&quot;helaba.de&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.helaba.de/en/DieHelaba/MaerkteUndAnalysen/ResearchUndVolkswirtschaft/Bundeslaender/Downloads/20140402-ZahlenundFakten.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2015-10-21 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052707/https://www.helaba.de/en/DieHelaba/MaerkteUndAnalysen/ResearchUndVolkswirtschaft/Bundeslaender/Downloads/20140402-ZahlenundFakten.pdf |archivedate=2016-03-04 |df= }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|pop_date = 2008-09-30
|GDP = 57/ $63
|GDP_year = 2015
|GDP_ref = &lt;ref name=&quot;helaba.de&quot; /&gt;
|GDP_per_capita = 27,000/ $30,000
|GDP_per_capita_year = 2015
|PPP_per_capita =
|PPP_per_capita_year =
|GDP_percent = 
|Website = [http://www.thueringen.de/ thueringen.de]
|governing_body = [[ٿورنجيا جي لينڊٽيگ]]
|leader_title =
|leader = بوڊو  راميلو 
|leader_party = [[The Left (Germany)|The Left]]
|ruling_party1 = [[The Left (Germany)|The Left]]
|ruling_party2 = SPD
|ruling_party3 = [[Alliance '90/The Greens]]
|votes = 4
|NUTS = DEG
|iso region = DE-TH
|coordinates = {{coord|50|51|40|N|11|3|7|E|display=inline}}
|date=August 2010
}}
'''ٿورنجيا''' (&lt;small&gt;'''[[انگريزي ٻولي|انگريزي]]: Thuringia) [[جرمن ٻولي|جرمن]]: ٿيورِنجن: '''&lt;/small&gt;), سرڪاري طور تي &quot;فريسٽاٽ ٽيورِنجن&quot; &lt;small&gt;('''Freistaat''' '''Thüringen''', &quot;'''فريسٽاٽ''' '''ٿيورنجن'''&quot;)&lt;/small&gt; [[جرمني]] جي &lt;small&gt;'''16'''&lt;/small&gt; رياستن مان هڪ آهي. &lt;small&gt;'''16,171'''&lt;/small&gt; چورس ڪلو ميٽر جي ايراضي سان ۽ 2.1 ملين ماڻهن سان، اهو آبادي جي لحاظ کان &lt;small&gt;'''12'''&lt;/small&gt;هين وڏي رياست آهي.
[[جرمني]] جي وچئين حصي ۾ واقع هڪ خشڪيءَ سان گهيريل [[جرمني جون رياستون|وفاقي رياست]] آهي. ايراضيءَ جي لحاظ کان لڳ ڀڳ 16,202 چورس ڪلوميٽر سان يارهين وڏي رياست آهي. ٿورنجيا کي جرمني جي جاگرافيائي مرڪز واري رياست پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.

[[ارفرٽ]] ٿورنجيا جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ ۽ سڀ کان وڏو شهر آهي. ٻين اهم شهرن ۾ [[يينا]]، [[گيرا]] ۽ [[وائيمار]] شامل آهن. ٿورنجيا جون سرحدون [[باويريا]]، [[هيسي]]، [[لوئر سيڪسني]]، [[سيڪسني]] ۽ [[سيڪسني-آنهالٽ]] سان ملن ٿيون. ان کي 19هين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي پنهنجي وسيع ۽ گهاٽن ٻيلن سبب ''&quot;جرمني جي سائي دل&quot;'' (جرمن: ''داس گُروني هيرٽس ڊوئچلانڊس'') سڏيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; ٿورنجيا جو وڏو حصو [[زالي ندي]] جي آبي حوض ۾ واقع آهي، جيڪا [[ايلبي ندي]] جي کاٻي ڪناري واري معاون ندي آهي.

ٿورنجيا جي فرينڪي [[ٿورنجيا جي ڊچي|ڊچي]] لڳ ڀڳ 631ع ۾ بادشاهه [[ڊيگوبرٽ اول]] قائم ڪئي. جديد رياست 1920ع ۾ [[وائيمار جمهوريت]] جي دور ۾ [[ارنيسٽائن ڊچيون|ارنسٽائن ڊچين]] جي انضمام سان قائم ٿي، جڏهن ته [[سيڪس-ڪوبرگ]] ان ۾ شامل نه هو. [[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ ٿورنجيا [[اتحادي قبضي هيٺ جرمني]] جي [[سوويت قبضي وارو علائقو|سوويت قبضي واري علائقي]] جو حصو بڻيو ۽ ان جون سرحدون ٻيهر ترتيب ڏنيون ويون. 1949ع ۾ اها [[جرمن ڊيموڪريٽڪ ريپبلڪ]] (اوڀر جرمني) جو حصو بڻي، پر 1952ع ۾ انتظامي سڌارن دوران رياست ختم ڪري ان کي [[ارفرٽ ضلعو|ارفَرٽ]]، [[زول ضلعو|زول]] ۽ [[گيرا ضلعو|گيرا]] ضلعن ۾ ورهايو ويو. 1990ع ۾ [[جرمني جي ٻيهر وحدت]] کان پوءِ ٿورنجيا کي ٿورين سرحدي تبديلين سان ٻيهر قائم ڪيو ويو ۽ اها [[جرمني جون رياستون|وفاقي جمهوريه جرمني]] جي نون وفاقي رياستن مان هڪ بڻجي وئي.

ٿورنگيا [[رينسٽائيگ]] جو گهر آهي، جيڪو جرمني جو مشهور ترين جابلو پيادل رستو آهي. [[اوبرهوف]] جو سياري وارو تفريحي مرڪز سياري جي راندين لاءِ مشهور آهي؛ 2014ع تائين جرمني جي سياري اولمپڪس ۾ حاصل ڪيل 136 سونن تمغن مان اڌ ٿورنجيا جي رانديگرن کٽيا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; هي رياست ٽن مشهور مفڪرن ۽ ادب و فن جي وڏن شخصيتن سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي: [[يوهان سيباستيان باخ]]، [[يوهان وولفگانگ فون گوئٽي]] ۽ [[فريڊرش شلر]]. ٿورنجيا ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]]، [[ايلميناو ٽيڪنالاجي يونيورسٽي]]، [[ارفرٽ يونيورسٽي]]، [[باوهاوس يونيورسٽي وائيمار]] ۽ [[شمالڪالڊن يونيورسٽي آف اپلائيڊ سائنسز]] واقع آهن.

== نالي جي بڻ ۽ نشان ==

ٿورنجيا (جرمن: ''ٿيورِنجن'') جو نالو جرمني نسل جي [[ٿيورِنجيئي]] (''Thuringii'') قبيلي تان پيو، جيڪو [[هجرتن جو دور|هجرتن جي دور]] ۾ ظاهر ٿيو. هن قبيلي جي اصل بابت اڃا تائين يقيني ڄاڻ موجود ناهي. هڪ پراڻي نظرئي موجب اهي [[هرموندوري]] قبيلي جا جانشين هئا، پر پوءِ جي تحقيق هن خيال کي رد ڪري ڇڏيو. ڪجهه مؤرخن جو خيال آهي ته ٿيورِنجيئي [[هون]]ن جا اتحادي هئا، جيڪي انهن سان گڏ وچ يورپ ۾ آيا ۽ ان کان اڳ اڄوڪي [[گاليشيا (اوڀر يورپ)|گاليشيا]] واري علائقي ۾ رهندا هئا. رومي ليکڪ [[پبليئس فلاويوس ويجيشس ريناتس]] لڳ ڀڳ 400ع ڌاري پهريون ڀيرو ٿيورِنجيئي جو ذڪر ڪيو. ان دور ۾ هي قبيلو پنهنجي اعليٰ نسل جي گهوڙن سبب مشهور هو.

ٿورنگيئي بادشاهت 531ع کان پوءِ ختم ٿي وئي. ان کان پوءِ [[ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريويئيٽ]] 1131ع کان 1247ع تائين هن علائقي جي سڀ کان وڏي رياست رهي. ان جي زوال کان پوءِ &quot;ٿورنجيا&quot; نالي ڪا متحد رياست نه رهي، پر هي نالو اتر ۾ [[هارٽس جبل]]، اوڀر ۾ [[وائيٽ ايلسٽر ندي]]، ڏکڻ ۾ [[فرانڪونين ٻيلو]] ۽ اولهه ۾ [[ويرا ندي]] جي وچ واري علائقي لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو رهيو.

[[ليپزگ جو معاهدو|ليپزگ جي معاهدي]] کان پوءِ [[ويٽن خاندان|ارنيسٽائن ويٽن خاندان]] جي حڪومت هيٺ ٿورنجيا ٻيهر هڪ الڳ حڪمران گهراڻي سان وابسته ٿيو. انهن جي مختلف رياستن ۽ ڪجهه ٻين ننڍين رياستن کي گڏائي 1920ع ۾ [[ٿورنجيا (1920–1952)]] قائم ڪئي وئي. 1945ع ۾ [[پروشيا]] جا [[ارفرٽ]]، [[مولهاوزن]] ۽ [[نورڊهاوزن]] وارا علائقا به ٿورنگيا ۾ شامل ڪيا ويا.

[[ٿورنجيا جي قومي نشان|ٿورنجيا جي سرڪاري نشان]] ۾ 12هين صديءَ جي [[لودووينگي]] لينڊگريوز جو شير ڏيکاريل آهي، جنهن جي چوڌاري اٺ تارا آهن. اهي تارا انهن اٺن اڳوڻين رياستن جي علامت آهن، جن کي گڏائي جديد ٿورنجيا ٺاهي وئي. [[ٿورنجيا جو جهنڊو]] اڇي ۽ ڳاڙهي رنگ جي ٻه-پٽي جهنڊي تي ٻڌل آهي، جيڪو پڻ لودووينگي شير جي رنگن مان ورتل آهي. [[هيسي]] جي جهنڊي ۽ قومي نشان سان به ان جي گهڻي مشابهت آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي به ساڳئي تاريخي نشانين مان نڪتل آهن.

15هين صديءَ دوران ''ٿورنجيا جي پيلائيٽن ڳڻپ'' (جرمن: ''Pfalzgraf von Thüringen'') لاءِ هڪ اضافي قومي نشان تيار ڪيو ويو، جنهن جو مقصد [[ويٽن خاندان]] جي ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريوز جي سياسي حيثيت کي سندن ٿورنجيا ۽ سيڪسني وارن علائقن جي وچ ۾ وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪرڻ هو. ان کان پوءِ [[ٿورنجيا جي پيلائيٽن جا قومي نشان|ٿورنجيا-پيلائيٽن نشان]] ويٽن خاندان جي قومي نشانن ۾ شامل ڪيا ويا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.welt-der-wappen.de/Heraldik/Galerien/galerie1101.htm|title=Heraldik: Photos von Wappen in architektonischem Zusammenhang, Dokumentation und Datenbank|website=Welt der Wappen|access-date=12 June 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ٿورنجيا جي مشهور ثقافتي نشانين ۾ [[ٿورنجيا جي براٽوُرسٽ]] (روايتي ساسيج) ۽ [[ٿورنجيا جو ٻيلو]] شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ رياست جو وڏو حصو ٻيلن سان ڍڪيل آهي.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Vollwappen Wettiner Landgraf Albrecht 1265.png|[[ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريويئيٽ]] جو قومي نشان (1265ع)
File:Wappen-Fürstenzug10.jpg|[[فورسٽنزوگ]] تي ڏيکاريل ٿورنجيا جو لينڊگريويئي شير
File:Wappen-Fürstenzug11.jpg|[[فورسٽنزوگ]] تي ڏيکاريل ٿورنجيا جو پيلائيٽن عقاب
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==تاريخ==
[[File:Północno-wschodnie Niemcy ok 1000-es.svg|thumb|11هين صديءَ دوران ٿورنجيا (نيري رنگ ۾) ۽ ان جا پاڙيسري علائقا]]
{{Further|ٿورنگيئي|ٿورنگيا جي ڊچي}}

ٿورنجيا جو نالو [[ٿورنگيئي]] (''Thuringii'') نالي هڪ [[جرماني قومون|جرماني]] قبيلي تان پيو، جيڪو لڳ ڀڳ 300ع ڌاري هن علائقي ۾ آباد ٿيو. ڇهين صديءَ ۾ ٿورنجيا [[فرينڪ]]ن جي حڪمراني هيٺ اچي ويو. ٿورنجيا جو پهريون دستاويزي حڪمران [[ٿورنجيا جو راڊولف اول|راڊولف اول]] هو، جنهن کي 630ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات ۾ بادشاهه [[ڊيگوبرٽ اول]] طرفان ڊيوڪ مقرر ڪيو ويو. ان وقت فرينڪ [[سامو جي بغاوت|سامو جي سلاوي اتحاد]] سان جنگ ۾ هئا، جنهن ۾ ٿورنجيا جا پاڙيسري [[سورب (قبيلو)|سورب]] به شامل هئا. راڊولف [[زالي ندي]] جي ڪناري تي سلاوي حملن کي روڪڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿيو، پر پوءِ 641–642ع ڌاري بادشاهه [[سيگبرٽ ٽيون]] خلاف بغاوت ڪري پاڻ کي ٿورنجيا جو بادشاهه (''Rex'') قرار ڏنو ۽ سلاوين سميت ٻين قومن سان معاهدا ڪيا.

[[File:Beatrix Heinrich.jpg|thumb|ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريو [[هينري راسپي]] ۽ [[براٻانٽ جي بيئٽريس]] جي شادي]]

بعد وارا ٿورنجيا جا ڊيوڪ فرينڪي حڪمرانن جا تابع رهيا. نائين صديءَ جي وچ ڌاري [[ڪارولنگين سلطنت]] ۽ پوءِ [[اوڀر فرينڪ بادشاهت]] جي دور ۾، 843ع جي [[ورڊن جو معاهدو|ورڊن جي معاهدي]] کان پوءِ، ٿورنجيا جي اوڀرئين سرحد کي ''[[سوربيائي سرحد]]'' (''Limes Sorabicus'') جي صورت ۾ منظم ڪيو ويو ۽ ان جي ذميواري [[ٿاخولف]] کي ڏني وئي.

[[File:Die Landgrafschaft Thüringen im Zentrum des Heiligen Römischen Reichs um 1250.png|thumb|13هين صديءَ ۾ ٿورنجيا ۽ پاڙيسري علائقن جي جاگيرداري ورهاست]]

[[مقدس رومي سلطنت]] جي دور ۾ 1130ع ۾ ٿورنجيا کي [[لينڊگريويئيٽ]] جو درجو مليو. ان عرصي دوران [[وائيمار ڪائونٽي|وائيمار]]، [[اورلامونڊي ڪائونٽي|اورلامونڊي]] ۽ ٻين ڪيترين جاگيرن ۾ بار بار ورهاست ۽ انضمام ٿيندا رهيا، جنهن سبب علائقو سياسي طور ٽڪرن ۾ ورهائجي ويو.

1246ع ۾ [[هينري راسپي]] کي [[رومين جو بادشاهه]] چونڊيو ويو، پر هو تخت حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام رهيو. 1247ع ۾ [[لودووينگي]] حڪمران خاندان جي خاتمي ۽ [[ٿورنجيا جي جانشيني جي جنگ]] (1247–1264ع) کان پوءِ علائقي جو اولهه وارو حصو [[هيسي]] جي نالي سان الڳ رياست بڻجي ويو، جڏهن ته باقي [[ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريويئيٽ]] پاڙيسري [[ميسن جي مارگريويئيٽ]] ۽ [[ويٽن خاندان]] جي قبضي هيٺ اچي ويو.

1423ع ۾ ويٽن خاندان [[سيڪسني جي چونڊيل رياست]] تي به قبضو حاصل ڪيو. 15هين صديءَ دوران هنن ''ٿورنجيا جي پيلائيٽن'' (جرمن: ''Pfalzgrafschaft Thüringen'') جو لقب اختيار ڪيو ته جيئن ٿورنجيا ۽ سيڪسني جي وچ وارن علائقن تي پنهنجي دعويٰ مضبوط ڪري سگهن. 1485ع ۾ [[ليپزگ جو معاهدو|ليپزگ جي معاهدي]] تحت ويٽن خاندان ٻن شاخن ۾ ورهائجي ويو؛ ڏاکڻو ۽ وچ وارو ٿورنجيا [[ارنيسٽائن ويٽن خاندان]] کي مليو، جڏهن ته اتر وارو حصو [[البرٽائن ويٽن خاندان]] جي قبضي ۾ آيو.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Saxony (Division of Leipzig) - DE.png|1485ع جي [[ليپزگ جو معاهدو|ليپزگ جي معاهدي]] کان پوءِ ارنيسٽائن (ڳاڙهو) ۽ البرٽائن (پيلو) علائقا
File:Saxony after the Capitulation of Wittenberg (1547) - DE.png|1547ع جي [[ويٽنبرگ جي صلح]] کان پوءِ ارنيسٽائن (پيلو) ۽ البرٽائن (ڳاڙهو) علائقا
File:Saxony after the Treaty of Naumburg - DE.png|1554ع جي [[نامبرگ جو معاهدو|نامبرگ جي معاهدي]] کان پوءِ ارنيسٽائن (پيلو) ۽ البرٽائن (ڳاڙهو) علائقا
&lt;/gallery&gt;

===شروعاتي جديد دور===
[[File:Map of Thuringia (1680)-DE.svg|thumb|250px|1680ع ۾ [[ٿورنجيا جون رياستون]]]]
[[File:Thuringia 1910 - en.svg|thumb|250px|1910ع ۾ [[ٿورنجيا جون رياستون]]]]
{{Further|ٿورنجيا جون رياستون}}

ٿورنجيا ۾ [[پروٽيسٽنٽ سڌارا]] وڏي پيماني تي قبول ڪيا ويا، ۽ [[رومن ڪيٿولڪ گرجاگھر]] جو اثر 1520ع کان پوءِ تيزيءَ سان گهٽجي ويو. [[1525ع جي جرمن هارين جي جنگ]] دوران ڪيترائي گرجاگھر ۽ خانقاھون تباهه ڪيون ويون. [[مولهاوزن]] سميت ڪيترن شهرن ۾ [[انا بيپٽسٽ]] تحريڪ کي وڏي پذيرائي ملي، ۽ ان جا اهم اڳواڻ [[ٿامس مونٽسر]] هتي سرگرم رهيو. جديد ٿورنجيا ۾ ڪيٿولڪ مذهب خاص طور [[آئشسفيلڊ]] ۽ جزوي طور [[ارفرٽ]] جي آس پاس تائين محدود رهيو.

1547ع جي [[ويٽنبرگ جي صلح]] کان پوءِ ارنيسٽائن حڪمرانن سيڪسني جي چونڊيل رياست ته وڃائي، پر ٿورنجيا جا گهڻا علائقا برقرار رکيا. وراثت کي پٽن ۾ ورهائڻ جي روايت سبب اهي علائقا ڪيترين ننڍين رياستن ۾ ورهائجي ويا، جن کي گڏجي [[ارنيسٽائن ڊچيون]] يا ''سيڪسني ڊچيون'' چيو ويندو آهي. انهن ۾ [[سيڪس-وائيمار]]، [[سيڪس-آئزنآخ]]، [[سيڪس-يينا]]، [[سيڪس-ميننگن]]، [[سيڪس-آلٽنبرگ]]، [[سيڪس-ڪوبرگ]] ۽ [[سيڪس-گوٿا]] شامل هئا.

1778ع ۾ اڄ جي جرمني واري علائقي اندر [[ريس-گرائيتس جي رياست]] ۾ جديد جرمن [[جرمني جو جهنڊو|ڪارو-ڳاڙهو-سونائي ترنگو]] پهريون ڀيرو سرڪاري جهنڊي طور استعمال ٿيو.

1795ع کان 1814ع تائين [[جرمن ميڊياٽائيزيشن]] دوران ٿورنجيا جي رياستن جون حدون ٻيهر ترتيب ڏنيون ويون، ۽ 1806ع ۾ اهي [[رائين جي وفاق]] ۾ شامل ٿي ويون. [[1815ع جي ويانا ڪانگريس]] انهن تبديلين جي تصديق ڪئي ۽ ٿورنجيا جون رياستون [[جرمن وفاق]] جو حصو بڻيون. [[پروشيا]] به ٿورنجيا جا ڪجهه علائقا حاصل ڪري کين [[سيڪسني صوبو]] ۾ شامل ڪيو. 1871ع ۾ [[جرمني جي وحدت]] کان پوءِ ٿورنجيا جون مختلف رياستون [[جرمن سلطنت]] ۾ شامل ٿي ويون.

===ٿورنجيا جي آزاد رياست===
{{Further|ٿورنگيا (1920–1952)}}

[[پهريائين عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ، 1920ع ۾ ٿورنگيا جون ننڍيون رياستون گڏ ٿي [[ٿورنجيا (1920–1952)|ٿورنجيا جي رياست]] بڻيون. صرف [[سيڪس-ڪوبرگ]] عوامي راءِ شماري ذريعي [[باويريا]] سان شامل ٿيڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو. [[وائيمار]] کي نئين رياست جي گادي بڻايو ويو. نئين رياست جو قومي نشان اڳين رياستن جي نشانن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ سادو هو.

[[وائيمار جمهوريت]] جي دور ۾ 1920ع کان 1932ع تائين ٿورنجيا جي [[لينڊٽاگ]] جون ڇهه چونڊون ٿيون. 1929ع جي چونڊن کان پوءِ [[نازي پارٽي]] پهريون ڀيرو هتي اهم سياسي طاقت حاصل ڪئي ۽ [[ولھيلم فريڪ]] کي گهرو وزير مقرر ڪيو ويو. هن پوليس ۽ سرڪاري ادارن مان جمهوري خيال رکندڙ ماڻهن کي هٽائي نازين جا حامي مقرر ڪيا.

1934ع ۾ [[نازي جرمني]] جي مرڪزي حڪومت ''[[ريخ جي ٻيهر تنظيم وارو قانون]]'' تحت ٿورنجيا جي لينڊٽاگ کي ختم ڪري ڇڏيو. انهيءَ دور ۾ [[بوخينوالڊ حراستي ڪئمپ]] ۽ ان جا ڪيترائي ذيلي ڪئمپ ٿورنجيا ۾ قائم ڪيا ويا.

[[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ ٿورڙي عرصي لاءِ آمريڪي قبضي کان پوءِ جولاءِ 1945ع ۾ ٿورنجيا [[سوويت قبضي وارو علائقو|سوويت قبضي واري علائقي]] ۾ شامل ٿي وئي. ساڳئي وقت [[پروشيا]] جي اڳوڻي [[سيڪسني صوبو|سيڪسني صوبي]] جا [[ارفرٽ]]، [[مولهاوزن]] ۽ [[نورڊهاوزن]] وارا علائقا به ان ۾ شامل ڪيا ويا، ۽ [[ارفرٽ]] کي نئين گادي بڻايو ويو.

1952ع ۾ [[اوڀر جرمني]] پنهنجي رياستن کي ختم ڪري انهن جي جاءِ تي انتظامي ضلعا قائم ڪيا. اڳوڻي ٿورنجيا جو علائقو [[ارفرٽ ضلعو]]، [[گيرا ضلعو]] ۽ [[زول ضلعو]] ۾ ورهايو ويو، جڏهن ته [[آلٽنبرگ]] [[ليپزگ ضلعو]] جو حصو بڻيو.

1990ع ۾ [[جرمني جي ٻيهر وحدت]] کان پوءِ ٿورنجيا کي ٿورين سرحدي تبديلين سان ٻيهر [[جرمني جون رياستون|وفاقي رياست]] طور بحال ڪيو ويو.

==جاگرافي==
{{unreferenced section|date=January 2025}}

=== جاگرافيائي بناوت ===
اتر-اولهه کان گھڙيال جي رخ موجب، [[ٿورنجيا]] جون سرحدون [[لوئر سيڪسني]]، [[سيڪسني-انهالٽ]]، [[سيڪسني]]، [[باويريا]] ۽ [[هيسي]] سان ملن ٿيون.

[[File:Meuselbach Viehberg.JPG|thumb|right|[[ميزلباخ-شوارزموله]]، [[ٿورنجيا جي مٿانهين علائقي]] ۾]]

ٿورنجيا جي قدرتي بناوت نهايت متنوع آهي. رياست جي اترئين حصي ۾ [[هارٽس جبل]] واقع آهن، جن جي ڏکڻ ۾ [[گولڊيني آؤئي]] نالي زرخيز ميداني علائقو پکڙيل آهي، جيڪو [[نورڊهاوزن]] جي چوڌاري [[هيلمي ندي]] سان وابسته آهي.

اتر-اولهه ۾ [[آئشسفيلڊ]] جو ٽڪريلو ۽ جزوي طور ٻيلن سان ڍڪيل علائقو آهي، جتان [[لائني ندي]] نڪري ٿي.

مرڪزي ۽ اترئين ٿورنجيا جو وڏو حصو تقريباً 3٬000 چورس ڪلوميٽرن تي پکڙيل [[ٿورنجيا وارو طاس]] (Thuringian Basin) آهي، جيڪو [[اونشٽروٽ ندي]] جي چوڌاري واقع هڪ هموار ۽ نهايت زرخيز ميدان آهي. هن طاس کي ڪيترن جبلن ۽ ٽڪرين جون قطارون گهيرين ٿيون، جن ۾ [[ڊون]]، [[هائنلائيٽي]]، [[ونڊلائيٽي]]، [[ڪيفهائوزر]]، [[هوهي شريڪي]]، [[شمُڪي]]، [[فني]]، [[ايٽرسبرگ]]، [[شٽائيگروالڊ (ارفرٽ)|شٽائيگروالڊ]]، [[ٿورنجيا جو ٻيلو]]، [[هورزلبيرگه]] ۽ [[هائنيش]] شامل آهن. طاس جي اندر [[فانر هوهه]] ۽ [[هائلنگر هوهن]] جهڙيون ننڍيون ٽڪريون پڻ موجود آهن.

طاس جي ڏکڻ ۾ رياست جو سڀ کان وڏو جبلستان آهي، جنهن ۾ اتر-اولهه طرف [[ٿورنجيا جو ٻيلو]]، وچ ۾ [[ٿورنجيا جو مٿانهون علائقو]] ۽ ڏکڻ-اوڀر ۾ [[فرانڪونين ٻيلو]] شامل آهن. هن جبلستان جو وڏو حصو ٻيلن سان ڍڪيل آهي، جڏهن ته [[گروسر بيربرگ]] (983 ميٽر) رياست جي بلند ترين چوٽي آهي.

ڏکڻ-اولهه ۾ [[ويرا ندي]] جي وادي هن جبلستان کي اولهه واري [[رون جبل]] ۽ ڏکڻ واري [[گراٻفيلڊ]] جي ميدان کان جدا ڪري ٿي.

اوڀرئين ٿورنجيا، جيڪو عام طور [[زالي ندي]] ۽ [[لوڪيٽس ندي]] جي اوڀر وارو علائقو سڏجي ٿو، ٽڪرين ۽ لهرن واري زمين تي مشتمل آهي، جيڪا اتر کان ڏکڻ طرف آهستي آهستي بلند ٿيندي وڃي ٿي. هن علائقي مان [[زالي ندي]] ۽ [[وائيٽ ايلسٽر ندي]] ڏکڻ کان اتر طرف وهنديون آهن ۽ سندن وادين ۾ گهڻي آبادي آباد آهي. انهن ٻنهي دريائن جي وچ ۾ اتر ۾ ٻيلن وارو [[ٿورنجيا هولزلانڊ]]، وچ ۾ زرخيز [[اورلاسينڪي]] ۽ ڏکڻ ۾ ٽڪريلو [[فوگٽلانڊ]] واقع آهن. سڀ کان اوڀر وارو [[اوسترلانڊ]] يا [[آلٽنبرگر لانڊ]] [[پلائيسي ندي]] جي ڪناري تي هڪ زرخيز زرعي علائقو آهي.

ٿورنجيا جون ٻه اهم نديون [[زالي ندي]] ۽ [[ويرا ندي]] آهن. زالي، جيڪا [[ايلبي ندي]] جي معاون ندي آهي، پنهنجي معاون دريائن [[اونشٽروٽ ندي]]، [[اِلم ندي (ٿورنجيا)|اِلم ندي]] ۽ [[وائيٽ ايلسٽر ندي]] سان گڏ رياست جي اڪثر حصي جو پاڻي خارج ڪري ٿي. [[ويرا ندي]]، جيڪا [[ويزر ندي]] جو سرچشمو آهي، رياست جي اولهه ۽ ڏکڻ-اولهه واري حصي کي نيڪال فراهم ڪري ٿي. ڏکڻ سرحد جا ڪجهه ننڍا علائقا [[مين ندي]] جي معاون دريائن وسيلي [[رائن ندي]] جي وهڪري ۾ شامل ٿين ٿا.

ٿورنجيا ۾ ڪا وڏي قدرتي ڍنڍ موجود ناهي، پر هتي جرمني جا ڪجهه وڏا بند آهن، جن ۾ [[بلايلوخ بند]]، [[هوهنوارٽي بند]]، [[لائبيس-لشٽي بند]] ۽ [[گولڊيشٽال پمپڊ اسٽوريج اسٽيشن]] شامل آهن.

ٿورنجيا جرمني جي اها واحد وفاقي رياست آهي، جنهن جو ڪنهن به قابلِ جهازراني آبي رستي سان سڌو سنئون رابطو ناهي.

[[جرمني]] جو جاگرافيائي مرڪز [[فوگٽائي، ٿورنجيا|فوگٽائي]] ميونسپلٽي ۾ [[مولهاوزن]] جي ويجهو واقع آهي، جڏهن ته ٿورنجيا جو جاگرافيائي مرڪز [[ارفرٽ گرجاگھر]] کان لڳ ڀڳ اٺ ڪلوميٽر ڏکڻ ۾ [[روڪهاوزن]] ميونسپلٽي اندر آهي.

=== آبهوا ===
ٿورنجيا جي آبهوا [[معتدل آبهوا|معتدل]] آهي، جتي اڪثر نمي وارا اولهه طرفان ايندڙ هوائن جا وهڪرا غالب رهن ٿا. اتر-اولهه کان ڏکڻ-اوڀر طرف وڌڻ سان آبهوا ۾ براعظمي خصوصيتون نمايان ٿين ٿيون؛ سياري ۾ ڊگهي عرصي تائين سخت سردي ۽ اونهاري ۾ نسبتاً وڌيڪ گرمي محسوس ٿيندي آهي.

[[ٿورنجيا وارو طاس]] جبلن جي اوٽ ۾ هجڻ سبب جرمني جو سڀ کان خشڪ علائقو شمار ٿئي ٿو، جتي سالياني برسات صرف 400 کان 500 ملي ميٽر تائين ٿئي ٿي.

اتر-اوڀر ۾ [[آرٽرن]] نسبتاً گرم ۽ خشڪ علائقو آهي، جتي سراسري سالياني گرمي پد 8.5° سينٽي گريڊ ۽ برسات لڳ ڀڳ 450 ملي ميٽر ٿئي ٿي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[اوبرهوف]] ۾ سراسري گرمي پد صرف 4.4° سينٽي گريڊ آهي ۽ سالياني برسات 1٬300 ملي ميٽر تائين پهچي ٿي.

{{Erfurt-Weimar weatherbox}}

=== فطرت ۽ ماحول ===
[[File:Ruppberg Sonnenaufgang.jpg|thumb|right|سياري ۾ [[ٿورنجيا جو ٻيلو]]]]
[[File:WAK SEEB INSELSBG.jpg|thumb|right|[[گروسر انسيلسبرگ]]]]

صدين کان جاري انساني آبادڪاري سبب ٿورنجيا جو قدرتي ماحول وڏي حد تائين تبديل ٿي چڪو آهي. اصل قدرتي ٻيلن ۾ [[يورپي بيچ]] غالب وڻ هو، جنهن جا نمونا اڄ به [[هائنيش]] جي ٻيلن ۾ موجود آهن. جبلستاني علائقن ۾ بيچ ۽ [[ناروي اسپروس]] جا گڏيل ٻيل قدرتي طور موجود هجن ها، پر اڄڪلهه گهڻا ٻيل [[اسڪاٽس پائن]] ۽ اسپروس سان ٻيهر پوکيا ويا آهن.

1990ع کان پوءِ ٻيلن جي سنڀال اهڙي نموني ڪئي پئي وڃي جو اهي موسمي تبديلي، بيمارين ۽ نقصانڪار جيتن جي مقابلي لاءِ وڌيڪ قدرتي ۽ مضبوط بڻجي سگهن.

زرعي شعبي ۾ اڃا تائين وڏيون زمينون ۽ هڪ ئي فصل تي ٻڌل پوک (Monoculture) عام آهي. اونهاري دوران وڌندڙ خشڪ دور زمين ۽ زراعت لاءِ اهم مسئلو بڻجي رهيا آهن.

1990ع کان پوءِ صنعتي ڪارخانن، رهائشي عمارتن ۽ گاڏين جي جديد بڻجڻ سبب هوا، دريائن ۽ ٻيلن جي حالت ۾ نمايان بهتري آئي آهي. [[رونيبورگ]] جي اڳوڻين [[يورينيم]] کليل کاڻين وارن آلود علائقن جي به صفائي ڪئي وئي.

اڄڪلهه اهم ماحولياتي مسئلن ۾ [[ويرا ندي]] جي لوڻائپ، جيڪا [[K+S]] جي لوڻ جي کاڻين مان خارج ٿيندڙ پاڻي سبب وڌي ٿي، ۽ زرعي زمينن ۾ حد کان وڌيڪ ڀاڻ جي استعمال سبب مٽي ۽ ننڍين دريائن جي آلودگي شامل آهن.

1990ع کان پوءِ ماحولياتي تحفظ کي وڏي اهميت ڏني وئي آهي. ڪيترائي جبلستاني ۽ ٻيلن وارا علائقا قدرتي محفوظ علائقا قرار ڏنا ويا آهن، جن ۾ [[هائنيش قومي پارڪ]] (1997ع ۾ قائم)، [[رون حياتياتي ذخيري وارو علائقو]]، [[ٿورنجيا ٻيلو قدرتي پارڪ]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ هارٽس قدرتي پارڪ]] شامل آهن.

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:ٿرنجيا]]
[[زمرو:جرمني جي رياستون]]</text>
      <sha1>6pfvi9t664bqrf94hnsolc6rrzy20j2</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399401</id>
      <parentid>399400</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T11:05:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399401</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="37985" sha1="gsbbbssp4ce1zeov6zv8wzjmvbboj9d" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox German state
|Name = فري اسٽيٽ آف ٿورنجيا 
|German_name =  فريسٽاٽ ٿيورِنجن 
|map = Deutschland Lage von Thüringen.svg
|flag = Flag of Thuringia.svg
|state_coa = Coat of arms of Thuringia.svg
|capital = [[ايرفرٽ]]
|area = 16171
|key = 16
|population = 2278136
|pop_ref = &lt;ref name=&quot;helaba.de&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.helaba.de/en/DieHelaba/MaerkteUndAnalysen/ResearchUndVolkswirtschaft/Bundeslaender/Downloads/20140402-ZahlenundFakten.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2015-10-21 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052707/https://www.helaba.de/en/DieHelaba/MaerkteUndAnalysen/ResearchUndVolkswirtschaft/Bundeslaender/Downloads/20140402-ZahlenundFakten.pdf |archivedate=2016-03-04 |df= }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|pop_date = 2008-09-30
|GDP = 57/ $63
|GDP_year = 2015
|GDP_ref = &lt;ref name=&quot;helaba.de&quot; /&gt;
|GDP_per_capita = 27,000/ $30,000
|GDP_per_capita_year = 2015
|PPP_per_capita =
|PPP_per_capita_year =
|GDP_percent = 
|Website = [http://www.thueringen.de/ thueringen.de]
|governing_body = [[ٿورنجيا جي لينڊٽيگ]]
|leader_title =
|leader = بوڊو  راميلو 
|leader_party = [[The Left (Germany)|The Left]]
|ruling_party1 = [[The Left (Germany)|The Left]]
|ruling_party2 = SPD
|ruling_party3 = [[Alliance '90/The Greens]]
|votes = 4
|NUTS = DEG
|iso region = DE-TH
|coordinates = {{coord|50|51|40|N|11|3|7|E|display=inline}}
|date=August 2010
}}
'''ٿورنجيا''' (&lt;small&gt;'''[[انگريزي ٻولي|انگريزي]]: Thuringia) [[جرمن ٻولي|جرمن]]: ٿيورِنجن: '''&lt;/small&gt;), سرڪاري طور تي &quot;فريسٽاٽ ٽيورِنجن&quot; &lt;small&gt;('''Freistaat''' '''Thüringen''', &quot;'''فريسٽاٽ''' '''ٿيورنجن'''&quot;)&lt;/small&gt; [[جرمني]] جي &lt;small&gt;'''16'''&lt;/small&gt; رياستن مان هڪ آهي. &lt;small&gt;'''16,171'''&lt;/small&gt; چورس ڪلو ميٽر جي ايراضي سان ۽ 2.1 ملين ماڻهن سان، اهو آبادي جي لحاظ کان &lt;small&gt;'''12'''&lt;/small&gt;هين وڏي رياست آهي.
[[جرمني]] جي وچئين حصي ۾ واقع هڪ خشڪيءَ سان گهيريل [[جرمني جون رياستون|وفاقي رياست]] آهي. ايراضيءَ جي لحاظ کان لڳ ڀڳ 16,202 چورس ڪلوميٽر سان يارهين وڏي رياست آهي. ٿورنجيا کي جرمني جي جاگرافيائي مرڪز واري رياست پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.

[[ارفرٽ]] ٿورنجيا جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ ۽ سڀ کان وڏو شهر آهي. ٻين اهم شهرن ۾ [[يينا]]، [[گيرا]] ۽ [[وائيمار]] شامل آهن. ٿورنجيا جون سرحدون [[باويريا]]، [[هيسي]]، [[لوئر سيڪسني]]، [[سيڪسني]] ۽ [[سيڪسني-آنهالٽ]] سان ملن ٿيون. ان کي 19هين صديءَ جي آخر کان وٺي پنهنجي وسيع ۽ گهاٽن ٻيلن سبب ''&quot;جرمني جي سائي دل&quot;'' (جرمن: ''داس گُروني هيرٽس ڊوئچلانڊس'') سڏيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; ٿورنجيا جو وڏو حصو [[زالي ندي]] جي آبي حوض ۾ واقع آهي، جيڪا [[ايلبي ندي]] جي کاٻي ڪناري واري معاون ندي آهي.

ٿورنجيا جي فرينڪي [[ٿورنجيا جي ڊچي|ڊچي]] لڳ ڀڳ 631ع ۾ بادشاهه [[ڊيگوبرٽ اول]] قائم ڪئي. جديد رياست 1920ع ۾ [[وائيمار جمهوريت]] جي دور ۾ [[ارنيسٽائن ڊچيون|ارنسٽائن ڊچين]] جي انضمام سان قائم ٿي، جڏهن ته [[سيڪس-ڪوبرگ]] ان ۾ شامل نه هو. [[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ ٿورنجيا [[اتحادي قبضي هيٺ جرمني]] جي [[سوويت قبضي وارو علائقو|سوويت قبضي واري علائقي]] جو حصو بڻيو ۽ ان جون سرحدون ٻيهر ترتيب ڏنيون ويون. 1949ع ۾ اها [[جرمن ڊيموڪريٽڪ ريپبلڪ]] (اوڀر جرمني) جو حصو بڻي، پر 1952ع ۾ انتظامي سڌارن دوران رياست ختم ڪري ان کي [[ارفرٽ ضلعو|ارفَرٽ]]، [[زول ضلعو|زول]] ۽ [[گيرا ضلعو|گيرا]] ضلعن ۾ ورهايو ويو. 1990ع ۾ [[جرمني جي ٻيهر وحدت]] کان پوءِ ٿورنجيا کي ٿورين سرحدي تبديلين سان ٻيهر قائم ڪيو ويو ۽ اها [[جرمني جون رياستون|وفاقي جمهوريه جرمني]] جي نون وفاقي رياستن مان هڪ بڻجي وئي.

ٿورنگيا [[رينسٽائيگ]] جو گهر آهي، جيڪو جرمني جو مشهور ترين جابلو پيادل رستو آهي. [[اوبرهوف]] جو سياري وارو تفريحي مرڪز سياري جي راندين لاءِ مشهور آهي؛ 2014ع تائين جرمني جي سياري اولمپڪس ۾ حاصل ڪيل 136 سونن تمغن مان اڌ ٿورنجيا جي رانديگرن کٽيا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; هي رياست ٽن مشهور مفڪرن ۽ ادب و فن جي وڏن شخصيتن سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي: [[يوهان سيباستيان باخ]]، [[يوهان وولفگانگ فون گوئٽي]] ۽ [[فريڊرش شلر]]. ٿورنجيا ۾ [[يينا يونيورسٽي]]، [[ايلميناو ٽيڪنالاجي يونيورسٽي]]، [[ارفرٽ يونيورسٽي]]، [[باوهاوس يونيورسٽي وائيمار]] ۽ [[شمالڪالڊن يونيورسٽي آف اپلائيڊ سائنسز]] واقع آهن.

== نالي جي بڻ ۽ نشان ==

ٿورنجيا (جرمن: ''ٿيورِنجن'') جو نالو جرمني نسل جي [[ٿيورِنجيئي]] (''Thuringii'') قبيلي تان پيو، جيڪو [[هجرتن جو دور|هجرتن جي دور]] ۾ ظاهر ٿيو. هن قبيلي جي اصل بابت اڃا تائين يقيني ڄاڻ موجود ناهي. هڪ پراڻي نظرئي موجب اهي [[هرموندوري]] قبيلي جا جانشين هئا، پر پوءِ جي تحقيق هن خيال کي رد ڪري ڇڏيو. ڪجهه مؤرخن جو خيال آهي ته ٿيورِنجيئي [[هون]]ن جا اتحادي هئا، جيڪي انهن سان گڏ وچ يورپ ۾ آيا ۽ ان کان اڳ اڄوڪي [[گاليشيا (اوڀر يورپ)|گاليشيا]] واري علائقي ۾ رهندا هئا. رومي ليکڪ [[پبليئس فلاويوس ويجيشس ريناتس]] لڳ ڀڳ 400ع ڌاري پهريون ڀيرو ٿيورِنجيئي جو ذڪر ڪيو. ان دور ۾ هي قبيلو پنهنجي اعليٰ نسل جي گهوڙن سبب مشهور هو.

ٿورنگيئي بادشاهت 531ع کان پوءِ ختم ٿي وئي. ان کان پوءِ [[ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريويئيٽ]] 1131ع کان 1247ع تائين هن علائقي جي سڀ کان وڏي رياست رهي. ان جي زوال کان پوءِ &quot;ٿورنجيا&quot; نالي ڪا متحد رياست نه رهي، پر هي نالو اتر ۾ [[هارٽس جبل]]، اوڀر ۾ [[وائيٽ ايلسٽر ندي]]، ڏکڻ ۾ [[فرانڪونين ٻيلو]] ۽ اولهه ۾ [[ويرا ندي]] جي وچ واري علائقي لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو رهيو.

[[ليپزگ جو معاهدو|ليپزگ جي معاهدي]] کان پوءِ [[ويٽن خاندان|ارنيسٽائن ويٽن خاندان]] جي حڪومت هيٺ ٿورنجيا ٻيهر هڪ الڳ حڪمران گهراڻي سان وابسته ٿيو. انهن جي مختلف رياستن ۽ ڪجهه ٻين ننڍين رياستن کي گڏائي 1920ع ۾ [[ٿورنجيا (1920–1952)]] قائم ڪئي وئي. 1945ع ۾ [[پروشيا]] جا [[ارفرٽ]]، [[مولهاوزن]] ۽ [[نورڊهاوزن]] وارا علائقا به ٿورنگيا ۾ شامل ڪيا ويا.

[[ٿورنجيا جي قومي نشان|ٿورنجيا جي سرڪاري نشان]] ۾ 12هين صديءَ جي [[لودووينگي]] لينڊگريوز جو شير ڏيکاريل آهي، جنهن جي چوڌاري اٺ تارا آهن. اهي تارا انهن اٺن اڳوڻين رياستن جي علامت آهن، جن کي گڏائي جديد ٿورنجيا ٺاهي وئي. [[ٿورنجيا جو جهنڊو]] اڇي ۽ ڳاڙهي رنگ جي ٻه-پٽي جهنڊي تي ٻڌل آهي، جيڪو پڻ لودووينگي شير جي رنگن مان ورتل آهي. [[هيسي]] جي جهنڊي ۽ قومي نشان سان به ان جي گهڻي مشابهت آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي به ساڳئي تاريخي نشانين مان نڪتل آهن.

15هين صديءَ دوران ''ٿورنجيا جي پيلائيٽن ڳڻپ'' (جرمن: ''Pfalzgraf von Thüringen'') لاءِ هڪ اضافي قومي نشان تيار ڪيو ويو، جنهن جو مقصد [[ويٽن خاندان]] جي ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريوز جي سياسي حيثيت کي سندن ٿورنجيا ۽ سيڪسني وارن علائقن جي وچ ۾ وڌيڪ مضبوط ڪرڻ هو. ان کان پوءِ [[ٿورنجيا جي پيلائيٽن جا قومي نشان|ٿورنجيا-پيلائيٽن نشان]] ويٽن خاندان جي قومي نشانن ۾ شامل ڪيا ويا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.welt-der-wappen.de/Heraldik/Galerien/galerie1101.htm|title=Heraldik: Photos von Wappen in architektonischem Zusammenhang, Dokumentation und Datenbank|website=Welt der Wappen|access-date=12 June 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ٿورنجيا جي مشهور ثقافتي نشانين ۾ [[ٿورنجيا جي براٽوُرسٽ]] (روايتي ساسيج) ۽ [[ٿورنجيا جو ٻيلو]] شامل آهن، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ رياست جو وڏو حصو ٻيلن سان ڍڪيل آهي.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Vollwappen Wettiner Landgraf Albrecht 1265.png|[[ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريويئيٽ]] جو قومي نشان (1265ع)
File:Wappen-Fürstenzug10.jpg|[[فورسٽنزوگ]] تي ڏيکاريل ٿورنجيا جو لينڊگريويئي شير
File:Wappen-Fürstenzug11.jpg|[[فورسٽنزوگ]] تي ڏيکاريل ٿورنجيا جو پيلائيٽن عقاب
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==تاريخ==
[[File:Północno-wschodnie Niemcy ok 1000-es.svg|thumb|11هين صديءَ دوران ٿورنجيا (نيري رنگ ۾) ۽ ان جا پاڙيسري علائقا]]
{{Further|ٿورنگيئي|ٿورنگيا جي ڊچي}}

ٿورنجيا جو نالو [[ٿورنگيئي]] (''Thuringii'') نالي هڪ [[جرماني قومون|جرماني]] قبيلي تان پيو، جيڪو لڳ ڀڳ 300ع ڌاري هن علائقي ۾ آباد ٿيو. ڇهين صديءَ ۾ ٿورنجيا [[فرينڪ]]ن جي حڪمراني هيٺ اچي ويو. ٿورنجيا جو پهريون دستاويزي حڪمران [[ٿورنجيا جو راڊولف اول|راڊولف اول]] هو، جنهن کي 630ع واري ڏهاڪي جي شروعات ۾ بادشاهه [[ڊيگوبرٽ اول]] طرفان ڊيوڪ مقرر ڪيو ويو. ان وقت فرينڪ [[سامو جي بغاوت|سامو جي سلاوي اتحاد]] سان جنگ ۾ هئا، جنهن ۾ ٿورنجيا جا پاڙيسري [[سورب (قبيلو)|سورب]] به شامل هئا. راڊولف [[زالي ندي]] جي ڪناري تي سلاوي حملن کي روڪڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿيو، پر پوءِ 641–642ع ڌاري بادشاهه [[سيگبرٽ ٽيون]] خلاف بغاوت ڪري پاڻ کي ٿورنجيا جو بادشاهه (''Rex'') قرار ڏنو ۽ سلاوين سميت ٻين قومن سان معاهدا ڪيا.

[[File:Beatrix Heinrich.jpg|thumb|ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريو [[هينري راسپي]] ۽ [[براٻانٽ جي بيئٽريس]] جي شادي]]

بعد وارا ٿورنجيا جا ڊيوڪ فرينڪي حڪمرانن جا تابع رهيا. نائين صديءَ جي وچ ڌاري [[ڪارولنگين سلطنت]] ۽ پوءِ [[اوڀر فرينڪ بادشاهت]] جي دور ۾، 843ع جي [[ورڊن جو معاهدو|ورڊن جي معاهدي]] کان پوءِ، ٿورنجيا جي اوڀرئين سرحد کي ''[[سوربيائي سرحد]]'' (''Limes Sorabicus'') جي صورت ۾ منظم ڪيو ويو ۽ ان جي ذميواري [[ٿاخولف]] کي ڏني وئي.

[[File:Die Landgrafschaft Thüringen im Zentrum des Heiligen Römischen Reichs um 1250.png|thumb|13هين صديءَ ۾ ٿورنجيا ۽ پاڙيسري علائقن جي جاگيرداري ورهاست]]

[[مقدس رومي سلطنت]] جي دور ۾ 1130ع ۾ ٿورنجيا کي [[لينڊگريويئيٽ]] جو درجو مليو. ان عرصي دوران [[وائيمار ڪائونٽي|وائيمار]]، [[اورلامونڊي ڪائونٽي|اورلامونڊي]] ۽ ٻين ڪيترين جاگيرن ۾ بار بار ورهاست ۽ انضمام ٿيندا رهيا، جنهن سبب علائقو سياسي طور ٽڪرن ۾ ورهائجي ويو.

1246ع ۾ [[هينري راسپي]] کي [[رومين جو بادشاهه]] چونڊيو ويو، پر هو تخت حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام رهيو. 1247ع ۾ [[لودووينگي]] حڪمران خاندان جي خاتمي ۽ [[ٿورنجيا جي جانشيني جي جنگ]] (1247–1264ع) کان پوءِ علائقي جو اولهه وارو حصو [[هيسي]] جي نالي سان الڳ رياست بڻجي ويو، جڏهن ته باقي [[ٿورنجيا جي لينڊگريويئيٽ]] پاڙيسري [[ميسن جي مارگريويئيٽ]] ۽ [[ويٽن خاندان]] جي قبضي هيٺ اچي ويو.

1423ع ۾ ويٽن خاندان [[سيڪسني جي چونڊيل رياست]] تي به قبضو حاصل ڪيو. 15هين صديءَ دوران هنن ''ٿورنجيا جي پيلائيٽن'' (جرمن: ''Pfalzgrafschaft Thüringen'') جو لقب اختيار ڪيو ته جيئن ٿورنجيا ۽ سيڪسني جي وچ وارن علائقن تي پنهنجي دعويٰ مضبوط ڪري سگهن. 1485ع ۾ [[ليپزگ جو معاهدو|ليپزگ جي معاهدي]] تحت ويٽن خاندان ٻن شاخن ۾ ورهائجي ويو؛ ڏاکڻو ۽ وچ وارو ٿورنجيا [[ارنيسٽائن ويٽن خاندان]] کي مليو، جڏهن ته اتر وارو حصو [[البرٽائن ويٽن خاندان]] جي قبضي ۾ آيو.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Saxony (Division of Leipzig) - DE.png|1485ع جي [[ليپزگ جو معاهدو|ليپزگ جي معاهدي]] کان پوءِ ارنيسٽائن (ڳاڙهو) ۽ البرٽائن (پيلو) علائقا
File:Saxony after the Capitulation of Wittenberg (1547) - DE.png|1547ع جي [[ويٽنبرگ جي صلح]] کان پوءِ ارنيسٽائن (پيلو) ۽ البرٽائن (ڳاڙهو) علائقا
File:Saxony after the Treaty of Naumburg - DE.png|1554ع جي [[نامبرگ جو معاهدو|نامبرگ جي معاهدي]] کان پوءِ ارنيسٽائن (پيلو) ۽ البرٽائن (ڳاڙهو) علائقا
&lt;/gallery&gt;

===شروعاتي جديد دور===
[[File:Map of Thuringia (1680)-DE.svg|thumb|250px|1680ع ۾ [[ٿورنجيا جون رياستون]]]]
[[File:Thuringia 1910 - en.svg|thumb|250px|1910ع ۾ [[ٿورنجيا جون رياستون]]]]
{{Further|ٿورنجيا جون رياستون}}

ٿورنجيا ۾ [[پروٽيسٽنٽ سڌارا]] وڏي پيماني تي قبول ڪيا ويا، ۽ [[رومن ڪيٿولڪ گرجاگھر]] جو اثر 1520ع کان پوءِ تيزيءَ سان گهٽجي ويو. [[1525ع جي جرمن هارين جي جنگ]] دوران ڪيترائي گرجاگھر ۽ خانقاھون تباهه ڪيون ويون. [[مولهاوزن]] سميت ڪيترن شهرن ۾ [[انا بيپٽسٽ]] تحريڪ کي وڏي پذيرائي ملي، ۽ ان جا اهم اڳواڻ [[ٿامس مونٽسر]] هتي سرگرم رهيو. جديد ٿورنجيا ۾ ڪيٿولڪ مذهب خاص طور [[آئشسفيلڊ]] ۽ جزوي طور [[ارفرٽ]] جي آس پاس تائين محدود رهيو.

1547ع جي [[ويٽنبرگ جي صلح]] کان پوءِ ارنيسٽائن حڪمرانن سيڪسني جي چونڊيل رياست ته وڃائي، پر ٿورنجيا جا گهڻا علائقا برقرار رکيا. وراثت کي پٽن ۾ ورهائڻ جي روايت سبب اهي علائقا ڪيترين ننڍين رياستن ۾ ورهائجي ويا، جن کي گڏجي [[ارنيسٽائن ڊچيون]] يا ''سيڪسني ڊچيون'' چيو ويندو آهي. انهن ۾ [[سيڪس-وائيمار]]، [[سيڪس-آئزنآخ]]، [[سيڪس-يينا]]، [[سيڪس-ميننگن]]، [[سيڪس-آلٽنبرگ]]، [[سيڪس-ڪوبرگ]] ۽ [[سيڪس-گوٿا]] شامل هئا.

1778ع ۾ اڄ جي جرمني واري علائقي اندر [[ريس-گرائيتس جي رياست]] ۾ جديد جرمن [[جرمني جو جهنڊو|ڪارو-ڳاڙهو-سونائي ترنگو]] پهريون ڀيرو سرڪاري جهنڊي طور استعمال ٿيو.

1795ع کان 1814ع تائين [[جرمن ميڊياٽائيزيشن]] دوران ٿورنجيا جي رياستن جون حدون ٻيهر ترتيب ڏنيون ويون، ۽ 1806ع ۾ اهي [[رائين جي وفاق]] ۾ شامل ٿي ويون. [[1815ع جي ويانا ڪانگريس]] انهن تبديلين جي تصديق ڪئي ۽ ٿورنجيا جون رياستون [[جرمن وفاق]] جو حصو بڻيون. [[پروشيا]] به ٿورنجيا جا ڪجهه علائقا حاصل ڪري کين [[سيڪسني صوبو]] ۾ شامل ڪيو. 1871ع ۾ [[جرمني جي وحدت]] کان پوءِ ٿورنجيا جون مختلف رياستون [[جرمن سلطنت]] ۾ شامل ٿي ويون.

===ٿورنجيا جي آزاد رياست===
{{Further|ٿورنگيا (1920–1952)}}

[[پهريائين عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ، 1920ع ۾ ٿورنگيا جون ننڍيون رياستون گڏ ٿي [[ٿورنجيا (1920–1952)|ٿورنجيا جي رياست]] بڻيون. صرف [[سيڪس-ڪوبرگ]] عوامي راءِ شماري ذريعي [[باويريا]] سان شامل ٿيڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو. [[وائيمار]] کي نئين رياست جي گادي بڻايو ويو. نئين رياست جو قومي نشان اڳين رياستن جي نشانن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ سادو هو.

[[وائيمار جمهوريت]] جي دور ۾ 1920ع کان 1932ع تائين ٿورنجيا جي [[لينڊٽاگ]] جون ڇهه چونڊون ٿيون. 1929ع جي چونڊن کان پوءِ [[نازي پارٽي]] پهريون ڀيرو هتي اهم سياسي طاقت حاصل ڪئي ۽ [[ولھيلم فريڪ]] کي گهرو وزير مقرر ڪيو ويو. هن پوليس ۽ سرڪاري ادارن مان جمهوري خيال رکندڙ ماڻهن کي هٽائي نازين جا حامي مقرر ڪيا.

1934ع ۾ [[نازي جرمني]] جي مرڪزي حڪومت ''[[ريخ جي ٻيهر تنظيم وارو قانون]]'' تحت ٿورنجيا جي لينڊٽاگ کي ختم ڪري ڇڏيو. انهيءَ دور ۾ [[بوخينوالڊ حراستي ڪئمپ]] ۽ ان جا ڪيترائي ذيلي ڪئمپ ٿورنجيا ۾ قائم ڪيا ويا.

[[ٻي عالمي جنگ]] کان پوءِ ٿورڙي عرصي لاءِ آمريڪي قبضي کان پوءِ جولاءِ 1945ع ۾ ٿورنجيا [[سوويت قبضي وارو علائقو|سوويت قبضي واري علائقي]] ۾ شامل ٿي وئي. ساڳئي وقت [[پروشيا]] جي اڳوڻي [[سيڪسني صوبو|سيڪسني صوبي]] جا [[ارفرٽ]]، [[مولهاوزن]] ۽ [[نورڊهاوزن]] وارا علائقا به ان ۾ شامل ڪيا ويا، ۽ [[ارفرٽ]] کي نئين گادي بڻايو ويو.

1952ع ۾ [[اوڀر جرمني]] پنهنجي رياستن کي ختم ڪري انهن جي جاءِ تي انتظامي ضلعا قائم ڪيا. اڳوڻي ٿورنجيا جو علائقو [[ارفرٽ ضلعو]]، [[گيرا ضلعو]] ۽ [[زول ضلعو]] ۾ ورهايو ويو، جڏهن ته [[آلٽنبرگ]] [[ليپزگ ضلعو]] جو حصو بڻيو.

1990ع ۾ [[جرمني جي ٻيهر وحدت]] کان پوءِ ٿورنجيا کي ٿورين سرحدي تبديلين سان ٻيهر [[جرمني جون رياستون|وفاقي رياست]] طور بحال ڪيو ويو.

==جاگرافي==
{{unreferenced section|date=January 2025}}

=== جاگرافيائي بناوت ===
اتر-اولهه کان گھڙيال جي رخ موجب، [[ٿورنجيا]] جون سرحدون [[لوئر سيڪسني]]، [[سيڪسني-انهالٽ]]، [[سيڪسني]]، [[باويريا]] ۽ [[هيسي]] سان ملن ٿيون.

[[File:Meuselbach Viehberg.JPG|thumb|right|[[ميزلباخ-شوارزموله]]، [[ٿورنجيا جي مٿانهين علائقي]] ۾]]

ٿورنجيا جي قدرتي بناوت نهايت متنوع آهي. رياست جي اترئين حصي ۾ [[هارٽس جبل]] واقع آهن، جن جي ڏکڻ ۾ [[گولڊيني آؤئي]] نالي زرخيز ميداني علائقو پکڙيل آهي، جيڪو [[نورڊهاوزن]] جي چوڌاري [[هيلمي ندي]] سان وابسته آهي.

اتر-اولهه ۾ [[آئشسفيلڊ]] جو ٽڪريلو ۽ جزوي طور ٻيلن سان ڍڪيل علائقو آهي، جتان [[لائني ندي]] نڪري ٿي.

مرڪزي ۽ اترئين ٿورنجيا جو وڏو حصو تقريباً 3٬000 چورس ڪلوميٽرن تي پکڙيل [[ٿورنجيا وارو طاس]] (Thuringian Basin) آهي، جيڪو [[اونشٽروٽ ندي]] جي چوڌاري واقع هڪ هموار ۽ نهايت زرخيز ميدان آهي. هن طاس کي ڪيترن جبلن ۽ ٽڪرين جون قطارون گهيرين ٿيون، جن ۾ [[ڊون]]، [[هائنلائيٽي]]، [[ونڊلائيٽي]]، [[ڪيفهائوزر]]، [[هوهي شريڪي]]، [[شمُڪي]]، [[فني]]، [[ايٽرسبرگ]]، [[شٽائيگروالڊ (ارفرٽ)|شٽائيگروالڊ]]، [[ٿورنجيا جو ٻيلو]]، [[هورزلبيرگه]] ۽ [[هائنيش]] شامل آهن. طاس جي اندر [[فانر هوهه]] ۽ [[هائلنگر هوهن]] جهڙيون ننڍيون ٽڪريون پڻ موجود آهن.

طاس جي ڏکڻ ۾ رياست جو سڀ کان وڏو جبلستان آهي، جنهن ۾ اتر-اولهه طرف [[ٿورنجيا جو ٻيلو]]، وچ ۾ [[ٿورنجيا جو مٿانهون علائقو]] ۽ ڏکڻ-اوڀر ۾ [[فرانڪونين ٻيلو]] شامل آهن. هن جبلستان جو وڏو حصو ٻيلن سان ڍڪيل آهي، جڏهن ته [[گروسر بيربرگ]] (983 ميٽر) رياست جي بلند ترين چوٽي آهي.

ڏکڻ-اولهه ۾ [[ويرا ندي]] جي وادي هن جبلستان کي اولهه واري [[رون جبل]] ۽ ڏکڻ واري [[گراٻفيلڊ]] جي ميدان کان جدا ڪري ٿي.

اوڀرئين ٿورنجيا، جيڪو عام طور [[زالي ندي]] ۽ [[لوڪيٽس ندي]] جي اوڀر وارو علائقو سڏجي ٿو، ٽڪرين ۽ لهرن واري زمين تي مشتمل آهي، جيڪا اتر کان ڏکڻ طرف آهستي آهستي بلند ٿيندي وڃي ٿي. هن علائقي مان [[زالي ندي]] ۽ [[وائيٽ ايلسٽر ندي]] ڏکڻ کان اتر طرف وهنديون آهن ۽ سندن وادين ۾ گهڻي آبادي آباد آهي. انهن ٻنهي دريائن جي وچ ۾ اتر ۾ ٻيلن وارو [[ٿورنجيا هولزلانڊ]]، وچ ۾ زرخيز [[اورلاسينڪي]] ۽ ڏکڻ ۾ ٽڪريلو [[فوگٽلانڊ]] واقع آهن. سڀ کان اوڀر وارو [[اوسترلانڊ]] يا [[آلٽنبرگر لانڊ]] [[پلائيسي ندي]] جي ڪناري تي هڪ زرخيز زرعي علائقو آهي.

ٿورنجيا جون ٻه اهم نديون [[زالي ندي]] ۽ [[ويرا ندي]] آهن. زالي، جيڪا [[ايلبي ندي]] جي معاون ندي آهي، پنهنجي معاون دريائن [[اونشٽروٽ ندي]]، [[اِلم ندي (ٿورنجيا)|اِلم ندي]] ۽ [[وائيٽ ايلسٽر ندي]] سان گڏ رياست جي اڪثر حصي جو پاڻي خارج ڪري ٿي. [[ويرا ندي]]، جيڪا [[ويزر ندي]] جو سرچشمو آهي، رياست جي اولهه ۽ ڏکڻ-اولهه واري حصي کي نيڪال فراهم ڪري ٿي. ڏکڻ سرحد جا ڪجهه ننڍا علائقا [[مين ندي]] جي معاون دريائن وسيلي [[رائن ندي]] جي وهڪري ۾ شامل ٿين ٿا.

ٿورنجيا ۾ ڪا وڏي قدرتي ڍنڍ موجود ناهي، پر هتي جرمني جا ڪجهه وڏا بند آهن، جن ۾ [[بلايلوخ بند]]، [[هوهنوارٽي بند]]، [[لائبيس-لشٽي بند]] ۽ [[گولڊيشٽال پمپڊ اسٽوريج اسٽيشن]] شامل آهن.

ٿورنجيا جرمني جي اها واحد وفاقي رياست آهي، جنهن جو ڪنهن به قابلِ جهازراني آبي رستي سان سڌو سنئون رابطو ناهي.

[[جرمني]] جو جاگرافيائي مرڪز [[فوگٽائي، ٿورنجيا|فوگٽائي]] ميونسپلٽي ۾ [[مولهاوزن]] جي ويجهو واقع آهي، جڏهن ته ٿورنجيا جو جاگرافيائي مرڪز [[ارفرٽ گرجاگھر]] کان لڳ ڀڳ اٺ ڪلوميٽر ڏکڻ ۾ [[روڪهاوزن]] ميونسپلٽي اندر آهي.

=== آبهوا ===
ٿورنجيا جي آبهوا [[معتدل آبهوا|معتدل]] آهي، جتي اڪثر نمي وارا اولهه طرفان ايندڙ هوائن جا وهڪرا غالب رهن ٿا. اتر-اولهه کان ڏکڻ-اوڀر طرف وڌڻ سان آبهوا ۾ براعظمي خصوصيتون نمايان ٿين ٿيون؛ سياري ۾ ڊگهي عرصي تائين سخت سردي ۽ اونهاري ۾ نسبتاً وڌيڪ گرمي محسوس ٿيندي آهي.

[[ٿورنجيا وارو طاس]] جبلن جي اوٽ ۾ هجڻ سبب جرمني جو سڀ کان خشڪ علائقو شمار ٿئي ٿو، جتي سالياني برسات صرف 400 کان 500 ملي ميٽر تائين ٿئي ٿي.

اتر-اوڀر ۾ [[آرٽرن]] نسبتاً گرم ۽ خشڪ علائقو آهي، جتي سراسري سالياني گرمي پد 8.5° سينٽي گريڊ ۽ برسات لڳ ڀڳ 450 ملي ميٽر ٿئي ٿي. ان جي ابتڙ، [[اوبرهوف]] ۾ سراسري گرمي پد صرف 4.4° سينٽي گريڊ آهي ۽ سالياني برسات 1٬300 ملي ميٽر تائين پهچي ٿي.

{{Erfurt-Weimar weatherbox}}

=== فطرت ۽ ماحول ===
[[File:Ruppberg Sonnenaufgang.jpg|thumb|right|سياري ۾ [[ٿورنجيا جو ٻيلو]]]]
[[File:WAK SEEB INSELSBG.jpg|thumb|right|[[گروسر انسيلسبرگ]]]]

صدين کان جاري انساني آبادڪاري سبب ٿورنجيا جو قدرتي ماحول وڏي حد تائين تبديل ٿي چڪو آهي. اصل قدرتي ٻيلن ۾ [[يورپي بيچ]] غالب وڻ هو، جنهن جا نمونا اڄ به [[هائنيش]] جي ٻيلن ۾ موجود آهن. جبلستاني علائقن ۾ بيچ ۽ [[ناروي اسپروس]] جا گڏيل ٻيل قدرتي طور موجود هجن ها، پر اڄڪلهه گهڻا ٻيل [[اسڪاٽس پائن]] ۽ اسپروس سان ٻيهر پوکيا ويا آهن.

1990ع کان پوءِ ٻيلن جي سنڀال اهڙي نموني ڪئي پئي وڃي جو اهي موسمي تبديلي، بيمارين ۽ نقصانڪار جيتن جي مقابلي لاءِ وڌيڪ قدرتي ۽ مضبوط بڻجي سگهن.

زرعي شعبي ۾ اڃا تائين وڏيون زمينون ۽ هڪ ئي فصل تي ٻڌل پوک (Monoculture) عام آهي. اونهاري دوران وڌندڙ خشڪ دور زمين ۽ زراعت لاءِ اهم مسئلو بڻجي رهيا آهن.

1990ع کان پوءِ صنعتي ڪارخانن، رهائشي عمارتن ۽ گاڏين جي جديد بڻجڻ سبب هوا، دريائن ۽ ٻيلن جي حالت ۾ نمايان بهتري آئي آهي. [[رونيبورگ]] جي اڳوڻين [[يورينيم]] کليل کاڻين وارن آلود علائقن جي به صفائي ڪئي وئي.

اڄڪلهه اهم ماحولياتي مسئلن ۾ [[ويرا ندي]] جي لوڻائپ، جيڪا [[K+S]] جي لوڻ جي کاڻين مان خارج ٿيندڙ پاڻي سبب وڌي ٿي، ۽ زرعي زمينن ۾ حد کان وڌيڪ ڀاڻ جي استعمال سبب مٽي ۽ ننڍين دريائن جي آلودگي شامل آهن.

1990ع کان پوءِ ماحولياتي تحفظ کي وڏي اهميت ڏني وئي آهي. ڪيترائي جبلستاني ۽ ٻيلن وارا علائقا قدرتي محفوظ علائقا قرار ڏنا ويا آهن، جن ۾ [[هائنيش قومي پارڪ]] (1997ع ۾ قائم)، [[رون حياتياتي ذخيري وارو علائقو]]، [[ٿورنجيا ٻيلو قدرتي پارڪ]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ هارٽس قدرتي پارڪ]] شامل آهن.

==آباديات==

=== آبادي جي تاريخ ===
وچئين دور ۾ ٿورنجيا [[جرمني نسل|جرمني]] ۽ [[سلاوي ماڻهو|سلاوي]] علائقن جي سرحد تي واقع هو، جنهن جي حدبندي [[زالي ندي]] ڪندي هئي. موجوده ٿورنجيا جي علائقي ۾ رهندڙ اهم سلاوي قبيلو [[سورب (قبيلو)|سورب]] هو، جنهن اوڀر جرمني جي ڏاکڻي حصي ۾ رهندڙ ڪيترن ئي سلاوي قبيلن کي متحد ڪيو. 11هين کان 13هين صديءَ دوران [[اوستزيڊلونگ]] (جرمن آبادڪاري) جي نتيجي ۾ سلاوي آبادي آهستي آهستي جرمن معاشري ۾ ضم ٿي وئي.

18هين صديءَ دوران آبادي ۾ تيزي سان واڌ ٿي، جيڪا [[پهرين عالمي جنگ]] تائين جاري رهي. 20هين صديءَ ۾ واڌ جي رفتار گهٽجي وئي، جڏهن ته 1990ع کان پوءِ آبادي ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي.

1840ع کان شهري آبادي وڌڻ شروع ٿي، جنهن سبب ٿورنجيا جي شهرن جي آبادي ڳوٺاڻن علائقن جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ تيزي سان وڌي. ڪيترن ئي ڳوٺن 1950ع کان پوءِ پنهنجي اڌ کان وڌيڪ آبادي وڃائي ويٺا، جڏهن ته [[ارفرٽ]] ۽ [[يينا]] جهڙا وڏا شهر مسلسل وڌندا رهيا.

{{historical populations
|cols = 2
|1834|1,172,375
|1864|1,435,115
|1890|1,737,544
|1910|2,160,692
|1950|2,932,242
|1960|2,737,865
|1970|2,759,084
|1980|2,730,368
|1988|2,723,268
|2001|2,411,387
|2011|2,188,589
|2022|2,110,396
|source={{ill|Thüringer Landesamt für Statistik|de}}
}}

1981ع جي مردم شماري جي اڳڪٿي موجب 2011ع تائين ٿورنجيا جي آبادي 22,21,222 ٿيڻ جو امڪان هو، پر 2011ع جي مردم شماري موجب آبادي 21,81,603 هئي، جيڪا اڳڪٿي کان لڳ ڀڳ 1.78 سيڪڙو گهٽ هئي.

=== موجوده آبادي ===
31 ڊسمبر 2020ع تائين ٿورنجيا جي آبادي 21,20,237 هئي، جيڪا هر سال تقريباً 0.5 سيڪڙو جي شرح سان گهٽجي رهي آهي، جيتوڻيڪ مختلف علائقن ۾ اها شرح مختلف آهي.

2012ع ۾ لڳ ڀڳ 905,000 ماڻهو اهڙين ميونسپلٽين ۾ رهندا هئا، جن جي آبادي 20,000 کان وڌيڪ هئي، يعني رياست جي شهري آبادي جو تناسب تقريباً 42 سيڪڙو هو، جيڪو مسلسل وڌي رهيو آهي.

ٿورنجيا ۾ غير جرمن شهريت رکندڙ ماڻهن جو تناسب جرمني جي ٻين وفاقي رياستن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ آهي. جولاءِ 2013ع ۾ هتي لڳ ڀڳ 41,000 غير جرمن شهري رهندا هئا، جيڪي ڪل آبادي جو 1.9 سيڪڙو هئا. انهن جو انگ جولاءِ 2011ع جي ڀيٽ ۾ تقريباً 24 سيڪڙو وڌيو.

مهاجر آبادي سميت لڳ ڀڳ 4 سيڪڙو رهواسي لڏپلاڻ واري پس منظر سان تعلق رکن ٿا. سڀ کان وڏي غير ملڪي برادرين ۾ [[روس]]، [[پولينڊ]]، [[ترڪيه]] ۽ [[يوڪرين]] جا شهري شامل آهن. غير ملڪي آبادي خاص طور [[ارفرٽ]]، [[يينا]]، [[ويمار]] ۽ [[ايلميناو]] جهڙن يونيورسٽي شهرن ۾ وڌيڪ آهي، جڏهن ته ٻهراڙيءَ جي ڪيترن ننڍن علائقن ۾ مهاجرن جو تعداد تمام گهٽ آهي.

ٿورنجيا ۾ عورتن جي ٻين علائقن ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ سبب 25 کان 40 ورهين جي عمر واري گروهه ۾ مردن جو تناسب نمايان وڌيڪ آهي، جتي هر 100 عورتن تي لڳ ڀڳ 115 کان 120 مرد آهن. ان جو اثر شادي ۽ پيدائش جي شرح تي به پوي ٿو.

رياست جي آبادي تيزيءَ سان پوڙهي ٿي رهي آهي. ڪيترين ئي ٻهراڙيءَ وارين ميونسپلٽين ۾ 65 سالن يا ان کان وڌيڪ عمر وارا ماڻهو آبادي جي 30 سيڪڙو کان به وڌيڪ آهن، جيڪو مقامي روزگار واري منڊي لاءِ هڪ اهم مسئلو بڻجي چڪو آهي.

=== قدرتي واڌ ۽ لڏپلاڻ ===
1970ع ۽ 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي دوران في عورت سراسري پيدائش جي شرح لڳ ڀڳ 1.8 ٻار هئي، جيڪا جرمني جي ٻيهر گڏجڻ کان پوءِ معاشي بحران دوران 1994ع ۾ گهٽجي 0.8 ٿي وئي. بعد ۾ اها ٻيهر وڌندي 2010ع تائين 1.4 کان وڌيڪ ٿي وئي، جيڪا ان وقت اولهه جرمني کان وڌيڪ هئي.

تنهن هوندي به هر سال لڳ ڀڳ 17 هزار ڄمڻ ۽ 27 هزار وفاتون ٿين ٿيون، جنهن سبب آبادي ۾ قدرتي گهٽتائي جاري آهي. 2015ع ۾ 17,934 ٻار ڄاوا، جيڪو 1990ع کان پوءِ سڀ کان وڌيڪ انگ هو.

لڏپلاڻ ٿورنجيا جي آباديءَ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪري ٿي. اندروني لڏپلاڻ جو رجحان ٻهراڙيءَ مان وڏن شهرن ڏانهن آهي. 2008ع کان 2012ع جي وچ ۾ [[ارفرٽ]]، [[گيرا]]، [[يينا]]، [[آئزيناخ]] ۽ [[ويمار]] سڀني ۾ خالص آباديءَ جو اضافو ٿيو.

ٻين جرمن وفاقي رياستن سان لڏپلاڻ جي لحاظ کان ٿورنجيا جو توازن منفي رهيو، خاص طور [[باويريا]]، [[سيڪسني]]، [[هيسي]] ۽ [[برلن]] ڏانهن وڌيڪ ماڻهو منتقل ٿيا، جڏهن ته [[سيڪسني-انهالٽ]] ۽ [[برانڊنبرگ]] سان توازن مثبت رهيو.

بين الاقوامي لڏپلاڻ ۾ به نمايان واڌ آئي. 2008ع کان 2012ع جي وچ ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ مهاجر [[پولينڊ]]، [[رومانيا]]، [[افغانستان]] ۽ [[سربيا]]، [[مونٽي نيگرو]] ۽ [[ڪوسوو]] مان آيا، جڏهن ته [[سوئٽزرلينڊ]] ۽ [[آسٽريا]] ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ جو رجحان وڌيڪ رهيو.

=== شهر، قصبا ۽ ڳوٺ ===
{{See also|ٿورنجيا جون ميونسپلٽيون|آبادي موجب ٿورنجيا جا شهر}}

ٿورنجيا جي لڳ ڀڳ 850 ميونسپلٽين مان 126 کي شهر يا قصبي جي حيثيت حاصل آهي. انهن مان گهڻن شهرن جي آبادي 10 هزار کان گهٽ آهي، جڏهن ته رڳو ڏهن شهرن جي آبادي 30 هزار کان وڌيڪ آهي.

هن علائقي جا پهريان شهر 12هين صديءَ دوران وجود ۾ آيا، جڏهن ته ڪجهه شهرن کي 20هين صديءَ ۾ شهري حيثيت ملي.

=== مذهب ===
[[پروٽيسٽنٽ سڌارا]] کان پوءِ ٿورنجيا ۾ [[لوثري عيسائيت]] سڀ کان اهم مذهبي روايت رهي آهي. [[اوڀر جرمني]] جي دور ۾ مذهبي وابستگي جي حوصلا شڪني ڪئي ويندي هئي، ۽ 1990ع کان پوءِ به چرچ جي رڪنيت ۾ گهٽتائي جاري رهي.

2018ع جي انگن اکرن موجب:
* 71.6٪ ماڻهو غير مذهبي هئا يا ٻين مذهبن سان تعلق رکندا هئا.
* 20.8٪ ماڻهو [[جرمني جي انجيليڪل چرچ]] سان وابسته هئا.
* 7.6٪ ماڻهو [[رومن ڪيٿولڪ چرچ]] سان تعلق رکندا هئا.

پروٽيسٽنٽ آبادي خاص طور ڏاکڻين ۽ اولهائين ڳوٺاڻن علائقن ۾ وڌيڪ آهي، جڏهن ته وڏن شهرن، خاص ڪري [[گيرا]] ۾، غير مذهبي ماڻهن جو تناسب تمام گهڻو آهي.

ڪيٿولڪ آبادي گهڻو ڪري [[آئشسفيلڊ]] ۽ [[رون جبل]] جي [[گائزا]] واري علائقي ۾ رهي ٿي. پولينڊ، ڏاکڻي يورپ ۽ اولهه جرمني مان ٿيندڙ ڪيٿولڪ لڏپلاڻ سبب ڪيٿولڪ آبادي نسبتاً وڌيڪ مستحڪم رهي آهي.

ٿورنجيا ۾ [[اسلام]]، [[يهوديت]]، مشرقي آرتھوڊوڪس گرجائن ۽ ڪجهه آزاد پروٽيسٽنٽ گرجائن جا ننڍا مذهبي گروهه پڻ موجود آهن، پر انهن جو مجموعي سماجي اثر محدود آهي.

ٿورنجيا جون پروٽيسٽنٽ جماعتون [[مرڪزي جرمني جي انجيليڪل چرچ]] يا [[هيسي اليڪٽرٽ-والڊيڪ جي انجيليڪل چرچ]] سان لاڳاپيل آهن، جڏهن ته ڪيٿولڪ علائقا [[ارفرٽ جو رومن ڪيٿولڪ ڊائيوسز]]، [[ڊريسڊن-مائيسن جو رومن ڪيٿولڪ ڊائيوسز]] ۽ [[فولڊا جو رومن ڪيٿولڪ ڊائيوسز]] جي دائري ۾ اچن ٿا.

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:ٿرنجيا]]
[[زمرو:جرمني جي رياستون]]</text>
      <sha1>gsbbbssp4ce1zeov6zv8wzjmvbboj9d</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ساموئي</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>39076</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399349</id>
      <parentid>255715</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T22:56:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399349</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4787" sha1="o2nfgmqffzxp3uhyevk6to1xva07yws" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement 
| name = ساموئي
| native_name = ساموئي
| settlement_type = تاريخي شهر
| image =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = Sindh#Pakistan
| pushpin_label_position = right
| subdivision_type = ملڪ
| subdivision_name = {{PAK}}
| subdivision_type1 = صوبو
| subdivision_name1 = [[سنڌ]]
| subdivision_type2 = ضلعو
| subdivision_name2 = [[ٺٽو ضلعو]]
| established_title = قيام
| established_date = سمن جي شروعاتي دور
| founder = [[ڄام بابينه]] (هڪ روايت موجب)
| seat_type = تاريخي تختگاهه
| population_total =
| timezone = PST
| utc_offset = +5
}}

'''ساموئي''' (انگريزي: '''Samoiee''') سنڌ جو هڪ تاريخي شهر ۽ سمن جي شروعاتي دور جو اهم تختگاهه هو، جيڪو موجوده [[ٺٽو]] شهر جي اتر-الهندي طرف واقع هو. هيءُ شهر [[محمد طور]] جي تباهي کان پوءِ سمن جي حڪمرانن آباد ڪيو ۽ ڪجهه عرصي تائين سندن گاديءَ جو هنڌ رهيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;قليچ&quot;&gt;مرزا قليچ بيگ، ''قديم سنڌ - ان جا مشهور شهر ۽ ماڻهو''، چوٿون ايڊيشن، سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، ڄامشورو، 1999ع.&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
[[محمد طور]] شهر جي تباهي کان پوءِ، جڏهن [[سما خاندان|سمن]] سنڌ جي حڪومت سنڀالي، تڏهن هنن درڪ پرڳڻي ۾ ڪيترائي نوان شهر آباد ڪيا، جن مان ساموئي اهم هو. روايتن موجب [[ڄام اُنڙ]] بن بابينه 752هه (1351ع) ۾ هتي تخت تي ويٺو. شهر جي تعمير بابت اختلاف آهي؛ ڪن مؤرخن موجب ان جو بنياد [[ڄام بابينه]] وڌو، جڏهن ته ڪي ان کي ڄام اُنڙ سان منسوب ڪن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;قليچ&quot;/&gt;

بعد ۾ [[ڄام نظام الدين]] (ڄام نندو) پنهنجي حڪومت جي شروعاتي دور ۾ ساموئي کان ٿوري فاصلي تي نئون تختگاهه قائم ڪيو، جنهن سبب ساموئي جي سياسي اهميت آهستي آهستي گهٽجي وئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;قليچ&quot;/&gt;

==سما دور جون روايتون==
سنڌي لوڪ ادب ۾ مشهور ''ساموئي وارا بيت'' هن شهر سان منسوب آهن، جن ۾ سنڌ جي حڪومت بابت پيشنگوئيون بيان ٿيل آهن. روايتن مطابق اهي بيت ساموئي ۾ چيا ويا ۽ انهن سان لاڳاپيل ساموئي به هتي ئي وفات ڪري ويا.&lt;ref name=&quot;قليچ&quot;/&gt;

ٻي روايت موجب ساموئي کي [[تغلق آباد]] يا [[ڪلان ڪوٽ]] سان به لاڳاپو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جيڪو [[ٺٽو]] کان لڳ ڀڳ ڏيڍ ڪوهه اتر-الهندي طرف واقع هو.&lt;ref&gt;سير ريگستان، محمد اسماعيل عرساڻي، سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، 1976ع.&lt;/ref&gt;

==ستن ستين جي روايت==
ساموئي سان هڪ مشهور لوڪ روايت ''ستن ستين'' جي به وابسته آهي. روايت موجب ڪجهه پاڪدامن سومريون ڪنئاريون ظلم کان بچڻ لاءِ عبادت ۽ رياضت ۾ مشغول هيون. جڏهن انهن تي زبردستي ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي ته هنن خدا کان مدد گهري، جنهن کان پوءِ زمين ڦاٽي پئي ۽ اهي ان ۾ غائب ٿي ويون. انهيءَ هنڌ تي بعد ۾ زيارتگاهه قائم ڪئي وئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;قليچ&quot;/&gt;

==مذهبي اهميت==
ساموئي صوفي بزرگن ۽ عالمن جو به اهم مرڪز رهيو. هتي ڪيترن مشهور بزرگن جون درگاهون موجود آهن، جن ۾ شامل آهن:

* [[شيخ حماد بن شيخ رشيد الدين جمالي]]
* [[شيخ عيسيٰ سنڌي برهانپوري]]
* [[ملا عبدالرحمان (ملو لٽر)]]
* [[شيخ جهنڊو پاتڻي]]

انهن بزرگن جو ذڪر سنڌ جي صوفي روايتن ۽ مقامي تاريخ ۾ وڏي اهميت سان ملي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;قليچ&quot;/&gt;

==موجوده حالت==
هاڻوڪي دور ۾ ساموئي جي قديم شهر جا رڳو آثار، قديم قبرستان، مسجدون ۽ بزرگن جون درگاهون موجود آهن. هي ماڳ [[مڪلي]] جي تاريخي آثارن جي ويجهو هجڻ سبب سنڌ جي تاريخي ۽ ثقافتي ورثي جو حصو شمار ٿئي ٿو.

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[محمد طور]]
* [[ٺٽو]]
* [[مڪلي]]
* [[ڄام نظام الدين]]
* [[شيخ حماد بن شيخ رشيد الدين جمالي]]
* [[شيخ جهنڊو پاتڻي]]

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>o2nfgmqffzxp3uhyevk6to1xva07yws</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399350</id>
      <parentid>399349</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T22:56:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399350</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4754" sha1="6rrpp6vbz5b5hybx32s0r5ctpdwehyn" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement 
| name = ساموئي
| native_name = ساموئي
| settlement_type = تاريخي شهر
| image =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = Sindh#Pakistan
| pushpin_label_position = right
| subdivision_type = ملڪ
| subdivision_name = {{PAK}}
| subdivision_type1 = صوبو
| subdivision_name1 = [[سنڌ]]
| subdivision_type2 = ضلعو
| subdivision_name2 = [[ٺٽو ضلعو]]
| established_title = قيام
| established_date = سمن جي شروعاتي دور
| founder = [[ڄام بابينه]] (هڪ روايت موجب)
| seat_type = تاريخي تختگاهه
| population_total =
| timezone = PST
| utc_offset = +5
}}

'''ساموئي''' (انگريزي: '''Samoiee''') سنڌ جو هڪ تاريخي شهر ۽ سمن جي شروعاتي دور جو اهم تختگاهه هو، جيڪو موجوده [[ٺٽو]] شهر جي اتر-الهندي طرف واقع هو. هيءُ شهر [[محمد طور]] جي تباهي کان پوءِ سمن جي حڪمرانن آباد ڪيو ۽ ڪجهه عرصي تائين سندن گاديءَ جو هنڌ رهيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;قليچ&quot;&gt;مرزا قليچ بيگ، ''قديم سنڌ - ان جا مشهور شهر ۽ ماڻهو''، چوٿون ايڊيشن، سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، ڄامشورو، 1999ع.&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
[[محمد طور]] شهر جي تباهي کان پوءِ، جڏهن [[سما خاندان|سمن]] سنڌ جي حڪومت سنڀالي، تڏهن هنن درڪ پرڳڻي ۾ ڪيترائي نوان شهر آباد ڪيا، جن مان ساموئي اهم هو. روايتن موجب [[ڄام اُنڙ]] بن بابينه 752هه (1351ع) ۾ هتي تخت تي ويٺو. شهر جي تعمير بابت اختلاف آهي؛ ڪن مؤرخن موجب ان جو بنياد [[ڄام بابينه]] وڌو، جڏهن ته ڪي ان کي ڄام اُنڙ سان منسوب ڪن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;قليچ&quot;/&gt;

بعد ۾ [[ڄام نظام الدين]] (ڄام نندو) پنهنجي حڪومت جي شروعاتي دور ۾ ساموئي کان ٿوري فاصلي تي نئون تختگاهه قائم ڪيو، جنهن سبب ساموئي جي سياسي اهميت آهستي آهستي گهٽجي وئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;قليچ&quot;/&gt;

==سما دور جون روايتون==
سنڌي لوڪ ادب ۾ مشهور ''ساموئي وارا بيت'' هن شهر سان منسوب آهن، جن ۾ سنڌ جي حڪومت بابت پيشنگوئيون بيان ٿيل آهن. روايتن مطابق اهي بيت ساموئي ۾ چيا ويا ۽ انهن سان لاڳاپيل ساموئي به هتي ئي وفات ڪري ويا.&lt;ref name=&quot;قليچ&quot;/&gt;

ٻي روايت موجب ساموئي کي [[تغلق آباد]] يا [[ڪلان ڪوٽ]] سان به لاڳاپو ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جيڪو [[ٺٽو]] کان لڳ ڀڳ ڏيڍ ڪوهه اتر-الهندي طرف واقع هو.&lt;ref&gt;سير ريگستان، محمد اسماعيل عرساڻي، سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، 1976ع.&lt;/ref&gt;

==ستن ستين جي روايت==
ساموئي سان هڪ مشهور لوڪ روايت ''ستن ستين'' جي به وابسته آهي. روايت موجب ڪجهه پاڪدامن سومريون ڪنئاريون ظلم کان بچڻ لاءِ عبادت ۽ رياضت ۾ مشغول هيون. جڏهن انهن تي زبردستي ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي وئي ته هنن خدا کان مدد گهري، جنهن کان پوءِ زمين ڦاٽي پئي ۽ اهي ان ۾ غائب ٿي ويون. انهيءَ هنڌ تي بعد ۾ زيارتگاهه قائم ڪئي وئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;قليچ&quot;/&gt;

==مذهبي اهميت==
ساموئي صوفي بزرگن ۽ عالمن جو به اهم مرڪز رهيو. هتي ڪيترن مشهور بزرگن جون درگاهون موجود آهن، جن ۾ شامل آهن:

* [[شيخ حماد بن شيخ رشيد الدين جمالي]]
* [[شيخ عيسيٰ سنڌي برهانپوري]]
* [[ملا عبدالرحمان (ملو لٽر)]]
* [[شيخ جهنڊو پاتڻي]]

انهن بزرگن جو ذڪر سنڌ جي صوفي روايتن ۽ مقامي تاريخ ۾ وڏي اهميت سان ملي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;قليچ&quot;/&gt;

==موجوده حالت==
هاڻوڪي دور ۾ ساموئي جي قديم شهر جا رڳو آثار، قديم قبرستان، مسجدون ۽ بزرگن جون درگاهون موجود آهن. هي ماڳ [[مڪلي]] جي تاريخي آثارن جي ويجهو هجڻ سبب سنڌ جي تاريخي ۽ ثقافتي ورثي جو حصو شمار ٿئي ٿو.

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[محمد طور]]
* [[ٺٽو]]
* [[مڪلي]]
* [[ڄام نظام الدين]]
* [[شيخ حماد بن شيخ رشيد الدين جمالي]]
* [[شيخ جهنڊو پاتڻي]]

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>6rrpp6vbz5b5hybx32s0r5ctpdwehyn</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>مخدوم محمد هاشم جي مسجد</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>39310</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399351</id>
      <parentid>256220</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T23:00:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399351</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3487" sha1="n4wr0txuc6t4789ls46z85filumv7ke" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox mosque   
| name = مخدوم محمد هاشم جي مسجد
| native_name = مخدوم محمد هاشم جي مسجد
| image =
| image_caption =
| map_type = Pakistan Sindh
| map_caption = سنڌ ۾ مقام
| location = [[ٺٽو]]، [[سنڌ]]، [[پاڪستان]]
| religious_affiliation = [[اسلام]]
| rite = [[سني اسلام]]
| district = [[ٺٽو ضلعو]]
| status = تاريخي مسجد
| functional_status = تاريخي
| founded_by = [[مخدوم محمد هاشم ٺٽوي]]
| established =
| architecture_type = مسجد
}}

'''مخدوم محمد هاشم جي مسجد''' [[ٺٽو]] شهر ۾ [[مخدوم محمد هاشم ٺٽوي]] جي پاڙي ۾ واقع هڪ تاريخي مسجد هئي، جيڪا ارڙهين صديءَ دوران ديني تعليم، تدريس، افتا ۽ علمي سرگرمين جو اهم مرڪز رهي. هيءَ مسجد مخدوم محمد هاشم ٺٽوي جي علمي ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن سان وابسته هئي، جتي پاڻ درس و تدريس، وعظ ۽ تصنيف و تاليف جو ڪم سرانجام ڏيندا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;راشدي&quot;&gt;پير حسام الدين راشدي، ''ڳالهيون ڳوٺ وڻن جون''، سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، ڄامشورو، 1981ع.&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
روايتن موجب مخدوم محمد هاشم ٺٽوي هن مسجد کي پنهنجي علمي ۽ ديني سرگرمين جو مرڪز بڻايو. هن مسجد ۾ ويهي پاڻ پنهنجي ڪيترين علمي تصنيفن کي مڪمل ڪيو، فقهي مسئلن بابت فتوائون جاري ڪيون ۽ سنڌ جي حڪمرانن ڏانهن ديني معاملن بابت خط لکيا.&lt;ref name=&quot;راشدي&quot;/&gt;

==علمي خدمتون==
هيءَ مسجد هڪ ديني مدرسي طور پڻ ڪم ڪندي هئي. صبح جي وقت هتي باقاعده تدريس ٿيندي هئي، جڏهن ته منجهند کان پوءِ حديث نبوي ﷺ جو درس ڏنو ويندو هو. مخدوم محمد هاشم هر جمعي تي [[جامع خسرو]] ۾ وعظ فرمائيندا هئا، جڏهن ته روزانو حديث جو درس هن مسجد ۾ ڏيندا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;راشدي&quot;/&gt;

مخدوم محمد هاشم جي وفات (1174هه) کان پوءِ سندن فرزند [[مخدوم عبداللطيف]] تدريس ۽ حديث جي درس جو سلسلو جاري رکيو. جڏهن مخدوم عبداللطيف 1187هه ۾ [[ميان محمد سرفراز خان ٽالپر]] جي لشڪر ۾ قاضي مقرر ٿيو، تڏهن سندس فرزند ميان ابراهيم تدريس جون ذميواريون سنڀاليون. بعد ۾ ميان ابراهيم ٺٽو ڇڏي پهرين [[ڪراچي]] ۽ پوءِ [[مڏئي]] (ڪڇ) منتقل ٿي ويو، جنهن کان پوءِ مسجد ۾ تدريسي سرگرميون آهستي آهستي ختم ٿي ويون.&lt;ref name=&quot;راشدي&quot;/&gt;

==زوال==
ٽالپر دور تائين مسجد ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل ديني درسگاهه قائم رهيا، پر پوءِ مخدوم محمد هاشم جي خاندان جي ٺٽي مان لڏي وڃڻ سبب مسجد ۾ تدريس، حديث جا درس ۽ ديني سرگرميون ختم ٿي ويون.&lt;ref name=&quot;راشدي&quot;/&gt;

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[مخدوم محمد هاشم ٺٽوي]]
* [[جامع خسرو]]
* [[ٺٽو]]
* [[مخدوم عبداللطيف]]

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>n4wr0txuc6t4789ls46z85filumv7ke</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399352</id>
      <parentid>399351</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T23:00:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399352</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3454" sha1="c8prrokfgzilq6d2t5n63m84ml169zv" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox mosque   
| name = مخدوم محمد هاشم جي مسجد
| native_name = مخدوم محمد هاشم جي مسجد
| image =
| image_caption =
| map_type = Pakistan Sindh
| map_caption = سنڌ ۾ مقام
| location = [[ٺٽو]]، [[سنڌ]]، [[پاڪستان]]
| religious_affiliation = [[اسلام]]
| rite = [[سني اسلام]]
| district = [[ٺٽو ضلعو]]
| status = تاريخي مسجد
| functional_status = تاريخي
| founded_by = [[مخدوم محمد هاشم ٺٽوي]]
| established =
| architecture_type = مسجد
}}

'''مخدوم محمد هاشم جي مسجد''' [[ٺٽو]] شهر ۾ [[مخدوم محمد هاشم ٺٽوي]] جي پاڙي ۾ واقع هڪ تاريخي مسجد هئي، جيڪا ارڙهين صديءَ دوران ديني تعليم، تدريس، افتا ۽ علمي سرگرمين جو اهم مرڪز رهي. هيءَ مسجد مخدوم محمد هاشم ٺٽوي جي علمي ۽ اصلاحي خدمتن سان وابسته هئي، جتي پاڻ درس و تدريس، وعظ ۽ تصنيف و تاليف جو ڪم سرانجام ڏيندا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;راشدي&quot;&gt;پير حسام الدين راشدي، ''ڳالهيون ڳوٺ وڻن جون''، سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، ڄامشورو، 1981ع.&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
روايتن موجب مخدوم محمد هاشم ٺٽوي هن مسجد کي پنهنجي علمي ۽ ديني سرگرمين جو مرڪز بڻايو. هن مسجد ۾ ويهي پاڻ پنهنجي ڪيترين علمي تصنيفن کي مڪمل ڪيو، فقهي مسئلن بابت فتوائون جاري ڪيون ۽ سنڌ جي حڪمرانن ڏانهن ديني معاملن بابت خط لکيا.&lt;ref name=&quot;راشدي&quot;/&gt;

==علمي خدمتون==
هيءَ مسجد هڪ ديني مدرسي طور پڻ ڪم ڪندي هئي. صبح جي وقت هتي باقاعده تدريس ٿيندي هئي، جڏهن ته منجهند کان پوءِ حديث نبوي ﷺ جو درس ڏنو ويندو هو. مخدوم محمد هاشم هر جمعي تي [[جامع خسرو]] ۾ وعظ فرمائيندا هئا، جڏهن ته روزانو حديث جو درس هن مسجد ۾ ڏيندا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;راشدي&quot;/&gt;

مخدوم محمد هاشم جي وفات (1174هه) کان پوءِ سندن فرزند [[مخدوم عبداللطيف]] تدريس ۽ حديث جي درس جو سلسلو جاري رکيو. جڏهن مخدوم عبداللطيف 1187هه ۾ [[ميان محمد سرفراز خان ٽالپر]] جي لشڪر ۾ قاضي مقرر ٿيو، تڏهن سندس فرزند ميان ابراهيم تدريس جون ذميواريون سنڀاليون. بعد ۾ ميان ابراهيم ٺٽو ڇڏي پهرين [[ڪراچي]] ۽ پوءِ [[مڏئي]] (ڪڇ) منتقل ٿي ويو، جنهن کان پوءِ مسجد ۾ تدريسي سرگرميون آهستي آهستي ختم ٿي ويون.&lt;ref name=&quot;راشدي&quot;/&gt;

==زوال==
ٽالپر دور تائين مسجد ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل ديني درسگاهه قائم رهيا، پر پوءِ مخدوم محمد هاشم جي خاندان جي ٺٽي مان لڏي وڃڻ سبب مسجد ۾ تدريس، حديث جا درس ۽ ديني سرگرميون ختم ٿي ويون.&lt;ref name=&quot;راشدي&quot;/&gt;

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[مخدوم محمد هاشم ٺٽوي]]
* [[جامع خسرو]]
* [[ٺٽو]]
* [[مخدوم عبداللطيف]]

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>c8prrokfgzilq6d2t5n63m84ml169zv</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>جيني ضربيندڙ عدد</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>49148</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399252</id>
      <parentid>248761</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T17:07:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399252</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3963" sha1="g1bu1m3lj36vifvjomndcmtddkwyjyr" xml:space="preserve">'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد''':{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>g1bu1m3lj36vifvjomndcmtddkwyjyr</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399253</id>
      <parentid>399252</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T17:09:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399253</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4825" sha1="rd2l44f51qkr8yeth05w3ce227oqwma" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{legend-col
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد''':{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>rd2l44f51qkr8yeth05w3ce227oqwma</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399254</id>
      <parentid>399253</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T17:26:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399254</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8933" sha1="f5aqs7c326ybza4etd0tf50a8gm3uaj" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{legend-col
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد''':{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي گني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. گني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاري طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، گني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>f5aqs7c326ybza4etd0tf50a8gm3uaj</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399255</id>
      <parentid>399254</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T17:28:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399255</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="14531" sha1="qq297g0lznps5ubo02wm22d09mbc7g7" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{legend-col
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد''':{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي گني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. گني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاري طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، گني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|گني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

گني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وکر]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. گني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وکر جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب گني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته گني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته گني اشاري جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري گني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (relative mean absolute difference) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وکر تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته گني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>qq297g0lznps5ubo02wm22d09mbc7g7</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399256</id>
      <parentid>399255</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T17:29:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399256</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="14530" sha1="60yl7hau95joekdpxovsimi77yh5sfl" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد''':{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي گني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. گني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاري طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، گني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|گني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

گني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وکر]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. گني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وکر جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب گني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته گني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته گني اشاري جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري گني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (relative mean absolute difference) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وکر تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته گني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>60yl7hau95joekdpxovsimi77yh5sfl</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399257</id>
      <parentid>399256</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T17:36:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399257</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="36001" sha1="bzm4cbetphl5m2j5eivy2udlmxzxq14" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد''':{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي گني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. گني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاري طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، گني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|گني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

گني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وکر]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. گني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وکر جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب گني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته گني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته گني اشاري جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري گني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (relative mean absolute difference) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وکر تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته گني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا گني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته گني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو گني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وکر]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به گني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، گني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وکر]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

گني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته گني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، گني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

:{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن !! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن PDF(x) !! گني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]] || &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),, x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; || 0
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
||
&lt;math&gt;\begin{cases}
\frac{1}{b-a} &amp; a\le x\le b \
0 &amp; \mathrm{otherwise}
\end{cases}&lt;/math&gt;
||
&lt;math&gt;\frac{(b-a)}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
||
&lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-x\lambda},,,x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
||
&lt;math&gt;1/2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; = 0، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\textrm{erf}(0)&lt;/math&gt; = 0؛ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1 = 2(0.5)-1&lt;/math&gt; = 0.&lt;/ref&gt;
||
&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}} e^{-\frac 12 \left(\frac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}\right)^2}&lt;/math&gt;
||
&lt;math&gt;\textrm{erf}(\sigma/2)=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
||
&lt;math&gt;\begin{cases}
\frac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}} &amp; x\ge k\
0 &amp; x &lt; k
\end{cases}&lt;/math&gt;
||
&lt;math&gt;\begin{cases}
1 &amp; 0&lt;\alpha &lt; 1\
\frac{1}{2\alpha -1} &amp; \alpha \ge 1
\end{cases}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
||
&lt;math&gt;f(x;k) = \begin{cases}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\frac{k}{2}\right)}, &amp; x\geq 0 \
0, &amp; x&lt;0
\end{cases}&lt;/math&gt;
||
&lt;math&gt;(-1)^k \left|I_{-1}(k,\tfrac{1}{2})\right|&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
||
&lt;math&gt;\frac{2^{-k/2} e^{-x/2} x^{k/2 - 1}}{\Gamma(k/2)}&lt;/math&gt;
||
&lt;math&gt;\frac{2,\Gamma\left(\frac{1+k}{2}\right)}{k,\Gamma(k/2)\sqrt{\pi}}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
||
&lt;math&gt;\frac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}{\Gamma(k)}&lt;/math&gt;
||
&lt;math&gt;\frac{\Gamma\left(\frac{2k+1}{2}\right)}{k,\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
||
&lt;math&gt;\frac{k}{\lambda}\left(\frac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1} e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}&lt;/math&gt;
||
&lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
||
&lt;math&gt;\frac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}{B(\alpha,\beta)}&lt;/math&gt;
||
&lt;math&gt;\left(\frac{2}{\alpha}\right)\frac{B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)}{B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
||
&lt;math&gt;\frac{(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}}
{\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2}&lt;/math&gt;
||
&lt;math&gt;1/\beta&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وکر معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وکر جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وکر جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وکر کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وکر کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي گني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>bzm4cbetphl5m2j5eivy2udlmxzxq14</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399258</id>
      <parentid>399257</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T17:45:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ */</comment>
      <origin>399258</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="36280" sha1="6de64n3ktoouq5w9m475kyiyd1nqupj" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد''':{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي گني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. گني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاري طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، گني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|گني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

گني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وکر]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. گني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وکر جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب گني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته گني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته گني اشاري جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري گني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (relative mean absolute difference) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وکر تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته گني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا گني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته گني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو گني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وکر]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به گني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، گني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وکر]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

گني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته گني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، گني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! گني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وکر معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وکر جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وکر جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وکر کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وکر کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي گني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>6de64n3ktoouq5w9m475kyiyd1nqupj</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399259</id>
      <parentid>399258</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T17:48:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399259</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="39086" sha1="oq8zl3atutb9r9xgglbspun8bzl7z96" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد''':{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي گني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. گني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاري طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، گني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|گني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

گني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وکر]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. گني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وکر جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب گني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته گني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته گني اشاري جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري گني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (relative mean absolute difference) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وکر تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته گني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا گني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته گني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو گني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وکر]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به گني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، گني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وکر]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

گني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته گني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، گني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! گني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وکر معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وکر جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وکر جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وکر کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وکر کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي گني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاري ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاري}}

گني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاري هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاري جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاري هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>oq8zl3atutb9r9xgglbspun8bzl7z96</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399260</id>
      <parentid>399259</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T17:53:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399260</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="45795" sha1="jd0xbxb0j3e8uvosv366xu9yetzuvqw" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد''':{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي گني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. گني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاري طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، گني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|گني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

گني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وکر]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. گني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وکر جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب گني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته گني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته گني اشاري جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري گني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (relative mean absolute difference) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وکر تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته گني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا گني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته گني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو گني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وکر]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به گني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، گني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وکر]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

گني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته گني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، گني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! گني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وکر معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وکر جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وکر جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وکر کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وکر کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي گني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاري ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاري}}

گني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاري هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاري جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاري هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}
{{Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg}}

آمدنيءَ بابت گني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (Market income) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (Disposable income).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل گني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (pre-tax Gini coefficient) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (transfers) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل گني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد** (after-tax Gini coefficient) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته گني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>jd0xbxb0j3e8uvosv366xu9yetzuvqw</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399261</id>
      <parentid>399260</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T17:53:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399261</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="47239" sha1="ffar04sbejv84rjpghp0df7m6r3r75k" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد''':{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي گني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. گني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاري طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، گني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|گني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

گني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وکر]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. گني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وکر جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب گني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته گني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته گني اشاري جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري گني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (relative mean absolute difference) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وکر تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته گني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا گني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته گني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو گني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وکر]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به گني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، گني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وکر]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

گني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته گني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، گني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! گني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وکر معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وکر جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وکر جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وکر کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وکر کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي گني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاري ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاري}}

گني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاري هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاري جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاري هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}
{{Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg}}

آمدنيءَ بابت گني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (Market income) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (Disposable income).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل گني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (pre-tax Gini coefficient) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (transfers) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل گني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد** (after-tax Gini coefficient) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته گني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني گني اشاري ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي گني اشاري جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري گني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو گني اشاري 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ گني اشاري، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>ffar04sbejv84rjpghp0df7m6r3r75k</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399262</id>
      <parentid>399261</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T17:54:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399262</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="49151" sha1="n8ygnr0g2ea9741xxt1vmwbzomo155i" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد''':{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي گني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. گني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاري طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، گني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|گني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

گني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وکر]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. گني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وکر جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب گني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته گني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته گني اشاري جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري گني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (relative mean absolute difference) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وکر تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته گني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا گني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته گني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو گني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وکر]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به گني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، گني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وکر]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

گني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته گني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، گني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! گني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وکر معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وکر جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وکر جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وکر کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وکر کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي گني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاري ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاري}}

گني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاري هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاري جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاري هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}
{{Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg}}

آمدنيءَ بابت گني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (Market income) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (Disposable income).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل گني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (pre-tax Gini coefficient) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (transfers) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل گني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد** (after-tax Gini coefficient) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته گني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني گني اشاري ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي گني اشاري جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري گني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو گني اشاري 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ گني اشاري، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو گني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي گني اشاري ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[بريڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي گني اشاري جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>n8ygnr0g2ea9741xxt1vmwbzomo155i</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399263</id>
      <parentid>399262</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T17:55:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399263</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="50070" sha1="qbjw3vvrlol2tit0aimuw4tthcibsdz" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد''':{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي گني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. گني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاري طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، گني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|گني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

گني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وکر]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. گني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وکر جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب گني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته گني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته گني اشاري جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري گني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (relative mean absolute difference) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وکر تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته گني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا گني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته گني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو گني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وکر]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به گني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، گني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وکر]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

گني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته گني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، گني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! گني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وکر معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وکر جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وکر جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وکر کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وکر کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي گني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاري ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاري}}

گني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاري هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاري جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاري هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}
{{Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg}}

آمدنيءَ بابت گني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (Market income) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (Disposable income).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل گني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (pre-tax Gini coefficient) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (transfers) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل گني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد** (after-tax Gini coefficient) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته گني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني گني اشاري ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي گني اشاري جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري گني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو گني اشاري 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ گني اشاري، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو گني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي گني اشاري ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[بريڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي گني اشاري جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو گني اشاري – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي گني اشاري&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>qbjw3vvrlol2tit0aimuw4tthcibsdz</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399264</id>
      <parentid>399263</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T17:56:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399264</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="52069" sha1="rzjr6nse2mi3e3pjxytfwba550mbjdx" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد''':{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي گني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. گني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاري طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، گني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|گني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

گني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وکر]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. گني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وکر جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب گني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته گني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته گني اشاري جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري گني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (relative mean absolute difference) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وکر تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته گني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا گني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته گني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو گني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وکر]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به گني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، گني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وکر]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

گني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته گني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، گني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! گني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وکر معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وکر جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وکر جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وکر کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وکر کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي گني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاري ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاري}}

گني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاري هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاري جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاري هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}
{{Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg}}

آمدنيءَ بابت گني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (Market income) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (Disposable income).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل گني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (pre-tax Gini coefficient) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (transfers) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل گني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد** (after-tax Gini coefficient) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته گني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني گني اشاري ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي گني اشاري جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري گني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو گني اشاري 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ گني اشاري، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو گني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي گني اشاري ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[بريڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي گني اشاري جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو گني اشاري – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي گني اشاري&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو گني اشاري – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي گني اشاري&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (گني اشاري) ۾ تبديلي]]

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>rzjr6nse2mi3e3pjxytfwba550mbjdx</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399282</id>
      <parentid>399264</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:06:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* آمدني جي ورڇ بابت */</comment>
      <origin>399282</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="52237" sha1="rjc28jbqnik2ya25xgh9ybr00xgh0oi" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد''':{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي گني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. گني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاري طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، گني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|گني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

گني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وکر]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. گني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وکر جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب گني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته گني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته گني اشاري جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري گني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (relative mean absolute difference) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وکر تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته گني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا گني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته گني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو گني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وکر]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به گني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، گني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وکر]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

گني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته گني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، گني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! گني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وکر معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وکر جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وکر جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وکر کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وکر کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي گني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاري ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاري}}

گني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاري هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاري جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاري هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وکر ۽ گني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت گني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل گني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل گني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته گني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني گني اشاري ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي گني اشاري جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري گني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو گني اشاري 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ گني اشاري، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو گني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي گني اشاري ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[بريڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي گني اشاري جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو گني اشاري – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي گني اشاري&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو گني اشاري – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي گني اشاري&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (گني اشاري) ۾ تبديلي]]

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>rjc28jbqnik2ya25xgh9ybr00xgh0oi</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399284</id>
      <parentid>399282</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:08:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399284</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="64734" sha1="oegqdhx1peyom7v5u945bn3fe9htigc" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد''':{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي گني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. گني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاري طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، گني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|گني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

گني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وکر]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. گني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وکر جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب گني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته گني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته گني اشاري جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري گني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (relative mean absolute difference) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وکر تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته گني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا گني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته گني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو گني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وکر]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به گني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، گني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وکر]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

گني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته گني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، گني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! گني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وکر معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وکر جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وکر جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وکر کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وکر کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي گني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاري ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاري}}

گني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاري هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاري جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاري هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وکر ۽ گني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت گني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل گني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل گني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته گني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني گني اشاري ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي گني اشاري جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري گني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو گني اشاري 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ گني اشاري، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو گني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي گني اشاري ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[بريڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي گني اشاري جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو گني اشاري – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي گني اشاري&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو گني اشاري – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي گني اشاري&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (گني اشاري) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

گني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي گني عدد ۽ موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو گني اشاري ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو گني اشاري ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاري اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا گني اشاري سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاري]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاري يا شوراڪس جمود اشاري به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاري جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاري جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>oegqdhx1peyom7v5u945bn3fe9htigc</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399285</id>
      <parentid>399284</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:10:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399285</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="64776" sha1="gxbs7vhv1nj6jda5s86n44fpl8rtoul" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد''' يا  '''گني ضربيندڙ عدد''' :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي گني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. گني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاري طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، گني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|گني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

گني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وکر]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. گني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وکر جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب گني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته گني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته گني اشاري جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري گني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (relative mean absolute difference) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وکر تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته گني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا گني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته گني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو گني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وکر]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به گني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، گني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وکر]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

گني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته گني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، گني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! گني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وکر معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وکر جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وکر جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وکر کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وکر کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي گني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاري ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاري}}

گني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاري هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاري جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاري هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وکر ۽ گني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت گني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل گني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل گني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته گني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني گني اشاري ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي گني اشاري جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري گني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو گني اشاري 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ گني اشاري، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو گني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي گني اشاري ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[بريڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي گني اشاري جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو گني اشاري – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي گني اشاري&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو گني اشاري – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي گني اشاري&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (گني اشاري) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

گني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي گني عدد ۽ موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو گني اشاري ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو گني اشاري ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاري اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا گني اشاري سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاري]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاري يا شوراڪس جمود اشاري به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاري جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاري جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>gxbs7vhv1nj6jda5s86n44fpl8rtoul</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399287</id>
      <parentid>399285</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:12:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399287</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="64794" sha1="t2ckuyz2oj18wjaj85ry4sv72zehr2r" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد''' يا  '''گني ضربيندڙ عدد''' :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي گني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. گني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاري طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، گني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|گني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

گني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وکر]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. گني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وکر جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب گني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته گني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته گني اشاري جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري گني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (relative mean absolute difference) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وکر تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته گني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا گني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته گني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو گني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وکر]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به گني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، گني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وکر]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

گني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته گني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، گني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! گني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وکر معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وکر جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وکر جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وکر کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وکر کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي گني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاري ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاري}}

گني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاري هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاري جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاري هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وکر ۽ گني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت گني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل گني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل گني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته گني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو گني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي گني اشاري ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[بريڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي گني اشاري جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو گني اشاري – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي گني اشاري&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو گني اشاري – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي گني اشاري&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (گني اشاري) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

گني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي گني عدد ۽ موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو گني اشاري ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو گني اشاري ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاري اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا گني اشاري سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاري]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاري يا شوراڪس جمود اشاري به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاري جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاري جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>t2ckuyz2oj18wjaj85ry4sv72zehr2r</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399289</id>
      <parentid>399287</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:13:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399289</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="64808" sha1="8bng7shlxf8t10ajow0xkny6kru1bh8" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد''' يا  '''گني ضربيندڙ عدد''' :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي گني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. گني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاري طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، گني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|گني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

گني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وکر]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. گني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وکر جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب گني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته گني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته گني اشاري جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري گني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (relative mean absolute difference) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وکر تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته گني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا گني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته گني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو گني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وکر]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به گني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، گني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وکر]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

گني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته گني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، گني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! گني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وکر معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وکر جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وکر جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وکر کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وکر کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي گني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاري ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاري}}

گني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاري هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاري جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاري هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وکر ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو گني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي گني اشاري ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[بريڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي گني اشاري جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو گني اشاري – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي گني اشاري&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو گني اشاري – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي گني اشاري&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (گني اشاري) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

گني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي گني عدد ۽ موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو گني اشاري ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو گني اشاري ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاري اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا گني اشاري سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاري]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاري يا شوراڪس جمود اشاري به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاري جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاري جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>8bng7shlxf8t10ajow0xkny6kru1bh8</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399291</id>
      <parentid>399289</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:16:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399291</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="64836" sha1="g1moerpjzhgxf7nhv2k691hzrttlg1e" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد''' يا  '''گني ضربيندڙ عدد''' :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي گني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. گني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاري طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، گني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|گني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

گني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وکر]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. گني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وکر جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب گني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته گني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته گني اشاري جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري گني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (relative mean absolute difference) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وکر تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته گني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا گني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته گني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو گني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وکر]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به گني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، گني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وکر]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

گني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته گني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، گني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! گني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وکر معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وکر جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وکر جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وکر کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وکر کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي گني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاري ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاري}}

گني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاري هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاري جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاري هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وکر ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

گني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي گني عدد ۽ موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو گني اشاري ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو گني اشاري ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاري اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا گني اشاري سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاري]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاري يا شوراڪس جمود اشاري به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاري جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاري جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>g1moerpjzhgxf7nhv2k691hzrttlg1e</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399292</id>
      <parentid>399291</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:27:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399292</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="65623" sha1="h8ktlcs11x9zwzizifj6ibvrs19dbw0" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد''' يا  '''گني ضربيندڙ عدد''' :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي گني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. گني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاري طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، گني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|گني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

گني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وکر]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. گني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وکر جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب گني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته گني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته گني اشاري جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري گني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (relative mean absolute difference) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وکر تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته گني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا گني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته گني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو گني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وکر]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به گني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، گني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وکر]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

گني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته گني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، گني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! گني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وکر معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وکر جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وکر جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وکر کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وکر کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي گني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاري ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاري}}

گني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاري هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاري جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاري هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وکر ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

گني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي گني عدد ۽ موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو گني اشاري ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو گني اشاري ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاري اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا گني اشاري سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاري]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاري يا شوراڪس جمود اشاري به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاري جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاري جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==
{{Expand section|date=March 2023}}

جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (cumulative proportion) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>h8ktlcs11x9zwzizifj6ibvrs19dbw0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399293</id>
      <parentid>399292</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:28:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399293</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="65583" sha1="5gtnxmqqskh88dnzcrh3ku2ihmzx6a4" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي گني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. گني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاري طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، گني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|گني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

گني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وکر]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. گني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وکر جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب گني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته گني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته گني اشاري جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري گني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (relative mean absolute difference) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وکر تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته گني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا گني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته گني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو گني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وکر]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به گني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، گني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وکر]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

گني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته گني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، گني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! گني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وکر معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وکر جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وکر جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وکر کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وکر کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي گني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاري ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاري}}

گني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاري هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاري جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاري هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وکر ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

گني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي گني عدد ۽ موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو گني اشاري ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو گني اشاري ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاري اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا گني اشاري سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاري]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاري يا شوراڪس جمود اشاري به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاري جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاري جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==
{{Expand section|date=March 2023}}

جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (cumulative proportion) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>5gtnxmqqskh88dnzcrh3ku2ihmzx6a4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399294</id>
      <parentid>399293</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:29:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399294</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="65589" sha1="38xsc5ukftbzuefr5jkqbsk57lht8rs" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي گني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|گني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

گني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وکر]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. گني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وکر جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب گني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته گني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته گني اشاري جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري گني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (relative mean absolute difference) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وکر تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته گني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا گني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته گني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو گني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وکر]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به گني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، گني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وکر]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

گني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته گني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، گني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! گني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وکر معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وکر جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وکر جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وکر کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وکر کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي گني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاري ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاري}}

گني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاري هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاري جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاري هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وکر ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

گني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي گني عدد ۽ موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو گني اشاري ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو گني اشاري ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاري اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا گني اشاري سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاري]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاري يا شوراڪس جمود اشاري به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاري جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاري جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==
{{Expand section|date=March 2023}}

جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (cumulative proportion) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>38xsc5ukftbzuefr5jkqbsk57lht8rs</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399295</id>
      <parentid>399294</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:30:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399295</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="65591" sha1="h4onhv5zx80rl6ffnq2ojdxx4opnpb9" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|گني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

گني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وکر]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. گني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وکر جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب گني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته گني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته گني اشاري جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري گني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (relative mean absolute difference) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وکر تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته گني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا گني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته گني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو گني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وکر]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به گني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، گني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وکر]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

گني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته گني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، گني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! گني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وکر معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وکر جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وکر جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وکر کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وکر کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي گني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاري ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاري}}

گني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاري هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاري جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاري هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وکر ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

گني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي گني عدد ۽ موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو گني اشاري ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو گني اشاري ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاري اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا گني اشاري سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاري]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاري يا شوراڪس جمود اشاري به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاري جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاري جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==
{{Expand section|date=March 2023}}

جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (cumulative proportion) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>h4onhv5zx80rl6ffnq2ojdxx4opnpb9</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399297</id>
      <parentid>399295</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:34:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399297</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="65627" sha1="t676qf1tp73zbd4x6idupkycxqsvuzc" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|جيني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

جيني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وڪڙ]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. جيني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وڪڙ جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب جيني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته جيني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته جيني اشاريي جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري جيني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (رليٽو مين ابسوليوٽ ڊفرنس) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وڪڙ تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته جيني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا گني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته گني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو گني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وکر]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به گني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي گني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، گني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وکر]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

گني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته گني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

گني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته گني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، گني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! گني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وکر معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وکر جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وکر جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وکر کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وکر کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي گني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب گني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاري ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاري}}

گني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاري هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاري جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاري هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وکر ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

گني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي گني عدد ۽ موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو گني اشاري ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو گني اشاري ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاري اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا گني اشاري سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاري]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاري يا شوراڪس جمود اشاري به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاري جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاري جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==
{{Expand section|date=March 2023}}

جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (cumulative proportion) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>t676qf1tp73zbd4x6idupkycxqsvuzc</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399298</id>
      <parentid>399297</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:41:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399298</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="65664" sha1="64lsuw13odoxec0srmbe2i1570gsm2c" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|جيني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

جيني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وڪڙ]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. جيني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وڪڙ جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب جيني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته جيني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته جيني اشاريي جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري جيني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (رليٽو مين ابسوليوٽ ڊفرنس) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وڪڙ تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته جيني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا جيني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته جيني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو جيني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو جيني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به جيني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

جيني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته جيني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، جيني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! جيني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وڪڙ معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وڪڙ جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وڪڙ جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وڪڙ کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وڪڙ کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي جيني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاري ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاري}}

گني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاري هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاري جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاري هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وکر ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

گني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي گني عدد ۽ موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو گني اشاري ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو گني اشاري ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاري اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا گني اشاري سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاري]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاري يا شوراڪس جمود اشاري به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاري جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاري جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==
{{Expand section|date=March 2023}}

جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (cumulative proportion) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>64lsuw13odoxec0srmbe2i1570gsm2c</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399299</id>
      <parentid>399298</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:42:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399299</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="65672" sha1="3w9jlwb7qyb2f4mcmveshgorpghevtk" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|جيني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

جيني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وڪڙ]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. جيني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وڪڙ جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب جيني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته جيني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته جيني اشاريي جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري جيني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (رليٽو مين ابسوليوٽ ڊفرنس) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وڪڙ تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته جيني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا جيني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته جيني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو جيني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو جيني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به جيني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

جيني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته جيني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، جيني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! جيني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وڪڙ معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وڪڙ جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وڪڙ جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وڪڙ کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وڪڙ کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي جيني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاري ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاري}}

جيني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاريي هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاريي جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاريي هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وکر ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

گني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي گني عدد ۽ موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو گني اشاري ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو گني اشاري ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاري اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا گني اشاري سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاري]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاري يا شوراڪس جمود اشاري به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاري جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاري جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==
{{Expand section|date=March 2023}}

جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (cumulative proportion) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>3w9jlwb7qyb2f4mcmveshgorpghevtk</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399300</id>
      <parentid>399299</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:43:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399300</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="65676" sha1="800jvosvxfz3jt93pbyx26hikzh9akr" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|جيني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

جيني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وڪڙ]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. جيني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وڪڙ جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب جيني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته جيني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته جيني اشاريي جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري جيني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (رليٽو مين ابسوليوٽ ڊفرنس) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وڪڙ تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته جيني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا جيني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته جيني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو جيني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو جيني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به جيني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

جيني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته جيني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، جيني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! جيني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وڪڙ معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وڪڙ جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وڪڙ جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وڪڙ کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وڪڙ کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي جيني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاريا ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو}}

جيني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاريي هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاريي جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاريي هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وکر ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

گني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي گني عدد ۽ موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو گني اشاري ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو گني اشاري ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاري اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا گني اشاري سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاري]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاري يا شوراڪس جمود اشاري به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاري جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاري جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==
{{Expand section|date=March 2023}}

جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (cumulative proportion) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>800jvosvxfz3jt93pbyx26hikzh9akr</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399301</id>
      <parentid>399300</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:44:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399301</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="65676" sha1="dhtw0no33bixuja0lqcvyhwor4n21u9" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|جيني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

جيني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وڪڙ]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. جيني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وڪڙ جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب جيني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته جيني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته جيني اشاريي جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري جيني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (رليٽو مين ابسوليوٽ ڊفرنس) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وڪڙ تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته جيني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا جيني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته جيني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو جيني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو جيني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به جيني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

جيني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته جيني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، جيني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! جيني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وڪڙ معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وڪڙ جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وڪڙ جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وڪڙ کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وڪڙ کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي جيني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاريا ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو}}

جيني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاريي هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاريي جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاريي هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وڪڙ ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

گني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي گني عدد ۽ موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو گني اشاري ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي گني اشاري 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو گني اشاري ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي گني اشاري ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي گني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاري اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا گني اشاري سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاري]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاري يا شوراڪس جمود اشاري به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاري جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي گني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاري جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاري مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي گني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==
{{Expand section|date=March 2023}}

جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (cumulative proportion) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>dhtw0no33bixuja0lqcvyhwor4n21u9</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399302</id>
      <parentid>399301</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:49:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399302</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="65742" sha1="8s0d6cqox4ene7h6e5vw2hghraxr4z5" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|جيني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

جيني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وڪڙ]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. جيني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وڪڙ جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب جيني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته جيني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته جيني اشاريي جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري جيني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (رليٽو مين ابسوليوٽ ڊفرنس) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وڪڙ تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته جيني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا جيني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته جيني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو جيني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو جيني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به جيني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

جيني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته جيني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، جيني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! جيني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وڪڙ معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وڪڙ جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وڪڙ جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وڪڙ کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وڪڙ کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي جيني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاريا ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو}}

جيني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاريي هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاريي جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاريي هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وڪڙ ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

جيني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي جيني عدد ۽ موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاريي اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا جيني اشاريي سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاريي]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاريي يا شوراڪس جمود اشاريي به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاريي جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاريي جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته جيني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==
{{Expand section|date=March 2023}}

جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (cumulative proportion) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>8s0d6cqox4ene7h6e5vw2hghraxr4z5</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399303</id>
      <parentid>399302</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:49:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399303</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="65708" sha1="4qpfaf1iai37vzvu9l048nz4vo3n5hk" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|جيني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

جيني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وڪڙ]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. جيني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وڪڙ جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب جيني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته جيني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته جيني اشاريي جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري جيني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (رليٽو مين ابسوليوٽ ڊفرنس) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وڪڙ تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته جيني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا جيني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته جيني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو جيني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو جيني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به جيني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

جيني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته جيني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، جيني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! جيني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وڪڙ معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وڪڙ جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وڪڙ جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وڪڙ کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وڪڙ کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي جيني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاريا ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو}}

جيني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاريي هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاريي جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاريي هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وڪڙ ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

جيني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي جيني عدد ۽ موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاريي اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا جيني اشاريي سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاريي]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاريي يا شوراڪس جمود اشاريي به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاريي جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاريي جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته جيني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==


جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (cumulative proportion) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>4qpfaf1iai37vzvu9l048nz4vo3n5hk</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399304</id>
      <parentid>399303</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:50:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399304</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="65722" sha1="fd7jjk110pjrzuxyxrixalzmeo3kjbp" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|جيني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

جيني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وڪڙ]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. جيني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وڪڙ جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب جيني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته جيني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته جيني اشاريي جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري جيني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (رليٽو مين ابسوليوٽ ڊفرنس) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وڪڙ تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته جيني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا جيني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته جيني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو جيني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو جيني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به جيني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

جيني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته جيني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، جيني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! جيني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وڪڙ معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وڪڙ جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وڪڙ جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وڪڙ کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وڪڙ کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي جيني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاريا ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو}}

جيني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاريي هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاريي جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاريي هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وڪڙ ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

جيني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي جيني عدد ۽ موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاريي اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا جيني اشاريي سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاريي]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاريي يا شوراڪس جمود اشاريي به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاريي جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاريي جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته جيني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==


جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (ڪيوموليٽو پروپورشن) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>fd7jjk110pjrzuxyxrixalzmeo3kjbp</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399305</id>
      <parentid>399304</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:52:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399305</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="71718" sha1="rr6bm0o3urhki1t58vgwdmon02mkj0n" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|جيني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

جيني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وڪڙ]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. جيني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وڪڙ جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب جيني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته جيني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته جيني اشاريي جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري جيني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (رليٽو مين ابسوليوٽ ڊفرنس) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وڪڙ تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته جيني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا جيني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته جيني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو جيني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو جيني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به جيني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

جيني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته جيني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، جيني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! جيني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وڪڙ معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وڪڙ جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وڪڙ جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وڪڙ کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وڪڙ کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي جيني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاريا ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو}}

جيني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاريي هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاريي جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاريي هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وڪڙ ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

جيني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي جيني عدد ۽ موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاريي اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا جيني اشاريي سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاريي]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاريي يا شوراڪس جمود اشاريي به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاريي جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاريي جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته جيني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==


جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (ڪيوموليٽو پروپورشن) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حدون ==

=== نسبتي، نه مطلق ===

جيني اشاريو هڪ **نسبتي** (رليٽو) ماپ آهي. ڪنهن ترقي پذير ملڪ ۾، جيتوڻيڪ مڪمل غربت ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽجي وڃي، تڏهن به آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات وڌڻ سبب جيني اشاريو وڌي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Dramatic Poverty Reduction in the Third World: Prospects and Needed Action|first=John W.|last=Mellor|publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute|date=2 June 1989|pages=18–20|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160551/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جو سبب اهو آهي ته جيني اشاريو دولت يا آمدنيءَ جي **نسبتي** ورڇ کي ماپي ٿو، نه ڪي ان جي **مطلق** (ابسوليوٽ) مقدار کي.

جيني اشاريو سادو ۽ سمجهڻ ۾ آسان آهي، پر اها ئي سادگي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اهم فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري سگهي ٿي ۽ مختلف آباديُن جي ڀيٽ کي گمراهه ڪندڙ بڻائي سگهي ٿي. مثال طور، 2010ع ۾ [[بنگلاديش]] (في فرد آمدني 1,693 آمريڪي ڊالر) ۽ [[نيدرلينڊز]] (في فرد آمدني 42,183 آمريڪي ڊالر) ٻنهي جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=undp2010a&gt;{{cite web|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development (2010 Human Development Report – see Stat Tables)|pages=152–156|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/chapters/}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن هوندي به، ٻنهي ملڪن ۾ زندگيءَ جو معيار، معاشي موقعا ۽ حقيقي آمدني هڪجهڙا نه هئا. يعني، ٻه ملڪ ساڳيو جيني اشاريو رکي سگهن ٿا، پر سندن دولت ۾ وڏو فرق موجود هجي.

ترقي يافته معيشت ۾ بنيادي ضرورتون تقريباً سڀني ماڻهن کي دستياب ٿي سگهن ٿيون، جڏهن ته ساڳئي جيني اشاري واري ڪنهن گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ ۾ گهٽ مطلق دولت سبب اهي ضرورتون گهڻن ماڻهن لاءِ دستياب نه هجن يا غيربرابر نموني دستياب هجن.

=== رياضياتي حدون ===

جيني اشاري جون ڪجهه رياضياتي حدون پڻ آهن. اهو **جمع پذير** (ايڊيٽو) نه آهي، تنهنڪري مختلف آبادي گروهن جا جيني اشاري گڏ ڪري يا انهن جو سراسري ڪڍي سڀني گروهن لاءِ صحيح جيني اشاريو حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول الف. مختلف آمدنيءَ جون ورڇون، پر ساڳيو جيني اشاريو&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt;
|-
! گهراڻن جو گروهه
! ملڪ الف جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! ملڪ ب جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || 9,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000 || 40,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || 48,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000 || 48,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || 55,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $200,000 || $200,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.2''' || '''0.2'''
|}

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن آباديءَ جي ڪل آمدني ساڳي هجي، تڏهن به ممڪن آهي ته مختلف آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ رکندڙ ٻن ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو ساڳيو هجي، خاص طور تي جڏهن سندن [[لورينز وکر]] هڪ ٻئي کي ڪٽيندا هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt; جدول الف اهڙي ئي هڪ مثال ڏيکاري ٿي. ٻنهي ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو 0.2 آهي، پر گهراڻن جي گروهن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ مختلف آهي.

ساڳيءَ ريت، جيڪڏهن هڪ آباديءَ ۾ هيٺين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪا به آمدني نه هجي ۽ مٿين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ آمدني برابر ورهايل هجي، ته جيني اشاريو 0.5 ٿيندو. ٻي آباديءَ ۾، جيڪڏهن هيٺين 75 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 25 سيڪڙو ۽ مٿين 25 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ 75 سيڪڙو آمدني هجي، ته اتي به جيني اشاريو 0.5 هوندو.

تنهنڪري، هڪجهڙي آمدني ۽ ساڳئي جيني اشاري واريون معيشتون آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان گهڻو مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿيون. بيلو ۽ ليبيراتي جو خيال آهي ته رڳو جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ٻن آباديُن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جي درجابندي هميشه ممڪن نه هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=Maio2007&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income inequality measures|first=Fernando G.|last=De Maio|journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health|year=2007|volume=61|issue=10|pages=849–852|doi=10.1136/jech.2006.052969|pmid=17873219|pmc=2652960}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳي طرح، ڪمپيوٽري سماجي سائنسدان [[فيبين اسٽيفني]] ڏيکاريو آهي ته روايتي جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي اندر موجود مخصوص سماجي يا معاشي گروهن (مثال طور ساڳئي عمر يا تعليم وارن ماڻهن) جي آمدنيءَ واري عدم مساوات کي ظاهر ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام رهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Stephany |first=Fabian |date=2017-12-01 |title=Who are Your Joneses? Socio-Specific Income Inequality and Trust |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |journal=Social Indicators Research |language=en |volume=134 |issue=3 |pages=877–898 |doi=10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |issn=1573-0921 |pmc=5684274 |pmid=29187771}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>rr6bm0o3urhki1t58vgwdmon02mkj0n</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399306</id>
      <parentid>399305</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:53:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399306</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="76383" sha1="29w6yx1377489c444plg2959cdu24xz" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|جيني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

جيني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وڪڙ]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. جيني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وڪڙ جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب جيني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته جيني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته جيني اشاريي جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري جيني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (رليٽو مين ابسوليوٽ ڊفرنس) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وڪڙ تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته جيني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا جيني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته جيني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو جيني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو جيني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به جيني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

جيني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته جيني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، جيني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! جيني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وڪڙ معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وڪڙ جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وڪڙ جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وڪڙ کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وڪڙ کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي جيني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاريا ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو}}

جيني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاريي هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاريي جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاريي هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وڪڙ ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

جيني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي جيني عدد ۽ موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاريي اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا جيني اشاريي سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاريي]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاريي يا شوراڪس جمود اشاريي به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاريي جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاريي جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته جيني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==


جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (ڪيوموليٽو پروپورشن) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حدون ==

=== نسبتي، نه مطلق ===

جيني اشاريو هڪ **نسبتي** (رليٽو) ماپ آهي. ڪنهن ترقي پذير ملڪ ۾، جيتوڻيڪ مڪمل غربت ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽجي وڃي، تڏهن به آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات وڌڻ سبب جيني اشاريو وڌي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Dramatic Poverty Reduction in the Third World: Prospects and Needed Action|first=John W.|last=Mellor|publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute|date=2 June 1989|pages=18–20|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160551/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جو سبب اهو آهي ته جيني اشاريو دولت يا آمدنيءَ جي **نسبتي** ورڇ کي ماپي ٿو، نه ڪي ان جي **مطلق** (ابسوليوٽ) مقدار کي.

جيني اشاريو سادو ۽ سمجهڻ ۾ آسان آهي، پر اها ئي سادگي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اهم فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري سگهي ٿي ۽ مختلف آباديُن جي ڀيٽ کي گمراهه ڪندڙ بڻائي سگهي ٿي. مثال طور، 2010ع ۾ [[بنگلاديش]] (في فرد آمدني 1,693 آمريڪي ڊالر) ۽ [[نيدرلينڊز]] (في فرد آمدني 42,183 آمريڪي ڊالر) ٻنهي جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=undp2010a&gt;{{cite web|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development (2010 Human Development Report – see Stat Tables)|pages=152–156|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/chapters/}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن هوندي به، ٻنهي ملڪن ۾ زندگيءَ جو معيار، معاشي موقعا ۽ حقيقي آمدني هڪجهڙا نه هئا. يعني، ٻه ملڪ ساڳيو جيني اشاريو رکي سگهن ٿا، پر سندن دولت ۾ وڏو فرق موجود هجي.

ترقي يافته معيشت ۾ بنيادي ضرورتون تقريباً سڀني ماڻهن کي دستياب ٿي سگهن ٿيون، جڏهن ته ساڳئي جيني اشاري واري ڪنهن گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ ۾ گهٽ مطلق دولت سبب اهي ضرورتون گهڻن ماڻهن لاءِ دستياب نه هجن يا غيربرابر نموني دستياب هجن.

=== رياضياتي حدون ===

جيني اشاري جون ڪجهه رياضياتي حدون پڻ آهن. اهو **جمع پذير** (ايڊيٽو) نه آهي، تنهنڪري مختلف آبادي گروهن جا جيني اشاري گڏ ڪري يا انهن جو سراسري ڪڍي سڀني گروهن لاءِ صحيح جيني اشاريو حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول الف. مختلف آمدنيءَ جون ورڇون، پر ساڳيو جيني اشاريو&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt;
|-
! گهراڻن جو گروهه
! ملڪ الف جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! ملڪ ب جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || 9,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000 || 40,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || 48,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000 || 48,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || 55,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $200,000 || $200,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.2''' || '''0.2'''
|}

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن آباديءَ جي ڪل آمدني ساڳي هجي، تڏهن به ممڪن آهي ته مختلف آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ رکندڙ ٻن ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو ساڳيو هجي، خاص طور تي جڏهن سندن [[لورينز وکر]] هڪ ٻئي کي ڪٽيندا هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt; جدول الف اهڙي ئي هڪ مثال ڏيکاري ٿي. ٻنهي ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو 0.2 آهي، پر گهراڻن جي گروهن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ مختلف آهي.

ساڳيءَ ريت، جيڪڏهن هڪ آباديءَ ۾ هيٺين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪا به آمدني نه هجي ۽ مٿين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ آمدني برابر ورهايل هجي، ته جيني اشاريو 0.5 ٿيندو. ٻي آباديءَ ۾، جيڪڏهن هيٺين 75 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 25 سيڪڙو ۽ مٿين 25 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ 75 سيڪڙو آمدني هجي، ته اتي به جيني اشاريو 0.5 هوندو.

تنهنڪري، هڪجهڙي آمدني ۽ ساڳئي جيني اشاري واريون معيشتون آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان گهڻو مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿيون. بيلو ۽ ليبيراتي جو خيال آهي ته رڳو جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ٻن آباديُن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جي درجابندي هميشه ممڪن نه هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=Maio2007&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income inequality measures|first=Fernando G.|last=De Maio|journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health|year=2007|volume=61|issue=10|pages=849–852|doi=10.1136/jech.2006.052969|pmid=17873219|pmc=2652960}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳي طرح، ڪمپيوٽري سماجي سائنسدان [[فيبين اسٽيفني]] ڏيکاريو آهي ته روايتي جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي اندر موجود مخصوص سماجي يا معاشي گروهن (مثال طور ساڳئي عمر يا تعليم وارن ماڻهن) جي آمدنيءَ واري عدم مساوات کي ظاهر ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام رهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Stephany |first=Fabian |date=2017-12-01 |title=Who are Your Joneses? Socio-Specific Income Inequality and Trust |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |journal=Social Indicators Research |language=en |volume=134 |issue=3 |pages=877–898 |doi=10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |issn=1573-0921 |pmc=5684274 |pmid=29187771}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو دولت جي عدم مساوات کي لڪائي سگهي ٿو ===

جيني اشاريو ڪنهن ملڪ يا فرد جي **مطلق آمدني** بابت ڪا به ڄاڻ فراهم نٿو ڪري. ممڪن آهي ته ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهٽ هجي، پر دولت (wealth) جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهڻو هجي.

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، تنهنڪري اهو گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي استعمال ۾ موجود فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري ڇڏي ٿو. ساڳيءَ طرح، دولت کي به (سواءِ ان حصي جي جيڪو آمدني پيدا ڪري) نظرانداز ڪيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن سبب اهڙين حالتن ۾ برابريءَ جو تاثر پيدا ٿي سگهي ٿو، جتي مقابلي هيٺ آيل ماڻهو پنهنجي زندگيءَ جي مختلف مرحلن ۾ هجن.

مثال طور، [[سوئيڊن]] جهڙي دولت مند ملڪ ۾ استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو 0.31 آهي، جنهن مان نسبتاً برابريءَ جو تاثر ملي ٿو، پر دولت جو جيني اشاريو 0.79 کان 0.86 جي وچ ۾ آهي، جيڪو سماج ۾ دولت جي انتهائي غيربرابر ورڇ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Inequality Trends in Sweden 1978–2004|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Martin|last2=Flodén|journal=Review of Economic Dynamics|volume=13|issue=1|year=2010|pages=179–208|doi=10.1016/j.red.2009.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.629.9417}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Accounting for Swedish wealth inequality|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Paul|last2=Klein|date=January 2000|url=http://fmwww.bc.edu/repec/es2000/0883.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030519155531/https://www.econometricsociety.org/meetings/wc00/pdf/0883.pdf|archive-date=May 19, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تنهنڪري، آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو دولت جي ورڇ ۾ موجود عدم مساوات کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.

=== ملڪ جي ماپ ۽ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جو اثر ===

ننڍين آباديُن لاءِ جيني اشاريو عام طور هيٺاهين طرف لاڙو (downward bias) رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Small-Sample Bias of the Gini Coefficient: Results and Implications for Empirical Research|journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics|first=George|last=Deltas|date=February 2003|volume=85|issue=1|pages=226–234|doi=10.1162/rest.2003.85.1.226|jstor=3211637|bibcode=2003RvE&amp;S..85..226D|s2cid=57572560}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهنڪري ننڍي آبادي، رياست يا ملڪ، يا اهڙيون معيشتون جن ۾ معاشي تنوع گهٽ هجي، اڪثر گهٽ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪن ٿيون.

ان جي ابتڙ، وڏي آبادي ۽ وڌيڪ متنوع معيشتن لاءِ عام طور وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو متوقع هوندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن سڄي دنيا جي معيشت ۽ سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏجي ڏٺو وڃي، ته مختلف محقق عالمي جيني اشاري جو اندازو 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ لڳائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10 /&gt;

ٻين عدم مساوات وارن اشارن وانگر، جيني اشاريو به انگن اکرن جي **تفصيل جي سطح** (granularity) کان متاثر ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي پنجن 20 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (گهٽ تفصيل) ۾ ورهايو وڃي ته حاصل ٿيندڙ جيني اشاريو عام طور ويهن 5 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (وڌيڪ تفصيل) جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ٿيندو.

فلپ مونفورٽ ڏيکاريو آهي ته جيڪڏهن مختلف مطالعي ۾ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جي سطح هڪجهڙي نه هجي يا واضح نه ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ڪيل ڀيٽون گهڻي حد تائين بي معنيٰ ٿي سگهن ٿيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Convergence of EU regions: Measures and evolution|first=Philippe|last=Monfort|publisher=European Union – Europa|page=6|year=2008|url=http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160544/http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>29w6yx1377489c444plg2959cdu24xz</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399307</id>
      <parentid>399306</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:54:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399307</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="82998" sha1="pau1tkoopmyy836gdv162j1e44ml6l2" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|جيني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

جيني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وڪڙ]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. جيني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وڪڙ جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب جيني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته جيني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته جيني اشاريي جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري جيني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (رليٽو مين ابسوليوٽ ڊفرنس) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وڪڙ تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته جيني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا جيني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته جيني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو جيني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو جيني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به جيني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

جيني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته جيني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، جيني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! جيني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وڪڙ معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وڪڙ جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وڪڙ جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وڪڙ کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وڪڙ کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي جيني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاريا ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو}}

جيني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاريي هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاريي جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاريي هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وڪڙ ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

جيني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي جيني عدد ۽ موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاريي اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا جيني اشاريي سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاريي]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاريي يا شوراڪس جمود اشاريي به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاريي جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاريي جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته جيني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==


جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (ڪيوموليٽو پروپورشن) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حدون ==

=== نسبتي، نه مطلق ===

جيني اشاريو هڪ **نسبتي** (رليٽو) ماپ آهي. ڪنهن ترقي پذير ملڪ ۾، جيتوڻيڪ مڪمل غربت ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽجي وڃي، تڏهن به آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات وڌڻ سبب جيني اشاريو وڌي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Dramatic Poverty Reduction in the Third World: Prospects and Needed Action|first=John W.|last=Mellor|publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute|date=2 June 1989|pages=18–20|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160551/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جو سبب اهو آهي ته جيني اشاريو دولت يا آمدنيءَ جي **نسبتي** ورڇ کي ماپي ٿو، نه ڪي ان جي **مطلق** (ابسوليوٽ) مقدار کي.

جيني اشاريو سادو ۽ سمجهڻ ۾ آسان آهي، پر اها ئي سادگي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اهم فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري سگهي ٿي ۽ مختلف آباديُن جي ڀيٽ کي گمراهه ڪندڙ بڻائي سگهي ٿي. مثال طور، 2010ع ۾ [[بنگلاديش]] (في فرد آمدني 1,693 آمريڪي ڊالر) ۽ [[نيدرلينڊز]] (في فرد آمدني 42,183 آمريڪي ڊالر) ٻنهي جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=undp2010a&gt;{{cite web|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development (2010 Human Development Report – see Stat Tables)|pages=152–156|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/chapters/}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن هوندي به، ٻنهي ملڪن ۾ زندگيءَ جو معيار، معاشي موقعا ۽ حقيقي آمدني هڪجهڙا نه هئا. يعني، ٻه ملڪ ساڳيو جيني اشاريو رکي سگهن ٿا، پر سندن دولت ۾ وڏو فرق موجود هجي.

ترقي يافته معيشت ۾ بنيادي ضرورتون تقريباً سڀني ماڻهن کي دستياب ٿي سگهن ٿيون، جڏهن ته ساڳئي جيني اشاري واري ڪنهن گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ ۾ گهٽ مطلق دولت سبب اهي ضرورتون گهڻن ماڻهن لاءِ دستياب نه هجن يا غيربرابر نموني دستياب هجن.

=== رياضياتي حدون ===

جيني اشاري جون ڪجهه رياضياتي حدون پڻ آهن. اهو **جمع پذير** (ايڊيٽو) نه آهي، تنهنڪري مختلف آبادي گروهن جا جيني اشاري گڏ ڪري يا انهن جو سراسري ڪڍي سڀني گروهن لاءِ صحيح جيني اشاريو حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول الف. مختلف آمدنيءَ جون ورڇون، پر ساڳيو جيني اشاريو&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt;
|-
! گهراڻن جو گروهه
! ملڪ الف جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! ملڪ ب جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || 9,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000 || 40,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || 48,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000 || 48,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || 55,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $200,000 || $200,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.2''' || '''0.2'''
|}

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن آباديءَ جي ڪل آمدني ساڳي هجي، تڏهن به ممڪن آهي ته مختلف آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ رکندڙ ٻن ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو ساڳيو هجي، خاص طور تي جڏهن سندن [[لورينز وکر]] هڪ ٻئي کي ڪٽيندا هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt; جدول الف اهڙي ئي هڪ مثال ڏيکاري ٿي. ٻنهي ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو 0.2 آهي، پر گهراڻن جي گروهن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ مختلف آهي.

ساڳيءَ ريت، جيڪڏهن هڪ آباديءَ ۾ هيٺين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪا به آمدني نه هجي ۽ مٿين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ آمدني برابر ورهايل هجي، ته جيني اشاريو 0.5 ٿيندو. ٻي آباديءَ ۾، جيڪڏهن هيٺين 75 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 25 سيڪڙو ۽ مٿين 25 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ 75 سيڪڙو آمدني هجي، ته اتي به جيني اشاريو 0.5 هوندو.

تنهنڪري، هڪجهڙي آمدني ۽ ساڳئي جيني اشاري واريون معيشتون آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان گهڻو مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿيون. بيلو ۽ ليبيراتي جو خيال آهي ته رڳو جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ٻن آباديُن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جي درجابندي هميشه ممڪن نه هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=Maio2007&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income inequality measures|first=Fernando G.|last=De Maio|journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health|year=2007|volume=61|issue=10|pages=849–852|doi=10.1136/jech.2006.052969|pmid=17873219|pmc=2652960}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳي طرح، ڪمپيوٽري سماجي سائنسدان [[فيبين اسٽيفني]] ڏيکاريو آهي ته روايتي جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي اندر موجود مخصوص سماجي يا معاشي گروهن (مثال طور ساڳئي عمر يا تعليم وارن ماڻهن) جي آمدنيءَ واري عدم مساوات کي ظاهر ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام رهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Stephany |first=Fabian |date=2017-12-01 |title=Who are Your Joneses? Socio-Specific Income Inequality and Trust |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |journal=Social Indicators Research |language=en |volume=134 |issue=3 |pages=877–898 |doi=10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |issn=1573-0921 |pmc=5684274 |pmid=29187771}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو دولت جي عدم مساوات کي لڪائي سگهي ٿو ===

جيني اشاريو ڪنهن ملڪ يا فرد جي **مطلق آمدني** بابت ڪا به ڄاڻ فراهم نٿو ڪري. ممڪن آهي ته ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهٽ هجي، پر دولت (wealth) جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهڻو هجي.

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، تنهنڪري اهو گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي استعمال ۾ موجود فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري ڇڏي ٿو. ساڳيءَ طرح، دولت کي به (سواءِ ان حصي جي جيڪو آمدني پيدا ڪري) نظرانداز ڪيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن سبب اهڙين حالتن ۾ برابريءَ جو تاثر پيدا ٿي سگهي ٿو، جتي مقابلي هيٺ آيل ماڻهو پنهنجي زندگيءَ جي مختلف مرحلن ۾ هجن.

مثال طور، [[سوئيڊن]] جهڙي دولت مند ملڪ ۾ استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو 0.31 آهي، جنهن مان نسبتاً برابريءَ جو تاثر ملي ٿو، پر دولت جو جيني اشاريو 0.79 کان 0.86 جي وچ ۾ آهي، جيڪو سماج ۾ دولت جي انتهائي غيربرابر ورڇ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Inequality Trends in Sweden 1978–2004|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Martin|last2=Flodén|journal=Review of Economic Dynamics|volume=13|issue=1|year=2010|pages=179–208|doi=10.1016/j.red.2009.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.629.9417}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Accounting for Swedish wealth inequality|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Paul|last2=Klein|date=January 2000|url=http://fmwww.bc.edu/repec/es2000/0883.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030519155531/https://www.econometricsociety.org/meetings/wc00/pdf/0883.pdf|archive-date=May 19, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تنهنڪري، آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو دولت جي ورڇ ۾ موجود عدم مساوات کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.

=== ملڪ جي ماپ ۽ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جو اثر ===

ننڍين آباديُن لاءِ جيني اشاريو عام طور هيٺاهين طرف لاڙو (downward bias) رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Small-Sample Bias of the Gini Coefficient: Results and Implications for Empirical Research|journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics|first=George|last=Deltas|date=February 2003|volume=85|issue=1|pages=226–234|doi=10.1162/rest.2003.85.1.226|jstor=3211637|bibcode=2003RvE&amp;S..85..226D|s2cid=57572560}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهنڪري ننڍي آبادي، رياست يا ملڪ، يا اهڙيون معيشتون جن ۾ معاشي تنوع گهٽ هجي، اڪثر گهٽ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪن ٿيون.

ان جي ابتڙ، وڏي آبادي ۽ وڌيڪ متنوع معيشتن لاءِ عام طور وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو متوقع هوندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن سڄي دنيا جي معيشت ۽ سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏجي ڏٺو وڃي، ته مختلف محقق عالمي جيني اشاري جو اندازو 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ لڳائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10 /&gt;

ٻين عدم مساوات وارن اشارن وانگر، جيني اشاريو به انگن اکرن جي **تفصيل جي سطح** (granularity) کان متاثر ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي پنجن 20 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (گهٽ تفصيل) ۾ ورهايو وڃي ته حاصل ٿيندڙ جيني اشاريو عام طور ويهن 5 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (وڌيڪ تفصيل) جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ٿيندو.

فلپ مونفورٽ ڏيکاريو آهي ته جيڪڏهن مختلف مطالعي ۾ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جي سطح هڪجهڙي نه هجي يا واضح نه ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ڪيل ڀيٽون گهڻي حد تائين بي معنيٰ ٿي سگهن ٿيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Convergence of EU regions: Measures and evolution|first=Philippe|last=Monfort|publisher=European Union – Europa|page=6|year=2008|url=http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160544/http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آباديءَ ۾ تبديليون ===

جيني اشارئي سان ماپيل آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ تبديلي، سماج جي بناوت ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ آباديءَ ۾ واڌ (پيدائش جي شرح وڌڻ)، آباديءَ جي پوڙهائپ، لڏپلاڻ يا هجرت، ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت.&lt;ref name=Kwok10&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution of Hong Kong and the Gini Coefficient|author=KWOK Kwok Chuen|year=2010|publisher=The Government of Hong Kong, China|url=http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227043822/http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني اشاري جي هڪ ٻي حد اها آهي ته اهو [[مساوات پسندي]] (egalitarianism) جو مڪمل پيمانو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو رڳو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ تفاوت کي ماپي ٿو. مثال طور، فرض ڪريو ته ٻه هڪجهڙا مساوات پسند ملڪ مختلف [[اميگريشن قانون]] اختيار ڪن ٿا. جيڪڏهن انهن مان هڪ ملڪ گهٽ آمدني يا غريب مهاجرن جو وڌيڪ حصو قبول ڪري، ته اهو ملڪ وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪندو، ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت ان ۾ آمدنيءَ جي وڌيڪ عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ٿيندو، جيتوڻيڪ اها تبديلي سماجي پاليسيءَ جي نتيجي ۾ آيل هجي.

=== گهراڻو بمقابله فرد ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول ب. ساڳي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ، پر مختلف جيني اشاريا
|-
! گهراڻي جو نمبر
! ملڪ جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! گڏيل گهراڻن جو نمبر
! ملڪ الف جي گڏيل سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 1 ۽ 2 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 50,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3 ۽ 4 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 90,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5 ۽ 6 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 130,000
|-
| 6 || 70,000
|-
| 7 || 80,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7 ۽ 8 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 170,000
|-
| 8 || 90,000
|-
| 9 || 120,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9 ۽ 10 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 270,000
|-
| 10 || 150,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $710,000 || || $710,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.303''' || || '''0.293'''
|}

جيڪڏهن ساڳئي معيشت ۽ ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ لاءِ جيني اشاريو فردن بدران گهراڻن جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو وڃي، ته نتيجا مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. جيڪڏهن گهراڻن جا انگ اکر استعمال ڪيا وڃن، ته آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري جو قدر ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته &quot;گهراڻي&quot; جي تعريف ڪيئن ڪئي وئي آهي. جڏهن مختلف آباديُن ۾ گهراڻي جي تعريف هڪجهڙي نه هجي، تڏهن انهن جي ڀيٽ بامعنيٰ نه هوندي.

ان کان علاوه، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري ۾ تبديلي گهراڻي جي جوڙجڪ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو به ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيئن طلاقن ۾ واڌ يا [[گڏيل ڪٽنب]]ن جو ورهائجي [[ايڪو ڪٽنب]]ن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ.

ڊيننگر ۽ [[لن اسڪوائر]] (1996ع) ڏيکاريو ته فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاري کان مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، آمريڪا لاءِ هنن فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو 0.35، جڏهن ته فرانس لاءِ 0.43 معلوم ڪيو. سندن فرد-بنياد واري طريقي موجب، 108 ملڪن مان [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.62)، [[ملائيشيا]] جو ايشيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50)، [[برازيل]] جو لاطيني آمريڪا ۽ ڪيريبين علائقي ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.57)، ۽ [[ترڪي]] جو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50) هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Deininger |first1=K. |last2=Squire |first2=L. |title=A New Data Set Measuring Income Inequality |journal=The World Bank Economic Review |date=September 1996 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=565–591 |doi=10.1093/wber/10.3.565 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ارب پتي [[ٿامس ڪوڪ]] جو چوڻ آهي ته هانگ ڪانگ جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو (2010ع ۾ 0.434)&lt;ref name=undp2010a /&gt; جزوي طور ان جي آباديءَ جي جوڙجڪ ۾ آيل تبديلين سبب وڌيڪ رهيو آهي. گذريل ڏهاڪن دوران هانگ ڪانگ ۾ ننڍن گهراڻن، بزرگن تي ٻڌل گهراڻن ۽ اڪيلي رهندڙ بزرگ ماڻهن جو تعداد وڌيو آهي. نتيجي طور، ساڳي گڏيل آمدني هاڻي وڌيڪ گهراڻن ۾ ورهائجي وڃي ٿي. ڪوڪ جو خيال آهي ته آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو سماج جي اهڙين بناوتي تبديلين کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

هن حصي ۾ ڏنل آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ (جدول ج) پڻ ڏيکاري ٿي ته هي مسئلو رڳو هانگ ڪانگ تائين محدود ناهي. آمريڪي مردم شماري اداري موجب، 1979ع کان 2010ع تائين آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي بناوت ۾ نمايان تبديليون آيون، مهانگائيءَ مطابق سڀني آمدني گروهن جي آمدني وڌي، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ وقت سان گڏ وڌيڪ مٿين آمدني وارن گروهن ڏانهن منتقل ٿي، جڏهن ته ساڳئي عرصي دوران آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو پڻ وڌيو.&lt;ref name=uscb2011 /&gt;&lt;ref name=cbo.p.10&gt;[http://www.cbo.gov/doc.cfm?index=12485 Congressional Budget Office: Trends in the Distribution of Household Income Between 1979 and 2007]. October 2011. see pp. i–x, with definitions on ii–iii&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>pau1tkoopmyy836gdv162j1e44ml6l2</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399308</id>
      <parentid>399307</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:55:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399308</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="90581" sha1="23rkif4h8n0tz7cixggldpi6n6asiso" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|جيني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

جيني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وڪڙ]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. جيني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وڪڙ جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب جيني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته جيني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته جيني اشاريي جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري جيني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (رليٽو مين ابسوليوٽ ڊفرنس) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وڪڙ تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته جيني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا جيني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته جيني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو جيني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو جيني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به جيني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

جيني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته جيني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، جيني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! جيني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وڪڙ معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وڪڙ جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وڪڙ جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وڪڙ کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وڪڙ کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي جيني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاريا ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو}}

جيني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاريي هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاريي جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاريي هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وڪڙ ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

جيني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي جيني عدد ۽ موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاريي اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا جيني اشاريي سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاريي]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاريي يا شوراڪس جمود اشاريي به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاريي جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاريي جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته جيني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==


جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (ڪيوموليٽو پروپورشن) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حدون ==

=== نسبتي، نه مطلق ===

جيني اشاريو هڪ **نسبتي** (رليٽو) ماپ آهي. ڪنهن ترقي پذير ملڪ ۾، جيتوڻيڪ مڪمل غربت ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽجي وڃي، تڏهن به آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات وڌڻ سبب جيني اشاريو وڌي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Dramatic Poverty Reduction in the Third World: Prospects and Needed Action|first=John W.|last=Mellor|publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute|date=2 June 1989|pages=18–20|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160551/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جو سبب اهو آهي ته جيني اشاريو دولت يا آمدنيءَ جي **نسبتي** ورڇ کي ماپي ٿو، نه ڪي ان جي **مطلق** (ابسوليوٽ) مقدار کي.

جيني اشاريو سادو ۽ سمجهڻ ۾ آسان آهي، پر اها ئي سادگي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اهم فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري سگهي ٿي ۽ مختلف آباديُن جي ڀيٽ کي گمراهه ڪندڙ بڻائي سگهي ٿي. مثال طور، 2010ع ۾ [[بنگلاديش]] (في فرد آمدني 1,693 آمريڪي ڊالر) ۽ [[نيدرلينڊز]] (في فرد آمدني 42,183 آمريڪي ڊالر) ٻنهي جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=undp2010a&gt;{{cite web|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development (2010 Human Development Report – see Stat Tables)|pages=152–156|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/chapters/}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن هوندي به، ٻنهي ملڪن ۾ زندگيءَ جو معيار، معاشي موقعا ۽ حقيقي آمدني هڪجهڙا نه هئا. يعني، ٻه ملڪ ساڳيو جيني اشاريو رکي سگهن ٿا، پر سندن دولت ۾ وڏو فرق موجود هجي.

ترقي يافته معيشت ۾ بنيادي ضرورتون تقريباً سڀني ماڻهن کي دستياب ٿي سگهن ٿيون، جڏهن ته ساڳئي جيني اشاري واري ڪنهن گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ ۾ گهٽ مطلق دولت سبب اهي ضرورتون گهڻن ماڻهن لاءِ دستياب نه هجن يا غيربرابر نموني دستياب هجن.

=== رياضياتي حدون ===

جيني اشاري جون ڪجهه رياضياتي حدون پڻ آهن. اهو **جمع پذير** (ايڊيٽو) نه آهي، تنهنڪري مختلف آبادي گروهن جا جيني اشاري گڏ ڪري يا انهن جو سراسري ڪڍي سڀني گروهن لاءِ صحيح جيني اشاريو حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول الف. مختلف آمدنيءَ جون ورڇون، پر ساڳيو جيني اشاريو&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt;
|-
! گهراڻن جو گروهه
! ملڪ الف جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! ملڪ ب جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || 9,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000 || 40,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || 48,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000 || 48,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || 55,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $200,000 || $200,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.2''' || '''0.2'''
|}

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن آباديءَ جي ڪل آمدني ساڳي هجي، تڏهن به ممڪن آهي ته مختلف آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ رکندڙ ٻن ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو ساڳيو هجي، خاص طور تي جڏهن سندن [[لورينز وکر]] هڪ ٻئي کي ڪٽيندا هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt; جدول الف اهڙي ئي هڪ مثال ڏيکاري ٿي. ٻنهي ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو 0.2 آهي، پر گهراڻن جي گروهن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ مختلف آهي.

ساڳيءَ ريت، جيڪڏهن هڪ آباديءَ ۾ هيٺين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪا به آمدني نه هجي ۽ مٿين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ آمدني برابر ورهايل هجي، ته جيني اشاريو 0.5 ٿيندو. ٻي آباديءَ ۾، جيڪڏهن هيٺين 75 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 25 سيڪڙو ۽ مٿين 25 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ 75 سيڪڙو آمدني هجي، ته اتي به جيني اشاريو 0.5 هوندو.

تنهنڪري، هڪجهڙي آمدني ۽ ساڳئي جيني اشاري واريون معيشتون آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان گهڻو مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿيون. بيلو ۽ ليبيراتي جو خيال آهي ته رڳو جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ٻن آباديُن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جي درجابندي هميشه ممڪن نه هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=Maio2007&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income inequality measures|first=Fernando G.|last=De Maio|journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health|year=2007|volume=61|issue=10|pages=849–852|doi=10.1136/jech.2006.052969|pmid=17873219|pmc=2652960}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳي طرح، ڪمپيوٽري سماجي سائنسدان [[فيبين اسٽيفني]] ڏيکاريو آهي ته روايتي جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي اندر موجود مخصوص سماجي يا معاشي گروهن (مثال طور ساڳئي عمر يا تعليم وارن ماڻهن) جي آمدنيءَ واري عدم مساوات کي ظاهر ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام رهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Stephany |first=Fabian |date=2017-12-01 |title=Who are Your Joneses? Socio-Specific Income Inequality and Trust |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |journal=Social Indicators Research |language=en |volume=134 |issue=3 |pages=877–898 |doi=10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |issn=1573-0921 |pmc=5684274 |pmid=29187771}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو دولت جي عدم مساوات کي لڪائي سگهي ٿو ===

جيني اشاريو ڪنهن ملڪ يا فرد جي **مطلق آمدني** بابت ڪا به ڄاڻ فراهم نٿو ڪري. ممڪن آهي ته ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهٽ هجي، پر دولت (wealth) جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهڻو هجي.

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، تنهنڪري اهو گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي استعمال ۾ موجود فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري ڇڏي ٿو. ساڳيءَ طرح، دولت کي به (سواءِ ان حصي جي جيڪو آمدني پيدا ڪري) نظرانداز ڪيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن سبب اهڙين حالتن ۾ برابريءَ جو تاثر پيدا ٿي سگهي ٿو، جتي مقابلي هيٺ آيل ماڻهو پنهنجي زندگيءَ جي مختلف مرحلن ۾ هجن.

مثال طور، [[سوئيڊن]] جهڙي دولت مند ملڪ ۾ استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو 0.31 آهي، جنهن مان نسبتاً برابريءَ جو تاثر ملي ٿو، پر دولت جو جيني اشاريو 0.79 کان 0.86 جي وچ ۾ آهي، جيڪو سماج ۾ دولت جي انتهائي غيربرابر ورڇ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Inequality Trends in Sweden 1978–2004|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Martin|last2=Flodén|journal=Review of Economic Dynamics|volume=13|issue=1|year=2010|pages=179–208|doi=10.1016/j.red.2009.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.629.9417}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Accounting for Swedish wealth inequality|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Paul|last2=Klein|date=January 2000|url=http://fmwww.bc.edu/repec/es2000/0883.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030519155531/https://www.econometricsociety.org/meetings/wc00/pdf/0883.pdf|archive-date=May 19, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تنهنڪري، آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو دولت جي ورڇ ۾ موجود عدم مساوات کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.

=== ملڪ جي ماپ ۽ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جو اثر ===

ننڍين آباديُن لاءِ جيني اشاريو عام طور هيٺاهين طرف لاڙو (downward bias) رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Small-Sample Bias of the Gini Coefficient: Results and Implications for Empirical Research|journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics|first=George|last=Deltas|date=February 2003|volume=85|issue=1|pages=226–234|doi=10.1162/rest.2003.85.1.226|jstor=3211637|bibcode=2003RvE&amp;S..85..226D|s2cid=57572560}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهنڪري ننڍي آبادي، رياست يا ملڪ، يا اهڙيون معيشتون جن ۾ معاشي تنوع گهٽ هجي، اڪثر گهٽ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪن ٿيون.

ان جي ابتڙ، وڏي آبادي ۽ وڌيڪ متنوع معيشتن لاءِ عام طور وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو متوقع هوندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن سڄي دنيا جي معيشت ۽ سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏجي ڏٺو وڃي، ته مختلف محقق عالمي جيني اشاري جو اندازو 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ لڳائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10 /&gt;

ٻين عدم مساوات وارن اشارن وانگر، جيني اشاريو به انگن اکرن جي **تفصيل جي سطح** (granularity) کان متاثر ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي پنجن 20 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (گهٽ تفصيل) ۾ ورهايو وڃي ته حاصل ٿيندڙ جيني اشاريو عام طور ويهن 5 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (وڌيڪ تفصيل) جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ٿيندو.

فلپ مونفورٽ ڏيکاريو آهي ته جيڪڏهن مختلف مطالعي ۾ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جي سطح هڪجهڙي نه هجي يا واضح نه ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ڪيل ڀيٽون گهڻي حد تائين بي معنيٰ ٿي سگهن ٿيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Convergence of EU regions: Measures and evolution|first=Philippe|last=Monfort|publisher=European Union – Europa|page=6|year=2008|url=http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160544/http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آباديءَ ۾ تبديليون ===

جيني اشارئي سان ماپيل آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ تبديلي، سماج جي بناوت ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ آباديءَ ۾ واڌ (پيدائش جي شرح وڌڻ)، آباديءَ جي پوڙهائپ، لڏپلاڻ يا هجرت، ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت.&lt;ref name=Kwok10&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution of Hong Kong and the Gini Coefficient|author=KWOK Kwok Chuen|year=2010|publisher=The Government of Hong Kong, China|url=http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227043822/http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني اشاري جي هڪ ٻي حد اها آهي ته اهو [[مساوات پسندي]] (egalitarianism) جو مڪمل پيمانو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو رڳو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ تفاوت کي ماپي ٿو. مثال طور، فرض ڪريو ته ٻه هڪجهڙا مساوات پسند ملڪ مختلف [[اميگريشن قانون]] اختيار ڪن ٿا. جيڪڏهن انهن مان هڪ ملڪ گهٽ آمدني يا غريب مهاجرن جو وڌيڪ حصو قبول ڪري، ته اهو ملڪ وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪندو، ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت ان ۾ آمدنيءَ جي وڌيڪ عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ٿيندو، جيتوڻيڪ اها تبديلي سماجي پاليسيءَ جي نتيجي ۾ آيل هجي.

=== گهراڻو بمقابله فرد ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول ب. ساڳي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ، پر مختلف جيني اشاريا
|-
! گهراڻي جو نمبر
! ملڪ جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! گڏيل گهراڻن جو نمبر
! ملڪ الف جي گڏيل سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 1 ۽ 2 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 50,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3 ۽ 4 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 90,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5 ۽ 6 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 130,000
|-
| 6 || 70,000
|-
| 7 || 80,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7 ۽ 8 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 170,000
|-
| 8 || 90,000
|-
| 9 || 120,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9 ۽ 10 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 270,000
|-
| 10 || 150,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $710,000 || || $710,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.303''' || || '''0.293'''
|}

جيڪڏهن ساڳئي معيشت ۽ ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ لاءِ جيني اشاريو فردن بدران گهراڻن جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو وڃي، ته نتيجا مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. جيڪڏهن گهراڻن جا انگ اکر استعمال ڪيا وڃن، ته آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري جو قدر ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته &quot;گهراڻي&quot; جي تعريف ڪيئن ڪئي وئي آهي. جڏهن مختلف آباديُن ۾ گهراڻي جي تعريف هڪجهڙي نه هجي، تڏهن انهن جي ڀيٽ بامعنيٰ نه هوندي.

ان کان علاوه، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري ۾ تبديلي گهراڻي جي جوڙجڪ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو به ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيئن طلاقن ۾ واڌ يا [[گڏيل ڪٽنب]]ن جو ورهائجي [[ايڪو ڪٽنب]]ن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ.

ڊيننگر ۽ [[لن اسڪوائر]] (1996ع) ڏيکاريو ته فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاري کان مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، آمريڪا لاءِ هنن فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو 0.35، جڏهن ته فرانس لاءِ 0.43 معلوم ڪيو. سندن فرد-بنياد واري طريقي موجب، 108 ملڪن مان [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.62)، [[ملائيشيا]] جو ايشيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50)، [[برازيل]] جو لاطيني آمريڪا ۽ ڪيريبين علائقي ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.57)، ۽ [[ترڪي]] جو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50) هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Deininger |first1=K. |last2=Squire |first2=L. |title=A New Data Set Measuring Income Inequality |journal=The World Bank Economic Review |date=September 1996 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=565–591 |doi=10.1093/wber/10.3.565 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ارب پتي [[ٿامس ڪوڪ]] جو چوڻ آهي ته هانگ ڪانگ جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو (2010ع ۾ 0.434)&lt;ref name=undp2010a /&gt; جزوي طور ان جي آباديءَ جي جوڙجڪ ۾ آيل تبديلين سبب وڌيڪ رهيو آهي. گذريل ڏهاڪن دوران هانگ ڪانگ ۾ ننڍن گهراڻن، بزرگن تي ٻڌل گهراڻن ۽ اڪيلي رهندڙ بزرگ ماڻهن جو تعداد وڌيو آهي. نتيجي طور، ساڳي گڏيل آمدني هاڻي وڌيڪ گهراڻن ۾ ورهائجي وڃي ٿي. ڪوڪ جو خيال آهي ته آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو سماج جي اهڙين بناوتي تبديلين کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

هن حصي ۾ ڏنل آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ (جدول ج) پڻ ڏيکاري ٿي ته هي مسئلو رڳو هانگ ڪانگ تائين محدود ناهي. آمريڪي مردم شماري اداري موجب، 1979ع کان 2010ع تائين آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي بناوت ۾ نمايان تبديليون آيون، مهانگائيءَ مطابق سڀني آمدني گروهن جي آمدني وڌي، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ وقت سان گڏ وڌيڪ مٿين آمدني وارن گروهن ڏانهن منتقل ٿي، جڏهن ته ساڳئي عرصي دوران آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو پڻ وڌيو.&lt;ref name=uscb2011 /&gt;&lt;ref name=cbo.p.10&gt;[http://www.cbo.gov/doc.cfm?index=12485 Congressional Budget Office: Trends in the Distribution of Household Income Between 1979 and 2007]. October 2011. see pp. i–x, with definitions on ii–iii&lt;/ref&gt;

=== لمحي واري عدم مساوات بمقابله سڄي زندگيءَ واري عدم مساوات ===

جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي بناوت ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جي اثرن کي الڳ ڪري نٿو سگهي.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

زندگيءَ جي پوري عرصي تي ٻڌل ماپن جي اهميت کي نظر ۾ رکندي، جيني اشاريو ڪنهن هڪ مخصوص وقت تي برابريءَ جو رڳو هڪ اندازو (point estimate) پيش ڪري ٿو ۽ وقت سان گڏ آمدنيءَ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين کي نظرانداز ڪري ٿو.

عام طور تي، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن سماج ۾ نوجوانن يا بزرگ ماڻهن جو تناسب وڌي وڃي، ته جيني اشاريو ظاهري طور وڌيڪ عدم مساوات ڏيکاري سگهي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نوجوان ماڻهن وٽ عام طور گهٽ آمدني ۽ دولت هوندي آهي، جڏهن ته عمر وڌڻ سان اهي وڌنديون آهن.

تنهنڪري، آباديءَ جي عمر جي ورڇ ۽ مختلف آمدني وارن طبقن جي وچ ۾ نقل و حرڪت جهڙا عنصر، آباديءَ جي بناوت جي اثرن کي نظر ۾ رکڻ کان سواءِ، اهڙي عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا جيڪا حقيقت ۾ موجود نه هجي.

اهڙيءَ طرح، ڪنهن معيشت جو ڪنهن خاص وقت تي جيني اشاريو ٻي معيشت جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿو، پر جيڪڏهن ساڳين ماڻهن جي سڄي زندگيءَ جي آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي جيني اشاريو ڳڻيو وڃي، ته ممڪن آهي ته اها معيشت ٻيءَ کان وڌيڪ برابر ثابت ٿئي، جيتوڻيڪ هڪ مخصوص وقت تي ان جو جيني اشاريو وڌيڪ نظر اچي ٿو.&lt;ref name=blomq81&gt;{{Cite journal |first=N. |last=Blomquist |s2cid=154519005 |year=1981 |title=A comparison of distributions of annual and lifetime income: Sweden around 1970 |journal=Review of Income and Wealth |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1981.tb00227.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== غير نقدي فائدا ۽ جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني ===

جيڪڏهن [[جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني]] (income in kind) کي مالي قدر ڏيڻ ۾ درستگي نه هجي، ته اها جيني اشاري جي حقيقي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ واري صلاحيت کي گهٽائي ڇڏي ٿي.

جيتوڻيڪ ٽيڪسن ۽ نقد منتقلي وارين ادائگين جو حساب نسبتاً سولو هوندو آهي، پر حڪومت طرفان فراهم ڪيل ٻيا فائدا، جهڙوڪ رعايتي رهائش، طبي سهولتون ۽ تعليم، جو مالي قدر مقرر ڪرڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن جو قدر انهن جي معيار ۽ فراهم ڪيل سهولتن جي مقدار تي دارومدار رکي ٿو.

آزاد منڊي جي غير موجودگيءَ ۾، اهڙين سهولتن کي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جو حصو سمجهي مالي قدر ڏيڻ هڪ موضوعي (subjective) عمل آهي. تنهنڪري جيني اشاري جو نظرياتي ماڊل اهڙن اندازن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ تي ڀاڙي ٿو.

پاڻڀرائي (subsistence) تي ٻڌل ۽ [[غير رسمي معيشت]]ن ۾، ماڻهن جي آمدنيءَ جو وڏو حصو پئسي بدران ٻين صورتن ۾ هوندو آهي، جهڙوڪ [[پاڻڀري زراعت]] يا [[مال جي بدلي مال]] (barter) ذريعي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدني. اهڙي آمدني عام طور اڀرندڙ ۽ منتقلي واري معيشتن، خاص طور تي صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا، لاطيني آمريڪا، ايشيا ۽ اوڀر يورپ جي گهٽ آمدني وارن ماڻهن وٽ وڌيڪ هوندي آهي.

غير رسمي معيشت عالمي روزگار جو اڌ کان وڌيڪ حصو فراهم ڪري ٿي، ۽ صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا جي ڪجهه غريب ملڪن ۾، جتي سرڪاري جيني اشاريا به تمام وڌيڪ آهن، روزگار جو 90 سيڪڙو تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

شنائڊر ۽ سندس ساٿين 2010ع ۾ 162 ملڪن تي ڪيل مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته دنيا جي مجموعي [[مجموعي ملڪي پيداوار]] (GDP) جو لڳ ڀڳ 31.2 سيڪڙو، يعني لڳ ڀڳ 20 ٽريلين آمريڪي ڊالر، غير رسمي معيشت مان پيدا ٿئي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Friedrich|last1=Schneider|first2=Andreas|last2=Buehn|first3=Claudio E.|last3=Montenegro|s2cid=56060172|year=2010|title=New Estimates for the Shadow Economies all over the World|journal=International Economic Journal|volume=24|issue=4|pages=443–461|doi=10.1080/10168737.2010.525974|hdl=10986/4929|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾، امير شهري آباديءَ کان سواءِ تقريباً سڀني آمدني وارن طبقن لاءِ غير رسمي معيشت آمدنيءَ جو بنيادي ذريعو آهي. ترقي يافته ملڪن ۾ به قومي GDP جو اندازاً 8 سيڪڙو (آمريڪا) کان 27 سيڪڙو (اٽلي) تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

غير رسمي يا پاڇي واري معيشت مان حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي صحيح مقدار ۽ ان جي ورڇ جو اندازو لڳائڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، جنهن سبب آمدنيءَ جي حقيقي جيني اشاري جو صحيح اندازو لڳائڻ پڻ مشڪل ٿي پوي ٿو.&lt;ref name=mfeld&gt;{{cite web|title=Is income inequality really the problem? (Overview)|first=Martin|last=Feldstein|date=August 1998|publisher=US Federal Reserve|url=http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|access-date=2 August 2012|archive-date=3 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160558/http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=tandw&gt;{{cite book|title=Principles of Microeconomics: Global Financial Crisis Edition|first1=John|last1=Taylor|first2=Akila|last2=Weerapana|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4390-7821-1|pages=416–418|publisher=Cengage Learning}}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهڙي آمدنيءَ بابت مختلف مفروضا ۽ اندازا مختلف جيني اشاري پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income Inequality and the Informal Economy in Transition Economies|first1=J. Barkley Jr.|last1=Rosser|first2=Marina V.|last2=Rosser|first3=Ehsan|last3=Ahmed|s2cid=49552052|journal=Journal of Comparative Economics|date=March 2000|volume=28|issue=1|pages=156–171|doi=10.1006/jcec.2000.1645}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Earnings inequality and the informal economy: evidence from Serbia|first1=Gorana|last1=Krstić|first2=Peter|last2=Sanfey|publisher=European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|date=February 2010|url=http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160550/http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-date=2012-08-03|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite report|title=The Size of the Shadow Economies of 145 Countries all over the World: First Results over the Period 1999 to 2003|first=Friedrich|last=Schneider|date=December 2004|ssrn=636661|hdl=10419/20729}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>23rkif4h8n0tz7cixggldpi6n6asiso</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399309</id>
      <parentid>399308</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:58:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399309</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="93206" sha1="otox72p82m3267w3avszed83ejh3jtw" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|جيني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

جيني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وڪڙ]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. جيني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وڪڙ جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب جيني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته جيني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته جيني اشاريي جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري جيني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (رليٽو مين ابسوليوٽ ڊفرنس) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وڪڙ تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته جيني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا جيني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته جيني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو جيني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو جيني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به جيني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

جيني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته جيني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، جيني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! جيني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وڪڙ معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وڪڙ جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وڪڙ جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وڪڙ کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وڪڙ کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي جيني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاريا ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو}}

جيني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاريي هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاريي جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاريي هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وڪڙ ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

جيني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي جيني عدد ۽ موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاريي اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا جيني اشاريي سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاريي]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاريي يا شوراڪس جمود اشاريي به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاريي جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاريي جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته جيني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==


جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (ڪيوموليٽو پروپورشن) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حدون ==

=== نسبتي، نه مطلق ===

جيني اشاريو هڪ **نسبتي** (رليٽو) ماپ آهي. ڪنهن ترقي پذير ملڪ ۾، جيتوڻيڪ مڪمل غربت ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽجي وڃي، تڏهن به آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات وڌڻ سبب جيني اشاريو وڌي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Dramatic Poverty Reduction in the Third World: Prospects and Needed Action|first=John W.|last=Mellor|publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute|date=2 June 1989|pages=18–20|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160551/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جو سبب اهو آهي ته جيني اشاريو دولت يا آمدنيءَ جي **نسبتي** ورڇ کي ماپي ٿو، نه ڪي ان جي **مطلق** (ابسوليوٽ) مقدار کي.

جيني اشاريو سادو ۽ سمجهڻ ۾ آسان آهي، پر اها ئي سادگي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اهم فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري سگهي ٿي ۽ مختلف آباديُن جي ڀيٽ کي گمراهه ڪندڙ بڻائي سگهي ٿي. مثال طور، 2010ع ۾ [[بنگلاديش]] (في فرد آمدني 1,693 آمريڪي ڊالر) ۽ [[نيدرلينڊز]] (في فرد آمدني 42,183 آمريڪي ڊالر) ٻنهي جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=undp2010a&gt;{{cite web|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development (2010 Human Development Report – see Stat Tables)|pages=152–156|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/chapters/}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن هوندي به، ٻنهي ملڪن ۾ زندگيءَ جو معيار، معاشي موقعا ۽ حقيقي آمدني هڪجهڙا نه هئا. يعني، ٻه ملڪ ساڳيو جيني اشاريو رکي سگهن ٿا، پر سندن دولت ۾ وڏو فرق موجود هجي.

ترقي يافته معيشت ۾ بنيادي ضرورتون تقريباً سڀني ماڻهن کي دستياب ٿي سگهن ٿيون، جڏهن ته ساڳئي جيني اشاري واري ڪنهن گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ ۾ گهٽ مطلق دولت سبب اهي ضرورتون گهڻن ماڻهن لاءِ دستياب نه هجن يا غيربرابر نموني دستياب هجن.

=== رياضياتي حدون ===

جيني اشاري جون ڪجهه رياضياتي حدون پڻ آهن. اهو **جمع پذير** (ايڊيٽو) نه آهي، تنهنڪري مختلف آبادي گروهن جا جيني اشاري گڏ ڪري يا انهن جو سراسري ڪڍي سڀني گروهن لاءِ صحيح جيني اشاريو حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول الف. مختلف آمدنيءَ جون ورڇون، پر ساڳيو جيني اشاريو&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt;
|-
! گهراڻن جو گروهه
! ملڪ الف جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! ملڪ ب جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || 9,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000 || 40,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || 48,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000 || 48,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || 55,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $200,000 || $200,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.2''' || '''0.2'''
|}

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن آباديءَ جي ڪل آمدني ساڳي هجي، تڏهن به ممڪن آهي ته مختلف آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ رکندڙ ٻن ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو ساڳيو هجي، خاص طور تي جڏهن سندن [[لورينز وکر]] هڪ ٻئي کي ڪٽيندا هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt; جدول الف اهڙي ئي هڪ مثال ڏيکاري ٿي. ٻنهي ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو 0.2 آهي، پر گهراڻن جي گروهن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ مختلف آهي.

ساڳيءَ ريت، جيڪڏهن هڪ آباديءَ ۾ هيٺين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪا به آمدني نه هجي ۽ مٿين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ آمدني برابر ورهايل هجي، ته جيني اشاريو 0.5 ٿيندو. ٻي آباديءَ ۾، جيڪڏهن هيٺين 75 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 25 سيڪڙو ۽ مٿين 25 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ 75 سيڪڙو آمدني هجي، ته اتي به جيني اشاريو 0.5 هوندو.

تنهنڪري، هڪجهڙي آمدني ۽ ساڳئي جيني اشاري واريون معيشتون آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان گهڻو مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿيون. بيلو ۽ ليبيراتي جو خيال آهي ته رڳو جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ٻن آباديُن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جي درجابندي هميشه ممڪن نه هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=Maio2007&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income inequality measures|first=Fernando G.|last=De Maio|journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health|year=2007|volume=61|issue=10|pages=849–852|doi=10.1136/jech.2006.052969|pmid=17873219|pmc=2652960}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳي طرح، ڪمپيوٽري سماجي سائنسدان [[فيبين اسٽيفني]] ڏيکاريو آهي ته روايتي جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي اندر موجود مخصوص سماجي يا معاشي گروهن (مثال طور ساڳئي عمر يا تعليم وارن ماڻهن) جي آمدنيءَ واري عدم مساوات کي ظاهر ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام رهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Stephany |first=Fabian |date=2017-12-01 |title=Who are Your Joneses? Socio-Specific Income Inequality and Trust |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |journal=Social Indicators Research |language=en |volume=134 |issue=3 |pages=877–898 |doi=10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |issn=1573-0921 |pmc=5684274 |pmid=29187771}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو دولت جي عدم مساوات کي لڪائي سگهي ٿو ===

جيني اشاريو ڪنهن ملڪ يا فرد جي **مطلق آمدني** بابت ڪا به ڄاڻ فراهم نٿو ڪري. ممڪن آهي ته ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهٽ هجي، پر دولت (wealth) جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهڻو هجي.

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، تنهنڪري اهو گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي استعمال ۾ موجود فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري ڇڏي ٿو. ساڳيءَ طرح، دولت کي به (سواءِ ان حصي جي جيڪو آمدني پيدا ڪري) نظرانداز ڪيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن سبب اهڙين حالتن ۾ برابريءَ جو تاثر پيدا ٿي سگهي ٿو، جتي مقابلي هيٺ آيل ماڻهو پنهنجي زندگيءَ جي مختلف مرحلن ۾ هجن.

مثال طور، [[سوئيڊن]] جهڙي دولت مند ملڪ ۾ استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو 0.31 آهي، جنهن مان نسبتاً برابريءَ جو تاثر ملي ٿو، پر دولت جو جيني اشاريو 0.79 کان 0.86 جي وچ ۾ آهي، جيڪو سماج ۾ دولت جي انتهائي غيربرابر ورڇ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Inequality Trends in Sweden 1978–2004|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Martin|last2=Flodén|journal=Review of Economic Dynamics|volume=13|issue=1|year=2010|pages=179–208|doi=10.1016/j.red.2009.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.629.9417}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Accounting for Swedish wealth inequality|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Paul|last2=Klein|date=January 2000|url=http://fmwww.bc.edu/repec/es2000/0883.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030519155531/https://www.econometricsociety.org/meetings/wc00/pdf/0883.pdf|archive-date=May 19, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تنهنڪري، آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو دولت جي ورڇ ۾ موجود عدم مساوات کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.

=== ملڪ جي ماپ ۽ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جو اثر ===

ننڍين آباديُن لاءِ جيني اشاريو عام طور هيٺاهين طرف لاڙو (downward bias) رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Small-Sample Bias of the Gini Coefficient: Results and Implications for Empirical Research|journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics|first=George|last=Deltas|date=February 2003|volume=85|issue=1|pages=226–234|doi=10.1162/rest.2003.85.1.226|jstor=3211637|bibcode=2003RvE&amp;S..85..226D|s2cid=57572560}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهنڪري ننڍي آبادي، رياست يا ملڪ، يا اهڙيون معيشتون جن ۾ معاشي تنوع گهٽ هجي، اڪثر گهٽ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪن ٿيون.

ان جي ابتڙ، وڏي آبادي ۽ وڌيڪ متنوع معيشتن لاءِ عام طور وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو متوقع هوندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن سڄي دنيا جي معيشت ۽ سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏجي ڏٺو وڃي، ته مختلف محقق عالمي جيني اشاري جو اندازو 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ لڳائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10 /&gt;

ٻين عدم مساوات وارن اشارن وانگر، جيني اشاريو به انگن اکرن جي **تفصيل جي سطح** (granularity) کان متاثر ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي پنجن 20 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (گهٽ تفصيل) ۾ ورهايو وڃي ته حاصل ٿيندڙ جيني اشاريو عام طور ويهن 5 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (وڌيڪ تفصيل) جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ٿيندو.

فلپ مونفورٽ ڏيکاريو آهي ته جيڪڏهن مختلف مطالعي ۾ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جي سطح هڪجهڙي نه هجي يا واضح نه ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ڪيل ڀيٽون گهڻي حد تائين بي معنيٰ ٿي سگهن ٿيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Convergence of EU regions: Measures and evolution|first=Philippe|last=Monfort|publisher=European Union – Europa|page=6|year=2008|url=http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160544/http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آباديءَ ۾ تبديليون ===

جيني اشارئي سان ماپيل آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ تبديلي، سماج جي بناوت ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ آباديءَ ۾ واڌ (پيدائش جي شرح وڌڻ)، آباديءَ جي پوڙهائپ، لڏپلاڻ يا هجرت، ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت.&lt;ref name=Kwok10&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution of Hong Kong and the Gini Coefficient|author=KWOK Kwok Chuen|year=2010|publisher=The Government of Hong Kong, China|url=http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227043822/http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني اشاري جي هڪ ٻي حد اها آهي ته اهو [[مساوات پسندي]] (egalitarianism) جو مڪمل پيمانو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو رڳو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ تفاوت کي ماپي ٿو. مثال طور، فرض ڪريو ته ٻه هڪجهڙا مساوات پسند ملڪ مختلف [[اميگريشن قانون]] اختيار ڪن ٿا. جيڪڏهن انهن مان هڪ ملڪ گهٽ آمدني يا غريب مهاجرن جو وڌيڪ حصو قبول ڪري، ته اهو ملڪ وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪندو، ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت ان ۾ آمدنيءَ جي وڌيڪ عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ٿيندو، جيتوڻيڪ اها تبديلي سماجي پاليسيءَ جي نتيجي ۾ آيل هجي.

=== گهراڻو بمقابله فرد ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول ب. ساڳي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ، پر مختلف جيني اشاريا
|-
! گهراڻي جو نمبر
! ملڪ جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! گڏيل گهراڻن جو نمبر
! ملڪ الف جي گڏيل سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 1 ۽ 2 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 50,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3 ۽ 4 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 90,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5 ۽ 6 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 130,000
|-
| 6 || 70,000
|-
| 7 || 80,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7 ۽ 8 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 170,000
|-
| 8 || 90,000
|-
| 9 || 120,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9 ۽ 10 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 270,000
|-
| 10 || 150,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $710,000 || || $710,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.303''' || || '''0.293'''
|}

جيڪڏهن ساڳئي معيشت ۽ ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ لاءِ جيني اشاريو فردن بدران گهراڻن جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو وڃي، ته نتيجا مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. جيڪڏهن گهراڻن جا انگ اکر استعمال ڪيا وڃن، ته آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري جو قدر ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته &quot;گهراڻي&quot; جي تعريف ڪيئن ڪئي وئي آهي. جڏهن مختلف آباديُن ۾ گهراڻي جي تعريف هڪجهڙي نه هجي، تڏهن انهن جي ڀيٽ بامعنيٰ نه هوندي.

ان کان علاوه، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري ۾ تبديلي گهراڻي جي جوڙجڪ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو به ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيئن طلاقن ۾ واڌ يا [[گڏيل ڪٽنب]]ن جو ورهائجي [[ايڪو ڪٽنب]]ن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ.

ڊيننگر ۽ [[لن اسڪوائر]] (1996ع) ڏيکاريو ته فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاري کان مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، آمريڪا لاءِ هنن فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو 0.35، جڏهن ته فرانس لاءِ 0.43 معلوم ڪيو. سندن فرد-بنياد واري طريقي موجب، 108 ملڪن مان [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.62)، [[ملائيشيا]] جو ايشيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50)، [[برازيل]] جو لاطيني آمريڪا ۽ ڪيريبين علائقي ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.57)، ۽ [[ترڪي]] جو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50) هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Deininger |first1=K. |last2=Squire |first2=L. |title=A New Data Set Measuring Income Inequality |journal=The World Bank Economic Review |date=September 1996 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=565–591 |doi=10.1093/wber/10.3.565 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ارب پتي [[ٿامس ڪوڪ]] جو چوڻ آهي ته هانگ ڪانگ جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو (2010ع ۾ 0.434)&lt;ref name=undp2010a /&gt; جزوي طور ان جي آباديءَ جي جوڙجڪ ۾ آيل تبديلين سبب وڌيڪ رهيو آهي. گذريل ڏهاڪن دوران هانگ ڪانگ ۾ ننڍن گهراڻن، بزرگن تي ٻڌل گهراڻن ۽ اڪيلي رهندڙ بزرگ ماڻهن جو تعداد وڌيو آهي. نتيجي طور، ساڳي گڏيل آمدني هاڻي وڌيڪ گهراڻن ۾ ورهائجي وڃي ٿي. ڪوڪ جو خيال آهي ته آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو سماج جي اهڙين بناوتي تبديلين کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

هن حصي ۾ ڏنل آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ (جدول ج) پڻ ڏيکاري ٿي ته هي مسئلو رڳو هانگ ڪانگ تائين محدود ناهي. آمريڪي مردم شماري اداري موجب، 1979ع کان 2010ع تائين آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي بناوت ۾ نمايان تبديليون آيون، مهانگائيءَ مطابق سڀني آمدني گروهن جي آمدني وڌي، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ وقت سان گڏ وڌيڪ مٿين آمدني وارن گروهن ڏانهن منتقل ٿي، جڏهن ته ساڳئي عرصي دوران آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو پڻ وڌيو.&lt;ref name=uscb2011 /&gt;&lt;ref name=cbo.p.10&gt;[http://www.cbo.gov/doc.cfm?index=12485 Congressional Budget Office: Trends in the Distribution of Household Income Between 1979 and 2007]. October 2011. see pp. i–x, with definitions on ii–iii&lt;/ref&gt;

=== لمحي واري عدم مساوات بمقابله سڄي زندگيءَ واري عدم مساوات ===

جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي بناوت ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جي اثرن کي الڳ ڪري نٿو سگهي.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

زندگيءَ جي پوري عرصي تي ٻڌل ماپن جي اهميت کي نظر ۾ رکندي، جيني اشاريو ڪنهن هڪ مخصوص وقت تي برابريءَ جو رڳو هڪ اندازو (point estimate) پيش ڪري ٿو ۽ وقت سان گڏ آمدنيءَ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين کي نظرانداز ڪري ٿو.

عام طور تي، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن سماج ۾ نوجوانن يا بزرگ ماڻهن جو تناسب وڌي وڃي، ته جيني اشاريو ظاهري طور وڌيڪ عدم مساوات ڏيکاري سگهي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نوجوان ماڻهن وٽ عام طور گهٽ آمدني ۽ دولت هوندي آهي، جڏهن ته عمر وڌڻ سان اهي وڌنديون آهن.

تنهنڪري، آباديءَ جي عمر جي ورڇ ۽ مختلف آمدني وارن طبقن جي وچ ۾ نقل و حرڪت جهڙا عنصر، آباديءَ جي بناوت جي اثرن کي نظر ۾ رکڻ کان سواءِ، اهڙي عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا جيڪا حقيقت ۾ موجود نه هجي.

اهڙيءَ طرح، ڪنهن معيشت جو ڪنهن خاص وقت تي جيني اشاريو ٻي معيشت جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿو، پر جيڪڏهن ساڳين ماڻهن جي سڄي زندگيءَ جي آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي جيني اشاريو ڳڻيو وڃي، ته ممڪن آهي ته اها معيشت ٻيءَ کان وڌيڪ برابر ثابت ٿئي، جيتوڻيڪ هڪ مخصوص وقت تي ان جو جيني اشاريو وڌيڪ نظر اچي ٿو.&lt;ref name=blomq81&gt;{{Cite journal |first=N. |last=Blomquist |s2cid=154519005 |year=1981 |title=A comparison of distributions of annual and lifetime income: Sweden around 1970 |journal=Review of Income and Wealth |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1981.tb00227.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== غير نقدي فائدا ۽ جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني ===

جيڪڏهن [[جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني]] (انڪم ان ڪائينڊ) کي مالي قدر ڏيڻ ۾ درستگي نه هجي، ته اها جيني اشاري جي حقيقي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ واري صلاحيت کي گهٽائي ڇڏي ٿي.

جيتوڻيڪ ٽيڪسن ۽ نقد منتقلي وارين ادائگين جو حساب نسبتاً سولو هوندو آهي، پر حڪومت طرفان فراهم ڪيل ٻيا فائدا، جهڙوڪ رعايتي رهائش، طبي سهولتون ۽ تعليم، جو مالي قدر مقرر ڪرڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن جو قدر انهن جي معيار ۽ فراهم ڪيل سهولتن جي مقدار تي دارومدار رکي ٿو.

آزاد منڊي جي غير موجودگيءَ ۾، اهڙين سهولتن کي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جو حصو سمجهي مالي قدر ڏيڻ هڪ موضوعي (سبجيڪٽو) عمل آهي. تنهنڪري جيني اشاري جو نظرياتي ماڊل اهڙن اندازن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ تي ڀاڙي ٿو.

پاڻڀرائي (سبسسٽنس) تي ٻڌل ۽ [[غير رسمي معيشت]]ن ۾، ماڻهن جي آمدنيءَ جو وڏو حصو پئسي بدران ٻين صورتن ۾ هوندو آهي، جهڙوڪ [[پاڻڀري زراعت]] يا [[مال جي بدلي مال]] (بارٽر) ذريعي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدني. اهڙي آمدني عام طور اڀرندڙ ۽ منتقلي واري معيشتن، خاص طور تي صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا، لاطيني آمريڪا، ايشيا ۽ اوڀر يورپ جي گهٽ آمدني وارن ماڻهن وٽ وڌيڪ هوندي آهي.

غير رسمي معيشت عالمي روزگار جو اڌ کان وڌيڪ حصو فراهم ڪري ٿي، ۽ صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا جي ڪجهه غريب ملڪن ۾، جتي سرڪاري جيني اشاريا به تمام وڌيڪ آهن، روزگار جو 90 سيڪڙو تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

شنائڊر ۽ سندس ساٿين 2010ع ۾ 162 ملڪن تي ڪيل مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته دنيا جي مجموعي [[مجموعي ملڪي پيداوار]] (GDP) جو لڳ ڀڳ 31.2 سيڪڙو، يعني لڳ ڀڳ 20 ٽريلين آمريڪي ڊالر، غير رسمي معيشت مان پيدا ٿئي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Friedrich|last1=Schneider|first2=Andreas|last2=Buehn|first3=Claudio E.|last3=Montenegro|s2cid=56060172|year=2010|title=New Estimates for the Shadow Economies all over the World|journal=International Economic Journal|volume=24|issue=4|pages=443–461|doi=10.1080/10168737.2010.525974|hdl=10986/4929|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾، امير شهري آباديءَ کان سواءِ تقريباً سڀني آمدني وارن طبقن لاءِ غير رسمي معيشت آمدنيءَ جو بنيادي ذريعو آهي. ترقي يافته ملڪن ۾ به قومي GDP جو اندازاً 8 سيڪڙو (آمريڪا) کان 27 سيڪڙو (اٽلي) تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

غير رسمي يا پاڇي واري معيشت مان حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي صحيح مقدار ۽ ان جي ورڇ جو اندازو لڳائڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، جنهن سبب آمدنيءَ جي حقيقي جيني اشاري جو صحيح اندازو لڳائڻ پڻ مشڪل ٿي پوي ٿو.&lt;ref name=mfeld&gt;{{cite web|title=Is income inequality really the problem? (Overview)|first=Martin|last=Feldstein|date=August 1998|publisher=US Federal Reserve|url=http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|access-date=2 August 2012|archive-date=3 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160558/http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=tandw&gt;{{cite book|title=Principles of Microeconomics: Global Financial Crisis Edition|first1=John|last1=Taylor|first2=Akila|last2=Weerapana|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4390-7821-1|pages=416–418|publisher=Cengage Learning}}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهڙي آمدنيءَ بابت مختلف مفروضا ۽ اندازا مختلف جيني اشاريا پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income Inequality and the Informal Economy in Transition Economies|first1=J. Barkley Jr.|last1=Rosser|first2=Marina V.|last2=Rosser|first3=Ehsan|last3=Ahmed|s2cid=49552052|journal=Journal of Comparative Economics|date=March 2000|volume=28|issue=1|pages=156–171|doi=10.1006/jcec.2000.1645}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Earnings inequality and the informal economy: evidence from Serbia|first1=Gorana|last1=Krstić|first2=Peter|last2=Sanfey|publisher=European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|date=February 2010|url=http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160550/http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-date=2012-08-03|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite report|title=The Size of the Shadow Economies of 145 Countries all over the World: First Results over the Period 1999 to 2003|first=Friedrich|last=Schneider|date=December 2004|ssrn=636661|hdl=10419/20729}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== متبادل طريقا ==

جيني اشاريي جي حدن کي نظر ۾ رکندي، آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ يا عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ ان سان گڏ يا ان جي متبادل طور ٻيا شمارياتي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، **اينٽروپي تي ٻڌل ماپا** (entropy measures) وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جن ۾ [[ٿيئل اشاريو]] (Theil Index) ۽ [[اوسط لاگ انحراف]] (Mean Log Deviation) شامل آهن. اهي ٻئي [[عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو]] (Generalized Entropy Index) جا خاص مثال آهن، يا ساڳئي مفهوم موجب [[ايٽڪنسن اشاريو]] (Atkinson Index) جا پڻ خاص مثال سمجهيا وڃن ٿا.

اورٽيگا جو ٻه-پيماني وارو ماڊل (Ortega two-parameter model)&lt;ref name=&quot;ortega,1991&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Ortega | first1=P. | last2=Martín | first2=G. | last3=Fernández | first3=A. | last4=Ladoux | first4=M. | last5=García | first5=A. | title=A New Functional Form for Estimating Lorenz Curves | journal=Review of Income and Wealth | volume=37 | issue=4 | date=1991 | issn=0034-6586 | doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1991.tb00383.x | pages=447–452}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيني اشاريي جهڙن هڪ-پيماني وارن ماڊلن جي ڀيٽ ۾ سماجي نتيجن بابت وڌيڪ تفصيلي اڳڪٿيون ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت رکي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Blesch,2022&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Blesch | first1=Kristin | last2=Hauser | first2=Oliver P. | last3=Jachimowicz | first3=Jon M. | title=Measuring inequality beyond the Gini coefficient may clarify conflicting findings | journal=Nature Human Behaviour | volume=6 | issue=11 | date=2022 | issn=2397-3374 | pmid=36038775 | pmc=7614289 | doi=10.1038/s41562-022-01430-7 | pages=1525–1536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهو پڻ معلوم ٿيو آهي ته جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي وچئين حصي ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين لاءِ ضرورت کان وڌيڪ حساس هوندو آهي. ان ڪري، [[وچين آمدني]] (ميڊيئن انڪم) تي ٻڌل طريقا ان جا متبادل طور استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;u376&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last=Gastwirth | first=Joseph L. | title=Is the Gini Index of Inequality Overly Sensitive to Changes in the Middle of the Income Distribution? | journal=Statistics and Public Policy | volume=4 | issue=1 | date=2017 | issn=2330-443X | doi=10.1080/2330443X.2017.1360813 | pages=1–11 | doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>otox72p82m3267w3avszed83ejh3jtw</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399310</id>
      <parentid>399309</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T21:01:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399310</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="93273" sha1="mcnntwetp0j493n50ky7pteo97dzlfe" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|جيني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

جيني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وڪڙ]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. جيني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وڪڙ جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب جيني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته جيني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته جيني اشاريي جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري جيني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (رليٽو مين ابسوليوٽ ڊفرنس) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وڪڙ تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته جيني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا جيني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته جيني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو جيني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو جيني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به جيني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

جيني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته جيني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، جيني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! جيني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وڪڙ معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وڪڙ جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وڪڙ جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وڪڙ کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وڪڙ کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي جيني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاريا ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو}}

جيني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاريي هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاريي جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاريي هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وڪڙ ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

جيني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي جيني عدد ۽ موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاريي اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا جيني اشاريي سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاريي]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاريي يا شوراڪس جمود اشاريي به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاريي جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاريي جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته جيني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==


جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (ڪيوموليٽو پروپورشن) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حدون ==

=== نسبتي، نه مطلق ===

جيني اشاريو هڪ **نسبتي** (رليٽو) ماپ آهي. ڪنهن ترقي پذير ملڪ ۾، جيتوڻيڪ مڪمل غربت ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽجي وڃي، تڏهن به آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات وڌڻ سبب جيني اشاريو وڌي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Dramatic Poverty Reduction in the Third World: Prospects and Needed Action|first=John W.|last=Mellor|publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute|date=2 June 1989|pages=18–20|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160551/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جو سبب اهو آهي ته جيني اشاريو دولت يا آمدنيءَ جي **نسبتي** ورڇ کي ماپي ٿو، نه ڪي ان جي **مطلق** (ابسوليوٽ) مقدار کي.

جيني اشاريو سادو ۽ سمجهڻ ۾ آسان آهي، پر اها ئي سادگي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اهم فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري سگهي ٿي ۽ مختلف آباديُن جي ڀيٽ کي گمراهه ڪندڙ بڻائي سگهي ٿي. مثال طور، 2010ع ۾ [[بنگلاديش]] (في فرد آمدني 1,693 آمريڪي ڊالر) ۽ [[نيدرلينڊز]] (في فرد آمدني 42,183 آمريڪي ڊالر) ٻنهي جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=undp2010a&gt;{{cite web|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development (2010 Human Development Report – see Stat Tables)|pages=152–156|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/chapters/}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن هوندي به، ٻنهي ملڪن ۾ زندگيءَ جو معيار، معاشي موقعا ۽ حقيقي آمدني هڪجهڙا نه هئا. يعني، ٻه ملڪ ساڳيو جيني اشاريو رکي سگهن ٿا، پر سندن دولت ۾ وڏو فرق موجود هجي.

ترقي يافته معيشت ۾ بنيادي ضرورتون تقريباً سڀني ماڻهن کي دستياب ٿي سگهن ٿيون، جڏهن ته ساڳئي جيني اشاري واري ڪنهن گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ ۾ گهٽ مطلق دولت سبب اهي ضرورتون گهڻن ماڻهن لاءِ دستياب نه هجن يا غيربرابر نموني دستياب هجن.

=== رياضياتي حدون ===

جيني اشاري جون ڪجهه رياضياتي حدون پڻ آهن. اهو **جمع پذير** (ايڊيٽو) نه آهي، تنهنڪري مختلف آبادي گروهن جا جيني اشاري گڏ ڪري يا انهن جو سراسري ڪڍي سڀني گروهن لاءِ صحيح جيني اشاريو حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول الف. مختلف آمدنيءَ جون ورڇون، پر ساڳيو جيني اشاريو&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt;
|-
! گهراڻن جو گروهه
! ملڪ الف جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! ملڪ ب جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || 9,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000 || 40,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || 48,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000 || 48,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || 55,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $200,000 || $200,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.2''' || '''0.2'''
|}

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن آباديءَ جي ڪل آمدني ساڳي هجي، تڏهن به ممڪن آهي ته مختلف آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ رکندڙ ٻن ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو ساڳيو هجي، خاص طور تي جڏهن سندن [[لورينز وکر]] هڪ ٻئي کي ڪٽيندا هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt; جدول الف اهڙي ئي هڪ مثال ڏيکاري ٿي. ٻنهي ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو 0.2 آهي، پر گهراڻن جي گروهن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ مختلف آهي.

ساڳيءَ ريت، جيڪڏهن هڪ آباديءَ ۾ هيٺين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪا به آمدني نه هجي ۽ مٿين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ آمدني برابر ورهايل هجي، ته جيني اشاريو 0.5 ٿيندو. ٻي آباديءَ ۾، جيڪڏهن هيٺين 75 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 25 سيڪڙو ۽ مٿين 25 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ 75 سيڪڙو آمدني هجي، ته اتي به جيني اشاريو 0.5 هوندو.

تنهنڪري، هڪجهڙي آمدني ۽ ساڳئي جيني اشاري واريون معيشتون آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان گهڻو مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿيون. بيلو ۽ ليبيراتي جو خيال آهي ته رڳو جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ٻن آباديُن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جي درجابندي هميشه ممڪن نه هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=Maio2007&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income inequality measures|first=Fernando G.|last=De Maio|journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health|year=2007|volume=61|issue=10|pages=849–852|doi=10.1136/jech.2006.052969|pmid=17873219|pmc=2652960}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳي طرح، ڪمپيوٽري سماجي سائنسدان [[فيبين اسٽيفني]] ڏيکاريو آهي ته روايتي جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي اندر موجود مخصوص سماجي يا معاشي گروهن (مثال طور ساڳئي عمر يا تعليم وارن ماڻهن) جي آمدنيءَ واري عدم مساوات کي ظاهر ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام رهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Stephany |first=Fabian |date=2017-12-01 |title=Who are Your Joneses? Socio-Specific Income Inequality and Trust |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |journal=Social Indicators Research |language=en |volume=134 |issue=3 |pages=877–898 |doi=10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |issn=1573-0921 |pmc=5684274 |pmid=29187771}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو دولت جي عدم مساوات کي لڪائي سگهي ٿو ===

جيني اشاريو ڪنهن ملڪ يا فرد جي **مطلق آمدني** بابت ڪا به ڄاڻ فراهم نٿو ڪري. ممڪن آهي ته ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهٽ هجي، پر دولت (wealth) جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهڻو هجي.

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، تنهنڪري اهو گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي استعمال ۾ موجود فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري ڇڏي ٿو. ساڳيءَ طرح، دولت کي به (سواءِ ان حصي جي جيڪو آمدني پيدا ڪري) نظرانداز ڪيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن سبب اهڙين حالتن ۾ برابريءَ جو تاثر پيدا ٿي سگهي ٿو، جتي مقابلي هيٺ آيل ماڻهو پنهنجي زندگيءَ جي مختلف مرحلن ۾ هجن.

مثال طور، [[سوئيڊن]] جهڙي دولت مند ملڪ ۾ استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو 0.31 آهي، جنهن مان نسبتاً برابريءَ جو تاثر ملي ٿو، پر دولت جو جيني اشاريو 0.79 کان 0.86 جي وچ ۾ آهي، جيڪو سماج ۾ دولت جي انتهائي غيربرابر ورڇ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Inequality Trends in Sweden 1978–2004|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Martin|last2=Flodén|journal=Review of Economic Dynamics|volume=13|issue=1|year=2010|pages=179–208|doi=10.1016/j.red.2009.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.629.9417}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Accounting for Swedish wealth inequality|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Paul|last2=Klein|date=January 2000|url=http://fmwww.bc.edu/repec/es2000/0883.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030519155531/https://www.econometricsociety.org/meetings/wc00/pdf/0883.pdf|archive-date=May 19, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تنهنڪري، آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو دولت جي ورڇ ۾ موجود عدم مساوات کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.

=== ملڪ جي ماپ ۽ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جو اثر ===

ننڍين آباديُن لاءِ جيني اشاريو عام طور هيٺاهين طرف لاڙو (downward bias) رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Small-Sample Bias of the Gini Coefficient: Results and Implications for Empirical Research|journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics|first=George|last=Deltas|date=February 2003|volume=85|issue=1|pages=226–234|doi=10.1162/rest.2003.85.1.226|jstor=3211637|bibcode=2003RvE&amp;S..85..226D|s2cid=57572560}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهنڪري ننڍي آبادي، رياست يا ملڪ، يا اهڙيون معيشتون جن ۾ معاشي تنوع گهٽ هجي، اڪثر گهٽ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪن ٿيون.

ان جي ابتڙ، وڏي آبادي ۽ وڌيڪ متنوع معيشتن لاءِ عام طور وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو متوقع هوندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن سڄي دنيا جي معيشت ۽ سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏجي ڏٺو وڃي، ته مختلف محقق عالمي جيني اشاري جو اندازو 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ لڳائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10 /&gt;

ٻين عدم مساوات وارن اشارن وانگر، جيني اشاريو به انگن اکرن جي **تفصيل جي سطح** (granularity) کان متاثر ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي پنجن 20 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (گهٽ تفصيل) ۾ ورهايو وڃي ته حاصل ٿيندڙ جيني اشاريو عام طور ويهن 5 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (وڌيڪ تفصيل) جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ٿيندو.

فلپ مونفورٽ ڏيکاريو آهي ته جيڪڏهن مختلف مطالعي ۾ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جي سطح هڪجهڙي نه هجي يا واضح نه ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ڪيل ڀيٽون گهڻي حد تائين بي معنيٰ ٿي سگهن ٿيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Convergence of EU regions: Measures and evolution|first=Philippe|last=Monfort|publisher=European Union – Europa|page=6|year=2008|url=http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160544/http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آباديءَ ۾ تبديليون ===

جيني اشارئي سان ماپيل آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ تبديلي، سماج جي بناوت ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ آباديءَ ۾ واڌ (پيدائش جي شرح وڌڻ)، آباديءَ جي پوڙهائپ، لڏپلاڻ يا هجرت، ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت.&lt;ref name=Kwok10&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution of Hong Kong and the Gini Coefficient|author=KWOK Kwok Chuen|year=2010|publisher=The Government of Hong Kong, China|url=http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227043822/http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني اشاري جي هڪ ٻي حد اها آهي ته اهو [[مساوات پسندي]] (egalitarianism) جو مڪمل پيمانو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو رڳو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ تفاوت کي ماپي ٿو. مثال طور، فرض ڪريو ته ٻه هڪجهڙا مساوات پسند ملڪ مختلف [[اميگريشن قانون]] اختيار ڪن ٿا. جيڪڏهن انهن مان هڪ ملڪ گهٽ آمدني يا غريب مهاجرن جو وڌيڪ حصو قبول ڪري، ته اهو ملڪ وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪندو، ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت ان ۾ آمدنيءَ جي وڌيڪ عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ٿيندو، جيتوڻيڪ اها تبديلي سماجي پاليسيءَ جي نتيجي ۾ آيل هجي.

=== گهراڻو بمقابله فرد ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول ب. ساڳي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ، پر مختلف جيني اشاريا
|-
! گهراڻي جو نمبر
! ملڪ جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! گڏيل گهراڻن جو نمبر
! ملڪ الف جي گڏيل سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 1 ۽ 2 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 50,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3 ۽ 4 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 90,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5 ۽ 6 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 130,000
|-
| 6 || 70,000
|-
| 7 || 80,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7 ۽ 8 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 170,000
|-
| 8 || 90,000
|-
| 9 || 120,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9 ۽ 10 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 270,000
|-
| 10 || 150,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $710,000 || || $710,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.303''' || || '''0.293'''
|}

جيڪڏهن ساڳئي معيشت ۽ ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ لاءِ جيني اشاريو فردن بدران گهراڻن جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو وڃي، ته نتيجا مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. جيڪڏهن گهراڻن جا انگ اکر استعمال ڪيا وڃن، ته آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري جو قدر ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته &quot;گهراڻي&quot; جي تعريف ڪيئن ڪئي وئي آهي. جڏهن مختلف آباديُن ۾ گهراڻي جي تعريف هڪجهڙي نه هجي، تڏهن انهن جي ڀيٽ بامعنيٰ نه هوندي.

ان کان علاوه، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري ۾ تبديلي گهراڻي جي جوڙجڪ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو به ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيئن طلاقن ۾ واڌ يا [[گڏيل ڪٽنب]]ن جو ورهائجي [[ايڪو ڪٽنب]]ن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ.

ڊيننگر ۽ [[لن اسڪوائر]] (1996ع) ڏيکاريو ته فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاري کان مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، آمريڪا لاءِ هنن فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو 0.35، جڏهن ته فرانس لاءِ 0.43 معلوم ڪيو. سندن فرد-بنياد واري طريقي موجب، 108 ملڪن مان [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.62)، [[ملائيشيا]] جو ايشيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50)، [[برازيل]] جو لاطيني آمريڪا ۽ ڪيريبين علائقي ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.57)، ۽ [[ترڪي]] جو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50) هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Deininger |first1=K. |last2=Squire |first2=L. |title=A New Data Set Measuring Income Inequality |journal=The World Bank Economic Review |date=September 1996 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=565–591 |doi=10.1093/wber/10.3.565 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ارب پتي [[ٿامس ڪوڪ]] جو چوڻ آهي ته هانگ ڪانگ جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو (2010ع ۾ 0.434)&lt;ref name=undp2010a /&gt; جزوي طور ان جي آباديءَ جي جوڙجڪ ۾ آيل تبديلين سبب وڌيڪ رهيو آهي. گذريل ڏهاڪن دوران هانگ ڪانگ ۾ ننڍن گهراڻن، بزرگن تي ٻڌل گهراڻن ۽ اڪيلي رهندڙ بزرگ ماڻهن جو تعداد وڌيو آهي. نتيجي طور، ساڳي گڏيل آمدني هاڻي وڌيڪ گهراڻن ۾ ورهائجي وڃي ٿي. ڪوڪ جو خيال آهي ته آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو سماج جي اهڙين بناوتي تبديلين کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

هن حصي ۾ ڏنل آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ (جدول ج) پڻ ڏيکاري ٿي ته هي مسئلو رڳو هانگ ڪانگ تائين محدود ناهي. آمريڪي مردم شماري اداري موجب، 1979ع کان 2010ع تائين آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي بناوت ۾ نمايان تبديليون آيون، مهانگائيءَ مطابق سڀني آمدني گروهن جي آمدني وڌي، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ وقت سان گڏ وڌيڪ مٿين آمدني وارن گروهن ڏانهن منتقل ٿي، جڏهن ته ساڳئي عرصي دوران آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو پڻ وڌيو.&lt;ref name=uscb2011 /&gt;&lt;ref name=cbo.p.10&gt;[http://www.cbo.gov/doc.cfm?index=12485 Congressional Budget Office: Trends in the Distribution of Household Income Between 1979 and 2007]. October 2011. see pp. i–x, with definitions on ii–iii&lt;/ref&gt;

=== لمحي واري عدم مساوات بمقابله سڄي زندگيءَ واري عدم مساوات ===

جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي بناوت ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جي اثرن کي الڳ ڪري نٿو سگهي.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

زندگيءَ جي پوري عرصي تي ٻڌل ماپن جي اهميت کي نظر ۾ رکندي، جيني اشاريو ڪنهن هڪ مخصوص وقت تي برابريءَ جو رڳو هڪ اندازو (point estimate) پيش ڪري ٿو ۽ وقت سان گڏ آمدنيءَ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين کي نظرانداز ڪري ٿو.

عام طور تي، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن سماج ۾ نوجوانن يا بزرگ ماڻهن جو تناسب وڌي وڃي، ته جيني اشاريو ظاهري طور وڌيڪ عدم مساوات ڏيکاري سگهي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نوجوان ماڻهن وٽ عام طور گهٽ آمدني ۽ دولت هوندي آهي، جڏهن ته عمر وڌڻ سان اهي وڌنديون آهن.

تنهنڪري، آباديءَ جي عمر جي ورڇ ۽ مختلف آمدني وارن طبقن جي وچ ۾ نقل و حرڪت جهڙا عنصر، آباديءَ جي بناوت جي اثرن کي نظر ۾ رکڻ کان سواءِ، اهڙي عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا جيڪا حقيقت ۾ موجود نه هجي.

اهڙيءَ طرح، ڪنهن معيشت جو ڪنهن خاص وقت تي جيني اشاريو ٻي معيشت جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿو، پر جيڪڏهن ساڳين ماڻهن جي سڄي زندگيءَ جي آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي جيني اشاريو ڳڻيو وڃي، ته ممڪن آهي ته اها معيشت ٻيءَ کان وڌيڪ برابر ثابت ٿئي، جيتوڻيڪ هڪ مخصوص وقت تي ان جو جيني اشاريو وڌيڪ نظر اچي ٿو.&lt;ref name=blomq81&gt;{{Cite journal |first=N. |last=Blomquist |s2cid=154519005 |year=1981 |title=A comparison of distributions of annual and lifetime income: Sweden around 1970 |journal=Review of Income and Wealth |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1981.tb00227.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== غير نقدي فائدا ۽ جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني ===

جيڪڏهن [[جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني]] (انڪم ان ڪائينڊ) کي مالي قدر ڏيڻ ۾ درستگي نه هجي، ته اها جيني اشاري جي حقيقي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ واري صلاحيت کي گهٽائي ڇڏي ٿي.

جيتوڻيڪ ٽيڪسن ۽ نقد منتقلي وارين ادائگين جو حساب نسبتاً سولو هوندو آهي، پر حڪومت طرفان فراهم ڪيل ٻيا فائدا، جهڙوڪ رعايتي رهائش، طبي سهولتون ۽ تعليم، جو مالي قدر مقرر ڪرڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن جو قدر انهن جي معيار ۽ فراهم ڪيل سهولتن جي مقدار تي دارومدار رکي ٿو.

آزاد منڊي جي غير موجودگيءَ ۾، اهڙين سهولتن کي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جو حصو سمجهي مالي قدر ڏيڻ هڪ موضوعي (سبجيڪٽو) عمل آهي. تنهنڪري جيني اشاري جو نظرياتي ماڊل اهڙن اندازن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ تي ڀاڙي ٿو.

پاڻڀرائي (سبسسٽنس) تي ٻڌل ۽ [[غير رسمي معيشت]]ن ۾، ماڻهن جي آمدنيءَ جو وڏو حصو پئسي بدران ٻين صورتن ۾ هوندو آهي، جهڙوڪ [[پاڻڀري زراعت]] يا [[مال جي بدلي مال]] (بارٽر) ذريعي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدني. اهڙي آمدني عام طور اڀرندڙ ۽ منتقلي واري معيشتن، خاص طور تي صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا، لاطيني آمريڪا، ايشيا ۽ اوڀر يورپ جي گهٽ آمدني وارن ماڻهن وٽ وڌيڪ هوندي آهي.

غير رسمي معيشت عالمي روزگار جو اڌ کان وڌيڪ حصو فراهم ڪري ٿي، ۽ صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا جي ڪجهه غريب ملڪن ۾، جتي سرڪاري جيني اشاريا به تمام وڌيڪ آهن، روزگار جو 90 سيڪڙو تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

شنائڊر ۽ سندس ساٿين 2010ع ۾ 162 ملڪن تي ڪيل مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته دنيا جي مجموعي [[مجموعي ملڪي پيداوار]] (GDP) جو لڳ ڀڳ 31.2 سيڪڙو، يعني لڳ ڀڳ 20 ٽريلين آمريڪي ڊالر، غير رسمي معيشت مان پيدا ٿئي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Friedrich|last1=Schneider|first2=Andreas|last2=Buehn|first3=Claudio E.|last3=Montenegro|s2cid=56060172|year=2010|title=New Estimates for the Shadow Economies all over the World|journal=International Economic Journal|volume=24|issue=4|pages=443–461|doi=10.1080/10168737.2010.525974|hdl=10986/4929|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾، امير شهري آباديءَ کان سواءِ تقريباً سڀني آمدني وارن طبقن لاءِ غير رسمي معيشت آمدنيءَ جو بنيادي ذريعو آهي. ترقي يافته ملڪن ۾ به قومي GDP جو اندازاً 8 سيڪڙو (آمريڪا) کان 27 سيڪڙو (اٽلي) تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

غير رسمي يا پاڇي واري معيشت مان حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي صحيح مقدار ۽ ان جي ورڇ جو اندازو لڳائڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، جنهن سبب آمدنيءَ جي حقيقي جيني اشاري جو صحيح اندازو لڳائڻ پڻ مشڪل ٿي پوي ٿو.&lt;ref name=mfeld&gt;{{cite web|title=Is income inequality really the problem? (Overview)|first=Martin|last=Feldstein|date=August 1998|publisher=US Federal Reserve|url=http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|access-date=2 August 2012|archive-date=3 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160558/http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=tandw&gt;{{cite book|title=Principles of Microeconomics: Global Financial Crisis Edition|first1=John|last1=Taylor|first2=Akila|last2=Weerapana|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4390-7821-1|pages=416–418|publisher=Cengage Learning}}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهڙي آمدنيءَ بابت مختلف مفروضا ۽ اندازا مختلف جيني اشاريا پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income Inequality and the Informal Economy in Transition Economies|first1=J. Barkley Jr.|last1=Rosser|first2=Marina V.|last2=Rosser|first3=Ehsan|last3=Ahmed|s2cid=49552052|journal=Journal of Comparative Economics|date=March 2000|volume=28|issue=1|pages=156–171|doi=10.1006/jcec.2000.1645}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Earnings inequality and the informal economy: evidence from Serbia|first1=Gorana|last1=Krstić|first2=Peter|last2=Sanfey|publisher=European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|date=February 2010|url=http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160550/http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-date=2012-08-03|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite report|title=The Size of the Shadow Economies of 145 Countries all over the World: First Results over the Period 1999 to 2003|first=Friedrich|last=Schneider|date=December 2004|ssrn=636661|hdl=10419/20729}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== متبادل طريقا ==

جيني اشاريي جي حدن کي نظر ۾ رکندي، آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ يا عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ ان سان گڏ يا ان جي متبادل طور ٻيا شمارياتي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، **اينٽروپي تي ٻڌل ماپا** (entropy measures) وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جن ۾ [[ٿيئل اشاريو]] (Theil Index) ۽ [[اوسط لاگ انحراف]] (مين لاگ ڊيويئيشن) شامل آهن. اهي ٻئي [[عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو]] (جنرلائيزڊ اينٽروپي انڊيڪس) جا خاص مثال آهن، يا ساڳئي مفهوم موجب [[ايٽڪنسن اشاريو]] (ايٽڪنسن انڊيڪس) جا پڻ خاص مثال سمجهيا وڃن ٿا.

اورٽيگا جو ٻه-پيماني وارو ماڊل (اورٽيگا ٽو-پيراميٽر ماڊل)&lt;ref name=&quot;ortega,1991&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Ortega | first1=P. | last2=Martín | first2=G. | last3=Fernández | first3=A. | last4=Ladoux | first4=M. | last5=García | first5=A. | title=A New Functional Form for Estimating Lorenz Curves | journal=Review of Income and Wealth | volume=37 | issue=4 | date=1991 | issn=0034-6586 | doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1991.tb00383.x | pages=447–452}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيني اشاريي جهڙن هڪ-پيماني وارن ماڊلن جي ڀيٽ ۾ سماجي نتيجن بابت وڌيڪ تفصيلي اڳڪٿيون ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت رکي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Blesch,2022&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Blesch | first1=Kristin | last2=Hauser | first2=Oliver P. | last3=Jachimowicz | first3=Jon M. | title=Measuring inequality beyond the Gini coefficient may clarify conflicting findings | journal=Nature Human Behaviour | volume=6 | issue=11 | date=2022 | issn=2397-3374 | pmid=36038775 | pmc=7614289 | doi=10.1038/s41562-022-01430-7 | pages=1525–1536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهو پڻ معلوم ٿيو آهي ته جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي وچئين حصي ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين لاءِ ضرورت کان وڌيڪ حساس هوندو آهي. ان ڪري، [[وچين آمدني]] (ميڊيئن انڪم) تي ٻڌل طريقا ان جا متبادل طور استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;u376&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last=Gastwirth | first=Joseph L. | title=Is the Gini Index of Inequality Overly Sensitive to Changes in the Middle of the Income Distribution? | journal=Statistics and Public Policy | volume=4 | issue=1 | date=2017 | issn=2330-443X | doi=10.1080/2330443X.2017.1360813 | pages=1–11 | doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>mcnntwetp0j493n50ky7pteo97dzlfe</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399311</id>
      <parentid>399310</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T21:06:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399311</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="98567" sha1="fpdr4bt70et1dwr9xwr30zg6ldslz2o" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|جيني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

جيني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وڪڙ]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. جيني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وڪڙ جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب جيني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته جيني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته جيني اشاريي جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري جيني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (رليٽو مين ابسوليوٽ ڊفرنس) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وڪڙ تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته جيني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا جيني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته جيني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو جيني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو جيني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به جيني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

جيني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته جيني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، جيني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! جيني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وڪڙ معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وڪڙ جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وڪڙ جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وڪڙ کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وڪڙ کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي جيني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاريا ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو}}

جيني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاريي هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاريي جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاريي هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وڪڙ ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

جيني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي جيني عدد ۽ موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاريي اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا جيني اشاريي سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاريي]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاريي يا شوراڪس جمود اشاريي به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاريي جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاريي جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته جيني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==


جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (ڪيوموليٽو پروپورشن) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حدون ==

=== نسبتي، نه مطلق ===

جيني اشاريو هڪ **نسبتي** (رليٽو) ماپ آهي. ڪنهن ترقي پذير ملڪ ۾، جيتوڻيڪ مڪمل غربت ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽجي وڃي، تڏهن به آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات وڌڻ سبب جيني اشاريو وڌي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Dramatic Poverty Reduction in the Third World: Prospects and Needed Action|first=John W.|last=Mellor|publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute|date=2 June 1989|pages=18–20|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160551/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جو سبب اهو آهي ته جيني اشاريو دولت يا آمدنيءَ جي **نسبتي** ورڇ کي ماپي ٿو، نه ڪي ان جي **مطلق** (ابسوليوٽ) مقدار کي.

جيني اشاريو سادو ۽ سمجهڻ ۾ آسان آهي، پر اها ئي سادگي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اهم فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري سگهي ٿي ۽ مختلف آباديُن جي ڀيٽ کي گمراهه ڪندڙ بڻائي سگهي ٿي. مثال طور، 2010ع ۾ [[بنگلاديش]] (في فرد آمدني 1,693 آمريڪي ڊالر) ۽ [[نيدرلينڊز]] (في فرد آمدني 42,183 آمريڪي ڊالر) ٻنهي جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=undp2010a&gt;{{cite web|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development (2010 Human Development Report – see Stat Tables)|pages=152–156|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/chapters/}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن هوندي به، ٻنهي ملڪن ۾ زندگيءَ جو معيار، معاشي موقعا ۽ حقيقي آمدني هڪجهڙا نه هئا. يعني، ٻه ملڪ ساڳيو جيني اشاريو رکي سگهن ٿا، پر سندن دولت ۾ وڏو فرق موجود هجي.

ترقي يافته معيشت ۾ بنيادي ضرورتون تقريباً سڀني ماڻهن کي دستياب ٿي سگهن ٿيون، جڏهن ته ساڳئي جيني اشاري واري ڪنهن گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ ۾ گهٽ مطلق دولت سبب اهي ضرورتون گهڻن ماڻهن لاءِ دستياب نه هجن يا غيربرابر نموني دستياب هجن.

=== رياضياتي حدون ===

جيني اشاري جون ڪجهه رياضياتي حدون پڻ آهن. اهو **جمع پذير** (ايڊيٽو) نه آهي، تنهنڪري مختلف آبادي گروهن جا جيني اشاري گڏ ڪري يا انهن جو سراسري ڪڍي سڀني گروهن لاءِ صحيح جيني اشاريو حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول الف. مختلف آمدنيءَ جون ورڇون، پر ساڳيو جيني اشاريو&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt;
|-
! گهراڻن جو گروهه
! ملڪ الف جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! ملڪ ب جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || 9,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000 || 40,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || 48,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000 || 48,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || 55,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $200,000 || $200,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.2''' || '''0.2'''
|}

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن آباديءَ جي ڪل آمدني ساڳي هجي، تڏهن به ممڪن آهي ته مختلف آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ رکندڙ ٻن ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو ساڳيو هجي، خاص طور تي جڏهن سندن [[لورينز وکر]] هڪ ٻئي کي ڪٽيندا هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt; جدول الف اهڙي ئي هڪ مثال ڏيکاري ٿي. ٻنهي ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو 0.2 آهي، پر گهراڻن جي گروهن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ مختلف آهي.

ساڳيءَ ريت، جيڪڏهن هڪ آباديءَ ۾ هيٺين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪا به آمدني نه هجي ۽ مٿين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ آمدني برابر ورهايل هجي، ته جيني اشاريو 0.5 ٿيندو. ٻي آباديءَ ۾، جيڪڏهن هيٺين 75 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 25 سيڪڙو ۽ مٿين 25 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ 75 سيڪڙو آمدني هجي، ته اتي به جيني اشاريو 0.5 هوندو.

تنهنڪري، هڪجهڙي آمدني ۽ ساڳئي جيني اشاري واريون معيشتون آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان گهڻو مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿيون. بيلو ۽ ليبيراتي جو خيال آهي ته رڳو جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ٻن آباديُن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جي درجابندي هميشه ممڪن نه هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=Maio2007&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income inequality measures|first=Fernando G.|last=De Maio|journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health|year=2007|volume=61|issue=10|pages=849–852|doi=10.1136/jech.2006.052969|pmid=17873219|pmc=2652960}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳي طرح، ڪمپيوٽري سماجي سائنسدان [[فيبين اسٽيفني]] ڏيکاريو آهي ته روايتي جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي اندر موجود مخصوص سماجي يا معاشي گروهن (مثال طور ساڳئي عمر يا تعليم وارن ماڻهن) جي آمدنيءَ واري عدم مساوات کي ظاهر ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام رهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Stephany |first=Fabian |date=2017-12-01 |title=Who are Your Joneses? Socio-Specific Income Inequality and Trust |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |journal=Social Indicators Research |language=en |volume=134 |issue=3 |pages=877–898 |doi=10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |issn=1573-0921 |pmc=5684274 |pmid=29187771}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو دولت جي عدم مساوات کي لڪائي سگهي ٿو ===

جيني اشاريو ڪنهن ملڪ يا فرد جي **مطلق آمدني** بابت ڪا به ڄاڻ فراهم نٿو ڪري. ممڪن آهي ته ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهٽ هجي، پر دولت (wealth) جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهڻو هجي.

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، تنهنڪري اهو گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي استعمال ۾ موجود فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري ڇڏي ٿو. ساڳيءَ طرح، دولت کي به (سواءِ ان حصي جي جيڪو آمدني پيدا ڪري) نظرانداز ڪيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن سبب اهڙين حالتن ۾ برابريءَ جو تاثر پيدا ٿي سگهي ٿو، جتي مقابلي هيٺ آيل ماڻهو پنهنجي زندگيءَ جي مختلف مرحلن ۾ هجن.

مثال طور، [[سوئيڊن]] جهڙي دولت مند ملڪ ۾ استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو 0.31 آهي، جنهن مان نسبتاً برابريءَ جو تاثر ملي ٿو، پر دولت جو جيني اشاريو 0.79 کان 0.86 جي وچ ۾ آهي، جيڪو سماج ۾ دولت جي انتهائي غيربرابر ورڇ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Inequality Trends in Sweden 1978–2004|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Martin|last2=Flodén|journal=Review of Economic Dynamics|volume=13|issue=1|year=2010|pages=179–208|doi=10.1016/j.red.2009.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.629.9417}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Accounting for Swedish wealth inequality|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Paul|last2=Klein|date=January 2000|url=http://fmwww.bc.edu/repec/es2000/0883.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030519155531/https://www.econometricsociety.org/meetings/wc00/pdf/0883.pdf|archive-date=May 19, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تنهنڪري، آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو دولت جي ورڇ ۾ موجود عدم مساوات کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.

=== ملڪ جي ماپ ۽ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جو اثر ===

ننڍين آباديُن لاءِ جيني اشاريو عام طور هيٺاهين طرف لاڙو (downward bias) رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Small-Sample Bias of the Gini Coefficient: Results and Implications for Empirical Research|journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics|first=George|last=Deltas|date=February 2003|volume=85|issue=1|pages=226–234|doi=10.1162/rest.2003.85.1.226|jstor=3211637|bibcode=2003RvE&amp;S..85..226D|s2cid=57572560}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهنڪري ننڍي آبادي، رياست يا ملڪ، يا اهڙيون معيشتون جن ۾ معاشي تنوع گهٽ هجي، اڪثر گهٽ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪن ٿيون.

ان جي ابتڙ، وڏي آبادي ۽ وڌيڪ متنوع معيشتن لاءِ عام طور وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو متوقع هوندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن سڄي دنيا جي معيشت ۽ سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏجي ڏٺو وڃي، ته مختلف محقق عالمي جيني اشاري جو اندازو 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ لڳائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10 /&gt;

ٻين عدم مساوات وارن اشارن وانگر، جيني اشاريو به انگن اکرن جي **تفصيل جي سطح** (granularity) کان متاثر ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي پنجن 20 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (گهٽ تفصيل) ۾ ورهايو وڃي ته حاصل ٿيندڙ جيني اشاريو عام طور ويهن 5 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (وڌيڪ تفصيل) جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ٿيندو.

فلپ مونفورٽ ڏيکاريو آهي ته جيڪڏهن مختلف مطالعي ۾ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جي سطح هڪجهڙي نه هجي يا واضح نه ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ڪيل ڀيٽون گهڻي حد تائين بي معنيٰ ٿي سگهن ٿيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Convergence of EU regions: Measures and evolution|first=Philippe|last=Monfort|publisher=European Union – Europa|page=6|year=2008|url=http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160544/http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آباديءَ ۾ تبديليون ===

جيني اشارئي سان ماپيل آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ تبديلي، سماج جي بناوت ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ آباديءَ ۾ واڌ (پيدائش جي شرح وڌڻ)، آباديءَ جي پوڙهائپ، لڏپلاڻ يا هجرت، ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت.&lt;ref name=Kwok10&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution of Hong Kong and the Gini Coefficient|author=KWOK Kwok Chuen|year=2010|publisher=The Government of Hong Kong, China|url=http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227043822/http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني اشاري جي هڪ ٻي حد اها آهي ته اهو [[مساوات پسندي]] (egalitarianism) جو مڪمل پيمانو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو رڳو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ تفاوت کي ماپي ٿو. مثال طور، فرض ڪريو ته ٻه هڪجهڙا مساوات پسند ملڪ مختلف [[اميگريشن قانون]] اختيار ڪن ٿا. جيڪڏهن انهن مان هڪ ملڪ گهٽ آمدني يا غريب مهاجرن جو وڌيڪ حصو قبول ڪري، ته اهو ملڪ وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪندو، ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت ان ۾ آمدنيءَ جي وڌيڪ عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ٿيندو، جيتوڻيڪ اها تبديلي سماجي پاليسيءَ جي نتيجي ۾ آيل هجي.

=== گهراڻو بمقابله فرد ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول ب. ساڳي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ، پر مختلف جيني اشاريا
|-
! گهراڻي جو نمبر
! ملڪ جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! گڏيل گهراڻن جو نمبر
! ملڪ الف جي گڏيل سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 1 ۽ 2 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 50,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3 ۽ 4 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 90,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5 ۽ 6 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 130,000
|-
| 6 || 70,000
|-
| 7 || 80,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7 ۽ 8 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 170,000
|-
| 8 || 90,000
|-
| 9 || 120,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9 ۽ 10 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 270,000
|-
| 10 || 150,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $710,000 || || $710,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.303''' || || '''0.293'''
|}

جيڪڏهن ساڳئي معيشت ۽ ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ لاءِ جيني اشاريو فردن بدران گهراڻن جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو وڃي، ته نتيجا مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. جيڪڏهن گهراڻن جا انگ اکر استعمال ڪيا وڃن، ته آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري جو قدر ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته &quot;گهراڻي&quot; جي تعريف ڪيئن ڪئي وئي آهي. جڏهن مختلف آباديُن ۾ گهراڻي جي تعريف هڪجهڙي نه هجي، تڏهن انهن جي ڀيٽ بامعنيٰ نه هوندي.

ان کان علاوه، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري ۾ تبديلي گهراڻي جي جوڙجڪ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو به ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيئن طلاقن ۾ واڌ يا [[گڏيل ڪٽنب]]ن جو ورهائجي [[ايڪو ڪٽنب]]ن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ.

ڊيننگر ۽ [[لن اسڪوائر]] (1996ع) ڏيکاريو ته فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاري کان مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، آمريڪا لاءِ هنن فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو 0.35، جڏهن ته فرانس لاءِ 0.43 معلوم ڪيو. سندن فرد-بنياد واري طريقي موجب، 108 ملڪن مان [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.62)، [[ملائيشيا]] جو ايشيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50)، [[برازيل]] جو لاطيني آمريڪا ۽ ڪيريبين علائقي ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.57)، ۽ [[ترڪي]] جو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50) هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Deininger |first1=K. |last2=Squire |first2=L. |title=A New Data Set Measuring Income Inequality |journal=The World Bank Economic Review |date=September 1996 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=565–591 |doi=10.1093/wber/10.3.565 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ارب پتي [[ٿامس ڪوڪ]] جو چوڻ آهي ته هانگ ڪانگ جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو (2010ع ۾ 0.434)&lt;ref name=undp2010a /&gt; جزوي طور ان جي آباديءَ جي جوڙجڪ ۾ آيل تبديلين سبب وڌيڪ رهيو آهي. گذريل ڏهاڪن دوران هانگ ڪانگ ۾ ننڍن گهراڻن، بزرگن تي ٻڌل گهراڻن ۽ اڪيلي رهندڙ بزرگ ماڻهن جو تعداد وڌيو آهي. نتيجي طور، ساڳي گڏيل آمدني هاڻي وڌيڪ گهراڻن ۾ ورهائجي وڃي ٿي. ڪوڪ جو خيال آهي ته آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو سماج جي اهڙين بناوتي تبديلين کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

هن حصي ۾ ڏنل آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ (جدول ج) پڻ ڏيکاري ٿي ته هي مسئلو رڳو هانگ ڪانگ تائين محدود ناهي. آمريڪي مردم شماري اداري موجب، 1979ع کان 2010ع تائين آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي بناوت ۾ نمايان تبديليون آيون، مهانگائيءَ مطابق سڀني آمدني گروهن جي آمدني وڌي، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ وقت سان گڏ وڌيڪ مٿين آمدني وارن گروهن ڏانهن منتقل ٿي، جڏهن ته ساڳئي عرصي دوران آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو پڻ وڌيو.&lt;ref name=uscb2011 /&gt;&lt;ref name=cbo.p.10&gt;[http://www.cbo.gov/doc.cfm?index=12485 Congressional Budget Office: Trends in the Distribution of Household Income Between 1979 and 2007]. October 2011. see pp. i–x, with definitions on ii–iii&lt;/ref&gt;

=== لمحي واري عدم مساوات بمقابله سڄي زندگيءَ واري عدم مساوات ===

جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي بناوت ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جي اثرن کي الڳ ڪري نٿو سگهي.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

زندگيءَ جي پوري عرصي تي ٻڌل ماپن جي اهميت کي نظر ۾ رکندي، جيني اشاريو ڪنهن هڪ مخصوص وقت تي برابريءَ جو رڳو هڪ اندازو (point estimate) پيش ڪري ٿو ۽ وقت سان گڏ آمدنيءَ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين کي نظرانداز ڪري ٿو.

عام طور تي، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن سماج ۾ نوجوانن يا بزرگ ماڻهن جو تناسب وڌي وڃي، ته جيني اشاريو ظاهري طور وڌيڪ عدم مساوات ڏيکاري سگهي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نوجوان ماڻهن وٽ عام طور گهٽ آمدني ۽ دولت هوندي آهي، جڏهن ته عمر وڌڻ سان اهي وڌنديون آهن.

تنهنڪري، آباديءَ جي عمر جي ورڇ ۽ مختلف آمدني وارن طبقن جي وچ ۾ نقل و حرڪت جهڙا عنصر، آباديءَ جي بناوت جي اثرن کي نظر ۾ رکڻ کان سواءِ، اهڙي عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا جيڪا حقيقت ۾ موجود نه هجي.

اهڙيءَ طرح، ڪنهن معيشت جو ڪنهن خاص وقت تي جيني اشاريو ٻي معيشت جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿو، پر جيڪڏهن ساڳين ماڻهن جي سڄي زندگيءَ جي آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي جيني اشاريو ڳڻيو وڃي، ته ممڪن آهي ته اها معيشت ٻيءَ کان وڌيڪ برابر ثابت ٿئي، جيتوڻيڪ هڪ مخصوص وقت تي ان جو جيني اشاريو وڌيڪ نظر اچي ٿو.&lt;ref name=blomq81&gt;{{Cite journal |first=N. |last=Blomquist |s2cid=154519005 |year=1981 |title=A comparison of distributions of annual and lifetime income: Sweden around 1970 |journal=Review of Income and Wealth |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1981.tb00227.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== غير نقدي فائدا ۽ جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني ===

جيڪڏهن [[جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني]] (انڪم ان ڪائينڊ) کي مالي قدر ڏيڻ ۾ درستگي نه هجي، ته اها جيني اشاري جي حقيقي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ واري صلاحيت کي گهٽائي ڇڏي ٿي.

جيتوڻيڪ ٽيڪسن ۽ نقد منتقلي وارين ادائگين جو حساب نسبتاً سولو هوندو آهي، پر حڪومت طرفان فراهم ڪيل ٻيا فائدا، جهڙوڪ رعايتي رهائش، طبي سهولتون ۽ تعليم، جو مالي قدر مقرر ڪرڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن جو قدر انهن جي معيار ۽ فراهم ڪيل سهولتن جي مقدار تي دارومدار رکي ٿو.

آزاد منڊي جي غير موجودگيءَ ۾، اهڙين سهولتن کي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جو حصو سمجهي مالي قدر ڏيڻ هڪ موضوعي (سبجيڪٽو) عمل آهي. تنهنڪري جيني اشاري جو نظرياتي ماڊل اهڙن اندازن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ تي ڀاڙي ٿو.

پاڻڀرائي (سبسسٽنس) تي ٻڌل ۽ [[غير رسمي معيشت]]ن ۾، ماڻهن جي آمدنيءَ جو وڏو حصو پئسي بدران ٻين صورتن ۾ هوندو آهي، جهڙوڪ [[پاڻڀري زراعت]] يا [[مال جي بدلي مال]] (بارٽر) ذريعي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدني. اهڙي آمدني عام طور اڀرندڙ ۽ منتقلي واري معيشتن، خاص طور تي صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا، لاطيني آمريڪا، ايشيا ۽ اوڀر يورپ جي گهٽ آمدني وارن ماڻهن وٽ وڌيڪ هوندي آهي.

غير رسمي معيشت عالمي روزگار جو اڌ کان وڌيڪ حصو فراهم ڪري ٿي، ۽ صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا جي ڪجهه غريب ملڪن ۾، جتي سرڪاري جيني اشاريا به تمام وڌيڪ آهن، روزگار جو 90 سيڪڙو تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

شنائڊر ۽ سندس ساٿين 2010ع ۾ 162 ملڪن تي ڪيل مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته دنيا جي مجموعي [[مجموعي ملڪي پيداوار]] (GDP) جو لڳ ڀڳ 31.2 سيڪڙو، يعني لڳ ڀڳ 20 ٽريلين آمريڪي ڊالر، غير رسمي معيشت مان پيدا ٿئي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Friedrich|last1=Schneider|first2=Andreas|last2=Buehn|first3=Claudio E.|last3=Montenegro|s2cid=56060172|year=2010|title=New Estimates for the Shadow Economies all over the World|journal=International Economic Journal|volume=24|issue=4|pages=443–461|doi=10.1080/10168737.2010.525974|hdl=10986/4929|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾، امير شهري آباديءَ کان سواءِ تقريباً سڀني آمدني وارن طبقن لاءِ غير رسمي معيشت آمدنيءَ جو بنيادي ذريعو آهي. ترقي يافته ملڪن ۾ به قومي GDP جو اندازاً 8 سيڪڙو (آمريڪا) کان 27 سيڪڙو (اٽلي) تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

غير رسمي يا پاڇي واري معيشت مان حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي صحيح مقدار ۽ ان جي ورڇ جو اندازو لڳائڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، جنهن سبب آمدنيءَ جي حقيقي جيني اشاري جو صحيح اندازو لڳائڻ پڻ مشڪل ٿي پوي ٿو.&lt;ref name=mfeld&gt;{{cite web|title=Is income inequality really the problem? (Overview)|first=Martin|last=Feldstein|date=August 1998|publisher=US Federal Reserve|url=http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|access-date=2 August 2012|archive-date=3 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160558/http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=tandw&gt;{{cite book|title=Principles of Microeconomics: Global Financial Crisis Edition|first1=John|last1=Taylor|first2=Akila|last2=Weerapana|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4390-7821-1|pages=416–418|publisher=Cengage Learning}}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهڙي آمدنيءَ بابت مختلف مفروضا ۽ اندازا مختلف جيني اشاريا پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income Inequality and the Informal Economy in Transition Economies|first1=J. Barkley Jr.|last1=Rosser|first2=Marina V.|last2=Rosser|first3=Ehsan|last3=Ahmed|s2cid=49552052|journal=Journal of Comparative Economics|date=March 2000|volume=28|issue=1|pages=156–171|doi=10.1006/jcec.2000.1645}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Earnings inequality and the informal economy: evidence from Serbia|first1=Gorana|last1=Krstić|first2=Peter|last2=Sanfey|publisher=European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|date=February 2010|url=http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160550/http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-date=2012-08-03|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite report|title=The Size of the Shadow Economies of 145 Countries all over the World: First Results over the Period 1999 to 2003|first=Friedrich|last=Schneider|date=December 2004|ssrn=636661|hdl=10419/20729}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== متبادل طريقا ==

جيني اشاريي جي حدن کي نظر ۾ رکندي، آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ يا عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ ان سان گڏ يا ان جي متبادل طور ٻيا شمارياتي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، **اينٽروپي تي ٻڌل ماپا** (entropy measures) وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جن ۾ [[ٿيئل اشاريو]] (Theil Index) ۽ [[اوسط لاگ انحراف]] (مين لاگ ڊيويئيشن) شامل آهن. اهي ٻئي [[عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو]] (جنرلائيزڊ اينٽروپي انڊيڪس) جا خاص مثال آهن، يا ساڳئي مفهوم موجب [[ايٽڪنسن اشاريو]] (ايٽڪنسن انڊيڪس) جا پڻ خاص مثال سمجهيا وڃن ٿا.

اورٽيگا جو ٻه-پيماني وارو ماڊل (اورٽيگا ٽو-پيراميٽر ماڊل)&lt;ref name=&quot;ortega,1991&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Ortega | first1=P. | last2=Martín | first2=G. | last3=Fernández | first3=A. | last4=Ladoux | first4=M. | last5=García | first5=A. | title=A New Functional Form for Estimating Lorenz Curves | journal=Review of Income and Wealth | volume=37 | issue=4 | date=1991 | issn=0034-6586 | doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1991.tb00383.x | pages=447–452}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيني اشاريي جهڙن هڪ-پيماني وارن ماڊلن جي ڀيٽ ۾ سماجي نتيجن بابت وڌيڪ تفصيلي اڳڪٿيون ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت رکي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Blesch,2022&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Blesch | first1=Kristin | last2=Hauser | first2=Oliver P. | last3=Jachimowicz | first3=Jon M. | title=Measuring inequality beyond the Gini coefficient may clarify conflicting findings | journal=Nature Human Behaviour | volume=6 | issue=11 | date=2022 | issn=2397-3374 | pmid=36038775 | pmc=7614289 | doi=10.1038/s41562-022-01430-7 | pages=1525–1536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهو پڻ معلوم ٿيو آهي ته جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي وچئين حصي ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين لاءِ ضرورت کان وڌيڪ حساس هوندو آهي. ان ڪري، [[وچين آمدني]] (ميڊيئن انڪم) تي ٻڌل طريقا ان جا متبادل طور استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;u376&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last=Gastwirth | first=Joseph L. | title=Is the Gini Index of Inequality Overly Sensitive to Changes in the Middle of the Income Distribution? | journal=Statistics and Public Policy | volume=4 | issue=1 | date=2017 | issn=2330-443X | doi=10.1080/2330443X.2017.1360813 | pages=1–11 | doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ٻين شمارياتي ماپن سان لاڳاپو ==

ٻه-درجا (بائنري) درجابندي ڪندڙ نظام (ڪلاسيفائر سسٽم) جي تشخيصي ڪارڪردگيءَ جو هڪ خلاصي ماپو پڻ **جيني عدد** سڏيو ويندو آهي. ان جي تعريف [[رسيور آپريٽنگ خاصيت]] (ROC) وکر ۽ ان جي قطري ليڪ جي وچ واري ايراضيءَ جي ٻيڻي طور ڪئي ويندي آهي. هي ماپو [[آر او سي وڪڙ هيٺان ايراضي]] (ايريا انڊر دي ڪرو؛ AUC) سان لاڳاپيل آهي، جنهن کي هن مساوات سان ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;AUC = (G+1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=hand&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hand |first1=David J. |last2=Till |first2=Robert J. |title=A Simple Generalisation of the Area Under the ROC Curve for Multiple Class Classification Problems |journal=Machine Learning |date=2001 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=171–186 |doi=10.1023/A:1010920819831 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهو [[مان-وِٽني يو آزمائش]] آزمائش سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ٻنهي جيني عددن جي تعريف مخصوص وکرن جي وچ واري ايراضيءَ جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي ۽ انهن ۾ ڪجهه هڪجهڙيون خاصيتون موجود آهن، پر شمارياتي ورڇ جي جيني عدد ۽ درجابندي ڪندڙ نظام جي جيني عدد جي وچ ۾ ڪو سڌو ۽ سادو رياضيائي لاڳاپو موجود ناهي.

جيني اشاريو [[پيئٽرا اشاريو]] (Pietra Index) سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي. اهي ٻئي شمارياتي ناهمگني (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل ھيٽروجينيئٽي) کي ماپيندا آهن ۽ [[لورينز وکر]] ۽ قطري ليڪ مان اخذ ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Iddo I.|last1=Eliazar |first2=Igor M.|last2=Sokolov |year=2010 |title=Measuring statistical heterogeneity: The Pietra index|journal=Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications|volume=389|issue=1|pages=117–125|doi=10.1016/j.physa.2009.08.006|bibcode=2010PhyA..389..117E}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Wen-Chung |title=Probabilistic analysis of global performances of diagnostic tests: interpreting the Lorenz curve-based summary measures |journal=Statistics in Medicine |date=28 February 1999 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=455–471 |doi=10.1002/(sici)1097-0258(19990228)18:4&lt;455::aid-sim44&gt;3.0.co;2-a |pmid=10070686 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;

ڪجهه شعبن، جهڙوڪ [[ماحوليات]]، ۾ تنوع (ڊائورسٽي) کي ماپڻ لاءِ **الٽو سمپسن اشاريو** (&lt;math&gt;1/\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. ان کي [[سمپسن اشاريو]] (&lt;math&gt;\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) سان نه گڏي ويهڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Measurement of Species Diversity|first=Robert K.|last=Peet|s2cid=83517584|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=5|year=1974|issue=1|pages=285–307|jstor=2096890|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001441|bibcode=1974AnRES...5..285P }}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهي اشارا جيني اشاريي سان لاڳاپيل آهن. الٽو سمپسن اشاريو تنوع وڌڻ سان وڌندو آهي، جڏهن ته سمپسن اشاريو ۽ جيني اشاريو تنوع وڌڻ سان گهٽجندا آهن. سمپسن اشاري جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 جي وچ ۾ هونديون آهن، جتي 0 وڌ ۾ وڌ تنوع ۽ 1 گهٽ ۾ گهٽ تنوع (يا ناهمگني) کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو. ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ تنوع جا اڪثر اشارا ناهمگني وڌڻ سان وڌندا آهن، تنهنڪري سمپسن اشاري کي اڪثر الٽي سمپسن اشاري يا ان جي متمم (&lt;math&gt;1-\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) ۾ تبديل ڪيو ويندو آهي، جنهن کي **جيني-سمپسن اشاريو** چيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Measurement of Species Diversity|first=Robert K.|last=Peet|s2cid=83517584|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=5|year=1974|issue=1|pages=285–307|jstor=2096890|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001441|bibcode=1974AnRES...5..285P }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[لورينز وکر]] دولت جي ورڇ کي گرافيڪي صورت ۾ ڏيکارڻ جو هڪ ٻيو طريقو آهي. اهو جيني عدد کان نَوَ سال اڳ متعارف ڪرايو ويو هو. جيني عدد ان ڳالهه کي مقداري صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته لورينز وکر، مڪمل برابريءَ واري ليڪ (جنهن جو [[لاڙو]] 1 هوندو آهي) کان ڪيترو هٽي ٿو.

[[هوور اشاريو]] (ھوور انڊيڪس)، جيڪو **رابن هوڊ اشاريو** (رابن ھوڊ انڊيڪس) جي نالي سان پڻ سڃاتو وڃي ٿو، اهو ٻڌائي ٿو ته ڪل آباديءَ جي آمدنيءَ مان ڪيترو سيڪڙو ٻيهر ورهائڻو پوندو ته جيئن جيني اشاريو 0 (يعني مڪمل برابري) ٿي وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hoover Index |url=https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/economics/hoover-index/ |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=Corporate Finance Institute |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>fpdr4bt70et1dwr9xwr30zg6ldslz2o</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399312</id>
      <parentid>399311</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T21:08:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399312</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="100057" sha1="3f9r3vy13m5nmrs5f7cys7m2zidxmc7" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|جيني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

جيني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وڪڙ]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. جيني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وڪڙ جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب جيني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته جيني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته جيني اشاريي جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري جيني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (رليٽو مين ابسوليوٽ ڊفرنس) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وڪڙ تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته جيني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا جيني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته جيني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو جيني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو جيني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به جيني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

جيني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته جيني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، جيني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! جيني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وڪڙ معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وڪڙ جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وڪڙ جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وڪڙ کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وڪڙ کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي جيني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاريا ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو}}

جيني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاريي هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاريي جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاريي هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وڪڙ ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

جيني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي جيني عدد ۽ موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاريي اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا جيني اشاريي سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاريي]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاريي يا شوراڪس جمود اشاريي به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاريي جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاريي جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته جيني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==


جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (ڪيوموليٽو پروپورشن) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حدون ==

=== نسبتي، نه مطلق ===

جيني اشاريو هڪ **نسبتي** (رليٽو) ماپ آهي. ڪنهن ترقي پذير ملڪ ۾، جيتوڻيڪ مڪمل غربت ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽجي وڃي، تڏهن به آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات وڌڻ سبب جيني اشاريو وڌي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Dramatic Poverty Reduction in the Third World: Prospects and Needed Action|first=John W.|last=Mellor|publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute|date=2 June 1989|pages=18–20|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160551/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جو سبب اهو آهي ته جيني اشاريو دولت يا آمدنيءَ جي **نسبتي** ورڇ کي ماپي ٿو، نه ڪي ان جي **مطلق** (ابسوليوٽ) مقدار کي.

جيني اشاريو سادو ۽ سمجهڻ ۾ آسان آهي، پر اها ئي سادگي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اهم فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري سگهي ٿي ۽ مختلف آباديُن جي ڀيٽ کي گمراهه ڪندڙ بڻائي سگهي ٿي. مثال طور، 2010ع ۾ [[بنگلاديش]] (في فرد آمدني 1,693 آمريڪي ڊالر) ۽ [[نيدرلينڊز]] (في فرد آمدني 42,183 آمريڪي ڊالر) ٻنهي جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=undp2010a&gt;{{cite web|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development (2010 Human Development Report – see Stat Tables)|pages=152–156|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/chapters/}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن هوندي به، ٻنهي ملڪن ۾ زندگيءَ جو معيار، معاشي موقعا ۽ حقيقي آمدني هڪجهڙا نه هئا. يعني، ٻه ملڪ ساڳيو جيني اشاريو رکي سگهن ٿا، پر سندن دولت ۾ وڏو فرق موجود هجي.

ترقي يافته معيشت ۾ بنيادي ضرورتون تقريباً سڀني ماڻهن کي دستياب ٿي سگهن ٿيون، جڏهن ته ساڳئي جيني اشاري واري ڪنهن گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ ۾ گهٽ مطلق دولت سبب اهي ضرورتون گهڻن ماڻهن لاءِ دستياب نه هجن يا غيربرابر نموني دستياب هجن.

=== رياضياتي حدون ===

جيني اشاري جون ڪجهه رياضياتي حدون پڻ آهن. اهو **جمع پذير** (ايڊيٽو) نه آهي، تنهنڪري مختلف آبادي گروهن جا جيني اشاري گڏ ڪري يا انهن جو سراسري ڪڍي سڀني گروهن لاءِ صحيح جيني اشاريو حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول الف. مختلف آمدنيءَ جون ورڇون، پر ساڳيو جيني اشاريو&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt;
|-
! گهراڻن جو گروهه
! ملڪ الف جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! ملڪ ب جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || 9,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000 || 40,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || 48,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000 || 48,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || 55,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $200,000 || $200,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.2''' || '''0.2'''
|}

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن آباديءَ جي ڪل آمدني ساڳي هجي، تڏهن به ممڪن آهي ته مختلف آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ رکندڙ ٻن ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو ساڳيو هجي، خاص طور تي جڏهن سندن [[لورينز وکر]] هڪ ٻئي کي ڪٽيندا هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt; جدول الف اهڙي ئي هڪ مثال ڏيکاري ٿي. ٻنهي ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو 0.2 آهي، پر گهراڻن جي گروهن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ مختلف آهي.

ساڳيءَ ريت، جيڪڏهن هڪ آباديءَ ۾ هيٺين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪا به آمدني نه هجي ۽ مٿين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ آمدني برابر ورهايل هجي، ته جيني اشاريو 0.5 ٿيندو. ٻي آباديءَ ۾، جيڪڏهن هيٺين 75 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 25 سيڪڙو ۽ مٿين 25 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ 75 سيڪڙو آمدني هجي، ته اتي به جيني اشاريو 0.5 هوندو.

تنهنڪري، هڪجهڙي آمدني ۽ ساڳئي جيني اشاري واريون معيشتون آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان گهڻو مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿيون. بيلو ۽ ليبيراتي جو خيال آهي ته رڳو جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ٻن آباديُن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جي درجابندي هميشه ممڪن نه هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=Maio2007&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income inequality measures|first=Fernando G.|last=De Maio|journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health|year=2007|volume=61|issue=10|pages=849–852|doi=10.1136/jech.2006.052969|pmid=17873219|pmc=2652960}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳي طرح، ڪمپيوٽري سماجي سائنسدان [[فيبين اسٽيفني]] ڏيکاريو آهي ته روايتي جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي اندر موجود مخصوص سماجي يا معاشي گروهن (مثال طور ساڳئي عمر يا تعليم وارن ماڻهن) جي آمدنيءَ واري عدم مساوات کي ظاهر ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام رهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Stephany |first=Fabian |date=2017-12-01 |title=Who are Your Joneses? Socio-Specific Income Inequality and Trust |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |journal=Social Indicators Research |language=en |volume=134 |issue=3 |pages=877–898 |doi=10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |issn=1573-0921 |pmc=5684274 |pmid=29187771}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو دولت جي عدم مساوات کي لڪائي سگهي ٿو ===

جيني اشاريو ڪنهن ملڪ يا فرد جي **مطلق آمدني** بابت ڪا به ڄاڻ فراهم نٿو ڪري. ممڪن آهي ته ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهٽ هجي، پر دولت (wealth) جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهڻو هجي.

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، تنهنڪري اهو گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي استعمال ۾ موجود فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري ڇڏي ٿو. ساڳيءَ طرح، دولت کي به (سواءِ ان حصي جي جيڪو آمدني پيدا ڪري) نظرانداز ڪيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن سبب اهڙين حالتن ۾ برابريءَ جو تاثر پيدا ٿي سگهي ٿو، جتي مقابلي هيٺ آيل ماڻهو پنهنجي زندگيءَ جي مختلف مرحلن ۾ هجن.

مثال طور، [[سوئيڊن]] جهڙي دولت مند ملڪ ۾ استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو 0.31 آهي، جنهن مان نسبتاً برابريءَ جو تاثر ملي ٿو، پر دولت جو جيني اشاريو 0.79 کان 0.86 جي وچ ۾ آهي، جيڪو سماج ۾ دولت جي انتهائي غيربرابر ورڇ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Inequality Trends in Sweden 1978–2004|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Martin|last2=Flodén|journal=Review of Economic Dynamics|volume=13|issue=1|year=2010|pages=179–208|doi=10.1016/j.red.2009.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.629.9417}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Accounting for Swedish wealth inequality|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Paul|last2=Klein|date=January 2000|url=http://fmwww.bc.edu/repec/es2000/0883.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030519155531/https://www.econometricsociety.org/meetings/wc00/pdf/0883.pdf|archive-date=May 19, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تنهنڪري، آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو دولت جي ورڇ ۾ موجود عدم مساوات کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.

=== ملڪ جي ماپ ۽ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جو اثر ===

ننڍين آباديُن لاءِ جيني اشاريو عام طور هيٺاهين طرف لاڙو (downward bias) رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Small-Sample Bias of the Gini Coefficient: Results and Implications for Empirical Research|journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics|first=George|last=Deltas|date=February 2003|volume=85|issue=1|pages=226–234|doi=10.1162/rest.2003.85.1.226|jstor=3211637|bibcode=2003RvE&amp;S..85..226D|s2cid=57572560}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهنڪري ننڍي آبادي، رياست يا ملڪ، يا اهڙيون معيشتون جن ۾ معاشي تنوع گهٽ هجي، اڪثر گهٽ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪن ٿيون.

ان جي ابتڙ، وڏي آبادي ۽ وڌيڪ متنوع معيشتن لاءِ عام طور وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو متوقع هوندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن سڄي دنيا جي معيشت ۽ سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏجي ڏٺو وڃي، ته مختلف محقق عالمي جيني اشاري جو اندازو 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ لڳائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10 /&gt;

ٻين عدم مساوات وارن اشارن وانگر، جيني اشاريو به انگن اکرن جي **تفصيل جي سطح** (granularity) کان متاثر ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي پنجن 20 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (گهٽ تفصيل) ۾ ورهايو وڃي ته حاصل ٿيندڙ جيني اشاريو عام طور ويهن 5 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (وڌيڪ تفصيل) جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ٿيندو.

فلپ مونفورٽ ڏيکاريو آهي ته جيڪڏهن مختلف مطالعي ۾ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جي سطح هڪجهڙي نه هجي يا واضح نه ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ڪيل ڀيٽون گهڻي حد تائين بي معنيٰ ٿي سگهن ٿيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Convergence of EU regions: Measures and evolution|first=Philippe|last=Monfort|publisher=European Union – Europa|page=6|year=2008|url=http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160544/http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آباديءَ ۾ تبديليون ===

جيني اشارئي سان ماپيل آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ تبديلي، سماج جي بناوت ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ آباديءَ ۾ واڌ (پيدائش جي شرح وڌڻ)، آباديءَ جي پوڙهائپ، لڏپلاڻ يا هجرت، ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت.&lt;ref name=Kwok10&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution of Hong Kong and the Gini Coefficient|author=KWOK Kwok Chuen|year=2010|publisher=The Government of Hong Kong, China|url=http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227043822/http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني اشاري جي هڪ ٻي حد اها آهي ته اهو [[مساوات پسندي]] (egalitarianism) جو مڪمل پيمانو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو رڳو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ تفاوت کي ماپي ٿو. مثال طور، فرض ڪريو ته ٻه هڪجهڙا مساوات پسند ملڪ مختلف [[اميگريشن قانون]] اختيار ڪن ٿا. جيڪڏهن انهن مان هڪ ملڪ گهٽ آمدني يا غريب مهاجرن جو وڌيڪ حصو قبول ڪري، ته اهو ملڪ وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪندو، ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت ان ۾ آمدنيءَ جي وڌيڪ عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ٿيندو، جيتوڻيڪ اها تبديلي سماجي پاليسيءَ جي نتيجي ۾ آيل هجي.

=== گهراڻو بمقابله فرد ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول ب. ساڳي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ، پر مختلف جيني اشاريا
|-
! گهراڻي جو نمبر
! ملڪ جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! گڏيل گهراڻن جو نمبر
! ملڪ الف جي گڏيل سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 1 ۽ 2 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 50,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3 ۽ 4 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 90,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5 ۽ 6 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 130,000
|-
| 6 || 70,000
|-
| 7 || 80,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7 ۽ 8 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 170,000
|-
| 8 || 90,000
|-
| 9 || 120,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9 ۽ 10 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 270,000
|-
| 10 || 150,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $710,000 || || $710,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.303''' || || '''0.293'''
|}

جيڪڏهن ساڳئي معيشت ۽ ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ لاءِ جيني اشاريو فردن بدران گهراڻن جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو وڃي، ته نتيجا مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. جيڪڏهن گهراڻن جا انگ اکر استعمال ڪيا وڃن، ته آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري جو قدر ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته &quot;گهراڻي&quot; جي تعريف ڪيئن ڪئي وئي آهي. جڏهن مختلف آباديُن ۾ گهراڻي جي تعريف هڪجهڙي نه هجي، تڏهن انهن جي ڀيٽ بامعنيٰ نه هوندي.

ان کان علاوه، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري ۾ تبديلي گهراڻي جي جوڙجڪ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو به ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيئن طلاقن ۾ واڌ يا [[گڏيل ڪٽنب]]ن جو ورهائجي [[ايڪو ڪٽنب]]ن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ.

ڊيننگر ۽ [[لن اسڪوائر]] (1996ع) ڏيکاريو ته فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاري کان مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، آمريڪا لاءِ هنن فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو 0.35، جڏهن ته فرانس لاءِ 0.43 معلوم ڪيو. سندن فرد-بنياد واري طريقي موجب، 108 ملڪن مان [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.62)، [[ملائيشيا]] جو ايشيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50)، [[برازيل]] جو لاطيني آمريڪا ۽ ڪيريبين علائقي ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.57)، ۽ [[ترڪي]] جو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50) هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Deininger |first1=K. |last2=Squire |first2=L. |title=A New Data Set Measuring Income Inequality |journal=The World Bank Economic Review |date=September 1996 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=565–591 |doi=10.1093/wber/10.3.565 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ارب پتي [[ٿامس ڪوڪ]] جو چوڻ آهي ته هانگ ڪانگ جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو (2010ع ۾ 0.434)&lt;ref name=undp2010a /&gt; جزوي طور ان جي آباديءَ جي جوڙجڪ ۾ آيل تبديلين سبب وڌيڪ رهيو آهي. گذريل ڏهاڪن دوران هانگ ڪانگ ۾ ننڍن گهراڻن، بزرگن تي ٻڌل گهراڻن ۽ اڪيلي رهندڙ بزرگ ماڻهن جو تعداد وڌيو آهي. نتيجي طور، ساڳي گڏيل آمدني هاڻي وڌيڪ گهراڻن ۾ ورهائجي وڃي ٿي. ڪوڪ جو خيال آهي ته آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو سماج جي اهڙين بناوتي تبديلين کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

هن حصي ۾ ڏنل آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ (جدول ج) پڻ ڏيکاري ٿي ته هي مسئلو رڳو هانگ ڪانگ تائين محدود ناهي. آمريڪي مردم شماري اداري موجب، 1979ع کان 2010ع تائين آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي بناوت ۾ نمايان تبديليون آيون، مهانگائيءَ مطابق سڀني آمدني گروهن جي آمدني وڌي، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ وقت سان گڏ وڌيڪ مٿين آمدني وارن گروهن ڏانهن منتقل ٿي، جڏهن ته ساڳئي عرصي دوران آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو پڻ وڌيو.&lt;ref name=uscb2011 /&gt;&lt;ref name=cbo.p.10&gt;[http://www.cbo.gov/doc.cfm?index=12485 Congressional Budget Office: Trends in the Distribution of Household Income Between 1979 and 2007]. October 2011. see pp. i–x, with definitions on ii–iii&lt;/ref&gt;

=== لمحي واري عدم مساوات بمقابله سڄي زندگيءَ واري عدم مساوات ===

جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي بناوت ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جي اثرن کي الڳ ڪري نٿو سگهي.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

زندگيءَ جي پوري عرصي تي ٻڌل ماپن جي اهميت کي نظر ۾ رکندي، جيني اشاريو ڪنهن هڪ مخصوص وقت تي برابريءَ جو رڳو هڪ اندازو (point estimate) پيش ڪري ٿو ۽ وقت سان گڏ آمدنيءَ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين کي نظرانداز ڪري ٿو.

عام طور تي، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن سماج ۾ نوجوانن يا بزرگ ماڻهن جو تناسب وڌي وڃي، ته جيني اشاريو ظاهري طور وڌيڪ عدم مساوات ڏيکاري سگهي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نوجوان ماڻهن وٽ عام طور گهٽ آمدني ۽ دولت هوندي آهي، جڏهن ته عمر وڌڻ سان اهي وڌنديون آهن.

تنهنڪري، آباديءَ جي عمر جي ورڇ ۽ مختلف آمدني وارن طبقن جي وچ ۾ نقل و حرڪت جهڙا عنصر، آباديءَ جي بناوت جي اثرن کي نظر ۾ رکڻ کان سواءِ، اهڙي عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا جيڪا حقيقت ۾ موجود نه هجي.

اهڙيءَ طرح، ڪنهن معيشت جو ڪنهن خاص وقت تي جيني اشاريو ٻي معيشت جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿو، پر جيڪڏهن ساڳين ماڻهن جي سڄي زندگيءَ جي آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي جيني اشاريو ڳڻيو وڃي، ته ممڪن آهي ته اها معيشت ٻيءَ کان وڌيڪ برابر ثابت ٿئي، جيتوڻيڪ هڪ مخصوص وقت تي ان جو جيني اشاريو وڌيڪ نظر اچي ٿو.&lt;ref name=blomq81&gt;{{Cite journal |first=N. |last=Blomquist |s2cid=154519005 |year=1981 |title=A comparison of distributions of annual and lifetime income: Sweden around 1970 |journal=Review of Income and Wealth |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1981.tb00227.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== غير نقدي فائدا ۽ جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني ===

جيڪڏهن [[جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني]] (انڪم ان ڪائينڊ) کي مالي قدر ڏيڻ ۾ درستگي نه هجي، ته اها جيني اشاري جي حقيقي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ واري صلاحيت کي گهٽائي ڇڏي ٿي.

جيتوڻيڪ ٽيڪسن ۽ نقد منتقلي وارين ادائگين جو حساب نسبتاً سولو هوندو آهي، پر حڪومت طرفان فراهم ڪيل ٻيا فائدا، جهڙوڪ رعايتي رهائش، طبي سهولتون ۽ تعليم، جو مالي قدر مقرر ڪرڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن جو قدر انهن جي معيار ۽ فراهم ڪيل سهولتن جي مقدار تي دارومدار رکي ٿو.

آزاد منڊي جي غير موجودگيءَ ۾، اهڙين سهولتن کي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جو حصو سمجهي مالي قدر ڏيڻ هڪ موضوعي (سبجيڪٽو) عمل آهي. تنهنڪري جيني اشاري جو نظرياتي ماڊل اهڙن اندازن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ تي ڀاڙي ٿو.

پاڻڀرائي (سبسسٽنس) تي ٻڌل ۽ [[غير رسمي معيشت]]ن ۾، ماڻهن جي آمدنيءَ جو وڏو حصو پئسي بدران ٻين صورتن ۾ هوندو آهي، جهڙوڪ [[پاڻڀري زراعت]] يا [[مال جي بدلي مال]] (بارٽر) ذريعي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدني. اهڙي آمدني عام طور اڀرندڙ ۽ منتقلي واري معيشتن، خاص طور تي صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا، لاطيني آمريڪا، ايشيا ۽ اوڀر يورپ جي گهٽ آمدني وارن ماڻهن وٽ وڌيڪ هوندي آهي.

غير رسمي معيشت عالمي روزگار جو اڌ کان وڌيڪ حصو فراهم ڪري ٿي، ۽ صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا جي ڪجهه غريب ملڪن ۾، جتي سرڪاري جيني اشاريا به تمام وڌيڪ آهن، روزگار جو 90 سيڪڙو تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

شنائڊر ۽ سندس ساٿين 2010ع ۾ 162 ملڪن تي ڪيل مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته دنيا جي مجموعي [[مجموعي ملڪي پيداوار]] (GDP) جو لڳ ڀڳ 31.2 سيڪڙو، يعني لڳ ڀڳ 20 ٽريلين آمريڪي ڊالر، غير رسمي معيشت مان پيدا ٿئي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Friedrich|last1=Schneider|first2=Andreas|last2=Buehn|first3=Claudio E.|last3=Montenegro|s2cid=56060172|year=2010|title=New Estimates for the Shadow Economies all over the World|journal=International Economic Journal|volume=24|issue=4|pages=443–461|doi=10.1080/10168737.2010.525974|hdl=10986/4929|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾، امير شهري آباديءَ کان سواءِ تقريباً سڀني آمدني وارن طبقن لاءِ غير رسمي معيشت آمدنيءَ جو بنيادي ذريعو آهي. ترقي يافته ملڪن ۾ به قومي GDP جو اندازاً 8 سيڪڙو (آمريڪا) کان 27 سيڪڙو (اٽلي) تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

غير رسمي يا پاڇي واري معيشت مان حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي صحيح مقدار ۽ ان جي ورڇ جو اندازو لڳائڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، جنهن سبب آمدنيءَ جي حقيقي جيني اشاري جو صحيح اندازو لڳائڻ پڻ مشڪل ٿي پوي ٿو.&lt;ref name=mfeld&gt;{{cite web|title=Is income inequality really the problem? (Overview)|first=Martin|last=Feldstein|date=August 1998|publisher=US Federal Reserve|url=http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|access-date=2 August 2012|archive-date=3 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160558/http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=tandw&gt;{{cite book|title=Principles of Microeconomics: Global Financial Crisis Edition|first1=John|last1=Taylor|first2=Akila|last2=Weerapana|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4390-7821-1|pages=416–418|publisher=Cengage Learning}}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهڙي آمدنيءَ بابت مختلف مفروضا ۽ اندازا مختلف جيني اشاريا پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income Inequality and the Informal Economy in Transition Economies|first1=J. Barkley Jr.|last1=Rosser|first2=Marina V.|last2=Rosser|first3=Ehsan|last3=Ahmed|s2cid=49552052|journal=Journal of Comparative Economics|date=March 2000|volume=28|issue=1|pages=156–171|doi=10.1006/jcec.2000.1645}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Earnings inequality and the informal economy: evidence from Serbia|first1=Gorana|last1=Krstić|first2=Peter|last2=Sanfey|publisher=European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|date=February 2010|url=http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160550/http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-date=2012-08-03|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite report|title=The Size of the Shadow Economies of 145 Countries all over the World: First Results over the Period 1999 to 2003|first=Friedrich|last=Schneider|date=December 2004|ssrn=636661|hdl=10419/20729}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== متبادل طريقا ==

جيني اشاريي جي حدن کي نظر ۾ رکندي، آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ يا عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ ان سان گڏ يا ان جي متبادل طور ٻيا شمارياتي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، **اينٽروپي تي ٻڌل ماپا** (entropy measures) وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جن ۾ [[ٿيئل اشاريو]] (Theil Index) ۽ [[اوسط لاگ انحراف]] (مين لاگ ڊيويئيشن) شامل آهن. اهي ٻئي [[عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو]] (جنرلائيزڊ اينٽروپي انڊيڪس) جا خاص مثال آهن، يا ساڳئي مفهوم موجب [[ايٽڪنسن اشاريو]] (ايٽڪنسن انڊيڪس) جا پڻ خاص مثال سمجهيا وڃن ٿا.

اورٽيگا جو ٻه-پيماني وارو ماڊل (اورٽيگا ٽو-پيراميٽر ماڊل)&lt;ref name=&quot;ortega,1991&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Ortega | first1=P. | last2=Martín | first2=G. | last3=Fernández | first3=A. | last4=Ladoux | first4=M. | last5=García | first5=A. | title=A New Functional Form for Estimating Lorenz Curves | journal=Review of Income and Wealth | volume=37 | issue=4 | date=1991 | issn=0034-6586 | doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1991.tb00383.x | pages=447–452}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيني اشاريي جهڙن هڪ-پيماني وارن ماڊلن جي ڀيٽ ۾ سماجي نتيجن بابت وڌيڪ تفصيلي اڳڪٿيون ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت رکي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Blesch,2022&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Blesch | first1=Kristin | last2=Hauser | first2=Oliver P. | last3=Jachimowicz | first3=Jon M. | title=Measuring inequality beyond the Gini coefficient may clarify conflicting findings | journal=Nature Human Behaviour | volume=6 | issue=11 | date=2022 | issn=2397-3374 | pmid=36038775 | pmc=7614289 | doi=10.1038/s41562-022-01430-7 | pages=1525–1536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهو پڻ معلوم ٿيو آهي ته جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي وچئين حصي ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين لاءِ ضرورت کان وڌيڪ حساس هوندو آهي. ان ڪري، [[وچين آمدني]] (ميڊيئن انڪم) تي ٻڌل طريقا ان جا متبادل طور استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;u376&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last=Gastwirth | first=Joseph L. | title=Is the Gini Index of Inequality Overly Sensitive to Changes in the Middle of the Income Distribution? | journal=Statistics and Public Policy | volume=4 | issue=1 | date=2017 | issn=2330-443X | doi=10.1080/2330443X.2017.1360813 | pages=1–11 | doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ٻين شمارياتي ماپن سان لاڳاپو ==

ٻه-درجا (بائنري) درجابندي ڪندڙ نظام (ڪلاسيفائر سسٽم) جي تشخيصي ڪارڪردگيءَ جو هڪ خلاصي ماپو پڻ **جيني عدد** سڏيو ويندو آهي. ان جي تعريف [[رسيور آپريٽنگ خاصيت]] (ROC) وکر ۽ ان جي قطري ليڪ جي وچ واري ايراضيءَ جي ٻيڻي طور ڪئي ويندي آهي. هي ماپو [[آر او سي وڪڙ هيٺان ايراضي]] (ايريا انڊر دي ڪرو؛ AUC) سان لاڳاپيل آهي، جنهن کي هن مساوات سان ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;AUC = (G+1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=hand&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hand |first1=David J. |last2=Till |first2=Robert J. |title=A Simple Generalisation of the Area Under the ROC Curve for Multiple Class Classification Problems |journal=Machine Learning |date=2001 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=171–186 |doi=10.1023/A:1010920819831 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهو [[مان-وِٽني يو آزمائش]] آزمائش سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ٻنهي جيني عددن جي تعريف مخصوص وکرن جي وچ واري ايراضيءَ جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي ۽ انهن ۾ ڪجهه هڪجهڙيون خاصيتون موجود آهن، پر شمارياتي ورڇ جي جيني عدد ۽ درجابندي ڪندڙ نظام جي جيني عدد جي وچ ۾ ڪو سڌو ۽ سادو رياضيائي لاڳاپو موجود ناهي.

جيني اشاريو [[پيئٽرا اشاريو]] (Pietra Index) سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي. اهي ٻئي شمارياتي ناهمگني (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل ھيٽروجينيئٽي) کي ماپيندا آهن ۽ [[لورينز وکر]] ۽ قطري ليڪ مان اخذ ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Iddo I.|last1=Eliazar |first2=Igor M.|last2=Sokolov |year=2010 |title=Measuring statistical heterogeneity: The Pietra index|journal=Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications|volume=389|issue=1|pages=117–125|doi=10.1016/j.physa.2009.08.006|bibcode=2010PhyA..389..117E}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Wen-Chung |title=Probabilistic analysis of global performances of diagnostic tests: interpreting the Lorenz curve-based summary measures |journal=Statistics in Medicine |date=28 February 1999 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=455–471 |doi=10.1002/(sici)1097-0258(19990228)18:4&lt;455::aid-sim44&gt;3.0.co;2-a |pmid=10070686 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;

ڪجهه شعبن، جهڙوڪ [[ماحوليات]]، ۾ تنوع (ڊائورسٽي) کي ماپڻ لاءِ **الٽو سمپسن اشاريو** (&lt;math&gt;1/\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. ان کي [[سمپسن اشاريو]] (&lt;math&gt;\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) سان نه گڏي ويهڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Measurement of Species Diversity|first=Robert K.|last=Peet|s2cid=83517584|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=5|year=1974|issue=1|pages=285–307|jstor=2096890|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001441|bibcode=1974AnRES...5..285P }}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهي اشارا جيني اشاريي سان لاڳاپيل آهن. الٽو سمپسن اشاريو تنوع وڌڻ سان وڌندو آهي، جڏهن ته سمپسن اشاريو ۽ جيني اشاريو تنوع وڌڻ سان گهٽجندا آهن. سمپسن اشاري جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 جي وچ ۾ هونديون آهن، جتي 0 وڌ ۾ وڌ تنوع ۽ 1 گهٽ ۾ گهٽ تنوع (يا ناهمگني) کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو. ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ تنوع جا اڪثر اشارا ناهمگني وڌڻ سان وڌندا آهن، تنهنڪري سمپسن اشاري کي اڪثر الٽي سمپسن اشاري يا ان جي متمم (&lt;math&gt;1-\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) ۾ تبديل ڪيو ويندو آهي، جنهن کي **جيني-سمپسن اشاريو** چيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Measurement of Species Diversity|first=Robert K.|last=Peet|s2cid=83517584|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=5|year=1974|issue=1|pages=285–307|jstor=2096890|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001441|bibcode=1974AnRES...5..285P }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[لورينز وکر]] دولت جي ورڇ کي گرافيڪي صورت ۾ ڏيکارڻ جو هڪ ٻيو طريقو آهي. اهو جيني عدد کان نَوَ سال اڳ متعارف ڪرايو ويو هو. جيني عدد ان ڳالهه کي مقداري صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته لورينز وکر، مڪمل برابريءَ واري ليڪ (جنهن جو [[لاڙو]] 1 هوندو آهي) کان ڪيترو هٽي ٿو.

[[هوور اشاريو]] (ھوور انڊيڪس)، جيڪو **رابن هوڊ اشاريو** (رابن ھوڊ انڊيڪس) جي نالي سان پڻ سڃاتو وڃي ٿو، اهو ٻڌائي ٿو ته ڪل آباديءَ جي آمدنيءَ مان ڪيترو سيڪڙو ٻيهر ورهائڻو پوندو ته جيئن جيني اشاريو 0 (يعني مڪمل برابري) ٿي وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hoover Index |url=https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/economics/hoover-index/ |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=Corporate Finance Institute |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== جديد دور کان اڳ جي سماجن جا جيني اشاريا ==

گذريل ڪجهه ڏهاڪن دوران، محققن ويهين صديءَ کان اڳ وارن سماجن لاءِ جيني اشاريي جو اندازو لڳائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي آهي. ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان دور لاءِ گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ بابت سروي ۽ آمدني ٽيڪس جا انگ اکر موجود نه آهن، تنهنڪري محققن متبادل اشاري (پراڪسي ويريئبلز) استعمال ڪيا آهن.

انهن ۾ وچئين دور جي يورپي شهري رياستن ۾ دولت تي لاڳو ٽيڪس، [[رومي مصر]] ۾ زمين جي ملڪيت جا نمونا، قديم [[يونان]] کان وٺي [[ازٽيڪ]] ميڪسيڪو تائين سماجن ۾ گهرن جي ماپ ۾ فرق، ۽ بابلي سماج ۾ وراثت ۽ ڏاج جا رڪارڊ شامل آهن.
ٻيا ڪجهه انگ اکر دولت يا آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي سڌو سنئون ظاهر نٿا ڪن، پر انهن کي عدم مساوات جو عڪس سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جهڙوڪ ڀاڙي ۽ اجرت جي وچ وارو تناسب، يا محنت ۽ سرمائي جي وچ وارو تناسب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=[[Walter Scheidel]]|title=The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century|publisher=Princeton University Press|date=2017|isbn=978-0-691-16502-8|pages=15–16}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>3f9r3vy13m5nmrs5f7cys7m2zidxmc7</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399313</id>
      <parentid>399312</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T21:15:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399313</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="111486" sha1="ek5pycompxnkeif8j3mefju954yec5v" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|جيني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

جيني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وڪڙ]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. جيني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وڪڙ جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب جيني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته جيني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته جيني اشاريي جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري جيني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (رليٽو مين ابسوليوٽ ڊفرنس) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وڪڙ تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته جيني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا جيني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته جيني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو جيني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو جيني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به جيني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

جيني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته جيني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، جيني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! جيني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وڪڙ معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وڪڙ جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وڪڙ جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وڪڙ کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وڪڙ کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي جيني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاريا ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو}}

جيني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاريي هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاريي جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاريي هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وڪڙ ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

جيني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي جيني عدد ۽ موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاريي اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا جيني اشاريي سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاريي]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاريي يا شوراڪس جمود اشاريي به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاريي جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاريي جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته جيني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==


جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (ڪيوموليٽو پروپورشن) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حدون ==

=== نسبتي، نه مطلق ===

جيني اشاريو هڪ **نسبتي** (رليٽو) ماپ آهي. ڪنهن ترقي پذير ملڪ ۾، جيتوڻيڪ مڪمل غربت ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽجي وڃي، تڏهن به آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات وڌڻ سبب جيني اشاريو وڌي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Dramatic Poverty Reduction in the Third World: Prospects and Needed Action|first=John W.|last=Mellor|publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute|date=2 June 1989|pages=18–20|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160551/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جو سبب اهو آهي ته جيني اشاريو دولت يا آمدنيءَ جي **نسبتي** ورڇ کي ماپي ٿو، نه ڪي ان جي **مطلق** (ابسوليوٽ) مقدار کي.

جيني اشاريو سادو ۽ سمجهڻ ۾ آسان آهي، پر اها ئي سادگي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اهم فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري سگهي ٿي ۽ مختلف آباديُن جي ڀيٽ کي گمراهه ڪندڙ بڻائي سگهي ٿي. مثال طور، 2010ع ۾ [[بنگلاديش]] (في فرد آمدني 1,693 آمريڪي ڊالر) ۽ [[نيدرلينڊز]] (في فرد آمدني 42,183 آمريڪي ڊالر) ٻنهي جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=undp2010a&gt;{{cite web|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development (2010 Human Development Report – see Stat Tables)|pages=152–156|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/chapters/}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن هوندي به، ٻنهي ملڪن ۾ زندگيءَ جو معيار، معاشي موقعا ۽ حقيقي آمدني هڪجهڙا نه هئا. يعني، ٻه ملڪ ساڳيو جيني اشاريو رکي سگهن ٿا، پر سندن دولت ۾ وڏو فرق موجود هجي.

ترقي يافته معيشت ۾ بنيادي ضرورتون تقريباً سڀني ماڻهن کي دستياب ٿي سگهن ٿيون، جڏهن ته ساڳئي جيني اشاري واري ڪنهن گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ ۾ گهٽ مطلق دولت سبب اهي ضرورتون گهڻن ماڻهن لاءِ دستياب نه هجن يا غيربرابر نموني دستياب هجن.

=== رياضياتي حدون ===

جيني اشاري جون ڪجهه رياضياتي حدون پڻ آهن. اهو **جمع پذير** (ايڊيٽو) نه آهي، تنهنڪري مختلف آبادي گروهن جا جيني اشاري گڏ ڪري يا انهن جو سراسري ڪڍي سڀني گروهن لاءِ صحيح جيني اشاريو حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول الف. مختلف آمدنيءَ جون ورڇون، پر ساڳيو جيني اشاريو&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt;
|-
! گهراڻن جو گروهه
! ملڪ الف جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! ملڪ ب جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || 9,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000 || 40,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || 48,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000 || 48,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || 55,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $200,000 || $200,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.2''' || '''0.2'''
|}

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن آباديءَ جي ڪل آمدني ساڳي هجي، تڏهن به ممڪن آهي ته مختلف آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ رکندڙ ٻن ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو ساڳيو هجي، خاص طور تي جڏهن سندن [[لورينز وکر]] هڪ ٻئي کي ڪٽيندا هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt; جدول الف اهڙي ئي هڪ مثال ڏيکاري ٿي. ٻنهي ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو 0.2 آهي، پر گهراڻن جي گروهن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ مختلف آهي.

ساڳيءَ ريت، جيڪڏهن هڪ آباديءَ ۾ هيٺين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪا به آمدني نه هجي ۽ مٿين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ آمدني برابر ورهايل هجي، ته جيني اشاريو 0.5 ٿيندو. ٻي آباديءَ ۾، جيڪڏهن هيٺين 75 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 25 سيڪڙو ۽ مٿين 25 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ 75 سيڪڙو آمدني هجي، ته اتي به جيني اشاريو 0.5 هوندو.

تنهنڪري، هڪجهڙي آمدني ۽ ساڳئي جيني اشاري واريون معيشتون آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان گهڻو مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿيون. بيلو ۽ ليبيراتي جو خيال آهي ته رڳو جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ٻن آباديُن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جي درجابندي هميشه ممڪن نه هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=Maio2007&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income inequality measures|first=Fernando G.|last=De Maio|journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health|year=2007|volume=61|issue=10|pages=849–852|doi=10.1136/jech.2006.052969|pmid=17873219|pmc=2652960}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳي طرح، ڪمپيوٽري سماجي سائنسدان [[فيبين اسٽيفني]] ڏيکاريو آهي ته روايتي جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي اندر موجود مخصوص سماجي يا معاشي گروهن (مثال طور ساڳئي عمر يا تعليم وارن ماڻهن) جي آمدنيءَ واري عدم مساوات کي ظاهر ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام رهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Stephany |first=Fabian |date=2017-12-01 |title=Who are Your Joneses? Socio-Specific Income Inequality and Trust |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |journal=Social Indicators Research |language=en |volume=134 |issue=3 |pages=877–898 |doi=10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |issn=1573-0921 |pmc=5684274 |pmid=29187771}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو دولت جي عدم مساوات کي لڪائي سگهي ٿو ===

جيني اشاريو ڪنهن ملڪ يا فرد جي **مطلق آمدني** بابت ڪا به ڄاڻ فراهم نٿو ڪري. ممڪن آهي ته ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهٽ هجي، پر دولت (wealth) جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهڻو هجي.

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، تنهنڪري اهو گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي استعمال ۾ موجود فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري ڇڏي ٿو. ساڳيءَ طرح، دولت کي به (سواءِ ان حصي جي جيڪو آمدني پيدا ڪري) نظرانداز ڪيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن سبب اهڙين حالتن ۾ برابريءَ جو تاثر پيدا ٿي سگهي ٿو، جتي مقابلي هيٺ آيل ماڻهو پنهنجي زندگيءَ جي مختلف مرحلن ۾ هجن.

مثال طور، [[سوئيڊن]] جهڙي دولت مند ملڪ ۾ استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو 0.31 آهي، جنهن مان نسبتاً برابريءَ جو تاثر ملي ٿو، پر دولت جو جيني اشاريو 0.79 کان 0.86 جي وچ ۾ آهي، جيڪو سماج ۾ دولت جي انتهائي غيربرابر ورڇ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Inequality Trends in Sweden 1978–2004|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Martin|last2=Flodén|journal=Review of Economic Dynamics|volume=13|issue=1|year=2010|pages=179–208|doi=10.1016/j.red.2009.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.629.9417}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Accounting for Swedish wealth inequality|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Paul|last2=Klein|date=January 2000|url=http://fmwww.bc.edu/repec/es2000/0883.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030519155531/https://www.econometricsociety.org/meetings/wc00/pdf/0883.pdf|archive-date=May 19, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تنهنڪري، آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو دولت جي ورڇ ۾ موجود عدم مساوات کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.

=== ملڪ جي ماپ ۽ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جو اثر ===

ننڍين آباديُن لاءِ جيني اشاريو عام طور هيٺاهين طرف لاڙو (downward bias) رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Small-Sample Bias of the Gini Coefficient: Results and Implications for Empirical Research|journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics|first=George|last=Deltas|date=February 2003|volume=85|issue=1|pages=226–234|doi=10.1162/rest.2003.85.1.226|jstor=3211637|bibcode=2003RvE&amp;S..85..226D|s2cid=57572560}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهنڪري ننڍي آبادي، رياست يا ملڪ، يا اهڙيون معيشتون جن ۾ معاشي تنوع گهٽ هجي، اڪثر گهٽ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪن ٿيون.

ان جي ابتڙ، وڏي آبادي ۽ وڌيڪ متنوع معيشتن لاءِ عام طور وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو متوقع هوندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن سڄي دنيا جي معيشت ۽ سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏجي ڏٺو وڃي، ته مختلف محقق عالمي جيني اشاري جو اندازو 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ لڳائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10 /&gt;

ٻين عدم مساوات وارن اشارن وانگر، جيني اشاريو به انگن اکرن جي **تفصيل جي سطح** (granularity) کان متاثر ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي پنجن 20 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (گهٽ تفصيل) ۾ ورهايو وڃي ته حاصل ٿيندڙ جيني اشاريو عام طور ويهن 5 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (وڌيڪ تفصيل) جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ٿيندو.

فلپ مونفورٽ ڏيکاريو آهي ته جيڪڏهن مختلف مطالعي ۾ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جي سطح هڪجهڙي نه هجي يا واضح نه ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ڪيل ڀيٽون گهڻي حد تائين بي معنيٰ ٿي سگهن ٿيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Convergence of EU regions: Measures and evolution|first=Philippe|last=Monfort|publisher=European Union – Europa|page=6|year=2008|url=http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160544/http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آباديءَ ۾ تبديليون ===

جيني اشارئي سان ماپيل آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ تبديلي، سماج جي بناوت ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ آباديءَ ۾ واڌ (پيدائش جي شرح وڌڻ)، آباديءَ جي پوڙهائپ، لڏپلاڻ يا هجرت، ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت.&lt;ref name=Kwok10&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution of Hong Kong and the Gini Coefficient|author=KWOK Kwok Chuen|year=2010|publisher=The Government of Hong Kong, China|url=http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227043822/http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني اشاري جي هڪ ٻي حد اها آهي ته اهو [[مساوات پسندي]] (egalitarianism) جو مڪمل پيمانو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو رڳو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ تفاوت کي ماپي ٿو. مثال طور، فرض ڪريو ته ٻه هڪجهڙا مساوات پسند ملڪ مختلف [[اميگريشن قانون]] اختيار ڪن ٿا. جيڪڏهن انهن مان هڪ ملڪ گهٽ آمدني يا غريب مهاجرن جو وڌيڪ حصو قبول ڪري، ته اهو ملڪ وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪندو، ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت ان ۾ آمدنيءَ جي وڌيڪ عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ٿيندو، جيتوڻيڪ اها تبديلي سماجي پاليسيءَ جي نتيجي ۾ آيل هجي.

=== گهراڻو بمقابله فرد ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول ب. ساڳي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ، پر مختلف جيني اشاريا
|-
! گهراڻي جو نمبر
! ملڪ جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! گڏيل گهراڻن جو نمبر
! ملڪ الف جي گڏيل سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 1 ۽ 2 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 50,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3 ۽ 4 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 90,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5 ۽ 6 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 130,000
|-
| 6 || 70,000
|-
| 7 || 80,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7 ۽ 8 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 170,000
|-
| 8 || 90,000
|-
| 9 || 120,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9 ۽ 10 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 270,000
|-
| 10 || 150,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $710,000 || || $710,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.303''' || || '''0.293'''
|}

جيڪڏهن ساڳئي معيشت ۽ ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ لاءِ جيني اشاريو فردن بدران گهراڻن جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو وڃي، ته نتيجا مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. جيڪڏهن گهراڻن جا انگ اکر استعمال ڪيا وڃن، ته آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري جو قدر ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته &quot;گهراڻي&quot; جي تعريف ڪيئن ڪئي وئي آهي. جڏهن مختلف آباديُن ۾ گهراڻي جي تعريف هڪجهڙي نه هجي، تڏهن انهن جي ڀيٽ بامعنيٰ نه هوندي.

ان کان علاوه، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري ۾ تبديلي گهراڻي جي جوڙجڪ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو به ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيئن طلاقن ۾ واڌ يا [[گڏيل ڪٽنب]]ن جو ورهائجي [[ايڪو ڪٽنب]]ن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ.

ڊيننگر ۽ [[لن اسڪوائر]] (1996ع) ڏيکاريو ته فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاري کان مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، آمريڪا لاءِ هنن فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو 0.35، جڏهن ته فرانس لاءِ 0.43 معلوم ڪيو. سندن فرد-بنياد واري طريقي موجب، 108 ملڪن مان [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.62)، [[ملائيشيا]] جو ايشيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50)، [[برازيل]] جو لاطيني آمريڪا ۽ ڪيريبين علائقي ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.57)، ۽ [[ترڪي]] جو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50) هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Deininger |first1=K. |last2=Squire |first2=L. |title=A New Data Set Measuring Income Inequality |journal=The World Bank Economic Review |date=September 1996 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=565–591 |doi=10.1093/wber/10.3.565 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ارب پتي [[ٿامس ڪوڪ]] جو چوڻ آهي ته هانگ ڪانگ جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو (2010ع ۾ 0.434)&lt;ref name=undp2010a /&gt; جزوي طور ان جي آباديءَ جي جوڙجڪ ۾ آيل تبديلين سبب وڌيڪ رهيو آهي. گذريل ڏهاڪن دوران هانگ ڪانگ ۾ ننڍن گهراڻن، بزرگن تي ٻڌل گهراڻن ۽ اڪيلي رهندڙ بزرگ ماڻهن جو تعداد وڌيو آهي. نتيجي طور، ساڳي گڏيل آمدني هاڻي وڌيڪ گهراڻن ۾ ورهائجي وڃي ٿي. ڪوڪ جو خيال آهي ته آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو سماج جي اهڙين بناوتي تبديلين کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

هن حصي ۾ ڏنل آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ (جدول ج) پڻ ڏيکاري ٿي ته هي مسئلو رڳو هانگ ڪانگ تائين محدود ناهي. آمريڪي مردم شماري اداري موجب، 1979ع کان 2010ع تائين آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي بناوت ۾ نمايان تبديليون آيون، مهانگائيءَ مطابق سڀني آمدني گروهن جي آمدني وڌي، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ وقت سان گڏ وڌيڪ مٿين آمدني وارن گروهن ڏانهن منتقل ٿي، جڏهن ته ساڳئي عرصي دوران آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو پڻ وڌيو.&lt;ref name=uscb2011 /&gt;&lt;ref name=cbo.p.10&gt;[http://www.cbo.gov/doc.cfm?index=12485 Congressional Budget Office: Trends in the Distribution of Household Income Between 1979 and 2007]. October 2011. see pp. i–x, with definitions on ii–iii&lt;/ref&gt;

=== لمحي واري عدم مساوات بمقابله سڄي زندگيءَ واري عدم مساوات ===

جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي بناوت ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جي اثرن کي الڳ ڪري نٿو سگهي.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

زندگيءَ جي پوري عرصي تي ٻڌل ماپن جي اهميت کي نظر ۾ رکندي، جيني اشاريو ڪنهن هڪ مخصوص وقت تي برابريءَ جو رڳو هڪ اندازو (point estimate) پيش ڪري ٿو ۽ وقت سان گڏ آمدنيءَ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين کي نظرانداز ڪري ٿو.

عام طور تي، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن سماج ۾ نوجوانن يا بزرگ ماڻهن جو تناسب وڌي وڃي، ته جيني اشاريو ظاهري طور وڌيڪ عدم مساوات ڏيکاري سگهي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نوجوان ماڻهن وٽ عام طور گهٽ آمدني ۽ دولت هوندي آهي، جڏهن ته عمر وڌڻ سان اهي وڌنديون آهن.

تنهنڪري، آباديءَ جي عمر جي ورڇ ۽ مختلف آمدني وارن طبقن جي وچ ۾ نقل و حرڪت جهڙا عنصر، آباديءَ جي بناوت جي اثرن کي نظر ۾ رکڻ کان سواءِ، اهڙي عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا جيڪا حقيقت ۾ موجود نه هجي.

اهڙيءَ طرح، ڪنهن معيشت جو ڪنهن خاص وقت تي جيني اشاريو ٻي معيشت جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿو، پر جيڪڏهن ساڳين ماڻهن جي سڄي زندگيءَ جي آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي جيني اشاريو ڳڻيو وڃي، ته ممڪن آهي ته اها معيشت ٻيءَ کان وڌيڪ برابر ثابت ٿئي، جيتوڻيڪ هڪ مخصوص وقت تي ان جو جيني اشاريو وڌيڪ نظر اچي ٿو.&lt;ref name=blomq81&gt;{{Cite journal |first=N. |last=Blomquist |s2cid=154519005 |year=1981 |title=A comparison of distributions of annual and lifetime income: Sweden around 1970 |journal=Review of Income and Wealth |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1981.tb00227.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== غير نقدي فائدا ۽ جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني ===

جيڪڏهن [[جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني]] (انڪم ان ڪائينڊ) کي مالي قدر ڏيڻ ۾ درستگي نه هجي، ته اها جيني اشاري جي حقيقي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ واري صلاحيت کي گهٽائي ڇڏي ٿي.

جيتوڻيڪ ٽيڪسن ۽ نقد منتقلي وارين ادائگين جو حساب نسبتاً سولو هوندو آهي، پر حڪومت طرفان فراهم ڪيل ٻيا فائدا، جهڙوڪ رعايتي رهائش، طبي سهولتون ۽ تعليم، جو مالي قدر مقرر ڪرڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن جو قدر انهن جي معيار ۽ فراهم ڪيل سهولتن جي مقدار تي دارومدار رکي ٿو.

آزاد منڊي جي غير موجودگيءَ ۾، اهڙين سهولتن کي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جو حصو سمجهي مالي قدر ڏيڻ هڪ موضوعي (سبجيڪٽو) عمل آهي. تنهنڪري جيني اشاري جو نظرياتي ماڊل اهڙن اندازن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ تي ڀاڙي ٿو.

پاڻڀرائي (سبسسٽنس) تي ٻڌل ۽ [[غير رسمي معيشت]]ن ۾، ماڻهن جي آمدنيءَ جو وڏو حصو پئسي بدران ٻين صورتن ۾ هوندو آهي، جهڙوڪ [[پاڻڀري زراعت]] يا [[مال جي بدلي مال]] (بارٽر) ذريعي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدني. اهڙي آمدني عام طور اڀرندڙ ۽ منتقلي واري معيشتن، خاص طور تي صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا، لاطيني آمريڪا، ايشيا ۽ اوڀر يورپ جي گهٽ آمدني وارن ماڻهن وٽ وڌيڪ هوندي آهي.

غير رسمي معيشت عالمي روزگار جو اڌ کان وڌيڪ حصو فراهم ڪري ٿي، ۽ صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا جي ڪجهه غريب ملڪن ۾، جتي سرڪاري جيني اشاريا به تمام وڌيڪ آهن، روزگار جو 90 سيڪڙو تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

شنائڊر ۽ سندس ساٿين 2010ع ۾ 162 ملڪن تي ڪيل مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته دنيا جي مجموعي [[مجموعي ملڪي پيداوار]] (GDP) جو لڳ ڀڳ 31.2 سيڪڙو، يعني لڳ ڀڳ 20 ٽريلين آمريڪي ڊالر، غير رسمي معيشت مان پيدا ٿئي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Friedrich|last1=Schneider|first2=Andreas|last2=Buehn|first3=Claudio E.|last3=Montenegro|s2cid=56060172|year=2010|title=New Estimates for the Shadow Economies all over the World|journal=International Economic Journal|volume=24|issue=4|pages=443–461|doi=10.1080/10168737.2010.525974|hdl=10986/4929|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾، امير شهري آباديءَ کان سواءِ تقريباً سڀني آمدني وارن طبقن لاءِ غير رسمي معيشت آمدنيءَ جو بنيادي ذريعو آهي. ترقي يافته ملڪن ۾ به قومي GDP جو اندازاً 8 سيڪڙو (آمريڪا) کان 27 سيڪڙو (اٽلي) تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

غير رسمي يا پاڇي واري معيشت مان حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي صحيح مقدار ۽ ان جي ورڇ جو اندازو لڳائڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، جنهن سبب آمدنيءَ جي حقيقي جيني اشاري جو صحيح اندازو لڳائڻ پڻ مشڪل ٿي پوي ٿو.&lt;ref name=mfeld&gt;{{cite web|title=Is income inequality really the problem? (Overview)|first=Martin|last=Feldstein|date=August 1998|publisher=US Federal Reserve|url=http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|access-date=2 August 2012|archive-date=3 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160558/http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=tandw&gt;{{cite book|title=Principles of Microeconomics: Global Financial Crisis Edition|first1=John|last1=Taylor|first2=Akila|last2=Weerapana|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4390-7821-1|pages=416–418|publisher=Cengage Learning}}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهڙي آمدنيءَ بابت مختلف مفروضا ۽ اندازا مختلف جيني اشاريا پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income Inequality and the Informal Economy in Transition Economies|first1=J. Barkley Jr.|last1=Rosser|first2=Marina V.|last2=Rosser|first3=Ehsan|last3=Ahmed|s2cid=49552052|journal=Journal of Comparative Economics|date=March 2000|volume=28|issue=1|pages=156–171|doi=10.1006/jcec.2000.1645}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Earnings inequality and the informal economy: evidence from Serbia|first1=Gorana|last1=Krstić|first2=Peter|last2=Sanfey|publisher=European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|date=February 2010|url=http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160550/http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-date=2012-08-03|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite report|title=The Size of the Shadow Economies of 145 Countries all over the World: First Results over the Period 1999 to 2003|first=Friedrich|last=Schneider|date=December 2004|ssrn=636661|hdl=10419/20729}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== متبادل طريقا ==

جيني اشاريي جي حدن کي نظر ۾ رکندي، آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ يا عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ ان سان گڏ يا ان جي متبادل طور ٻيا شمارياتي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، **اينٽروپي تي ٻڌل ماپا** (entropy measures) وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جن ۾ [[ٿيئل اشاريو]] (Theil Index) ۽ [[اوسط لاگ انحراف]] (مين لاگ ڊيويئيشن) شامل آهن. اهي ٻئي [[عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو]] (جنرلائيزڊ اينٽروپي انڊيڪس) جا خاص مثال آهن، يا ساڳئي مفهوم موجب [[ايٽڪنسن اشاريو]] (ايٽڪنسن انڊيڪس) جا پڻ خاص مثال سمجهيا وڃن ٿا.

اورٽيگا جو ٻه-پيماني وارو ماڊل (اورٽيگا ٽو-پيراميٽر ماڊل)&lt;ref name=&quot;ortega,1991&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Ortega | first1=P. | last2=Martín | first2=G. | last3=Fernández | first3=A. | last4=Ladoux | first4=M. | last5=García | first5=A. | title=A New Functional Form for Estimating Lorenz Curves | journal=Review of Income and Wealth | volume=37 | issue=4 | date=1991 | issn=0034-6586 | doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1991.tb00383.x | pages=447–452}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيني اشاريي جهڙن هڪ-پيماني وارن ماڊلن جي ڀيٽ ۾ سماجي نتيجن بابت وڌيڪ تفصيلي اڳڪٿيون ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت رکي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Blesch,2022&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Blesch | first1=Kristin | last2=Hauser | first2=Oliver P. | last3=Jachimowicz | first3=Jon M. | title=Measuring inequality beyond the Gini coefficient may clarify conflicting findings | journal=Nature Human Behaviour | volume=6 | issue=11 | date=2022 | issn=2397-3374 | pmid=36038775 | pmc=7614289 | doi=10.1038/s41562-022-01430-7 | pages=1525–1536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهو پڻ معلوم ٿيو آهي ته جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي وچئين حصي ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين لاءِ ضرورت کان وڌيڪ حساس هوندو آهي. ان ڪري، [[وچين آمدني]] (ميڊيئن انڪم) تي ٻڌل طريقا ان جا متبادل طور استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;u376&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last=Gastwirth | first=Joseph L. | title=Is the Gini Index of Inequality Overly Sensitive to Changes in the Middle of the Income Distribution? | journal=Statistics and Public Policy | volume=4 | issue=1 | date=2017 | issn=2330-443X | doi=10.1080/2330443X.2017.1360813 | pages=1–11 | doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ٻين شمارياتي ماپن سان لاڳاپو ==

ٻه-درجا (بائنري) درجابندي ڪندڙ نظام (ڪلاسيفائر سسٽم) جي تشخيصي ڪارڪردگيءَ جو هڪ خلاصي ماپو پڻ **جيني عدد** سڏيو ويندو آهي. ان جي تعريف [[رسيور آپريٽنگ خاصيت]] (ROC) وکر ۽ ان جي قطري ليڪ جي وچ واري ايراضيءَ جي ٻيڻي طور ڪئي ويندي آهي. هي ماپو [[آر او سي وڪڙ هيٺان ايراضي]] (ايريا انڊر دي ڪرو؛ AUC) سان لاڳاپيل آهي، جنهن کي هن مساوات سان ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;AUC = (G+1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=hand&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hand |first1=David J. |last2=Till |first2=Robert J. |title=A Simple Generalisation of the Area Under the ROC Curve for Multiple Class Classification Problems |journal=Machine Learning |date=2001 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=171–186 |doi=10.1023/A:1010920819831 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهو [[مان-وِٽني يو آزمائش]] آزمائش سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ٻنهي جيني عددن جي تعريف مخصوص وکرن جي وچ واري ايراضيءَ جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي ۽ انهن ۾ ڪجهه هڪجهڙيون خاصيتون موجود آهن، پر شمارياتي ورڇ جي جيني عدد ۽ درجابندي ڪندڙ نظام جي جيني عدد جي وچ ۾ ڪو سڌو ۽ سادو رياضيائي لاڳاپو موجود ناهي.

جيني اشاريو [[پيئٽرا اشاريو]] (Pietra Index) سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي. اهي ٻئي شمارياتي ناهمگني (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل ھيٽروجينيئٽي) کي ماپيندا آهن ۽ [[لورينز وکر]] ۽ قطري ليڪ مان اخذ ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Iddo I.|last1=Eliazar |first2=Igor M.|last2=Sokolov |year=2010 |title=Measuring statistical heterogeneity: The Pietra index|journal=Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications|volume=389|issue=1|pages=117–125|doi=10.1016/j.physa.2009.08.006|bibcode=2010PhyA..389..117E}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Wen-Chung |title=Probabilistic analysis of global performances of diagnostic tests: interpreting the Lorenz curve-based summary measures |journal=Statistics in Medicine |date=28 February 1999 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=455–471 |doi=10.1002/(sici)1097-0258(19990228)18:4&lt;455::aid-sim44&gt;3.0.co;2-a |pmid=10070686 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;

ڪجهه شعبن، جهڙوڪ [[ماحوليات]]، ۾ تنوع (ڊائورسٽي) کي ماپڻ لاءِ **الٽو سمپسن اشاريو** (&lt;math&gt;1/\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. ان کي [[سمپسن اشاريو]] (&lt;math&gt;\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) سان نه گڏي ويهڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Measurement of Species Diversity|first=Robert K.|last=Peet|s2cid=83517584|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=5|year=1974|issue=1|pages=285–307|jstor=2096890|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001441|bibcode=1974AnRES...5..285P }}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهي اشارا جيني اشاريي سان لاڳاپيل آهن. الٽو سمپسن اشاريو تنوع وڌڻ سان وڌندو آهي، جڏهن ته سمپسن اشاريو ۽ جيني اشاريو تنوع وڌڻ سان گهٽجندا آهن. سمپسن اشاري جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 جي وچ ۾ هونديون آهن، جتي 0 وڌ ۾ وڌ تنوع ۽ 1 گهٽ ۾ گهٽ تنوع (يا ناهمگني) کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو. ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ تنوع جا اڪثر اشارا ناهمگني وڌڻ سان وڌندا آهن، تنهنڪري سمپسن اشاري کي اڪثر الٽي سمپسن اشاري يا ان جي متمم (&lt;math&gt;1-\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) ۾ تبديل ڪيو ويندو آهي، جنهن کي **جيني-سمپسن اشاريو** چيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Measurement of Species Diversity|first=Robert K.|last=Peet|s2cid=83517584|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=5|year=1974|issue=1|pages=285–307|jstor=2096890|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001441|bibcode=1974AnRES...5..285P }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[لورينز وکر]] دولت جي ورڇ کي گرافيڪي صورت ۾ ڏيکارڻ جو هڪ ٻيو طريقو آهي. اهو جيني عدد کان نَوَ سال اڳ متعارف ڪرايو ويو هو. جيني عدد ان ڳالهه کي مقداري صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته لورينز وکر، مڪمل برابريءَ واري ليڪ (جنهن جو [[لاڙو]] 1 هوندو آهي) کان ڪيترو هٽي ٿو.

[[هوور اشاريو]] (ھوور انڊيڪس)، جيڪو **رابن هوڊ اشاريو** (رابن ھوڊ انڊيڪس) جي نالي سان پڻ سڃاتو وڃي ٿو، اهو ٻڌائي ٿو ته ڪل آباديءَ جي آمدنيءَ مان ڪيترو سيڪڙو ٻيهر ورهائڻو پوندو ته جيئن جيني اشاريو 0 (يعني مڪمل برابري) ٿي وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hoover Index |url=https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/economics/hoover-index/ |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=Corporate Finance Institute |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== جديد دور کان اڳ جي سماجن جا جيني اشاريا ==

گذريل ڪجهه ڏهاڪن دوران، محققن ويهين صديءَ کان اڳ وارن سماجن لاءِ جيني اشاريي جو اندازو لڳائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي آهي. ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان دور لاءِ گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ بابت سروي ۽ آمدني ٽيڪس جا انگ اکر موجود نه آهن، تنهنڪري محققن متبادل اشاري (پراڪسي ويريئبلز) استعمال ڪيا آهن.

انهن ۾ وچئين دور جي يورپي شهري رياستن ۾ دولت تي لاڳو ٽيڪس، [[رومي مصر]] ۾ زمين جي ملڪيت جا نمونا، قديم [[يونان]] کان وٺي [[ازٽيڪ]] ميڪسيڪو تائين سماجن ۾ گهرن جي ماپ ۾ فرق، ۽ بابلي سماج ۾ وراثت ۽ ڏاج جا رڪارڊ شامل آهن.
ٻيا ڪجهه انگ اکر دولت يا آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي سڌو سنئون ظاهر نٿا ڪن، پر انهن کي عدم مساوات جو عڪس سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جهڙوڪ ڀاڙي ۽ اجرت جي وچ وارو تناسب، يا محنت ۽ سرمائي جي وچ وارو تناسب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=[[Walter Scheidel]]|title=The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century|publisher=Princeton University Press|date=2017|isbn=978-0-691-16502-8|pages=15–16}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ٻيا استعمال ==

جيتوڻيڪ جيني اشاريو معاشيات ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر نظرياتي طور ان کي سائنس جي هر اهڙي شعبي ۾ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو ڪنهن ورڇ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[ماحوليات]] ۾ جيني اشاريي کي [[حياتياتي تنوع]] جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي، جتي نسلن جي گڏيل تناسب کي فردن جي گڏيل تناسب جي مقابلي ۾ ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=natureArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last1 = Wittebolle | first1 = Lieven | title = Initial community evenness favours functionality under selective stress | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | year = 2009 | volume = 458 | issue = 7238 | pmid = 19270679 | pages = 623–626 | doi = 10.1038/nature07840| display-authors = 2 | last2 = Marzorati | first2 = Massimo | last3 = Balloi | first3 = Annalisa | last4 = Daffonchio | first4 = Daniele | last5 = Heylen | first5 = Kim | last6 = De Vos | first6 = Paul | last7 = Verstraete | first7 = Willy | last8 = Boon | first8 = Nico | bibcode = 2009Natur.458..623W | s2cid = 4419280 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

صحت جي شعبي ۾، ان کي آباديءَ ۾ صحت سان لاڳاپيل [[زندگيءَ جي معيار]] جي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=popHealthArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last=Asada | first=Yukiko | title = Assessment of the health of Americans: the average health-related quality of life and its inequality across individuals and groups | journal = Population Health Metrics | year = 2005 | volume = 3 | pmid=16014174 | article-number = 7 | pmc=1192818 | doi = 10.1186/1478-7954-3-7 | doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

تعليم ۾، ان کي يونيورسٽين جي وچ ۾ عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=MinervaArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last1= Halffman | first1= Willem | last2= Leydesdorff | first2= Loet | title = Is Inequality Among Universities Increasing? Gini Coefficients and the Elusive Rise of Elite Universities | journal = Minerva | year = 2010 | volume = 48 | pmid= 20401157 | issue= 1 | pages = 55–72 | pmc= 2850525 | doi = 10.1007/s11024-010-9141-3| arxiv= 1001.2921 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪيميا ۾، جيني اشاريي کي [[پروٽين ڪائنيز روڪيندڙ|پروٽين ڪائنيز روڪيندڙن]] (پروٽين ڪائنيز انھبيٽرز) جي مختلف ڪائنيزن جي مقابلي ۾ چونڊ کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=JMedChemArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last = Graczyk | first = Piotr | title = Gini Coefficient: A New Way To Express Selectivity of Kinase Inhibitors against a Family of Kinases | journal = Journal of Medicinal Chemistry | year = 2007 | volume = 50 | issue = 23 | pmid = 17948979 | pages = 5773–5779 | doi = 10.1021/jm070562u}}&lt;/ref&gt;

انجنيئرنگ ۾، ان کي مختلف ٽرئفڪ وهڪرن مان ايندڙ پيڪٽن جي موڪل (پيڪٽ شيڊولنگ) دوران انٽرنيٽ روٽرن جي انصاف پسندي جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=GreedyFairQueueing&gt;{{Cite book |first1=Hongyuan |last1=Shi |first2=Harish |last2=Sethu |contribution=Greedy Fair Queueing: A Goal-Oriented Strategy for Fair Real-Time Packet Scheduling |pages=345–356 |title=Proceedings of the 24th IEEE Real-Time Systems Symposium |publisher=[[IEEE Computer Society]] |isbn=978-0-7695-2044-5 |year=2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[مشين سکيا]] ۾، ان کي مختلف قسمن جي انگن اکرن، جهڙوڪ تصويرن ۽ متن، جي ويڪٽر جڳهن ۾ گهڻ-بمقابله-گهڻ مشابهت کي ماپڻ لاءِ هڪ گڏيل اشاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي. اهو پڻ ڏيکاريو ويو آهي ته محدود معلومات وارن حالتن ۾ تربيتي نمونن جي چونڊ ۾ هي اشاري مؤثر رهنمائي فراهم ڪري ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | last1 = Fauber | first1 = Ben | title = Gini Coefficient as a Unified Metric for Evaluating Many-versus-Many Similarity in Vector Spaces. | date = 2024 | volume = abs/2411.07983 | arxiv = 2411.07983 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني اشاريو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[ڪريڊٽ ريٽنگ]] نظامن جي امتيازي صلاحيت کي ماپڻ لاءِ پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور تي [[ڪريڊٽ خطري]] جي انتظام ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=The Analytics of Risk Model Validation (Quantitative Finance)|editor1-first=George A.|editor1-last=Christodoulakis|editor2-first=Stephen|editor2-last=Satchell|isbn=978-0-7506-8158-2|date=November 2007|publisher=Academic Press}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2004ع ۾، [[جينيفر لوٽز]] هڪ مقالي ۾ جيني اشاريي کي &quot;ڪهڪشاني تصوير جي پکسلن جي روشنيءَ جي قدرن جي نسبتي ورڇ&quot; جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو ۽ اهو نتيجو ڪڍيو ته هي [[الٽرا-لومينس انفرا ريڊ ڪهڪشان]]ن (ULIRGs) کي عام ڪهڪشانن کان ڌار ڪرڻ جو هڪ معتبر طريقو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Lotz |first1=Jennifer M. |last2=Primack |first2=Joel |last3=Madau |first3=Piero |date=July 2004 |title=A New Nonparametric Approach to Galaxy Morphological Classification |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004AJ....128..163L/abstract |journal=The Astronomical Journal |language=en |volume=128 |issue=1 |pages=163–182 |doi=10.1086/421849 |issn=0004-6256|arxiv=astro-ph/0311352 |bibcode=2004AJ....128..163L }}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کان پوءِ جيني اشاريو [[ڪهڪشانن جي بناوتي درجابندي]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Florian |first1=Michael K. |last2=Li |first2=Nan |last3=Gladders |first3=Michael D. |date=2016-11-30 |title=The Gini Coefficient As a Morphological Measurement of Strongly Lensed Galaxies in the Same Plane |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=832 |issue=2 |pages=168 |doi=10.3847/0004-637X/832/2/168 |doi-access=free|issn=0004-637X|arxiv=1511.03617 |bibcode=2016ApJ...832..168F }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rodriguez-Gomez |first1=Vicente |last2=Lotz |first2=Jennifer |last3=Snyder |first3=Greg |date=January 2022 |title=statmorph: Non-parametric morphological diagnostics of galaxy images |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022ascl.soft01010R/abstract |journal=Astrophysics Source Code Library |language=en |pages=ascl:2201.010 |bibcode=2022ascl.soft01010R }}&lt;/ref&gt;

2005ع جي هڪ مطالعي ۾ آمريڪي مردم شماري جا انگ اکر استعمال ڪري گهرن ۾ ڪمپيوٽر جي ملڪيت جو جائزو ورتو ويو ۽ جيني اشاريي جي ذريعي اڇي فام ۽ آفريقي-آمريڪي آباديءَ جي وچ ۾ ڊجيٽل عدم مساوات ماپي وئي. نتيجن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته مجموعي عدم مساوات گهٽجڻ باوجود، ڪمپيوٽر جي ملڪيت ۾ عدم مساوات اڇي فام گهراڻن ۾ نمايان طور گهٽ هئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chakraborty|first1=J|last2=Bosman|first2=MM|title=Measuring the digital divide in the United States: race, income, and personal computer ownership|journal=Prof Geogr|year=2005|volume=57|issue=3|pages=395–410|doi=10.1111/j.0033-0124.2005.00486.x|bibcode=2005ProfG..57..395C|s2cid=154401826}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2016ع ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ هم جائزي واري مطالعي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته علاج تي مرڪوز ڊجيٽل صحت جي سماجي نيٽ ورڪن ۾ شرڪت جي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ جيني اشاريو مفيد ۽ درست آهي، پر اڪيلو استعمال ڪرڻ سان اهو نيٽ ورڪ جي مجموعي ماپ کي نظر ۾ نٿو رکي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Mierlo|first1=T|last2=Hyatt|first2=D|last3=Ching|first3=A|title=Employing the Gini coefficient to measure participation inequality in treatment-focused Digital Health Social Networks|journal=Netw Model Anal Health Inform Bioinforma|date=2016|volume=5|issue=32|pages=32|doi=10.1007/s13721-016-0140-7|pmid=27840788|pmc=5082574}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امتيازي صلاحيت مان مراد ڪنهن ڪريڊٽ خطري جي ماڊل جي اها قابليت آهي، جنهن سان اهو قرض واپس نه ڪندڙ ۽ قرض واپس ڪندڙ گراهڪن ۾ فرق ڪري سگهي. مٿين &quot;حساب&quot; واري حصي ۾ ڏنل &lt;math&gt;G_1&lt;/math&gt; وارو فارمولو آخري ماڊل ۽ ان جي انفرادي عنصرن ٻنهي جي امتيازي صلاحيت کي ماپڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو. اهو آباديءَ جي تشخيصي ماڊلن ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ **درستگيءَ جي نسبت** (ايڪيوريسي ريشو) سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

جيني اشاريو [[آن لائين ملاقاتي ايپليڪيشن|آن لائين ملاقاتي ايپليڪيشنن]] (ڊيٽنگ ايپس) ۾ موجود عدم مساوات جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=2015-03-25|title=Tinder Experiments II: Guys, unless you are really hot you are probably better off not wasting your…|url=https://medium.com/@worstonlinedater/tinder-experiments-ii-guys-unless-you-are-really-hot-you-are-probably-better-off-not-wasting-your-2ddf370a6e9a|access-date=2021-04-28|website=Medium|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Kopf|first=Dan|title=These statistics show why it's so hard to be an average man on dating apps|url=https://qz.com/1051462/these-statistics-show-why-its-so-hard-to-be-an-average-man-on-dating-apps/|access-date=2021-04-28|website=Quartz|date=15 August 2017|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪامينسڪي ۽ ڪريوتسوو&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Kaminskiy |first1=M.P.|last2=Krivtsov|first2=V.V.|date=2011|chapter=A Gini-Type Index for Aging/Rejuvenating Objects|title=Mathematical and Statistical Models and Methods in Reliability|location=Birkhäuser Boston|url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9780817649708|publisher=Springer|pages=133–140|isbn=978-0-8176-4970-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيني اشاريي جي تصور کي معاشيات مان [[اعتماديت جو نظريو]] (رلائبلٽي ٿيوري) ڏانهن وڌايو ۽ هڪ جيني-قسم جو اشاريو تجويز ڪيو، جيڪو مرمت نه ٿي سگهندڙ نظامن جي پوڙهائپ، يا مرمت لائق نظامن جي پوڙهائپ ۽ نئين سر بحالي جي درجي کي ماپڻ ۾ مدد ڏئي ٿو.

هي اشاريو −1 کان 1 جي وچ ۾ هوندو آهي ۽ تجربي تي ٻڌل توڙي پيراميٽرڪ عمر جي ورڇن ٻنهي لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ناڪاميءَ جي گهٽجندڙ شرح (ڊڪريزنگ فئليوئر ريٽ) واري ورڇن لاءِ ان جون قيمتون منفي، جڏهن ته ناڪاميءَ جي وڌندڙ شرح (انڪريزنگ فئليوئر ريٽ) واري ورڇن لاءِ مثبت هونديون آهن. صفر جي قيمت [[اُسري عمر جي ورڇ]] (اڪسپوننشل لائيف ڊسٽريبيوشن) يا [[همجنس پواسون نقطي عمل]] (Homogeneous Poisson Point Process) جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي.

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>ek5pycompxnkeif8j3mefju954yec5v</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399314</id>
      <parentid>399313</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T21:17:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399314</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="112469" sha1="dia4eyetowcr3z8q5borc3vdkkn2b4w" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|جيني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

جيني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وڪڙ]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. جيني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وڪڙ جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب جيني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته جيني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته جيني اشاريي جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري جيني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (رليٽو مين ابسوليوٽ ڊفرنس) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وڪڙ تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته جيني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا جيني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته جيني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو جيني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو جيني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به جيني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

جيني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته جيني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، جيني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! جيني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وڪڙ معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وڪڙ جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وڪڙ جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وڪڙ کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وڪڙ کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي جيني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاريا ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو}}

جيني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاريي هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاريي جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاريي هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وڪڙ ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

جيني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي جيني عدد ۽ موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاريي اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا جيني اشاريي سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاريي]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاريي يا شوراڪس جمود اشاريي به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاريي جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاريي جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته جيني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==


جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (ڪيوموليٽو پروپورشن) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حدون ==

=== نسبتي، نه مطلق ===

جيني اشاريو هڪ **نسبتي** (رليٽو) ماپ آهي. ڪنهن ترقي پذير ملڪ ۾، جيتوڻيڪ مڪمل غربت ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽجي وڃي، تڏهن به آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات وڌڻ سبب جيني اشاريو وڌي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Dramatic Poverty Reduction in the Third World: Prospects and Needed Action|first=John W.|last=Mellor|publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute|date=2 June 1989|pages=18–20|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160551/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جو سبب اهو آهي ته جيني اشاريو دولت يا آمدنيءَ جي **نسبتي** ورڇ کي ماپي ٿو، نه ڪي ان جي **مطلق** (ابسوليوٽ) مقدار کي.

جيني اشاريو سادو ۽ سمجهڻ ۾ آسان آهي، پر اها ئي سادگي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اهم فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري سگهي ٿي ۽ مختلف آباديُن جي ڀيٽ کي گمراهه ڪندڙ بڻائي سگهي ٿي. مثال طور، 2010ع ۾ [[بنگلاديش]] (في فرد آمدني 1,693 آمريڪي ڊالر) ۽ [[نيدرلينڊز]] (في فرد آمدني 42,183 آمريڪي ڊالر) ٻنهي جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=undp2010a&gt;{{cite web|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development (2010 Human Development Report – see Stat Tables)|pages=152–156|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/chapters/}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن هوندي به، ٻنهي ملڪن ۾ زندگيءَ جو معيار، معاشي موقعا ۽ حقيقي آمدني هڪجهڙا نه هئا. يعني، ٻه ملڪ ساڳيو جيني اشاريو رکي سگهن ٿا، پر سندن دولت ۾ وڏو فرق موجود هجي.

ترقي يافته معيشت ۾ بنيادي ضرورتون تقريباً سڀني ماڻهن کي دستياب ٿي سگهن ٿيون، جڏهن ته ساڳئي جيني اشاري واري ڪنهن گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ ۾ گهٽ مطلق دولت سبب اهي ضرورتون گهڻن ماڻهن لاءِ دستياب نه هجن يا غيربرابر نموني دستياب هجن.

=== رياضياتي حدون ===

جيني اشاري جون ڪجهه رياضياتي حدون پڻ آهن. اهو **جمع پذير** (ايڊيٽو) نه آهي، تنهنڪري مختلف آبادي گروهن جا جيني اشاري گڏ ڪري يا انهن جو سراسري ڪڍي سڀني گروهن لاءِ صحيح جيني اشاريو حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول الف. مختلف آمدنيءَ جون ورڇون، پر ساڳيو جيني اشاريو&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt;
|-
! گهراڻن جو گروهه
! ملڪ الف جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! ملڪ ب جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || 9,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000 || 40,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || 48,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000 || 48,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || 55,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $200,000 || $200,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.2''' || '''0.2'''
|}

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن آباديءَ جي ڪل آمدني ساڳي هجي، تڏهن به ممڪن آهي ته مختلف آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ رکندڙ ٻن ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو ساڳيو هجي، خاص طور تي جڏهن سندن [[لورينز وکر]] هڪ ٻئي کي ڪٽيندا هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt; جدول الف اهڙي ئي هڪ مثال ڏيکاري ٿي. ٻنهي ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو 0.2 آهي، پر گهراڻن جي گروهن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ مختلف آهي.

ساڳيءَ ريت، جيڪڏهن هڪ آباديءَ ۾ هيٺين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪا به آمدني نه هجي ۽ مٿين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ آمدني برابر ورهايل هجي، ته جيني اشاريو 0.5 ٿيندو. ٻي آباديءَ ۾، جيڪڏهن هيٺين 75 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 25 سيڪڙو ۽ مٿين 25 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ 75 سيڪڙو آمدني هجي، ته اتي به جيني اشاريو 0.5 هوندو.

تنهنڪري، هڪجهڙي آمدني ۽ ساڳئي جيني اشاري واريون معيشتون آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان گهڻو مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿيون. بيلو ۽ ليبيراتي جو خيال آهي ته رڳو جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ٻن آباديُن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جي درجابندي هميشه ممڪن نه هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=Maio2007&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income inequality measures|first=Fernando G.|last=De Maio|journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health|year=2007|volume=61|issue=10|pages=849–852|doi=10.1136/jech.2006.052969|pmid=17873219|pmc=2652960}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳي طرح، ڪمپيوٽري سماجي سائنسدان [[فيبين اسٽيفني]] ڏيکاريو آهي ته روايتي جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي اندر موجود مخصوص سماجي يا معاشي گروهن (مثال طور ساڳئي عمر يا تعليم وارن ماڻهن) جي آمدنيءَ واري عدم مساوات کي ظاهر ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام رهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Stephany |first=Fabian |date=2017-12-01 |title=Who are Your Joneses? Socio-Specific Income Inequality and Trust |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |journal=Social Indicators Research |language=en |volume=134 |issue=3 |pages=877–898 |doi=10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |issn=1573-0921 |pmc=5684274 |pmid=29187771}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو دولت جي عدم مساوات کي لڪائي سگهي ٿو ===

جيني اشاريو ڪنهن ملڪ يا فرد جي **مطلق آمدني** بابت ڪا به ڄاڻ فراهم نٿو ڪري. ممڪن آهي ته ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهٽ هجي، پر دولت (wealth) جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهڻو هجي.

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، تنهنڪري اهو گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي استعمال ۾ موجود فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري ڇڏي ٿو. ساڳيءَ طرح، دولت کي به (سواءِ ان حصي جي جيڪو آمدني پيدا ڪري) نظرانداز ڪيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن سبب اهڙين حالتن ۾ برابريءَ جو تاثر پيدا ٿي سگهي ٿو، جتي مقابلي هيٺ آيل ماڻهو پنهنجي زندگيءَ جي مختلف مرحلن ۾ هجن.

مثال طور، [[سوئيڊن]] جهڙي دولت مند ملڪ ۾ استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو 0.31 آهي، جنهن مان نسبتاً برابريءَ جو تاثر ملي ٿو، پر دولت جو جيني اشاريو 0.79 کان 0.86 جي وچ ۾ آهي، جيڪو سماج ۾ دولت جي انتهائي غيربرابر ورڇ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Inequality Trends in Sweden 1978–2004|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Martin|last2=Flodén|journal=Review of Economic Dynamics|volume=13|issue=1|year=2010|pages=179–208|doi=10.1016/j.red.2009.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.629.9417}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Accounting for Swedish wealth inequality|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Paul|last2=Klein|date=January 2000|url=http://fmwww.bc.edu/repec/es2000/0883.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030519155531/https://www.econometricsociety.org/meetings/wc00/pdf/0883.pdf|archive-date=May 19, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تنهنڪري، آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو دولت جي ورڇ ۾ موجود عدم مساوات کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.

=== ملڪ جي ماپ ۽ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جو اثر ===

ننڍين آباديُن لاءِ جيني اشاريو عام طور هيٺاهين طرف لاڙو (downward bias) رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Small-Sample Bias of the Gini Coefficient: Results and Implications for Empirical Research|journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics|first=George|last=Deltas|date=February 2003|volume=85|issue=1|pages=226–234|doi=10.1162/rest.2003.85.1.226|jstor=3211637|bibcode=2003RvE&amp;S..85..226D|s2cid=57572560}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهنڪري ننڍي آبادي، رياست يا ملڪ، يا اهڙيون معيشتون جن ۾ معاشي تنوع گهٽ هجي، اڪثر گهٽ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪن ٿيون.

ان جي ابتڙ، وڏي آبادي ۽ وڌيڪ متنوع معيشتن لاءِ عام طور وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو متوقع هوندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن سڄي دنيا جي معيشت ۽ سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏجي ڏٺو وڃي، ته مختلف محقق عالمي جيني اشاري جو اندازو 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ لڳائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10 /&gt;

ٻين عدم مساوات وارن اشارن وانگر، جيني اشاريو به انگن اکرن جي **تفصيل جي سطح** (granularity) کان متاثر ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي پنجن 20 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (گهٽ تفصيل) ۾ ورهايو وڃي ته حاصل ٿيندڙ جيني اشاريو عام طور ويهن 5 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (وڌيڪ تفصيل) جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ٿيندو.

فلپ مونفورٽ ڏيکاريو آهي ته جيڪڏهن مختلف مطالعي ۾ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جي سطح هڪجهڙي نه هجي يا واضح نه ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ڪيل ڀيٽون گهڻي حد تائين بي معنيٰ ٿي سگهن ٿيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Convergence of EU regions: Measures and evolution|first=Philippe|last=Monfort|publisher=European Union – Europa|page=6|year=2008|url=http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160544/http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آباديءَ ۾ تبديليون ===

جيني اشارئي سان ماپيل آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ تبديلي، سماج جي بناوت ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ آباديءَ ۾ واڌ (پيدائش جي شرح وڌڻ)، آباديءَ جي پوڙهائپ، لڏپلاڻ يا هجرت، ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت.&lt;ref name=Kwok10&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution of Hong Kong and the Gini Coefficient|author=KWOK Kwok Chuen|year=2010|publisher=The Government of Hong Kong, China|url=http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227043822/http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني اشاري جي هڪ ٻي حد اها آهي ته اهو [[مساوات پسندي]] (egalitarianism) جو مڪمل پيمانو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو رڳو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ تفاوت کي ماپي ٿو. مثال طور، فرض ڪريو ته ٻه هڪجهڙا مساوات پسند ملڪ مختلف [[اميگريشن قانون]] اختيار ڪن ٿا. جيڪڏهن انهن مان هڪ ملڪ گهٽ آمدني يا غريب مهاجرن جو وڌيڪ حصو قبول ڪري، ته اهو ملڪ وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪندو، ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت ان ۾ آمدنيءَ جي وڌيڪ عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ٿيندو، جيتوڻيڪ اها تبديلي سماجي پاليسيءَ جي نتيجي ۾ آيل هجي.

=== گهراڻو بمقابله فرد ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول ب. ساڳي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ، پر مختلف جيني اشاريا
|-
! گهراڻي جو نمبر
! ملڪ جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! گڏيل گهراڻن جو نمبر
! ملڪ الف جي گڏيل سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 1 ۽ 2 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 50,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3 ۽ 4 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 90,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5 ۽ 6 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 130,000
|-
| 6 || 70,000
|-
| 7 || 80,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7 ۽ 8 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 170,000
|-
| 8 || 90,000
|-
| 9 || 120,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9 ۽ 10 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 270,000
|-
| 10 || 150,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $710,000 || || $710,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.303''' || || '''0.293'''
|}

جيڪڏهن ساڳئي معيشت ۽ ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ لاءِ جيني اشاريو فردن بدران گهراڻن جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو وڃي، ته نتيجا مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. جيڪڏهن گهراڻن جا انگ اکر استعمال ڪيا وڃن، ته آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري جو قدر ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته &quot;گهراڻي&quot; جي تعريف ڪيئن ڪئي وئي آهي. جڏهن مختلف آباديُن ۾ گهراڻي جي تعريف هڪجهڙي نه هجي، تڏهن انهن جي ڀيٽ بامعنيٰ نه هوندي.

ان کان علاوه، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري ۾ تبديلي گهراڻي جي جوڙجڪ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو به ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيئن طلاقن ۾ واڌ يا [[گڏيل ڪٽنب]]ن جو ورهائجي [[ايڪو ڪٽنب]]ن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ.

ڊيننگر ۽ [[لن اسڪوائر]] (1996ع) ڏيکاريو ته فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاري کان مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، آمريڪا لاءِ هنن فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو 0.35، جڏهن ته فرانس لاءِ 0.43 معلوم ڪيو. سندن فرد-بنياد واري طريقي موجب، 108 ملڪن مان [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.62)، [[ملائيشيا]] جو ايشيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50)، [[برازيل]] جو لاطيني آمريڪا ۽ ڪيريبين علائقي ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.57)، ۽ [[ترڪي]] جو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50) هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Deininger |first1=K. |last2=Squire |first2=L. |title=A New Data Set Measuring Income Inequality |journal=The World Bank Economic Review |date=September 1996 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=565–591 |doi=10.1093/wber/10.3.565 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ارب پتي [[ٿامس ڪوڪ]] جو چوڻ آهي ته هانگ ڪانگ جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو (2010ع ۾ 0.434)&lt;ref name=undp2010a /&gt; جزوي طور ان جي آباديءَ جي جوڙجڪ ۾ آيل تبديلين سبب وڌيڪ رهيو آهي. گذريل ڏهاڪن دوران هانگ ڪانگ ۾ ننڍن گهراڻن، بزرگن تي ٻڌل گهراڻن ۽ اڪيلي رهندڙ بزرگ ماڻهن جو تعداد وڌيو آهي. نتيجي طور، ساڳي گڏيل آمدني هاڻي وڌيڪ گهراڻن ۾ ورهائجي وڃي ٿي. ڪوڪ جو خيال آهي ته آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو سماج جي اهڙين بناوتي تبديلين کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

هن حصي ۾ ڏنل آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ (جدول ج) پڻ ڏيکاري ٿي ته هي مسئلو رڳو هانگ ڪانگ تائين محدود ناهي. آمريڪي مردم شماري اداري موجب، 1979ع کان 2010ع تائين آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي بناوت ۾ نمايان تبديليون آيون، مهانگائيءَ مطابق سڀني آمدني گروهن جي آمدني وڌي، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ وقت سان گڏ وڌيڪ مٿين آمدني وارن گروهن ڏانهن منتقل ٿي، جڏهن ته ساڳئي عرصي دوران آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو پڻ وڌيو.&lt;ref name=uscb2011 /&gt;&lt;ref name=cbo.p.10&gt;[http://www.cbo.gov/doc.cfm?index=12485 Congressional Budget Office: Trends in the Distribution of Household Income Between 1979 and 2007]. October 2011. see pp. i–x, with definitions on ii–iii&lt;/ref&gt;

=== لمحي واري عدم مساوات بمقابله سڄي زندگيءَ واري عدم مساوات ===

جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي بناوت ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جي اثرن کي الڳ ڪري نٿو سگهي.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

زندگيءَ جي پوري عرصي تي ٻڌل ماپن جي اهميت کي نظر ۾ رکندي، جيني اشاريو ڪنهن هڪ مخصوص وقت تي برابريءَ جو رڳو هڪ اندازو (point estimate) پيش ڪري ٿو ۽ وقت سان گڏ آمدنيءَ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين کي نظرانداز ڪري ٿو.

عام طور تي، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن سماج ۾ نوجوانن يا بزرگ ماڻهن جو تناسب وڌي وڃي، ته جيني اشاريو ظاهري طور وڌيڪ عدم مساوات ڏيکاري سگهي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نوجوان ماڻهن وٽ عام طور گهٽ آمدني ۽ دولت هوندي آهي، جڏهن ته عمر وڌڻ سان اهي وڌنديون آهن.

تنهنڪري، آباديءَ جي عمر جي ورڇ ۽ مختلف آمدني وارن طبقن جي وچ ۾ نقل و حرڪت جهڙا عنصر، آباديءَ جي بناوت جي اثرن کي نظر ۾ رکڻ کان سواءِ، اهڙي عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا جيڪا حقيقت ۾ موجود نه هجي.

اهڙيءَ طرح، ڪنهن معيشت جو ڪنهن خاص وقت تي جيني اشاريو ٻي معيشت جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿو، پر جيڪڏهن ساڳين ماڻهن جي سڄي زندگيءَ جي آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي جيني اشاريو ڳڻيو وڃي، ته ممڪن آهي ته اها معيشت ٻيءَ کان وڌيڪ برابر ثابت ٿئي، جيتوڻيڪ هڪ مخصوص وقت تي ان جو جيني اشاريو وڌيڪ نظر اچي ٿو.&lt;ref name=blomq81&gt;{{Cite journal |first=N. |last=Blomquist |s2cid=154519005 |year=1981 |title=A comparison of distributions of annual and lifetime income: Sweden around 1970 |journal=Review of Income and Wealth |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1981.tb00227.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== غير نقدي فائدا ۽ جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني ===

جيڪڏهن [[جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني]] (انڪم ان ڪائينڊ) کي مالي قدر ڏيڻ ۾ درستگي نه هجي، ته اها جيني اشاري جي حقيقي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ واري صلاحيت کي گهٽائي ڇڏي ٿي.

جيتوڻيڪ ٽيڪسن ۽ نقد منتقلي وارين ادائگين جو حساب نسبتاً سولو هوندو آهي، پر حڪومت طرفان فراهم ڪيل ٻيا فائدا، جهڙوڪ رعايتي رهائش، طبي سهولتون ۽ تعليم، جو مالي قدر مقرر ڪرڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن جو قدر انهن جي معيار ۽ فراهم ڪيل سهولتن جي مقدار تي دارومدار رکي ٿو.

آزاد منڊي جي غير موجودگيءَ ۾، اهڙين سهولتن کي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جو حصو سمجهي مالي قدر ڏيڻ هڪ موضوعي (سبجيڪٽو) عمل آهي. تنهنڪري جيني اشاري جو نظرياتي ماڊل اهڙن اندازن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ تي ڀاڙي ٿو.

پاڻڀرائي (سبسسٽنس) تي ٻڌل ۽ [[غير رسمي معيشت]]ن ۾، ماڻهن جي آمدنيءَ جو وڏو حصو پئسي بدران ٻين صورتن ۾ هوندو آهي، جهڙوڪ [[پاڻڀري زراعت]] يا [[مال جي بدلي مال]] (بارٽر) ذريعي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدني. اهڙي آمدني عام طور اڀرندڙ ۽ منتقلي واري معيشتن، خاص طور تي صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا، لاطيني آمريڪا، ايشيا ۽ اوڀر يورپ جي گهٽ آمدني وارن ماڻهن وٽ وڌيڪ هوندي آهي.

غير رسمي معيشت عالمي روزگار جو اڌ کان وڌيڪ حصو فراهم ڪري ٿي، ۽ صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا جي ڪجهه غريب ملڪن ۾، جتي سرڪاري جيني اشاريا به تمام وڌيڪ آهن، روزگار جو 90 سيڪڙو تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

شنائڊر ۽ سندس ساٿين 2010ع ۾ 162 ملڪن تي ڪيل مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته دنيا جي مجموعي [[مجموعي ملڪي پيداوار]] (GDP) جو لڳ ڀڳ 31.2 سيڪڙو، يعني لڳ ڀڳ 20 ٽريلين آمريڪي ڊالر، غير رسمي معيشت مان پيدا ٿئي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Friedrich|last1=Schneider|first2=Andreas|last2=Buehn|first3=Claudio E.|last3=Montenegro|s2cid=56060172|year=2010|title=New Estimates for the Shadow Economies all over the World|journal=International Economic Journal|volume=24|issue=4|pages=443–461|doi=10.1080/10168737.2010.525974|hdl=10986/4929|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾، امير شهري آباديءَ کان سواءِ تقريباً سڀني آمدني وارن طبقن لاءِ غير رسمي معيشت آمدنيءَ جو بنيادي ذريعو آهي. ترقي يافته ملڪن ۾ به قومي GDP جو اندازاً 8 سيڪڙو (آمريڪا) کان 27 سيڪڙو (اٽلي) تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

غير رسمي يا پاڇي واري معيشت مان حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي صحيح مقدار ۽ ان جي ورڇ جو اندازو لڳائڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، جنهن سبب آمدنيءَ جي حقيقي جيني اشاري جو صحيح اندازو لڳائڻ پڻ مشڪل ٿي پوي ٿو.&lt;ref name=mfeld&gt;{{cite web|title=Is income inequality really the problem? (Overview)|first=Martin|last=Feldstein|date=August 1998|publisher=US Federal Reserve|url=http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|access-date=2 August 2012|archive-date=3 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160558/http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=tandw&gt;{{cite book|title=Principles of Microeconomics: Global Financial Crisis Edition|first1=John|last1=Taylor|first2=Akila|last2=Weerapana|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4390-7821-1|pages=416–418|publisher=Cengage Learning}}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهڙي آمدنيءَ بابت مختلف مفروضا ۽ اندازا مختلف جيني اشاريا پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income Inequality and the Informal Economy in Transition Economies|first1=J. Barkley Jr.|last1=Rosser|first2=Marina V.|last2=Rosser|first3=Ehsan|last3=Ahmed|s2cid=49552052|journal=Journal of Comparative Economics|date=March 2000|volume=28|issue=1|pages=156–171|doi=10.1006/jcec.2000.1645}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Earnings inequality and the informal economy: evidence from Serbia|first1=Gorana|last1=Krstić|first2=Peter|last2=Sanfey|publisher=European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|date=February 2010|url=http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160550/http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-date=2012-08-03|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite report|title=The Size of the Shadow Economies of 145 Countries all over the World: First Results over the Period 1999 to 2003|first=Friedrich|last=Schneider|date=December 2004|ssrn=636661|hdl=10419/20729}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== متبادل طريقا ==

جيني اشاريي جي حدن کي نظر ۾ رکندي، آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ يا عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ ان سان گڏ يا ان جي متبادل طور ٻيا شمارياتي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، **اينٽروپي تي ٻڌل ماپا** (entropy measures) وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جن ۾ [[ٿيئل اشاريو]] (Theil Index) ۽ [[اوسط لاگ انحراف]] (مين لاگ ڊيويئيشن) شامل آهن. اهي ٻئي [[عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو]] (جنرلائيزڊ اينٽروپي انڊيڪس) جا خاص مثال آهن، يا ساڳئي مفهوم موجب [[ايٽڪنسن اشاريو]] (ايٽڪنسن انڊيڪس) جا پڻ خاص مثال سمجهيا وڃن ٿا.

اورٽيگا جو ٻه-پيماني وارو ماڊل (اورٽيگا ٽو-پيراميٽر ماڊل)&lt;ref name=&quot;ortega,1991&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Ortega | first1=P. | last2=Martín | first2=G. | last3=Fernández | first3=A. | last4=Ladoux | first4=M. | last5=García | first5=A. | title=A New Functional Form for Estimating Lorenz Curves | journal=Review of Income and Wealth | volume=37 | issue=4 | date=1991 | issn=0034-6586 | doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1991.tb00383.x | pages=447–452}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيني اشاريي جهڙن هڪ-پيماني وارن ماڊلن جي ڀيٽ ۾ سماجي نتيجن بابت وڌيڪ تفصيلي اڳڪٿيون ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت رکي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Blesch,2022&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Blesch | first1=Kristin | last2=Hauser | first2=Oliver P. | last3=Jachimowicz | first3=Jon M. | title=Measuring inequality beyond the Gini coefficient may clarify conflicting findings | journal=Nature Human Behaviour | volume=6 | issue=11 | date=2022 | issn=2397-3374 | pmid=36038775 | pmc=7614289 | doi=10.1038/s41562-022-01430-7 | pages=1525–1536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهو پڻ معلوم ٿيو آهي ته جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي وچئين حصي ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين لاءِ ضرورت کان وڌيڪ حساس هوندو آهي. ان ڪري، [[وچين آمدني]] (ميڊيئن انڪم) تي ٻڌل طريقا ان جا متبادل طور استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;u376&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last=Gastwirth | first=Joseph L. | title=Is the Gini Index of Inequality Overly Sensitive to Changes in the Middle of the Income Distribution? | journal=Statistics and Public Policy | volume=4 | issue=1 | date=2017 | issn=2330-443X | doi=10.1080/2330443X.2017.1360813 | pages=1–11 | doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ٻين شمارياتي ماپن سان لاڳاپو ==

ٻه-درجا (بائنري) درجابندي ڪندڙ نظام (ڪلاسيفائر سسٽم) جي تشخيصي ڪارڪردگيءَ جو هڪ خلاصي ماپو پڻ **جيني عدد** سڏيو ويندو آهي. ان جي تعريف [[رسيور آپريٽنگ خاصيت]] (ROC) وکر ۽ ان جي قطري ليڪ جي وچ واري ايراضيءَ جي ٻيڻي طور ڪئي ويندي آهي. هي ماپو [[آر او سي وڪڙ هيٺان ايراضي]] (ايريا انڊر دي ڪرو؛ AUC) سان لاڳاپيل آهي، جنهن کي هن مساوات سان ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;AUC = (G+1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=hand&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hand |first1=David J. |last2=Till |first2=Robert J. |title=A Simple Generalisation of the Area Under the ROC Curve for Multiple Class Classification Problems |journal=Machine Learning |date=2001 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=171–186 |doi=10.1023/A:1010920819831 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهو [[مان-وِٽني يو آزمائش]] آزمائش سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ٻنهي جيني عددن جي تعريف مخصوص وکرن جي وچ واري ايراضيءَ جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي ۽ انهن ۾ ڪجهه هڪجهڙيون خاصيتون موجود آهن، پر شمارياتي ورڇ جي جيني عدد ۽ درجابندي ڪندڙ نظام جي جيني عدد جي وچ ۾ ڪو سڌو ۽ سادو رياضيائي لاڳاپو موجود ناهي.

جيني اشاريو [[پيئٽرا اشاريو]] (Pietra Index) سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي. اهي ٻئي شمارياتي ناهمگني (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل ھيٽروجينيئٽي) کي ماپيندا آهن ۽ [[لورينز وکر]] ۽ قطري ليڪ مان اخذ ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Iddo I.|last1=Eliazar |first2=Igor M.|last2=Sokolov |year=2010 |title=Measuring statistical heterogeneity: The Pietra index|journal=Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications|volume=389|issue=1|pages=117–125|doi=10.1016/j.physa.2009.08.006|bibcode=2010PhyA..389..117E}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Wen-Chung |title=Probabilistic analysis of global performances of diagnostic tests: interpreting the Lorenz curve-based summary measures |journal=Statistics in Medicine |date=28 February 1999 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=455–471 |doi=10.1002/(sici)1097-0258(19990228)18:4&lt;455::aid-sim44&gt;3.0.co;2-a |pmid=10070686 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;

ڪجهه شعبن، جهڙوڪ [[ماحوليات]]، ۾ تنوع (ڊائورسٽي) کي ماپڻ لاءِ **الٽو سمپسن اشاريو** (&lt;math&gt;1/\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. ان کي [[سمپسن اشاريو]] (&lt;math&gt;\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) سان نه گڏي ويهڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Measurement of Species Diversity|first=Robert K.|last=Peet|s2cid=83517584|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=5|year=1974|issue=1|pages=285–307|jstor=2096890|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001441|bibcode=1974AnRES...5..285P }}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهي اشارا جيني اشاريي سان لاڳاپيل آهن. الٽو سمپسن اشاريو تنوع وڌڻ سان وڌندو آهي، جڏهن ته سمپسن اشاريو ۽ جيني اشاريو تنوع وڌڻ سان گهٽجندا آهن. سمپسن اشاري جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 جي وچ ۾ هونديون آهن، جتي 0 وڌ ۾ وڌ تنوع ۽ 1 گهٽ ۾ گهٽ تنوع (يا ناهمگني) کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو. ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ تنوع جا اڪثر اشارا ناهمگني وڌڻ سان وڌندا آهن، تنهنڪري سمپسن اشاري کي اڪثر الٽي سمپسن اشاري يا ان جي متمم (&lt;math&gt;1-\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) ۾ تبديل ڪيو ويندو آهي، جنهن کي **جيني-سمپسن اشاريو** چيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Measurement of Species Diversity|first=Robert K.|last=Peet|s2cid=83517584|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=5|year=1974|issue=1|pages=285–307|jstor=2096890|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001441|bibcode=1974AnRES...5..285P }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[لورينز وکر]] دولت جي ورڇ کي گرافيڪي صورت ۾ ڏيکارڻ جو هڪ ٻيو طريقو آهي. اهو جيني عدد کان نَوَ سال اڳ متعارف ڪرايو ويو هو. جيني عدد ان ڳالهه کي مقداري صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته لورينز وکر، مڪمل برابريءَ واري ليڪ (جنهن جو [[لاڙو]] 1 هوندو آهي) کان ڪيترو هٽي ٿو.

[[هوور اشاريو]] (ھوور انڊيڪس)، جيڪو **رابن هوڊ اشاريو** (رابن ھوڊ انڊيڪس) جي نالي سان پڻ سڃاتو وڃي ٿو، اهو ٻڌائي ٿو ته ڪل آباديءَ جي آمدنيءَ مان ڪيترو سيڪڙو ٻيهر ورهائڻو پوندو ته جيئن جيني اشاريو 0 (يعني مڪمل برابري) ٿي وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hoover Index |url=https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/economics/hoover-index/ |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=Corporate Finance Institute |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== جديد دور کان اڳ جي سماجن جا جيني اشاريا ==

گذريل ڪجهه ڏهاڪن دوران، محققن ويهين صديءَ کان اڳ وارن سماجن لاءِ جيني اشاريي جو اندازو لڳائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي آهي. ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان دور لاءِ گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ بابت سروي ۽ آمدني ٽيڪس جا انگ اکر موجود نه آهن، تنهنڪري محققن متبادل اشاري (پراڪسي ويريئبلز) استعمال ڪيا آهن.

انهن ۾ وچئين دور جي يورپي شهري رياستن ۾ دولت تي لاڳو ٽيڪس، [[رومي مصر]] ۾ زمين جي ملڪيت جا نمونا، قديم [[يونان]] کان وٺي [[ازٽيڪ]] ميڪسيڪو تائين سماجن ۾ گهرن جي ماپ ۾ فرق، ۽ بابلي سماج ۾ وراثت ۽ ڏاج جا رڪارڊ شامل آهن.
ٻيا ڪجهه انگ اکر دولت يا آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي سڌو سنئون ظاهر نٿا ڪن، پر انهن کي عدم مساوات جو عڪس سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جهڙوڪ ڀاڙي ۽ اجرت جي وچ وارو تناسب، يا محنت ۽ سرمائي جي وچ وارو تناسب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=[[Walter Scheidel]]|title=The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century|publisher=Princeton University Press|date=2017|isbn=978-0-691-16502-8|pages=15–16}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ٻيا استعمال ==

جيتوڻيڪ جيني اشاريو معاشيات ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر نظرياتي طور ان کي سائنس جي هر اهڙي شعبي ۾ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو ڪنهن ورڇ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[ماحوليات]] ۾ جيني اشاريي کي [[حياتياتي تنوع]] جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي، جتي نسلن جي گڏيل تناسب کي فردن جي گڏيل تناسب جي مقابلي ۾ ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=natureArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last1 = Wittebolle | first1 = Lieven | title = Initial community evenness favours functionality under selective stress | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | year = 2009 | volume = 458 | issue = 7238 | pmid = 19270679 | pages = 623–626 | doi = 10.1038/nature07840| display-authors = 2 | last2 = Marzorati | first2 = Massimo | last3 = Balloi | first3 = Annalisa | last4 = Daffonchio | first4 = Daniele | last5 = Heylen | first5 = Kim | last6 = De Vos | first6 = Paul | last7 = Verstraete | first7 = Willy | last8 = Boon | first8 = Nico | bibcode = 2009Natur.458..623W | s2cid = 4419280 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

صحت جي شعبي ۾، ان کي آباديءَ ۾ صحت سان لاڳاپيل [[زندگيءَ جي معيار]] جي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=popHealthArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last=Asada | first=Yukiko | title = Assessment of the health of Americans: the average health-related quality of life and its inequality across individuals and groups | journal = Population Health Metrics | year = 2005 | volume = 3 | pmid=16014174 | article-number = 7 | pmc=1192818 | doi = 10.1186/1478-7954-3-7 | doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

تعليم ۾، ان کي يونيورسٽين جي وچ ۾ عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=MinervaArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last1= Halffman | first1= Willem | last2= Leydesdorff | first2= Loet | title = Is Inequality Among Universities Increasing? Gini Coefficients and the Elusive Rise of Elite Universities | journal = Minerva | year = 2010 | volume = 48 | pmid= 20401157 | issue= 1 | pages = 55–72 | pmc= 2850525 | doi = 10.1007/s11024-010-9141-3| arxiv= 1001.2921 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪيميا ۾، جيني اشاريي کي [[پروٽين ڪائنيز روڪيندڙ|پروٽين ڪائنيز روڪيندڙن]] (پروٽين ڪائنيز انھبيٽرز) جي مختلف ڪائنيزن جي مقابلي ۾ چونڊ کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=JMedChemArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last = Graczyk | first = Piotr | title = Gini Coefficient: A New Way To Express Selectivity of Kinase Inhibitors against a Family of Kinases | journal = Journal of Medicinal Chemistry | year = 2007 | volume = 50 | issue = 23 | pmid = 17948979 | pages = 5773–5779 | doi = 10.1021/jm070562u}}&lt;/ref&gt;

انجنيئرنگ ۾، ان کي مختلف ٽرئفڪ وهڪرن مان ايندڙ پيڪٽن جي موڪل (پيڪٽ شيڊولنگ) دوران انٽرنيٽ روٽرن جي انصاف پسندي جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=GreedyFairQueueing&gt;{{Cite book |first1=Hongyuan |last1=Shi |first2=Harish |last2=Sethu |contribution=Greedy Fair Queueing: A Goal-Oriented Strategy for Fair Real-Time Packet Scheduling |pages=345–356 |title=Proceedings of the 24th IEEE Real-Time Systems Symposium |publisher=[[IEEE Computer Society]] |isbn=978-0-7695-2044-5 |year=2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[مشين سکيا]] ۾، ان کي مختلف قسمن جي انگن اکرن، جهڙوڪ تصويرن ۽ متن، جي ويڪٽر جڳهن ۾ گهڻ-بمقابله-گهڻ مشابهت کي ماپڻ لاءِ هڪ گڏيل اشاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي. اهو پڻ ڏيکاريو ويو آهي ته محدود معلومات وارن حالتن ۾ تربيتي نمونن جي چونڊ ۾ هي اشاري مؤثر رهنمائي فراهم ڪري ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | last1 = Fauber | first1 = Ben | title = Gini Coefficient as a Unified Metric for Evaluating Many-versus-Many Similarity in Vector Spaces. | date = 2024 | volume = abs/2411.07983 | arxiv = 2411.07983 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني اشاريو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[ڪريڊٽ ريٽنگ]] نظامن جي امتيازي صلاحيت کي ماپڻ لاءِ پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور تي [[ڪريڊٽ خطري]] جي انتظام ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=The Analytics of Risk Model Validation (Quantitative Finance)|editor1-first=George A.|editor1-last=Christodoulakis|editor2-first=Stephen|editor2-last=Satchell|isbn=978-0-7506-8158-2|date=November 2007|publisher=Academic Press}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2004ع ۾، [[جينيفر لوٽز]] هڪ مقالي ۾ جيني اشاريي کي &quot;ڪهڪشاني تصوير جي پکسلن جي روشنيءَ جي قدرن جي نسبتي ورڇ&quot; جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو ۽ اهو نتيجو ڪڍيو ته هي [[الٽرا-لومينس انفرا ريڊ ڪهڪشان]]ن (ULIRGs) کي عام ڪهڪشانن کان ڌار ڪرڻ جو هڪ معتبر طريقو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Lotz |first1=Jennifer M. |last2=Primack |first2=Joel |last3=Madau |first3=Piero |date=July 2004 |title=A New Nonparametric Approach to Galaxy Morphological Classification |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004AJ....128..163L/abstract |journal=The Astronomical Journal |language=en |volume=128 |issue=1 |pages=163–182 |doi=10.1086/421849 |issn=0004-6256|arxiv=astro-ph/0311352 |bibcode=2004AJ....128..163L }}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کان پوءِ جيني اشاريو [[ڪهڪشانن جي بناوتي درجابندي]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Florian |first1=Michael K. |last2=Li |first2=Nan |last3=Gladders |first3=Michael D. |date=2016-11-30 |title=The Gini Coefficient As a Morphological Measurement of Strongly Lensed Galaxies in the Same Plane |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=832 |issue=2 |pages=168 |doi=10.3847/0004-637X/832/2/168 |doi-access=free|issn=0004-637X|arxiv=1511.03617 |bibcode=2016ApJ...832..168F }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rodriguez-Gomez |first1=Vicente |last2=Lotz |first2=Jennifer |last3=Snyder |first3=Greg |date=January 2022 |title=statmorph: Non-parametric morphological diagnostics of galaxy images |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022ascl.soft01010R/abstract |journal=Astrophysics Source Code Library |language=en |pages=ascl:2201.010 |bibcode=2022ascl.soft01010R }}&lt;/ref&gt;

2005ع جي هڪ مطالعي ۾ آمريڪي مردم شماري جا انگ اکر استعمال ڪري گهرن ۾ ڪمپيوٽر جي ملڪيت جو جائزو ورتو ويو ۽ جيني اشاريي جي ذريعي اڇي فام ۽ آفريقي-آمريڪي آباديءَ جي وچ ۾ ڊجيٽل عدم مساوات ماپي وئي. نتيجن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته مجموعي عدم مساوات گهٽجڻ باوجود، ڪمپيوٽر جي ملڪيت ۾ عدم مساوات اڇي فام گهراڻن ۾ نمايان طور گهٽ هئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chakraborty|first1=J|last2=Bosman|first2=MM|title=Measuring the digital divide in the United States: race, income, and personal computer ownership|journal=Prof Geogr|year=2005|volume=57|issue=3|pages=395–410|doi=10.1111/j.0033-0124.2005.00486.x|bibcode=2005ProfG..57..395C|s2cid=154401826}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2016ع ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ هم جائزي واري مطالعي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته علاج تي مرڪوز ڊجيٽل صحت جي سماجي نيٽ ورڪن ۾ شرڪت جي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ جيني اشاريو مفيد ۽ درست آهي، پر اڪيلو استعمال ڪرڻ سان اهو نيٽ ورڪ جي مجموعي ماپ کي نظر ۾ نٿو رکي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Mierlo|first1=T|last2=Hyatt|first2=D|last3=Ching|first3=A|title=Employing the Gini coefficient to measure participation inequality in treatment-focused Digital Health Social Networks|journal=Netw Model Anal Health Inform Bioinforma|date=2016|volume=5|issue=32|pages=32|doi=10.1007/s13721-016-0140-7|pmid=27840788|pmc=5082574}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امتيازي صلاحيت مان مراد ڪنهن ڪريڊٽ خطري جي ماڊل جي اها قابليت آهي، جنهن سان اهو قرض واپس نه ڪندڙ ۽ قرض واپس ڪندڙ گراهڪن ۾ فرق ڪري سگهي. مٿين &quot;حساب&quot; واري حصي ۾ ڏنل &lt;math&gt;G_1&lt;/math&gt; وارو فارمولو آخري ماڊل ۽ ان جي انفرادي عنصرن ٻنهي جي امتيازي صلاحيت کي ماپڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو. اهو آباديءَ جي تشخيصي ماڊلن ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ **درستگيءَ جي نسبت** (ايڪيوريسي ريشو) سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

جيني اشاريو [[آن لائين ملاقاتي ايپليڪيشن|آن لائين ملاقاتي ايپليڪيشنن]] (ڊيٽنگ ايپس) ۾ موجود عدم مساوات جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=2015-03-25|title=Tinder Experiments II: Guys, unless you are really hot you are probably better off not wasting your…|url=https://medium.com/@worstonlinedater/tinder-experiments-ii-guys-unless-you-are-really-hot-you-are-probably-better-off-not-wasting-your-2ddf370a6e9a|access-date=2021-04-28|website=Medium|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Kopf|first=Dan|title=These statistics show why it's so hard to be an average man on dating apps|url=https://qz.com/1051462/these-statistics-show-why-its-so-hard-to-be-an-average-man-on-dating-apps/|access-date=2021-04-28|website=Quartz|date=15 August 2017|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪامينسڪي ۽ ڪريوتسوو&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Kaminskiy |first1=M.P.|last2=Krivtsov|first2=V.V.|date=2011|chapter=A Gini-Type Index for Aging/Rejuvenating Objects|title=Mathematical and Statistical Models and Methods in Reliability|location=Birkhäuser Boston|url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9780817649708|publisher=Springer|pages=133–140|isbn=978-0-8176-4970-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيني اشاريي جي تصور کي معاشيات مان [[اعتماديت جو نظريو]] (رلائبلٽي ٿيوري) ڏانهن وڌايو ۽ هڪ جيني-قسم جو اشاريو تجويز ڪيو، جيڪو مرمت نه ٿي سگهندڙ نظامن جي پوڙهائپ، يا مرمت لائق نظامن جي پوڙهائپ ۽ نئين سر بحالي جي درجي کي ماپڻ ۾ مدد ڏئي ٿو.

هي اشاريو −1 کان 1 جي وچ ۾ هوندو آهي ۽ تجربي تي ٻڌل توڙي پيراميٽرڪ عمر جي ورڇن ٻنهي لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ناڪاميءَ جي گهٽجندڙ شرح (ڊڪريزنگ فئليوئر ريٽ) واري ورڇن لاءِ ان جون قيمتون منفي، جڏهن ته ناڪاميءَ جي وڌندڙ شرح (انڪريزنگ فئليوئر ريٽ) واري ورڇن لاءِ مثبت هونديون آهن. صفر جي قيمت [[اُسري عمر جي ورڇ]] (اڪسپوننشل لائيف ڊسٽريبيوشن) يا [[همجنس پواسون نقطي عمل]] (Homogeneous Poisson Point Process) جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي.

== پڻ ڏسو ==

* [[تنوع جو اشاريو]]
* [[اقتصادي عدم مساوات]]
* [[گريٽ گيٽسبي وکر]]
* [[هرفنڊال-هرشمن اشاريو]]
* [[هوور اشاريو]] (رابن هوڊ اشاريو)
* [[انساني غربت جو اشاريو]]
* [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا ماپا]]
* [[ڪزنٽس وکر]]
* [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات موجب ملڪن جي فهرست]]
* [[عدم مساوات سان ترتيب ڏنل انساني ترقي اشاري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست]]
* [[دولت جي عدم مساوات موجب ملڪن جي فهرست]]
* [[آمريڪا جي رياستن جي جيني اشاريي موجب فهرست]]
* [[لورينز وکر]]
* [[ميٿيو اثر]]
* [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]
* [[آر او سي تجزيو]]
* [[سوئٽس اشاريو]]
* [[هاٿي وکر]]
* [[مثالي رياست]]
* [[سماجي ڀلائي]]
* [[سماجي ڀلائي جي معاشيات]]

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}</text>
      <sha1>dia4eyetowcr3z8q5borc3vdkkn2b4w</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399315</id>
      <parentid>399314</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T21:20:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399315</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="121595" sha1="a3iz83wo156nfmbq85gbdr636fmj9zf" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|جيني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

جيني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وڪڙ]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. جيني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وڪڙ جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب جيني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته جيني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته جيني اشاريي جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري جيني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (رليٽو مين ابسوليوٽ ڊفرنس) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وڪڙ تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته جيني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا جيني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته جيني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو جيني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو جيني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به جيني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

جيني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته جيني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، جيني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! جيني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وڪڙ معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وڪڙ جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وڪڙ جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وڪڙ کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وڪڙ کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي جيني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاريا ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو}}

جيني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاريي هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاريي جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاريي هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وڪڙ ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

جيني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي جيني عدد ۽ موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاريي اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا جيني اشاريي سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاريي]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاريي يا شوراڪس جمود اشاريي به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاريي جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاريي جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته جيني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==


جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (ڪيوموليٽو پروپورشن) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حدون ==

=== نسبتي، نه مطلق ===

جيني اشاريو هڪ **نسبتي** (رليٽو) ماپ آهي. ڪنهن ترقي پذير ملڪ ۾، جيتوڻيڪ مڪمل غربت ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽجي وڃي، تڏهن به آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات وڌڻ سبب جيني اشاريو وڌي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Dramatic Poverty Reduction in the Third World: Prospects and Needed Action|first=John W.|last=Mellor|publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute|date=2 June 1989|pages=18–20|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160551/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جو سبب اهو آهي ته جيني اشاريو دولت يا آمدنيءَ جي **نسبتي** ورڇ کي ماپي ٿو، نه ڪي ان جي **مطلق** (ابسوليوٽ) مقدار کي.

جيني اشاريو سادو ۽ سمجهڻ ۾ آسان آهي، پر اها ئي سادگي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اهم فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري سگهي ٿي ۽ مختلف آباديُن جي ڀيٽ کي گمراهه ڪندڙ بڻائي سگهي ٿي. مثال طور، 2010ع ۾ [[بنگلاديش]] (في فرد آمدني 1,693 آمريڪي ڊالر) ۽ [[نيدرلينڊز]] (في فرد آمدني 42,183 آمريڪي ڊالر) ٻنهي جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=undp2010a&gt;{{cite web|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development (2010 Human Development Report – see Stat Tables)|pages=152–156|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/chapters/}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن هوندي به، ٻنهي ملڪن ۾ زندگيءَ جو معيار، معاشي موقعا ۽ حقيقي آمدني هڪجهڙا نه هئا. يعني، ٻه ملڪ ساڳيو جيني اشاريو رکي سگهن ٿا، پر سندن دولت ۾ وڏو فرق موجود هجي.

ترقي يافته معيشت ۾ بنيادي ضرورتون تقريباً سڀني ماڻهن کي دستياب ٿي سگهن ٿيون، جڏهن ته ساڳئي جيني اشاري واري ڪنهن گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ ۾ گهٽ مطلق دولت سبب اهي ضرورتون گهڻن ماڻهن لاءِ دستياب نه هجن يا غيربرابر نموني دستياب هجن.

=== رياضياتي حدون ===

جيني اشاري جون ڪجهه رياضياتي حدون پڻ آهن. اهو **جمع پذير** (ايڊيٽو) نه آهي، تنهنڪري مختلف آبادي گروهن جا جيني اشاري گڏ ڪري يا انهن جو سراسري ڪڍي سڀني گروهن لاءِ صحيح جيني اشاريو حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول الف. مختلف آمدنيءَ جون ورڇون، پر ساڳيو جيني اشاريو&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt;
|-
! گهراڻن جو گروهه
! ملڪ الف جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! ملڪ ب جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || 9,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000 || 40,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || 48,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000 || 48,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || 55,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $200,000 || $200,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.2''' || '''0.2'''
|}

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن آباديءَ جي ڪل آمدني ساڳي هجي، تڏهن به ممڪن آهي ته مختلف آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ رکندڙ ٻن ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو ساڳيو هجي، خاص طور تي جڏهن سندن [[لورينز وکر]] هڪ ٻئي کي ڪٽيندا هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt; جدول الف اهڙي ئي هڪ مثال ڏيکاري ٿي. ٻنهي ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو 0.2 آهي، پر گهراڻن جي گروهن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ مختلف آهي.

ساڳيءَ ريت، جيڪڏهن هڪ آباديءَ ۾ هيٺين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪا به آمدني نه هجي ۽ مٿين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ آمدني برابر ورهايل هجي، ته جيني اشاريو 0.5 ٿيندو. ٻي آباديءَ ۾، جيڪڏهن هيٺين 75 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 25 سيڪڙو ۽ مٿين 25 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ 75 سيڪڙو آمدني هجي، ته اتي به جيني اشاريو 0.5 هوندو.

تنهنڪري، هڪجهڙي آمدني ۽ ساڳئي جيني اشاري واريون معيشتون آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان گهڻو مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿيون. بيلو ۽ ليبيراتي جو خيال آهي ته رڳو جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ٻن آباديُن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جي درجابندي هميشه ممڪن نه هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=Maio2007&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income inequality measures|first=Fernando G.|last=De Maio|journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health|year=2007|volume=61|issue=10|pages=849–852|doi=10.1136/jech.2006.052969|pmid=17873219|pmc=2652960}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳي طرح، ڪمپيوٽري سماجي سائنسدان [[فيبين اسٽيفني]] ڏيکاريو آهي ته روايتي جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي اندر موجود مخصوص سماجي يا معاشي گروهن (مثال طور ساڳئي عمر يا تعليم وارن ماڻهن) جي آمدنيءَ واري عدم مساوات کي ظاهر ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام رهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Stephany |first=Fabian |date=2017-12-01 |title=Who are Your Joneses? Socio-Specific Income Inequality and Trust |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |journal=Social Indicators Research |language=en |volume=134 |issue=3 |pages=877–898 |doi=10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |issn=1573-0921 |pmc=5684274 |pmid=29187771}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو دولت جي عدم مساوات کي لڪائي سگهي ٿو ===

جيني اشاريو ڪنهن ملڪ يا فرد جي **مطلق آمدني** بابت ڪا به ڄاڻ فراهم نٿو ڪري. ممڪن آهي ته ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهٽ هجي، پر دولت (wealth) جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهڻو هجي.

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، تنهنڪري اهو گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي استعمال ۾ موجود فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري ڇڏي ٿو. ساڳيءَ طرح، دولت کي به (سواءِ ان حصي جي جيڪو آمدني پيدا ڪري) نظرانداز ڪيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن سبب اهڙين حالتن ۾ برابريءَ جو تاثر پيدا ٿي سگهي ٿو، جتي مقابلي هيٺ آيل ماڻهو پنهنجي زندگيءَ جي مختلف مرحلن ۾ هجن.

مثال طور، [[سوئيڊن]] جهڙي دولت مند ملڪ ۾ استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو 0.31 آهي، جنهن مان نسبتاً برابريءَ جو تاثر ملي ٿو، پر دولت جو جيني اشاريو 0.79 کان 0.86 جي وچ ۾ آهي، جيڪو سماج ۾ دولت جي انتهائي غيربرابر ورڇ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Inequality Trends in Sweden 1978–2004|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Martin|last2=Flodén|journal=Review of Economic Dynamics|volume=13|issue=1|year=2010|pages=179–208|doi=10.1016/j.red.2009.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.629.9417}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Accounting for Swedish wealth inequality|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Paul|last2=Klein|date=January 2000|url=http://fmwww.bc.edu/repec/es2000/0883.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030519155531/https://www.econometricsociety.org/meetings/wc00/pdf/0883.pdf|archive-date=May 19, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تنهنڪري، آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو دولت جي ورڇ ۾ موجود عدم مساوات کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.

=== ملڪ جي ماپ ۽ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جو اثر ===

ننڍين آباديُن لاءِ جيني اشاريو عام طور هيٺاهين طرف لاڙو (downward bias) رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Small-Sample Bias of the Gini Coefficient: Results and Implications for Empirical Research|journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics|first=George|last=Deltas|date=February 2003|volume=85|issue=1|pages=226–234|doi=10.1162/rest.2003.85.1.226|jstor=3211637|bibcode=2003RvE&amp;S..85..226D|s2cid=57572560}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهنڪري ننڍي آبادي، رياست يا ملڪ، يا اهڙيون معيشتون جن ۾ معاشي تنوع گهٽ هجي، اڪثر گهٽ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪن ٿيون.

ان جي ابتڙ، وڏي آبادي ۽ وڌيڪ متنوع معيشتن لاءِ عام طور وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو متوقع هوندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن سڄي دنيا جي معيشت ۽ سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏجي ڏٺو وڃي، ته مختلف محقق عالمي جيني اشاري جو اندازو 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ لڳائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10 /&gt;

ٻين عدم مساوات وارن اشارن وانگر، جيني اشاريو به انگن اکرن جي **تفصيل جي سطح** (granularity) کان متاثر ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي پنجن 20 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (گهٽ تفصيل) ۾ ورهايو وڃي ته حاصل ٿيندڙ جيني اشاريو عام طور ويهن 5 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (وڌيڪ تفصيل) جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ٿيندو.

فلپ مونفورٽ ڏيکاريو آهي ته جيڪڏهن مختلف مطالعي ۾ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جي سطح هڪجهڙي نه هجي يا واضح نه ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ڪيل ڀيٽون گهڻي حد تائين بي معنيٰ ٿي سگهن ٿيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Convergence of EU regions: Measures and evolution|first=Philippe|last=Monfort|publisher=European Union – Europa|page=6|year=2008|url=http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160544/http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آباديءَ ۾ تبديليون ===

جيني اشارئي سان ماپيل آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ تبديلي، سماج جي بناوت ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ آباديءَ ۾ واڌ (پيدائش جي شرح وڌڻ)، آباديءَ جي پوڙهائپ، لڏپلاڻ يا هجرت، ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت.&lt;ref name=Kwok10&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution of Hong Kong and the Gini Coefficient|author=KWOK Kwok Chuen|year=2010|publisher=The Government of Hong Kong, China|url=http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227043822/http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني اشاري جي هڪ ٻي حد اها آهي ته اهو [[مساوات پسندي]] (egalitarianism) جو مڪمل پيمانو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو رڳو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ تفاوت کي ماپي ٿو. مثال طور، فرض ڪريو ته ٻه هڪجهڙا مساوات پسند ملڪ مختلف [[اميگريشن قانون]] اختيار ڪن ٿا. جيڪڏهن انهن مان هڪ ملڪ گهٽ آمدني يا غريب مهاجرن جو وڌيڪ حصو قبول ڪري، ته اهو ملڪ وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪندو، ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت ان ۾ آمدنيءَ جي وڌيڪ عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ٿيندو، جيتوڻيڪ اها تبديلي سماجي پاليسيءَ جي نتيجي ۾ آيل هجي.

=== گهراڻو بمقابله فرد ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول ب. ساڳي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ، پر مختلف جيني اشاريا
|-
! گهراڻي جو نمبر
! ملڪ جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! گڏيل گهراڻن جو نمبر
! ملڪ الف جي گڏيل سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 1 ۽ 2 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 50,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3 ۽ 4 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 90,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5 ۽ 6 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 130,000
|-
| 6 || 70,000
|-
| 7 || 80,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7 ۽ 8 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 170,000
|-
| 8 || 90,000
|-
| 9 || 120,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9 ۽ 10 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 270,000
|-
| 10 || 150,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $710,000 || || $710,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.303''' || || '''0.293'''
|}

جيڪڏهن ساڳئي معيشت ۽ ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ لاءِ جيني اشاريو فردن بدران گهراڻن جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو وڃي، ته نتيجا مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. جيڪڏهن گهراڻن جا انگ اکر استعمال ڪيا وڃن، ته آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري جو قدر ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته &quot;گهراڻي&quot; جي تعريف ڪيئن ڪئي وئي آهي. جڏهن مختلف آباديُن ۾ گهراڻي جي تعريف هڪجهڙي نه هجي، تڏهن انهن جي ڀيٽ بامعنيٰ نه هوندي.

ان کان علاوه، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري ۾ تبديلي گهراڻي جي جوڙجڪ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو به ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيئن طلاقن ۾ واڌ يا [[گڏيل ڪٽنب]]ن جو ورهائجي [[ايڪو ڪٽنب]]ن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ.

ڊيننگر ۽ [[لن اسڪوائر]] (1996ع) ڏيکاريو ته فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاري کان مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، آمريڪا لاءِ هنن فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو 0.35، جڏهن ته فرانس لاءِ 0.43 معلوم ڪيو. سندن فرد-بنياد واري طريقي موجب، 108 ملڪن مان [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.62)، [[ملائيشيا]] جو ايشيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50)، [[برازيل]] جو لاطيني آمريڪا ۽ ڪيريبين علائقي ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.57)، ۽ [[ترڪي]] جو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50) هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Deininger |first1=K. |last2=Squire |first2=L. |title=A New Data Set Measuring Income Inequality |journal=The World Bank Economic Review |date=September 1996 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=565–591 |doi=10.1093/wber/10.3.565 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ارب پتي [[ٿامس ڪوڪ]] جو چوڻ آهي ته هانگ ڪانگ جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو (2010ع ۾ 0.434)&lt;ref name=undp2010a /&gt; جزوي طور ان جي آباديءَ جي جوڙجڪ ۾ آيل تبديلين سبب وڌيڪ رهيو آهي. گذريل ڏهاڪن دوران هانگ ڪانگ ۾ ننڍن گهراڻن، بزرگن تي ٻڌل گهراڻن ۽ اڪيلي رهندڙ بزرگ ماڻهن جو تعداد وڌيو آهي. نتيجي طور، ساڳي گڏيل آمدني هاڻي وڌيڪ گهراڻن ۾ ورهائجي وڃي ٿي. ڪوڪ جو خيال آهي ته آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو سماج جي اهڙين بناوتي تبديلين کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

هن حصي ۾ ڏنل آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ (جدول ج) پڻ ڏيکاري ٿي ته هي مسئلو رڳو هانگ ڪانگ تائين محدود ناهي. آمريڪي مردم شماري اداري موجب، 1979ع کان 2010ع تائين آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي بناوت ۾ نمايان تبديليون آيون، مهانگائيءَ مطابق سڀني آمدني گروهن جي آمدني وڌي، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ وقت سان گڏ وڌيڪ مٿين آمدني وارن گروهن ڏانهن منتقل ٿي، جڏهن ته ساڳئي عرصي دوران آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو پڻ وڌيو.&lt;ref name=uscb2011 /&gt;&lt;ref name=cbo.p.10&gt;[http://www.cbo.gov/doc.cfm?index=12485 Congressional Budget Office: Trends in the Distribution of Household Income Between 1979 and 2007]. October 2011. see pp. i–x, with definitions on ii–iii&lt;/ref&gt;

=== لمحي واري عدم مساوات بمقابله سڄي زندگيءَ واري عدم مساوات ===

جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي بناوت ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جي اثرن کي الڳ ڪري نٿو سگهي.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

زندگيءَ جي پوري عرصي تي ٻڌل ماپن جي اهميت کي نظر ۾ رکندي، جيني اشاريو ڪنهن هڪ مخصوص وقت تي برابريءَ جو رڳو هڪ اندازو (point estimate) پيش ڪري ٿو ۽ وقت سان گڏ آمدنيءَ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين کي نظرانداز ڪري ٿو.

عام طور تي، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن سماج ۾ نوجوانن يا بزرگ ماڻهن جو تناسب وڌي وڃي، ته جيني اشاريو ظاهري طور وڌيڪ عدم مساوات ڏيکاري سگهي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نوجوان ماڻهن وٽ عام طور گهٽ آمدني ۽ دولت هوندي آهي، جڏهن ته عمر وڌڻ سان اهي وڌنديون آهن.

تنهنڪري، آباديءَ جي عمر جي ورڇ ۽ مختلف آمدني وارن طبقن جي وچ ۾ نقل و حرڪت جهڙا عنصر، آباديءَ جي بناوت جي اثرن کي نظر ۾ رکڻ کان سواءِ، اهڙي عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا جيڪا حقيقت ۾ موجود نه هجي.

اهڙيءَ طرح، ڪنهن معيشت جو ڪنهن خاص وقت تي جيني اشاريو ٻي معيشت جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿو، پر جيڪڏهن ساڳين ماڻهن جي سڄي زندگيءَ جي آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي جيني اشاريو ڳڻيو وڃي، ته ممڪن آهي ته اها معيشت ٻيءَ کان وڌيڪ برابر ثابت ٿئي، جيتوڻيڪ هڪ مخصوص وقت تي ان جو جيني اشاريو وڌيڪ نظر اچي ٿو.&lt;ref name=blomq81&gt;{{Cite journal |first=N. |last=Blomquist |s2cid=154519005 |year=1981 |title=A comparison of distributions of annual and lifetime income: Sweden around 1970 |journal=Review of Income and Wealth |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1981.tb00227.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== غير نقدي فائدا ۽ جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني ===

جيڪڏهن [[جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني]] (انڪم ان ڪائينڊ) کي مالي قدر ڏيڻ ۾ درستگي نه هجي، ته اها جيني اشاري جي حقيقي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ واري صلاحيت کي گهٽائي ڇڏي ٿي.

جيتوڻيڪ ٽيڪسن ۽ نقد منتقلي وارين ادائگين جو حساب نسبتاً سولو هوندو آهي، پر حڪومت طرفان فراهم ڪيل ٻيا فائدا، جهڙوڪ رعايتي رهائش، طبي سهولتون ۽ تعليم، جو مالي قدر مقرر ڪرڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن جو قدر انهن جي معيار ۽ فراهم ڪيل سهولتن جي مقدار تي دارومدار رکي ٿو.

آزاد منڊي جي غير موجودگيءَ ۾، اهڙين سهولتن کي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جو حصو سمجهي مالي قدر ڏيڻ هڪ موضوعي (سبجيڪٽو) عمل آهي. تنهنڪري جيني اشاري جو نظرياتي ماڊل اهڙن اندازن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ تي ڀاڙي ٿو.

پاڻڀرائي (سبسسٽنس) تي ٻڌل ۽ [[غير رسمي معيشت]]ن ۾، ماڻهن جي آمدنيءَ جو وڏو حصو پئسي بدران ٻين صورتن ۾ هوندو آهي، جهڙوڪ [[پاڻڀري زراعت]] يا [[مال جي بدلي مال]] (بارٽر) ذريعي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدني. اهڙي آمدني عام طور اڀرندڙ ۽ منتقلي واري معيشتن، خاص طور تي صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا، لاطيني آمريڪا، ايشيا ۽ اوڀر يورپ جي گهٽ آمدني وارن ماڻهن وٽ وڌيڪ هوندي آهي.

غير رسمي معيشت عالمي روزگار جو اڌ کان وڌيڪ حصو فراهم ڪري ٿي، ۽ صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا جي ڪجهه غريب ملڪن ۾، جتي سرڪاري جيني اشاريا به تمام وڌيڪ آهن، روزگار جو 90 سيڪڙو تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

شنائڊر ۽ سندس ساٿين 2010ع ۾ 162 ملڪن تي ڪيل مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته دنيا جي مجموعي [[مجموعي ملڪي پيداوار]] (GDP) جو لڳ ڀڳ 31.2 سيڪڙو، يعني لڳ ڀڳ 20 ٽريلين آمريڪي ڊالر، غير رسمي معيشت مان پيدا ٿئي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Friedrich|last1=Schneider|first2=Andreas|last2=Buehn|first3=Claudio E.|last3=Montenegro|s2cid=56060172|year=2010|title=New Estimates for the Shadow Economies all over the World|journal=International Economic Journal|volume=24|issue=4|pages=443–461|doi=10.1080/10168737.2010.525974|hdl=10986/4929|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾، امير شهري آباديءَ کان سواءِ تقريباً سڀني آمدني وارن طبقن لاءِ غير رسمي معيشت آمدنيءَ جو بنيادي ذريعو آهي. ترقي يافته ملڪن ۾ به قومي GDP جو اندازاً 8 سيڪڙو (آمريڪا) کان 27 سيڪڙو (اٽلي) تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

غير رسمي يا پاڇي واري معيشت مان حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي صحيح مقدار ۽ ان جي ورڇ جو اندازو لڳائڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، جنهن سبب آمدنيءَ جي حقيقي جيني اشاري جو صحيح اندازو لڳائڻ پڻ مشڪل ٿي پوي ٿو.&lt;ref name=mfeld&gt;{{cite web|title=Is income inequality really the problem? (Overview)|first=Martin|last=Feldstein|date=August 1998|publisher=US Federal Reserve|url=http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|access-date=2 August 2012|archive-date=3 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160558/http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=tandw&gt;{{cite book|title=Principles of Microeconomics: Global Financial Crisis Edition|first1=John|last1=Taylor|first2=Akila|last2=Weerapana|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4390-7821-1|pages=416–418|publisher=Cengage Learning}}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهڙي آمدنيءَ بابت مختلف مفروضا ۽ اندازا مختلف جيني اشاريا پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income Inequality and the Informal Economy in Transition Economies|first1=J. Barkley Jr.|last1=Rosser|first2=Marina V.|last2=Rosser|first3=Ehsan|last3=Ahmed|s2cid=49552052|journal=Journal of Comparative Economics|date=March 2000|volume=28|issue=1|pages=156–171|doi=10.1006/jcec.2000.1645}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Earnings inequality and the informal economy: evidence from Serbia|first1=Gorana|last1=Krstić|first2=Peter|last2=Sanfey|publisher=European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|date=February 2010|url=http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160550/http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-date=2012-08-03|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite report|title=The Size of the Shadow Economies of 145 Countries all over the World: First Results over the Period 1999 to 2003|first=Friedrich|last=Schneider|date=December 2004|ssrn=636661|hdl=10419/20729}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== متبادل طريقا ==

جيني اشاريي جي حدن کي نظر ۾ رکندي، آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ يا عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ ان سان گڏ يا ان جي متبادل طور ٻيا شمارياتي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، **اينٽروپي تي ٻڌل ماپا** (entropy measures) وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جن ۾ [[ٿيئل اشاريو]] (Theil Index) ۽ [[اوسط لاگ انحراف]] (مين لاگ ڊيويئيشن) شامل آهن. اهي ٻئي [[عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو]] (جنرلائيزڊ اينٽروپي انڊيڪس) جا خاص مثال آهن، يا ساڳئي مفهوم موجب [[ايٽڪنسن اشاريو]] (ايٽڪنسن انڊيڪس) جا پڻ خاص مثال سمجهيا وڃن ٿا.

اورٽيگا جو ٻه-پيماني وارو ماڊل (اورٽيگا ٽو-پيراميٽر ماڊل)&lt;ref name=&quot;ortega,1991&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Ortega | first1=P. | last2=Martín | first2=G. | last3=Fernández | first3=A. | last4=Ladoux | first4=M. | last5=García | first5=A. | title=A New Functional Form for Estimating Lorenz Curves | journal=Review of Income and Wealth | volume=37 | issue=4 | date=1991 | issn=0034-6586 | doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1991.tb00383.x | pages=447–452}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيني اشاريي جهڙن هڪ-پيماني وارن ماڊلن جي ڀيٽ ۾ سماجي نتيجن بابت وڌيڪ تفصيلي اڳڪٿيون ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت رکي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Blesch,2022&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Blesch | first1=Kristin | last2=Hauser | first2=Oliver P. | last3=Jachimowicz | first3=Jon M. | title=Measuring inequality beyond the Gini coefficient may clarify conflicting findings | journal=Nature Human Behaviour | volume=6 | issue=11 | date=2022 | issn=2397-3374 | pmid=36038775 | pmc=7614289 | doi=10.1038/s41562-022-01430-7 | pages=1525–1536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهو پڻ معلوم ٿيو آهي ته جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي وچئين حصي ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين لاءِ ضرورت کان وڌيڪ حساس هوندو آهي. ان ڪري، [[وچين آمدني]] (ميڊيئن انڪم) تي ٻڌل طريقا ان جا متبادل طور استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;u376&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last=Gastwirth | first=Joseph L. | title=Is the Gini Index of Inequality Overly Sensitive to Changes in the Middle of the Income Distribution? | journal=Statistics and Public Policy | volume=4 | issue=1 | date=2017 | issn=2330-443X | doi=10.1080/2330443X.2017.1360813 | pages=1–11 | doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ٻين شمارياتي ماپن سان لاڳاپو ==

ٻه-درجا (بائنري) درجابندي ڪندڙ نظام (ڪلاسيفائر سسٽم) جي تشخيصي ڪارڪردگيءَ جو هڪ خلاصي ماپو پڻ **جيني عدد** سڏيو ويندو آهي. ان جي تعريف [[رسيور آپريٽنگ خاصيت]] (ROC) وکر ۽ ان جي قطري ليڪ جي وچ واري ايراضيءَ جي ٻيڻي طور ڪئي ويندي آهي. هي ماپو [[آر او سي وڪڙ هيٺان ايراضي]] (ايريا انڊر دي ڪرو؛ AUC) سان لاڳاپيل آهي، جنهن کي هن مساوات سان ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;AUC = (G+1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=hand&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hand |first1=David J. |last2=Till |first2=Robert J. |title=A Simple Generalisation of the Area Under the ROC Curve for Multiple Class Classification Problems |journal=Machine Learning |date=2001 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=171–186 |doi=10.1023/A:1010920819831 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهو [[مان-وِٽني يو آزمائش]] آزمائش سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ٻنهي جيني عددن جي تعريف مخصوص وکرن جي وچ واري ايراضيءَ جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي ۽ انهن ۾ ڪجهه هڪجهڙيون خاصيتون موجود آهن، پر شمارياتي ورڇ جي جيني عدد ۽ درجابندي ڪندڙ نظام جي جيني عدد جي وچ ۾ ڪو سڌو ۽ سادو رياضيائي لاڳاپو موجود ناهي.

جيني اشاريو [[پيئٽرا اشاريو]] (Pietra Index) سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي. اهي ٻئي شمارياتي ناهمگني (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل ھيٽروجينيئٽي) کي ماپيندا آهن ۽ [[لورينز وکر]] ۽ قطري ليڪ مان اخذ ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Iddo I.|last1=Eliazar |first2=Igor M.|last2=Sokolov |year=2010 |title=Measuring statistical heterogeneity: The Pietra index|journal=Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications|volume=389|issue=1|pages=117–125|doi=10.1016/j.physa.2009.08.006|bibcode=2010PhyA..389..117E}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Wen-Chung |title=Probabilistic analysis of global performances of diagnostic tests: interpreting the Lorenz curve-based summary measures |journal=Statistics in Medicine |date=28 February 1999 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=455–471 |doi=10.1002/(sici)1097-0258(19990228)18:4&lt;455::aid-sim44&gt;3.0.co;2-a |pmid=10070686 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;

ڪجهه شعبن، جهڙوڪ [[ماحوليات]]، ۾ تنوع (ڊائورسٽي) کي ماپڻ لاءِ **الٽو سمپسن اشاريو** (&lt;math&gt;1/\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. ان کي [[سمپسن اشاريو]] (&lt;math&gt;\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) سان نه گڏي ويهڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Measurement of Species Diversity|first=Robert K.|last=Peet|s2cid=83517584|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=5|year=1974|issue=1|pages=285–307|jstor=2096890|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001441|bibcode=1974AnRES...5..285P }}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهي اشارا جيني اشاريي سان لاڳاپيل آهن. الٽو سمپسن اشاريو تنوع وڌڻ سان وڌندو آهي، جڏهن ته سمپسن اشاريو ۽ جيني اشاريو تنوع وڌڻ سان گهٽجندا آهن. سمپسن اشاري جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 جي وچ ۾ هونديون آهن، جتي 0 وڌ ۾ وڌ تنوع ۽ 1 گهٽ ۾ گهٽ تنوع (يا ناهمگني) کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو. ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ تنوع جا اڪثر اشارا ناهمگني وڌڻ سان وڌندا آهن، تنهنڪري سمپسن اشاري کي اڪثر الٽي سمپسن اشاري يا ان جي متمم (&lt;math&gt;1-\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) ۾ تبديل ڪيو ويندو آهي، جنهن کي **جيني-سمپسن اشاريو** چيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Measurement of Species Diversity|first=Robert K.|last=Peet|s2cid=83517584|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=5|year=1974|issue=1|pages=285–307|jstor=2096890|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001441|bibcode=1974AnRES...5..285P }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[لورينز وکر]] دولت جي ورڇ کي گرافيڪي صورت ۾ ڏيکارڻ جو هڪ ٻيو طريقو آهي. اهو جيني عدد کان نَوَ سال اڳ متعارف ڪرايو ويو هو. جيني عدد ان ڳالهه کي مقداري صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته لورينز وکر، مڪمل برابريءَ واري ليڪ (جنهن جو [[لاڙو]] 1 هوندو آهي) کان ڪيترو هٽي ٿو.

[[هوور اشاريو]] (ھوور انڊيڪس)، جيڪو **رابن هوڊ اشاريو** (رابن ھوڊ انڊيڪس) جي نالي سان پڻ سڃاتو وڃي ٿو، اهو ٻڌائي ٿو ته ڪل آباديءَ جي آمدنيءَ مان ڪيترو سيڪڙو ٻيهر ورهائڻو پوندو ته جيئن جيني اشاريو 0 (يعني مڪمل برابري) ٿي وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hoover Index |url=https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/economics/hoover-index/ |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=Corporate Finance Institute |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== جديد دور کان اڳ جي سماجن جا جيني اشاريا ==

گذريل ڪجهه ڏهاڪن دوران، محققن ويهين صديءَ کان اڳ وارن سماجن لاءِ جيني اشاريي جو اندازو لڳائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي آهي. ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان دور لاءِ گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ بابت سروي ۽ آمدني ٽيڪس جا انگ اکر موجود نه آهن، تنهنڪري محققن متبادل اشاري (پراڪسي ويريئبلز) استعمال ڪيا آهن.

انهن ۾ وچئين دور جي يورپي شهري رياستن ۾ دولت تي لاڳو ٽيڪس، [[رومي مصر]] ۾ زمين جي ملڪيت جا نمونا، قديم [[يونان]] کان وٺي [[ازٽيڪ]] ميڪسيڪو تائين سماجن ۾ گهرن جي ماپ ۾ فرق، ۽ بابلي سماج ۾ وراثت ۽ ڏاج جا رڪارڊ شامل آهن.
ٻيا ڪجهه انگ اکر دولت يا آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي سڌو سنئون ظاهر نٿا ڪن، پر انهن کي عدم مساوات جو عڪس سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جهڙوڪ ڀاڙي ۽ اجرت جي وچ وارو تناسب، يا محنت ۽ سرمائي جي وچ وارو تناسب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=[[Walter Scheidel]]|title=The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century|publisher=Princeton University Press|date=2017|isbn=978-0-691-16502-8|pages=15–16}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ٻيا استعمال ==

جيتوڻيڪ جيني اشاريو معاشيات ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر نظرياتي طور ان کي سائنس جي هر اهڙي شعبي ۾ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو ڪنهن ورڇ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[ماحوليات]] ۾ جيني اشاريي کي [[حياتياتي تنوع]] جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي، جتي نسلن جي گڏيل تناسب کي فردن جي گڏيل تناسب جي مقابلي ۾ ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=natureArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last1 = Wittebolle | first1 = Lieven | title = Initial community evenness favours functionality under selective stress | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | year = 2009 | volume = 458 | issue = 7238 | pmid = 19270679 | pages = 623–626 | doi = 10.1038/nature07840| display-authors = 2 | last2 = Marzorati | first2 = Massimo | last3 = Balloi | first3 = Annalisa | last4 = Daffonchio | first4 = Daniele | last5 = Heylen | first5 = Kim | last6 = De Vos | first6 = Paul | last7 = Verstraete | first7 = Willy | last8 = Boon | first8 = Nico | bibcode = 2009Natur.458..623W | s2cid = 4419280 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

صحت جي شعبي ۾، ان کي آباديءَ ۾ صحت سان لاڳاپيل [[زندگيءَ جي معيار]] جي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=popHealthArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last=Asada | first=Yukiko | title = Assessment of the health of Americans: the average health-related quality of life and its inequality across individuals and groups | journal = Population Health Metrics | year = 2005 | volume = 3 | pmid=16014174 | article-number = 7 | pmc=1192818 | doi = 10.1186/1478-7954-3-7 | doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

تعليم ۾، ان کي يونيورسٽين جي وچ ۾ عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=MinervaArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last1= Halffman | first1= Willem | last2= Leydesdorff | first2= Loet | title = Is Inequality Among Universities Increasing? Gini Coefficients and the Elusive Rise of Elite Universities | journal = Minerva | year = 2010 | volume = 48 | pmid= 20401157 | issue= 1 | pages = 55–72 | pmc= 2850525 | doi = 10.1007/s11024-010-9141-3| arxiv= 1001.2921 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪيميا ۾، جيني اشاريي کي [[پروٽين ڪائنيز روڪيندڙ|پروٽين ڪائنيز روڪيندڙن]] (پروٽين ڪائنيز انھبيٽرز) جي مختلف ڪائنيزن جي مقابلي ۾ چونڊ کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=JMedChemArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last = Graczyk | first = Piotr | title = Gini Coefficient: A New Way To Express Selectivity of Kinase Inhibitors against a Family of Kinases | journal = Journal of Medicinal Chemistry | year = 2007 | volume = 50 | issue = 23 | pmid = 17948979 | pages = 5773–5779 | doi = 10.1021/jm070562u}}&lt;/ref&gt;

انجنيئرنگ ۾، ان کي مختلف ٽرئفڪ وهڪرن مان ايندڙ پيڪٽن جي موڪل (پيڪٽ شيڊولنگ) دوران انٽرنيٽ روٽرن جي انصاف پسندي جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=GreedyFairQueueing&gt;{{Cite book |first1=Hongyuan |last1=Shi |first2=Harish |last2=Sethu |contribution=Greedy Fair Queueing: A Goal-Oriented Strategy for Fair Real-Time Packet Scheduling |pages=345–356 |title=Proceedings of the 24th IEEE Real-Time Systems Symposium |publisher=[[IEEE Computer Society]] |isbn=978-0-7695-2044-5 |year=2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[مشين سکيا]] ۾، ان کي مختلف قسمن جي انگن اکرن، جهڙوڪ تصويرن ۽ متن، جي ويڪٽر جڳهن ۾ گهڻ-بمقابله-گهڻ مشابهت کي ماپڻ لاءِ هڪ گڏيل اشاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي. اهو پڻ ڏيکاريو ويو آهي ته محدود معلومات وارن حالتن ۾ تربيتي نمونن جي چونڊ ۾ هي اشاري مؤثر رهنمائي فراهم ڪري ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | last1 = Fauber | first1 = Ben | title = Gini Coefficient as a Unified Metric for Evaluating Many-versus-Many Similarity in Vector Spaces. | date = 2024 | volume = abs/2411.07983 | arxiv = 2411.07983 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني اشاريو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[ڪريڊٽ ريٽنگ]] نظامن جي امتيازي صلاحيت کي ماپڻ لاءِ پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور تي [[ڪريڊٽ خطري]] جي انتظام ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=The Analytics of Risk Model Validation (Quantitative Finance)|editor1-first=George A.|editor1-last=Christodoulakis|editor2-first=Stephen|editor2-last=Satchell|isbn=978-0-7506-8158-2|date=November 2007|publisher=Academic Press}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2004ع ۾، [[جينيفر لوٽز]] هڪ مقالي ۾ جيني اشاريي کي &quot;ڪهڪشاني تصوير جي پکسلن جي روشنيءَ جي قدرن جي نسبتي ورڇ&quot; جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو ۽ اهو نتيجو ڪڍيو ته هي [[الٽرا-لومينس انفرا ريڊ ڪهڪشان]]ن (ULIRGs) کي عام ڪهڪشانن کان ڌار ڪرڻ جو هڪ معتبر طريقو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Lotz |first1=Jennifer M. |last2=Primack |first2=Joel |last3=Madau |first3=Piero |date=July 2004 |title=A New Nonparametric Approach to Galaxy Morphological Classification |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004AJ....128..163L/abstract |journal=The Astronomical Journal |language=en |volume=128 |issue=1 |pages=163–182 |doi=10.1086/421849 |issn=0004-6256|arxiv=astro-ph/0311352 |bibcode=2004AJ....128..163L }}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کان پوءِ جيني اشاريو [[ڪهڪشانن جي بناوتي درجابندي]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Florian |first1=Michael K. |last2=Li |first2=Nan |last3=Gladders |first3=Michael D. |date=2016-11-30 |title=The Gini Coefficient As a Morphological Measurement of Strongly Lensed Galaxies in the Same Plane |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=832 |issue=2 |pages=168 |doi=10.3847/0004-637X/832/2/168 |doi-access=free|issn=0004-637X|arxiv=1511.03617 |bibcode=2016ApJ...832..168F }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rodriguez-Gomez |first1=Vicente |last2=Lotz |first2=Jennifer |last3=Snyder |first3=Greg |date=January 2022 |title=statmorph: Non-parametric morphological diagnostics of galaxy images |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022ascl.soft01010R/abstract |journal=Astrophysics Source Code Library |language=en |pages=ascl:2201.010 |bibcode=2022ascl.soft01010R }}&lt;/ref&gt;

2005ع جي هڪ مطالعي ۾ آمريڪي مردم شماري جا انگ اکر استعمال ڪري گهرن ۾ ڪمپيوٽر جي ملڪيت جو جائزو ورتو ويو ۽ جيني اشاريي جي ذريعي اڇي فام ۽ آفريقي-آمريڪي آباديءَ جي وچ ۾ ڊجيٽل عدم مساوات ماپي وئي. نتيجن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته مجموعي عدم مساوات گهٽجڻ باوجود، ڪمپيوٽر جي ملڪيت ۾ عدم مساوات اڇي فام گهراڻن ۾ نمايان طور گهٽ هئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chakraborty|first1=J|last2=Bosman|first2=MM|title=Measuring the digital divide in the United States: race, income, and personal computer ownership|journal=Prof Geogr|year=2005|volume=57|issue=3|pages=395–410|doi=10.1111/j.0033-0124.2005.00486.x|bibcode=2005ProfG..57..395C|s2cid=154401826}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2016ع ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ هم جائزي واري مطالعي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته علاج تي مرڪوز ڊجيٽل صحت جي سماجي نيٽ ورڪن ۾ شرڪت جي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ جيني اشاريو مفيد ۽ درست آهي، پر اڪيلو استعمال ڪرڻ سان اهو نيٽ ورڪ جي مجموعي ماپ کي نظر ۾ نٿو رکي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Mierlo|first1=T|last2=Hyatt|first2=D|last3=Ching|first3=A|title=Employing the Gini coefficient to measure participation inequality in treatment-focused Digital Health Social Networks|journal=Netw Model Anal Health Inform Bioinforma|date=2016|volume=5|issue=32|pages=32|doi=10.1007/s13721-016-0140-7|pmid=27840788|pmc=5082574}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امتيازي صلاحيت مان مراد ڪنهن ڪريڊٽ خطري جي ماڊل جي اها قابليت آهي، جنهن سان اهو قرض واپس نه ڪندڙ ۽ قرض واپس ڪندڙ گراهڪن ۾ فرق ڪري سگهي. مٿين &quot;حساب&quot; واري حصي ۾ ڏنل &lt;math&gt;G_1&lt;/math&gt; وارو فارمولو آخري ماڊل ۽ ان جي انفرادي عنصرن ٻنهي جي امتيازي صلاحيت کي ماپڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو. اهو آباديءَ جي تشخيصي ماڊلن ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ **درستگيءَ جي نسبت** (ايڪيوريسي ريشو) سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

جيني اشاريو [[آن لائين ملاقاتي ايپليڪيشن|آن لائين ملاقاتي ايپليڪيشنن]] (ڊيٽنگ ايپس) ۾ موجود عدم مساوات جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=2015-03-25|title=Tinder Experiments II: Guys, unless you are really hot you are probably better off not wasting your…|url=https://medium.com/@worstonlinedater/tinder-experiments-ii-guys-unless-you-are-really-hot-you-are-probably-better-off-not-wasting-your-2ddf370a6e9a|access-date=2021-04-28|website=Medium|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Kopf|first=Dan|title=These statistics show why it's so hard to be an average man on dating apps|url=https://qz.com/1051462/these-statistics-show-why-its-so-hard-to-be-an-average-man-on-dating-apps/|access-date=2021-04-28|website=Quartz|date=15 August 2017|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪامينسڪي ۽ ڪريوتسوو&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Kaminskiy |first1=M.P.|last2=Krivtsov|first2=V.V.|date=2011|chapter=A Gini-Type Index for Aging/Rejuvenating Objects|title=Mathematical and Statistical Models and Methods in Reliability|location=Birkhäuser Boston|url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9780817649708|publisher=Springer|pages=133–140|isbn=978-0-8176-4970-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيني اشاريي جي تصور کي معاشيات مان [[اعتماديت جو نظريو]] (رلائبلٽي ٿيوري) ڏانهن وڌايو ۽ هڪ جيني-قسم جو اشاريو تجويز ڪيو، جيڪو مرمت نه ٿي سگهندڙ نظامن جي پوڙهائپ، يا مرمت لائق نظامن جي پوڙهائپ ۽ نئين سر بحالي جي درجي کي ماپڻ ۾ مدد ڏئي ٿو.

هي اشاريو −1 کان 1 جي وچ ۾ هوندو آهي ۽ تجربي تي ٻڌل توڙي پيراميٽرڪ عمر جي ورڇن ٻنهي لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ناڪاميءَ جي گهٽجندڙ شرح (ڊڪريزنگ فئليوئر ريٽ) واري ورڇن لاءِ ان جون قيمتون منفي، جڏهن ته ناڪاميءَ جي وڌندڙ شرح (انڪريزنگ فئليوئر ريٽ) واري ورڇن لاءِ مثبت هونديون آهن. صفر جي قيمت [[اُسري عمر جي ورڇ]] (اڪسپوننشل لائيف ڊسٽريبيوشن) يا [[همجنس پواسون نقطي عمل]] (Homogeneous Poisson Point Process) جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي.

== پڻ ڏسو ==

* [[تنوع جو اشاريو]]
* [[اقتصادي عدم مساوات]]
* [[گريٽ گيٽسبي وکر]]
* [[هرفنڊال-هرشمن اشاريو]]
* [[هوور اشاريو]] (رابن هوڊ اشاريو)
* [[انساني غربت جو اشاريو]]
* [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا ماپا]]
* [[ڪزنٽس وکر]]
* [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات موجب ملڪن جي فهرست]]
* [[عدم مساوات سان ترتيب ڏنل انساني ترقي اشاري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست]]
* [[دولت جي عدم مساوات موجب ملڪن جي فهرست]]
* [[آمريڪا جي رياستن جي جيني اشاريي موجب فهرست]]
* [[لورينز وکر]]
* [[ميٿيو اثر]]
* [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]
* [[آر او سي تجزيو]]
* [[سوئٽس اشاريو]]
* [[هاٿي وکر]]
* [[مثالي رياست]]
* [[سماجي ڀلائي]]
* [[سماجي ڀلائي جي معاشيات]]

== حوالا ==

{{Reflist|30em}}

== وڌيڪ مطالعي لاء==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book | last1=Amiel | first1=Y. | last2=Cowell | first2=F.&amp;nbsp;A. | year=1999 | title=Thinking about Inequality | publisher=Cambridge | isbn=978-0-521-46696-7}}
* {{Cite book | first=Sudhir | last=Anand | year=1983 | title=Inequality and Poverty in Malaysia | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=New York | isbn=978-0-19-520153-6}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Brown | first=Malcolm | title=Using Gini-Style Indices to Evaluate the Spatial Patterns of Health Practitioners: Theoretical Considerations and an Application Based on Alberta Data | journal=Social Science &amp; Medicine | year=1994 | volume=38 | pages=1243–1256 | doi=10.1016/0277-9536(94)90189-9 | pmid=8016689 | issue=9}}
* {{Cite book | first=S.&amp;nbsp;R. | last=Chakravarty | year=1990 | title=Ethical Social Index Numbers | publisher=Springer-Verlag | location=New York | isbn=978-0-387-52274-6 }}
* {{Cite book | first=Angus | last=Deaton | year=1997 | title=Analysis of Household Surveys | publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press | location=Baltimore MD | isbn=978-0-585-23787-9 }}
* {{Cite journal | title=Bootstrapping the Gini coefficient of inequality | journal=Ecology | year=1987 | volume=68 | pages=1548–1551 | doi=10.2307/1939238 | jstor=1939238 | issue=5 |last1 = Dixon| first1=Philip M. | last2=Weiner | first2=Jacob  | last3=Mitchell-Olds | first3=Thomas | last4=Woodley | first4=Robert | bibcode=1987Ecol...68.1548D | s2cid=84940050 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Dorfman | first=Robert | title=A Formula for the Gini Coefficient | journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics | year=1979 | volume=61 | pages=146–149 | doi=10.2307/1924845 | jstor=1924845 | issue=1 }}
* {{Cite book | first=Glenn | last=Firebaugh | year=2003 | title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality | publisher=Harvard University Press | location=Cambridge, Massachusetts | isbn=978-0-674-01067-3 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Gastwirth | first=Joseph L. | title=The Estimation of the Lorenz Curve and Gini Index | journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics | year=1972 | volume=54 | pages=306–316 | doi=10.2307/1937992 | jstor=1937992 | issue=3 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Giles | first=David | title=Calculating a Standard Error for the Gini Coefficient: Some Further Results | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2004 | volume=66 | issue=3 | pages=425–433 | doi=10.1111/j.1468-0084.2004.00086.x | url=http://web.uvic.ca/econ/ewp0202.pdf | citeseerx=10.1.1.202.6462 | s2cid=16972099 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040505124219/http://web.uvic.ca/econ/ewp0202.pdf | archive-date=5 May 2004 }}
* {{Cite book | last=Gini | first=Corrado | year=1912 | title=Variabilità e mutabilità | bibcode=1912vamu.book.....G }} Reprinted in {{cite book | title=Memorie di metodologica statistica | editor1-last=Pizetti | editor1-first=E. | editor2-last=Salvemini | editor2-first=T. | location=Rome | publisher=Libreria Eredi Virgilio Veschi | year=1955}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Gini | first=Corrado | title=Measurement of Inequality of Incomes | journal=The Economic Journal | year=1921 | volume=31 | pages=124–126 | doi=10.2307/2223319 | jstor=2223319 | issue=121 | url=https://zenodo.org/record/1449432 }}
* {{cite journal | last=Giorgi | first=Giovanni Maria | year=1990 | title=Bibliographic portrait of the Gini concentration ratio | journal=Metron | volume=48 | pages=183–231 | url=http://econwpa.repec.org/eps/em/papers/0511/0511004.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804055002/http://econwpa.repec.org/eps/em/papers/0511/0511004.pdf | archive-date=4 August 2016 }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Karagiannis | first1=E.  | last2=Kovacevic | first2=M. | title=A Method to Calculate the Jackknife Variance Estimator for the Gini Coefficient | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2000 | volume=62 | pages=119–122 | doi=10.1111/1468-0084.00163}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Mills | first1=Jeffrey A. | last2=Zandvakili | first2=Sourushe | title=Statistical Inference via Bootstrapping for Measures of Inequality | journal=Journal of Applied Econometrics | year=1997 | volume=12 | issue=2 | pages=133–150 | doi=10.1002/(SICI)1099-1255(199703)12:2&lt;133::AID-JAE433&gt;3.0.CO;2-H | jstor=2284908 | url=http://www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/wp136.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718000000/http://www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/wp136.pdf |archive-date=2012-07-18 |url-status=live | citeseerx=10.1.1.172.5003 | hdl=10419/186818 }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Modarres | first1=Reza | last2=Gastwirth | first2=Joseph L. | title=A Cautionary Note on Estimating the Standard Error of the Gini Index of Inequality | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2006 | volume=68 | issue=3 | pages=385–390 | doi=10.1111/j.1468-0084.2006.00167.x| s2cid=122716409 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Morgan | first=James | title=The Anatomy of Income Distribution | journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics | year=1962 | volume=44 | pages=270–283 | doi=10.2307/1926398 | jstor=1926398 | issue=3 | bibcode=1962RvE&amp;S..44..270M }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Ogwang | first=Tomson | title=A Convenient Method of Computing the Gini Index and its Standard Error | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2000 | volume=62 | pages=123–129 | doi=10.1111/1468-0084.00164 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Ogwang | first=Tomson | title=Calculating a Standard Error for the Gini Coefficient: Some Further Results: Reply | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2004 | volume=66 | issue=3 | pages=435–437 | doi=10.1111/j.1468-0084.2004.00087.x| ssrn=565069 | s2cid=122160535 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Kuan |title=How has the Literature on Gini's Index Evolved in the Past 80 Years? |date=January 2004 | url=http://economics.dal.ca/RePEc/dal/wparch/howgini.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060928082244/http://economics.dal.ca/RePEc/dal/wparch/howgini.pdf | access-date=1 June 2006 | archive-date=28 September 2006 |journal=[[Social Science Research Network|SSRN Electronic Journal]] |doi=10.2139/ssrn.423200 |series=Economics Working Paper |at=[[Dalhousie University]]}} The Chinese version of this paper was published as {{cite journal | last=Xu | first=Kuan | title=How Has the Literature on Gini's Index Evolved in the Past 80 Years? | journal = China Economic Quarterly | year=2003 | volume=2 | pages=757–778 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Yitzhaki | first=Shlomo  | title=Calculating Jackknife Variance Estimators for Parameters of the Gini Method | journal=Journal of Business and Economic Statistics | year=1991 | volume=9 | pages=235–239 | doi=10.2307/1391792 | jstor=1391792 | issue=2 }}
{{Refend}}

== خارجي ڳنڍڻا ==
{{Commons category}}

* Deutsche Bundesbank: [https://web.archive.org/web/20081218111312/http://www.bundesbank.de/download/bankenaufsicht/dkp/200503dkp_b.pdf Do banks diversify loan portfolios?], 2005 (on using e.g. the Gini coefficient for risk evaluation of loan portfolios)
* [https://www.forbes.com/forbes/2003/0317/098.html Forbes: In praise of inequality]
* [http://www.theresearchkitchen.com/archives/219 Measuring Software Project Risk With The Gini Coefficient], an application of the Gini coefficient to software
* [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/EXTPA/0,,contentMDK:20238991~menuPK:492138~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:430367,00.html The World Bank: Measuring Inequality]
* [http://utip.gov.utexas.edu/tutorials/theo_basic_ineq_measures.doc Travis Hale, University of Texas Inequality Project:The Theoretical Basics of Popular Inequality Measures], online computation of examples: [http://www.poorcity.richcity.org/calculator/?quantiles=7,*18000|10,*22000|280,*25000|15,*35000|15,*40000|50,*60000|10,*75000|6,*80000|4,*120000|2,*200000|1,1000000 1A], [http://www.poorcity.richcity.org/calculator/?quantiles=12,*15000|25,*20000|1000,*30000|35,*35000|100,*45000|80,*50000|10,*60000|25,*80000|8,*175000|4,*250000|1,5000000 1B]
* [https://image.guardian.co.uk/sys-files/Guardian/documents/2009/03/13/inequality.pdf Article from The Guardian analysing inequality in the UK 1974–2006]
* [https://www.wider.unu.edu/project/wiid-world-income-inequality-database World Income Inequality Database]
* [https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 BBC News: What is the Gini coefficient?]
* [http://www.oecd.org/els/social/inequality/GU Income Distribution and Poverty in OECD Countries]
* [http://inequality.org/unequal-americas-income-distribution/ U.S. Income Distribution: Just How Unequal?]

{{گلوبلائيزيشن}}
{{محرومي جا اشارا}}
{{غربت}}
{{Authority control}}

[[زمرو:1912ع ۾ متعارف ٿيل شيون]]
[[زمرو:1912ع جي معاشي تاريخ]]
[[زمرو:ارتڪاز جا اشارا]]
[[زمرو:آبادياتي معاشيات]]
[[زمرو:آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا ماپا]]
[[زمرو:سماجي ڀلائي جي معاشيات]]
[[زمرو:اطالوي ايجادون]]
[[زمرو:بغير بُعد وارا انگ]]</text>
      <sha1>a3iz83wo156nfmbq85gbdr636fmj9zf</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399316</id>
      <parentid>399315</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T21:21:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399316</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="121574" sha1="1ftkhdvdinwfn8ngv5bwy24z3046dgc" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|جيني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

جيني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وڪڙ]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. جيني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وڪڙ جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب جيني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته جيني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته جيني اشاريي جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري جيني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (رليٽو مين ابسوليوٽ ڊفرنس) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وڪڙ تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته جيني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا جيني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته جيني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو جيني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو جيني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به جيني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

جيني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته جيني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، جيني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! جيني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وڪڙ معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وڪڙ جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وڪڙ جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وڪڙ کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وڪڙ کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي جيني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاريا ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو}}

جيني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاريي هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاريي جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاريي هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وڪڙ ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

جيني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي جيني عدد ۽ موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاريي اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا جيني اشاريي سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاريي]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاريي يا شوراڪس جمود اشاريي به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاريي جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاريي جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته جيني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==


جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (ڪيوموليٽو پروپورشن) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حدون ==

=== نسبتي، نه مطلق ===

جيني اشاريو هڪ **نسبتي** (رليٽو) ماپ آهي. ڪنهن ترقي پذير ملڪ ۾، جيتوڻيڪ مڪمل غربت ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽجي وڃي، تڏهن به آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات وڌڻ سبب جيني اشاريو وڌي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Dramatic Poverty Reduction in the Third World: Prospects and Needed Action|first=John W.|last=Mellor|publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute|date=2 June 1989|pages=18–20|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160551/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جو سبب اهو آهي ته جيني اشاريو دولت يا آمدنيءَ جي **نسبتي** ورڇ کي ماپي ٿو، نه ڪي ان جي **مطلق** (ابسوليوٽ) مقدار کي.

جيني اشاريو سادو ۽ سمجهڻ ۾ آسان آهي، پر اها ئي سادگي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اهم فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري سگهي ٿي ۽ مختلف آباديُن جي ڀيٽ کي گمراهه ڪندڙ بڻائي سگهي ٿي. مثال طور، 2010ع ۾ [[بنگلاديش]] (في فرد آمدني 1,693 آمريڪي ڊالر) ۽ [[نيدرلينڊز]] (في فرد آمدني 42,183 آمريڪي ڊالر) ٻنهي جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=undp2010a&gt;{{cite web|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development (2010 Human Development Report – see Stat Tables)|pages=152–156|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/chapters/}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن هوندي به، ٻنهي ملڪن ۾ زندگيءَ جو معيار، معاشي موقعا ۽ حقيقي آمدني هڪجهڙا نه هئا. يعني، ٻه ملڪ ساڳيو جيني اشاريو رکي سگهن ٿا، پر سندن دولت ۾ وڏو فرق موجود هجي.

ترقي يافته معيشت ۾ بنيادي ضرورتون تقريباً سڀني ماڻهن کي دستياب ٿي سگهن ٿيون، جڏهن ته ساڳئي جيني اشاري واري ڪنهن گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ ۾ گهٽ مطلق دولت سبب اهي ضرورتون گهڻن ماڻهن لاءِ دستياب نه هجن يا غيربرابر نموني دستياب هجن.

=== رياضياتي حدون ===

جيني اشاري جون ڪجهه رياضياتي حدون پڻ آهن. اهو **جمع پذير** (ايڊيٽو) نه آهي، تنهنڪري مختلف آبادي گروهن جا جيني اشاري گڏ ڪري يا انهن جو سراسري ڪڍي سڀني گروهن لاءِ صحيح جيني اشاريو حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول الف. مختلف آمدنيءَ جون ورڇون، پر ساڳيو جيني اشاريو&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt;
|-
! گهراڻن جو گروهه
! ملڪ الف جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! ملڪ ب جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || 9,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000 || 40,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || 48,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000 || 48,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || 55,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $200,000 || $200,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.2''' || '''0.2'''
|}

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن آباديءَ جي ڪل آمدني ساڳي هجي، تڏهن به ممڪن آهي ته مختلف آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ رکندڙ ٻن ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو ساڳيو هجي، خاص طور تي جڏهن سندن [[لورينز وکر]] هڪ ٻئي کي ڪٽيندا هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt; جدول الف اهڙي ئي هڪ مثال ڏيکاري ٿي. ٻنهي ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو 0.2 آهي، پر گهراڻن جي گروهن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ مختلف آهي.

ساڳيءَ ريت، جيڪڏهن هڪ آباديءَ ۾ هيٺين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪا به آمدني نه هجي ۽ مٿين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ آمدني برابر ورهايل هجي، ته جيني اشاريو 0.5 ٿيندو. ٻي آباديءَ ۾، جيڪڏهن هيٺين 75 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 25 سيڪڙو ۽ مٿين 25 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ 75 سيڪڙو آمدني هجي، ته اتي به جيني اشاريو 0.5 هوندو.

تنهنڪري، هڪجهڙي آمدني ۽ ساڳئي جيني اشاري واريون معيشتون آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان گهڻو مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿيون. بيلو ۽ ليبيراتي جو خيال آهي ته رڳو جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ٻن آباديُن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جي درجابندي هميشه ممڪن نه هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=Maio2007&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income inequality measures|first=Fernando G.|last=De Maio|journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health|year=2007|volume=61|issue=10|pages=849–852|doi=10.1136/jech.2006.052969|pmid=17873219|pmc=2652960}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳي طرح، ڪمپيوٽري سماجي سائنسدان [[فيبين اسٽيفني]] ڏيکاريو آهي ته روايتي جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي اندر موجود مخصوص سماجي يا معاشي گروهن (مثال طور ساڳئي عمر يا تعليم وارن ماڻهن) جي آمدنيءَ واري عدم مساوات کي ظاهر ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام رهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Stephany |first=Fabian |date=2017-12-01 |title=Who are Your Joneses? Socio-Specific Income Inequality and Trust |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |journal=Social Indicators Research |language=en |volume=134 |issue=3 |pages=877–898 |doi=10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |issn=1573-0921 |pmc=5684274 |pmid=29187771}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو دولت جي عدم مساوات کي لڪائي سگهي ٿو ===

جيني اشاريو ڪنهن ملڪ يا فرد جي **مطلق آمدني** بابت ڪا به ڄاڻ فراهم نٿو ڪري. ممڪن آهي ته ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهٽ هجي، پر دولت (wealth) جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهڻو هجي.

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، تنهنڪري اهو گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي استعمال ۾ موجود فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري ڇڏي ٿو. ساڳيءَ طرح، دولت کي به (سواءِ ان حصي جي جيڪو آمدني پيدا ڪري) نظرانداز ڪيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن سبب اهڙين حالتن ۾ برابريءَ جو تاثر پيدا ٿي سگهي ٿو، جتي مقابلي هيٺ آيل ماڻهو پنهنجي زندگيءَ جي مختلف مرحلن ۾ هجن.

مثال طور، [[سوئيڊن]] جهڙي دولت مند ملڪ ۾ استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو 0.31 آهي، جنهن مان نسبتاً برابريءَ جو تاثر ملي ٿو، پر دولت جو جيني اشاريو 0.79 کان 0.86 جي وچ ۾ آهي، جيڪو سماج ۾ دولت جي انتهائي غيربرابر ورڇ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Inequality Trends in Sweden 1978–2004|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Martin|last2=Flodén|journal=Review of Economic Dynamics|volume=13|issue=1|year=2010|pages=179–208|doi=10.1016/j.red.2009.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.629.9417}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Accounting for Swedish wealth inequality|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Paul|last2=Klein|date=January 2000|url=http://fmwww.bc.edu/repec/es2000/0883.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030519155531/https://www.econometricsociety.org/meetings/wc00/pdf/0883.pdf|archive-date=May 19, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تنهنڪري، آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو دولت جي ورڇ ۾ موجود عدم مساوات کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.

=== ملڪ جي ماپ ۽ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جو اثر ===

ننڍين آباديُن لاءِ جيني اشاريو عام طور هيٺاهين طرف لاڙو (downward bias) رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Small-Sample Bias of the Gini Coefficient: Results and Implications for Empirical Research|journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics|first=George|last=Deltas|date=February 2003|volume=85|issue=1|pages=226–234|doi=10.1162/rest.2003.85.1.226|jstor=3211637|bibcode=2003RvE&amp;S..85..226D|s2cid=57572560}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهنڪري ننڍي آبادي، رياست يا ملڪ، يا اهڙيون معيشتون جن ۾ معاشي تنوع گهٽ هجي، اڪثر گهٽ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪن ٿيون.

ان جي ابتڙ، وڏي آبادي ۽ وڌيڪ متنوع معيشتن لاءِ عام طور وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو متوقع هوندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن سڄي دنيا جي معيشت ۽ سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏجي ڏٺو وڃي، ته مختلف محقق عالمي جيني اشاري جو اندازو 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ لڳائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10 /&gt;

ٻين عدم مساوات وارن اشارن وانگر، جيني اشاريو به انگن اکرن جي **تفصيل جي سطح** (granularity) کان متاثر ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي پنجن 20 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (گهٽ تفصيل) ۾ ورهايو وڃي ته حاصل ٿيندڙ جيني اشاريو عام طور ويهن 5 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (وڌيڪ تفصيل) جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ٿيندو.

فلپ مونفورٽ ڏيکاريو آهي ته جيڪڏهن مختلف مطالعي ۾ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جي سطح هڪجهڙي نه هجي يا واضح نه ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ڪيل ڀيٽون گهڻي حد تائين بي معنيٰ ٿي سگهن ٿيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Convergence of EU regions: Measures and evolution|first=Philippe|last=Monfort|publisher=European Union – Europa|page=6|year=2008|url=http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160544/http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آباديءَ ۾ تبديليون ===

جيني اشارئي سان ماپيل آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ تبديلي، سماج جي بناوت ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ آباديءَ ۾ واڌ (پيدائش جي شرح وڌڻ)، آباديءَ جي پوڙهائپ، لڏپلاڻ يا هجرت، ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت.&lt;ref name=Kwok10&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution of Hong Kong and the Gini Coefficient|author=KWOK Kwok Chuen|year=2010|publisher=The Government of Hong Kong, China|url=http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227043822/http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني اشاري جي هڪ ٻي حد اها آهي ته اهو [[مساوات پسندي]] (egalitarianism) جو مڪمل پيمانو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو رڳو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ تفاوت کي ماپي ٿو. مثال طور، فرض ڪريو ته ٻه هڪجهڙا مساوات پسند ملڪ مختلف [[اميگريشن قانون]] اختيار ڪن ٿا. جيڪڏهن انهن مان هڪ ملڪ گهٽ آمدني يا غريب مهاجرن جو وڌيڪ حصو قبول ڪري، ته اهو ملڪ وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪندو، ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت ان ۾ آمدنيءَ جي وڌيڪ عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ٿيندو، جيتوڻيڪ اها تبديلي سماجي پاليسيءَ جي نتيجي ۾ آيل هجي.

=== گهراڻو بمقابله فرد ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول ب. ساڳي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ، پر مختلف جيني اشاريا
|-
! گهراڻي جو نمبر
! ملڪ جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! گڏيل گهراڻن جو نمبر
! ملڪ الف جي گڏيل سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 1 ۽ 2 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 50,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3 ۽ 4 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 90,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5 ۽ 6 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 130,000
|-
| 6 || 70,000
|-
| 7 || 80,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7 ۽ 8 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 170,000
|-
| 8 || 90,000
|-
| 9 || 120,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9 ۽ 10 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 270,000
|-
| 10 || 150,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $710,000 || || $710,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.303''' || || '''0.293'''
|}

جيڪڏهن ساڳئي معيشت ۽ ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ لاءِ جيني اشاريو فردن بدران گهراڻن جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو وڃي، ته نتيجا مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. جيڪڏهن گهراڻن جا انگ اکر استعمال ڪيا وڃن، ته آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري جو قدر ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته &quot;گهراڻي&quot; جي تعريف ڪيئن ڪئي وئي آهي. جڏهن مختلف آباديُن ۾ گهراڻي جي تعريف هڪجهڙي نه هجي، تڏهن انهن جي ڀيٽ بامعنيٰ نه هوندي.

ان کان علاوه، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري ۾ تبديلي گهراڻي جي جوڙجڪ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو به ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيئن طلاقن ۾ واڌ يا [[گڏيل ڪٽنب]]ن جو ورهائجي [[ايڪو ڪٽنب]]ن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ.

ڊيننگر ۽ [[لن اسڪوائر]] (1996ع) ڏيکاريو ته فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاري کان مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، آمريڪا لاءِ هنن فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو 0.35، جڏهن ته فرانس لاءِ 0.43 معلوم ڪيو. سندن فرد-بنياد واري طريقي موجب، 108 ملڪن مان [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.62)، [[ملائيشيا]] جو ايشيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50)، [[برازيل]] جو لاطيني آمريڪا ۽ ڪيريبين علائقي ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.57)، ۽ [[ترڪي]] جو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50) هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Deininger |first1=K. |last2=Squire |first2=L. |title=A New Data Set Measuring Income Inequality |journal=The World Bank Economic Review |date=September 1996 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=565–591 |doi=10.1093/wber/10.3.565 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ارب پتي [[ٿامس ڪوڪ]] جو چوڻ آهي ته هانگ ڪانگ جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو (2010ع ۾ 0.434)&lt;ref name=undp2010a /&gt; جزوي طور ان جي آباديءَ جي جوڙجڪ ۾ آيل تبديلين سبب وڌيڪ رهيو آهي. گذريل ڏهاڪن دوران هانگ ڪانگ ۾ ننڍن گهراڻن، بزرگن تي ٻڌل گهراڻن ۽ اڪيلي رهندڙ بزرگ ماڻهن جو تعداد وڌيو آهي. نتيجي طور، ساڳي گڏيل آمدني هاڻي وڌيڪ گهراڻن ۾ ورهائجي وڃي ٿي. ڪوڪ جو خيال آهي ته آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو سماج جي اهڙين بناوتي تبديلين کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

هن حصي ۾ ڏنل آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ (جدول ج) پڻ ڏيکاري ٿي ته هي مسئلو رڳو هانگ ڪانگ تائين محدود ناهي. آمريڪي مردم شماري اداري موجب، 1979ع کان 2010ع تائين آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي بناوت ۾ نمايان تبديليون آيون، مهانگائيءَ مطابق سڀني آمدني گروهن جي آمدني وڌي، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ وقت سان گڏ وڌيڪ مٿين آمدني وارن گروهن ڏانهن منتقل ٿي، جڏهن ته ساڳئي عرصي دوران آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو پڻ وڌيو.&lt;ref name=cbo.p.10&gt;[http://www.cbo.gov/doc.cfm?index=12485 Congressional Budget Office: Trends in the Distribution of Household Income Between 1979 and 2007]. October 2011. see pp. i–x, with definitions on ii–iii&lt;/ref&gt;

=== لمحي واري عدم مساوات بمقابله سڄي زندگيءَ واري عدم مساوات ===

جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي بناوت ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جي اثرن کي الڳ ڪري نٿو سگهي.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

زندگيءَ جي پوري عرصي تي ٻڌل ماپن جي اهميت کي نظر ۾ رکندي، جيني اشاريو ڪنهن هڪ مخصوص وقت تي برابريءَ جو رڳو هڪ اندازو (point estimate) پيش ڪري ٿو ۽ وقت سان گڏ آمدنيءَ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين کي نظرانداز ڪري ٿو.

عام طور تي، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن سماج ۾ نوجوانن يا بزرگ ماڻهن جو تناسب وڌي وڃي، ته جيني اشاريو ظاهري طور وڌيڪ عدم مساوات ڏيکاري سگهي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نوجوان ماڻهن وٽ عام طور گهٽ آمدني ۽ دولت هوندي آهي، جڏهن ته عمر وڌڻ سان اهي وڌنديون آهن.

تنهنڪري، آباديءَ جي عمر جي ورڇ ۽ مختلف آمدني وارن طبقن جي وچ ۾ نقل و حرڪت جهڙا عنصر، آباديءَ جي بناوت جي اثرن کي نظر ۾ رکڻ کان سواءِ، اهڙي عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا جيڪا حقيقت ۾ موجود نه هجي.

اهڙيءَ طرح، ڪنهن معيشت جو ڪنهن خاص وقت تي جيني اشاريو ٻي معيشت جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿو، پر جيڪڏهن ساڳين ماڻهن جي سڄي زندگيءَ جي آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي جيني اشاريو ڳڻيو وڃي، ته ممڪن آهي ته اها معيشت ٻيءَ کان وڌيڪ برابر ثابت ٿئي، جيتوڻيڪ هڪ مخصوص وقت تي ان جو جيني اشاريو وڌيڪ نظر اچي ٿو.&lt;ref name=blomq81&gt;{{Cite journal |first=N. |last=Blomquist |s2cid=154519005 |year=1981 |title=A comparison of distributions of annual and lifetime income: Sweden around 1970 |journal=Review of Income and Wealth |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1981.tb00227.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== غير نقدي فائدا ۽ جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني ===

جيڪڏهن [[جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني]] (انڪم ان ڪائينڊ) کي مالي قدر ڏيڻ ۾ درستگي نه هجي، ته اها جيني اشاري جي حقيقي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ واري صلاحيت کي گهٽائي ڇڏي ٿي.

جيتوڻيڪ ٽيڪسن ۽ نقد منتقلي وارين ادائگين جو حساب نسبتاً سولو هوندو آهي، پر حڪومت طرفان فراهم ڪيل ٻيا فائدا، جهڙوڪ رعايتي رهائش، طبي سهولتون ۽ تعليم، جو مالي قدر مقرر ڪرڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن جو قدر انهن جي معيار ۽ فراهم ڪيل سهولتن جي مقدار تي دارومدار رکي ٿو.

آزاد منڊي جي غير موجودگيءَ ۾، اهڙين سهولتن کي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جو حصو سمجهي مالي قدر ڏيڻ هڪ موضوعي (سبجيڪٽو) عمل آهي. تنهنڪري جيني اشاري جو نظرياتي ماڊل اهڙن اندازن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ تي ڀاڙي ٿو.

پاڻڀرائي (سبسسٽنس) تي ٻڌل ۽ [[غير رسمي معيشت]]ن ۾، ماڻهن جي آمدنيءَ جو وڏو حصو پئسي بدران ٻين صورتن ۾ هوندو آهي، جهڙوڪ [[پاڻڀري زراعت]] يا [[مال جي بدلي مال]] (بارٽر) ذريعي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدني. اهڙي آمدني عام طور اڀرندڙ ۽ منتقلي واري معيشتن، خاص طور تي صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا، لاطيني آمريڪا، ايشيا ۽ اوڀر يورپ جي گهٽ آمدني وارن ماڻهن وٽ وڌيڪ هوندي آهي.

غير رسمي معيشت عالمي روزگار جو اڌ کان وڌيڪ حصو فراهم ڪري ٿي، ۽ صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا جي ڪجهه غريب ملڪن ۾، جتي سرڪاري جيني اشاريا به تمام وڌيڪ آهن، روزگار جو 90 سيڪڙو تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

شنائڊر ۽ سندس ساٿين 2010ع ۾ 162 ملڪن تي ڪيل مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته دنيا جي مجموعي [[مجموعي ملڪي پيداوار]] (GDP) جو لڳ ڀڳ 31.2 سيڪڙو، يعني لڳ ڀڳ 20 ٽريلين آمريڪي ڊالر، غير رسمي معيشت مان پيدا ٿئي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Friedrich|last1=Schneider|first2=Andreas|last2=Buehn|first3=Claudio E.|last3=Montenegro|s2cid=56060172|year=2010|title=New Estimates for the Shadow Economies all over the World|journal=International Economic Journal|volume=24|issue=4|pages=443–461|doi=10.1080/10168737.2010.525974|hdl=10986/4929|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾، امير شهري آباديءَ کان سواءِ تقريباً سڀني آمدني وارن طبقن لاءِ غير رسمي معيشت آمدنيءَ جو بنيادي ذريعو آهي. ترقي يافته ملڪن ۾ به قومي GDP جو اندازاً 8 سيڪڙو (آمريڪا) کان 27 سيڪڙو (اٽلي) تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

غير رسمي يا پاڇي واري معيشت مان حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي صحيح مقدار ۽ ان جي ورڇ جو اندازو لڳائڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، جنهن سبب آمدنيءَ جي حقيقي جيني اشاري جو صحيح اندازو لڳائڻ پڻ مشڪل ٿي پوي ٿو.&lt;ref name=mfeld&gt;{{cite web|title=Is income inequality really the problem? (Overview)|first=Martin|last=Feldstein|date=August 1998|publisher=US Federal Reserve|url=http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|access-date=2 August 2012|archive-date=3 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160558/http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=tandw&gt;{{cite book|title=Principles of Microeconomics: Global Financial Crisis Edition|first1=John|last1=Taylor|first2=Akila|last2=Weerapana|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4390-7821-1|pages=416–418|publisher=Cengage Learning}}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهڙي آمدنيءَ بابت مختلف مفروضا ۽ اندازا مختلف جيني اشاريا پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income Inequality and the Informal Economy in Transition Economies|first1=J. Barkley Jr.|last1=Rosser|first2=Marina V.|last2=Rosser|first3=Ehsan|last3=Ahmed|s2cid=49552052|journal=Journal of Comparative Economics|date=March 2000|volume=28|issue=1|pages=156–171|doi=10.1006/jcec.2000.1645}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Earnings inequality and the informal economy: evidence from Serbia|first1=Gorana|last1=Krstić|first2=Peter|last2=Sanfey|publisher=European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|date=February 2010|url=http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160550/http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-date=2012-08-03|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite report|title=The Size of the Shadow Economies of 145 Countries all over the World: First Results over the Period 1999 to 2003|first=Friedrich|last=Schneider|date=December 2004|ssrn=636661|hdl=10419/20729}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== متبادل طريقا ==

جيني اشاريي جي حدن کي نظر ۾ رکندي، آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ يا عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ ان سان گڏ يا ان جي متبادل طور ٻيا شمارياتي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، **اينٽروپي تي ٻڌل ماپا** (entropy measures) وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جن ۾ [[ٿيئل اشاريو]] (Theil Index) ۽ [[اوسط لاگ انحراف]] (مين لاگ ڊيويئيشن) شامل آهن. اهي ٻئي [[عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو]] (جنرلائيزڊ اينٽروپي انڊيڪس) جا خاص مثال آهن، يا ساڳئي مفهوم موجب [[ايٽڪنسن اشاريو]] (ايٽڪنسن انڊيڪس) جا پڻ خاص مثال سمجهيا وڃن ٿا.

اورٽيگا جو ٻه-پيماني وارو ماڊل (اورٽيگا ٽو-پيراميٽر ماڊل)&lt;ref name=&quot;ortega,1991&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Ortega | first1=P. | last2=Martín | first2=G. | last3=Fernández | first3=A. | last4=Ladoux | first4=M. | last5=García | first5=A. | title=A New Functional Form for Estimating Lorenz Curves | journal=Review of Income and Wealth | volume=37 | issue=4 | date=1991 | issn=0034-6586 | doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1991.tb00383.x | pages=447–452}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيني اشاريي جهڙن هڪ-پيماني وارن ماڊلن جي ڀيٽ ۾ سماجي نتيجن بابت وڌيڪ تفصيلي اڳڪٿيون ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت رکي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Blesch,2022&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Blesch | first1=Kristin | last2=Hauser | first2=Oliver P. | last3=Jachimowicz | first3=Jon M. | title=Measuring inequality beyond the Gini coefficient may clarify conflicting findings | journal=Nature Human Behaviour | volume=6 | issue=11 | date=2022 | issn=2397-3374 | pmid=36038775 | pmc=7614289 | doi=10.1038/s41562-022-01430-7 | pages=1525–1536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهو پڻ معلوم ٿيو آهي ته جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي وچئين حصي ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين لاءِ ضرورت کان وڌيڪ حساس هوندو آهي. ان ڪري، [[وچين آمدني]] (ميڊيئن انڪم) تي ٻڌل طريقا ان جا متبادل طور استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;u376&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last=Gastwirth | first=Joseph L. | title=Is the Gini Index of Inequality Overly Sensitive to Changes in the Middle of the Income Distribution? | journal=Statistics and Public Policy | volume=4 | issue=1 | date=2017 | issn=2330-443X | doi=10.1080/2330443X.2017.1360813 | pages=1–11 | doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ٻين شمارياتي ماپن سان لاڳاپو ==

ٻه-درجا (بائنري) درجابندي ڪندڙ نظام (ڪلاسيفائر سسٽم) جي تشخيصي ڪارڪردگيءَ جو هڪ خلاصي ماپو پڻ **جيني عدد** سڏيو ويندو آهي. ان جي تعريف [[رسيور آپريٽنگ خاصيت]] (ROC) وکر ۽ ان جي قطري ليڪ جي وچ واري ايراضيءَ جي ٻيڻي طور ڪئي ويندي آهي. هي ماپو [[آر او سي وڪڙ هيٺان ايراضي]] (ايريا انڊر دي ڪرو؛ AUC) سان لاڳاپيل آهي، جنهن کي هن مساوات سان ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;AUC = (G+1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=hand&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hand |first1=David J. |last2=Till |first2=Robert J. |title=A Simple Generalisation of the Area Under the ROC Curve for Multiple Class Classification Problems |journal=Machine Learning |date=2001 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=171–186 |doi=10.1023/A:1010920819831 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهو [[مان-وِٽني يو آزمائش]] آزمائش سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ٻنهي جيني عددن جي تعريف مخصوص وکرن جي وچ واري ايراضيءَ جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي ۽ انهن ۾ ڪجهه هڪجهڙيون خاصيتون موجود آهن، پر شمارياتي ورڇ جي جيني عدد ۽ درجابندي ڪندڙ نظام جي جيني عدد جي وچ ۾ ڪو سڌو ۽ سادو رياضيائي لاڳاپو موجود ناهي.

جيني اشاريو [[پيئٽرا اشاريو]] (Pietra Index) سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي. اهي ٻئي شمارياتي ناهمگني (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل ھيٽروجينيئٽي) کي ماپيندا آهن ۽ [[لورينز وکر]] ۽ قطري ليڪ مان اخذ ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Iddo I.|last1=Eliazar |first2=Igor M.|last2=Sokolov |year=2010 |title=Measuring statistical heterogeneity: The Pietra index|journal=Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications|volume=389|issue=1|pages=117–125|doi=10.1016/j.physa.2009.08.006|bibcode=2010PhyA..389..117E}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Wen-Chung |title=Probabilistic analysis of global performances of diagnostic tests: interpreting the Lorenz curve-based summary measures |journal=Statistics in Medicine |date=28 February 1999 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=455–471 |doi=10.1002/(sici)1097-0258(19990228)18:4&lt;455::aid-sim44&gt;3.0.co;2-a |pmid=10070686 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;

ڪجهه شعبن، جهڙوڪ [[ماحوليات]]، ۾ تنوع (ڊائورسٽي) کي ماپڻ لاءِ **الٽو سمپسن اشاريو** (&lt;math&gt;1/\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. ان کي [[سمپسن اشاريو]] (&lt;math&gt;\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) سان نه گڏي ويهڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Measurement of Species Diversity|first=Robert K.|last=Peet|s2cid=83517584|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=5|year=1974|issue=1|pages=285–307|jstor=2096890|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001441|bibcode=1974AnRES...5..285P }}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهي اشارا جيني اشاريي سان لاڳاپيل آهن. الٽو سمپسن اشاريو تنوع وڌڻ سان وڌندو آهي، جڏهن ته سمپسن اشاريو ۽ جيني اشاريو تنوع وڌڻ سان گهٽجندا آهن. سمپسن اشاري جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 جي وچ ۾ هونديون آهن، جتي 0 وڌ ۾ وڌ تنوع ۽ 1 گهٽ ۾ گهٽ تنوع (يا ناهمگني) کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو. ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ تنوع جا اڪثر اشارا ناهمگني وڌڻ سان وڌندا آهن، تنهنڪري سمپسن اشاري کي اڪثر الٽي سمپسن اشاري يا ان جي متمم (&lt;math&gt;1-\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) ۾ تبديل ڪيو ويندو آهي، جنهن کي **جيني-سمپسن اشاريو** چيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Measurement of Species Diversity|first=Robert K.|last=Peet|s2cid=83517584|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=5|year=1974|issue=1|pages=285–307|jstor=2096890|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001441|bibcode=1974AnRES...5..285P }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[لورينز وکر]] دولت جي ورڇ کي گرافيڪي صورت ۾ ڏيکارڻ جو هڪ ٻيو طريقو آهي. اهو جيني عدد کان نَوَ سال اڳ متعارف ڪرايو ويو هو. جيني عدد ان ڳالهه کي مقداري صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته لورينز وکر، مڪمل برابريءَ واري ليڪ (جنهن جو [[لاڙو]] 1 هوندو آهي) کان ڪيترو هٽي ٿو.

[[هوور اشاريو]] (ھوور انڊيڪس)، جيڪو **رابن هوڊ اشاريو** (رابن ھوڊ انڊيڪس) جي نالي سان پڻ سڃاتو وڃي ٿو، اهو ٻڌائي ٿو ته ڪل آباديءَ جي آمدنيءَ مان ڪيترو سيڪڙو ٻيهر ورهائڻو پوندو ته جيئن جيني اشاريو 0 (يعني مڪمل برابري) ٿي وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hoover Index |url=https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/economics/hoover-index/ |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=Corporate Finance Institute |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== جديد دور کان اڳ جي سماجن جا جيني اشاريا ==

گذريل ڪجهه ڏهاڪن دوران، محققن ويهين صديءَ کان اڳ وارن سماجن لاءِ جيني اشاريي جو اندازو لڳائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي آهي. ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان دور لاءِ گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ بابت سروي ۽ آمدني ٽيڪس جا انگ اکر موجود نه آهن، تنهنڪري محققن متبادل اشاري (پراڪسي ويريئبلز) استعمال ڪيا آهن.

انهن ۾ وچئين دور جي يورپي شهري رياستن ۾ دولت تي لاڳو ٽيڪس، [[رومي مصر]] ۾ زمين جي ملڪيت جا نمونا، قديم [[يونان]] کان وٺي [[ازٽيڪ]] ميڪسيڪو تائين سماجن ۾ گهرن جي ماپ ۾ فرق، ۽ بابلي سماج ۾ وراثت ۽ ڏاج جا رڪارڊ شامل آهن.
ٻيا ڪجهه انگ اکر دولت يا آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي سڌو سنئون ظاهر نٿا ڪن، پر انهن کي عدم مساوات جو عڪس سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جهڙوڪ ڀاڙي ۽ اجرت جي وچ وارو تناسب، يا محنت ۽ سرمائي جي وچ وارو تناسب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=[[Walter Scheidel]]|title=The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century|publisher=Princeton University Press|date=2017|isbn=978-0-691-16502-8|pages=15–16}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ٻيا استعمال ==

جيتوڻيڪ جيني اشاريو معاشيات ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر نظرياتي طور ان کي سائنس جي هر اهڙي شعبي ۾ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو ڪنهن ورڇ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[ماحوليات]] ۾ جيني اشاريي کي [[حياتياتي تنوع]] جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي، جتي نسلن جي گڏيل تناسب کي فردن جي گڏيل تناسب جي مقابلي ۾ ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=natureArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last1 = Wittebolle | first1 = Lieven | title = Initial community evenness favours functionality under selective stress | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | year = 2009 | volume = 458 | issue = 7238 | pmid = 19270679 | pages = 623–626 | doi = 10.1038/nature07840| display-authors = 2 | last2 = Marzorati | first2 = Massimo | last3 = Balloi | first3 = Annalisa | last4 = Daffonchio | first4 = Daniele | last5 = Heylen | first5 = Kim | last6 = De Vos | first6 = Paul | last7 = Verstraete | first7 = Willy | last8 = Boon | first8 = Nico | bibcode = 2009Natur.458..623W | s2cid = 4419280 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

صحت جي شعبي ۾، ان کي آباديءَ ۾ صحت سان لاڳاپيل [[زندگيءَ جي معيار]] جي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=popHealthArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last=Asada | first=Yukiko | title = Assessment of the health of Americans: the average health-related quality of life and its inequality across individuals and groups | journal = Population Health Metrics | year = 2005 | volume = 3 | pmid=16014174 | article-number = 7 | pmc=1192818 | doi = 10.1186/1478-7954-3-7 | doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

تعليم ۾، ان کي يونيورسٽين جي وچ ۾ عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=MinervaArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last1= Halffman | first1= Willem | last2= Leydesdorff | first2= Loet | title = Is Inequality Among Universities Increasing? Gini Coefficients and the Elusive Rise of Elite Universities | journal = Minerva | year = 2010 | volume = 48 | pmid= 20401157 | issue= 1 | pages = 55–72 | pmc= 2850525 | doi = 10.1007/s11024-010-9141-3| arxiv= 1001.2921 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪيميا ۾، جيني اشاريي کي [[پروٽين ڪائنيز روڪيندڙ|پروٽين ڪائنيز روڪيندڙن]] (پروٽين ڪائنيز انھبيٽرز) جي مختلف ڪائنيزن جي مقابلي ۾ چونڊ کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=JMedChemArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last = Graczyk | first = Piotr | title = Gini Coefficient: A New Way To Express Selectivity of Kinase Inhibitors against a Family of Kinases | journal = Journal of Medicinal Chemistry | year = 2007 | volume = 50 | issue = 23 | pmid = 17948979 | pages = 5773–5779 | doi = 10.1021/jm070562u}}&lt;/ref&gt;

انجنيئرنگ ۾، ان کي مختلف ٽرئفڪ وهڪرن مان ايندڙ پيڪٽن جي موڪل (پيڪٽ شيڊولنگ) دوران انٽرنيٽ روٽرن جي انصاف پسندي جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=GreedyFairQueueing&gt;{{Cite book |first1=Hongyuan |last1=Shi |first2=Harish |last2=Sethu |contribution=Greedy Fair Queueing: A Goal-Oriented Strategy for Fair Real-Time Packet Scheduling |pages=345–356 |title=Proceedings of the 24th IEEE Real-Time Systems Symposium |publisher=[[IEEE Computer Society]] |isbn=978-0-7695-2044-5 |year=2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[مشين سکيا]] ۾، ان کي مختلف قسمن جي انگن اکرن، جهڙوڪ تصويرن ۽ متن، جي ويڪٽر جڳهن ۾ گهڻ-بمقابله-گهڻ مشابهت کي ماپڻ لاءِ هڪ گڏيل اشاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي. اهو پڻ ڏيکاريو ويو آهي ته محدود معلومات وارن حالتن ۾ تربيتي نمونن جي چونڊ ۾ هي اشاري مؤثر رهنمائي فراهم ڪري ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | last1 = Fauber | first1 = Ben | title = Gini Coefficient as a Unified Metric for Evaluating Many-versus-Many Similarity in Vector Spaces. | date = 2024 | volume = abs/2411.07983 | arxiv = 2411.07983 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني اشاريو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[ڪريڊٽ ريٽنگ]] نظامن جي امتيازي صلاحيت کي ماپڻ لاءِ پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور تي [[ڪريڊٽ خطري]] جي انتظام ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=The Analytics of Risk Model Validation (Quantitative Finance)|editor1-first=George A.|editor1-last=Christodoulakis|editor2-first=Stephen|editor2-last=Satchell|isbn=978-0-7506-8158-2|date=November 2007|publisher=Academic Press}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2004ع ۾، [[جينيفر لوٽز]] هڪ مقالي ۾ جيني اشاريي کي &quot;ڪهڪشاني تصوير جي پکسلن جي روشنيءَ جي قدرن جي نسبتي ورڇ&quot; جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو ۽ اهو نتيجو ڪڍيو ته هي [[الٽرا-لومينس انفرا ريڊ ڪهڪشان]]ن (ULIRGs) کي عام ڪهڪشانن کان ڌار ڪرڻ جو هڪ معتبر طريقو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Lotz |first1=Jennifer M. |last2=Primack |first2=Joel |last3=Madau |first3=Piero |date=July 2004 |title=A New Nonparametric Approach to Galaxy Morphological Classification |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004AJ....128..163L/abstract |journal=The Astronomical Journal |language=en |volume=128 |issue=1 |pages=163–182 |doi=10.1086/421849 |issn=0004-6256|arxiv=astro-ph/0311352 |bibcode=2004AJ....128..163L }}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کان پوءِ جيني اشاريو [[ڪهڪشانن جي بناوتي درجابندي]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Florian |first1=Michael K. |last2=Li |first2=Nan |last3=Gladders |first3=Michael D. |date=2016-11-30 |title=The Gini Coefficient As a Morphological Measurement of Strongly Lensed Galaxies in the Same Plane |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=832 |issue=2 |pages=168 |doi=10.3847/0004-637X/832/2/168 |doi-access=free|issn=0004-637X|arxiv=1511.03617 |bibcode=2016ApJ...832..168F }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rodriguez-Gomez |first1=Vicente |last2=Lotz |first2=Jennifer |last3=Snyder |first3=Greg |date=January 2022 |title=statmorph: Non-parametric morphological diagnostics of galaxy images |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022ascl.soft01010R/abstract |journal=Astrophysics Source Code Library |language=en |pages=ascl:2201.010 |bibcode=2022ascl.soft01010R }}&lt;/ref&gt;

2005ع جي هڪ مطالعي ۾ آمريڪي مردم شماري جا انگ اکر استعمال ڪري گهرن ۾ ڪمپيوٽر جي ملڪيت جو جائزو ورتو ويو ۽ جيني اشاريي جي ذريعي اڇي فام ۽ آفريقي-آمريڪي آباديءَ جي وچ ۾ ڊجيٽل عدم مساوات ماپي وئي. نتيجن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته مجموعي عدم مساوات گهٽجڻ باوجود، ڪمپيوٽر جي ملڪيت ۾ عدم مساوات اڇي فام گهراڻن ۾ نمايان طور گهٽ هئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chakraborty|first1=J|last2=Bosman|first2=MM|title=Measuring the digital divide in the United States: race, income, and personal computer ownership|journal=Prof Geogr|year=2005|volume=57|issue=3|pages=395–410|doi=10.1111/j.0033-0124.2005.00486.x|bibcode=2005ProfG..57..395C|s2cid=154401826}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2016ع ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ هم جائزي واري مطالعي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته علاج تي مرڪوز ڊجيٽل صحت جي سماجي نيٽ ورڪن ۾ شرڪت جي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ جيني اشاريو مفيد ۽ درست آهي، پر اڪيلو استعمال ڪرڻ سان اهو نيٽ ورڪ جي مجموعي ماپ کي نظر ۾ نٿو رکي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Mierlo|first1=T|last2=Hyatt|first2=D|last3=Ching|first3=A|title=Employing the Gini coefficient to measure participation inequality in treatment-focused Digital Health Social Networks|journal=Netw Model Anal Health Inform Bioinforma|date=2016|volume=5|issue=32|pages=32|doi=10.1007/s13721-016-0140-7|pmid=27840788|pmc=5082574}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امتيازي صلاحيت مان مراد ڪنهن ڪريڊٽ خطري جي ماڊل جي اها قابليت آهي، جنهن سان اهو قرض واپس نه ڪندڙ ۽ قرض واپس ڪندڙ گراهڪن ۾ فرق ڪري سگهي. مٿين &quot;حساب&quot; واري حصي ۾ ڏنل &lt;math&gt;G_1&lt;/math&gt; وارو فارمولو آخري ماڊل ۽ ان جي انفرادي عنصرن ٻنهي جي امتيازي صلاحيت کي ماپڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو. اهو آباديءَ جي تشخيصي ماڊلن ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ **درستگيءَ جي نسبت** (ايڪيوريسي ريشو) سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

جيني اشاريو [[آن لائين ملاقاتي ايپليڪيشن|آن لائين ملاقاتي ايپليڪيشنن]] (ڊيٽنگ ايپس) ۾ موجود عدم مساوات جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=2015-03-25|title=Tinder Experiments II: Guys, unless you are really hot you are probably better off not wasting your…|url=https://medium.com/@worstonlinedater/tinder-experiments-ii-guys-unless-you-are-really-hot-you-are-probably-better-off-not-wasting-your-2ddf370a6e9a|access-date=2021-04-28|website=Medium|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Kopf|first=Dan|title=These statistics show why it's so hard to be an average man on dating apps|url=https://qz.com/1051462/these-statistics-show-why-its-so-hard-to-be-an-average-man-on-dating-apps/|access-date=2021-04-28|website=Quartz|date=15 August 2017|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪامينسڪي ۽ ڪريوتسوو&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Kaminskiy |first1=M.P.|last2=Krivtsov|first2=V.V.|date=2011|chapter=A Gini-Type Index for Aging/Rejuvenating Objects|title=Mathematical and Statistical Models and Methods in Reliability|location=Birkhäuser Boston|url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9780817649708|publisher=Springer|pages=133–140|isbn=978-0-8176-4970-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيني اشاريي جي تصور کي معاشيات مان [[اعتماديت جو نظريو]] (رلائبلٽي ٿيوري) ڏانهن وڌايو ۽ هڪ جيني-قسم جو اشاريو تجويز ڪيو، جيڪو مرمت نه ٿي سگهندڙ نظامن جي پوڙهائپ، يا مرمت لائق نظامن جي پوڙهائپ ۽ نئين سر بحالي جي درجي کي ماپڻ ۾ مدد ڏئي ٿو.

هي اشاريو −1 کان 1 جي وچ ۾ هوندو آهي ۽ تجربي تي ٻڌل توڙي پيراميٽرڪ عمر جي ورڇن ٻنهي لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ناڪاميءَ جي گهٽجندڙ شرح (ڊڪريزنگ فئليوئر ريٽ) واري ورڇن لاءِ ان جون قيمتون منفي، جڏهن ته ناڪاميءَ جي وڌندڙ شرح (انڪريزنگ فئليوئر ريٽ) واري ورڇن لاءِ مثبت هونديون آهن. صفر جي قيمت [[اُسري عمر جي ورڇ]] (اڪسپوننشل لائيف ڊسٽريبيوشن) يا [[همجنس پواسون نقطي عمل]] (Homogeneous Poisson Point Process) جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي.

== پڻ ڏسو ==

* [[تنوع جو اشاريو]]
* [[اقتصادي عدم مساوات]]
* [[گريٽ گيٽسبي وکر]]
* [[هرفنڊال-هرشمن اشاريو]]
* [[هوور اشاريو]] (رابن هوڊ اشاريو)
* [[انساني غربت جو اشاريو]]
* [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا ماپا]]
* [[ڪزنٽس وکر]]
* [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات موجب ملڪن جي فهرست]]
* [[عدم مساوات سان ترتيب ڏنل انساني ترقي اشاري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست]]
* [[دولت جي عدم مساوات موجب ملڪن جي فهرست]]
* [[آمريڪا جي رياستن جي جيني اشاريي موجب فهرست]]
* [[لورينز وکر]]
* [[ميٿيو اثر]]
* [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]
* [[آر او سي تجزيو]]
* [[سوئٽس اشاريو]]
* [[هاٿي وکر]]
* [[مثالي رياست]]
* [[سماجي ڀلائي]]
* [[سماجي ڀلائي جي معاشيات]]

== حوالا ==

{{Reflist|30em}}

== وڌيڪ مطالعي لاء==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book | last1=Amiel | first1=Y. | last2=Cowell | first2=F.&amp;nbsp;A. | year=1999 | title=Thinking about Inequality | publisher=Cambridge | isbn=978-0-521-46696-7}}
* {{Cite book | first=Sudhir | last=Anand | year=1983 | title=Inequality and Poverty in Malaysia | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=New York | isbn=978-0-19-520153-6}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Brown | first=Malcolm | title=Using Gini-Style Indices to Evaluate the Spatial Patterns of Health Practitioners: Theoretical Considerations and an Application Based on Alberta Data | journal=Social Science &amp; Medicine | year=1994 | volume=38 | pages=1243–1256 | doi=10.1016/0277-9536(94)90189-9 | pmid=8016689 | issue=9}}
* {{Cite book | first=S.&amp;nbsp;R. | last=Chakravarty | year=1990 | title=Ethical Social Index Numbers | publisher=Springer-Verlag | location=New York | isbn=978-0-387-52274-6 }}
* {{Cite book | first=Angus | last=Deaton | year=1997 | title=Analysis of Household Surveys | publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press | location=Baltimore MD | isbn=978-0-585-23787-9 }}
* {{Cite journal | title=Bootstrapping the Gini coefficient of inequality | journal=Ecology | year=1987 | volume=68 | pages=1548–1551 | doi=10.2307/1939238 | jstor=1939238 | issue=5 |last1 = Dixon| first1=Philip M. | last2=Weiner | first2=Jacob  | last3=Mitchell-Olds | first3=Thomas | last4=Woodley | first4=Robert | bibcode=1987Ecol...68.1548D | s2cid=84940050 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Dorfman | first=Robert | title=A Formula for the Gini Coefficient | journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics | year=1979 | volume=61 | pages=146–149 | doi=10.2307/1924845 | jstor=1924845 | issue=1 }}
* {{Cite book | first=Glenn | last=Firebaugh | year=2003 | title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality | publisher=Harvard University Press | location=Cambridge, Massachusetts | isbn=978-0-674-01067-3 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Gastwirth | first=Joseph L. | title=The Estimation of the Lorenz Curve and Gini Index | journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics | year=1972 | volume=54 | pages=306–316 | doi=10.2307/1937992 | jstor=1937992 | issue=3 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Giles | first=David | title=Calculating a Standard Error for the Gini Coefficient: Some Further Results | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2004 | volume=66 | issue=3 | pages=425–433 | doi=10.1111/j.1468-0084.2004.00086.x | url=http://web.uvic.ca/econ/ewp0202.pdf | citeseerx=10.1.1.202.6462 | s2cid=16972099 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040505124219/http://web.uvic.ca/econ/ewp0202.pdf | archive-date=5 May 2004 }}
* {{Cite book | last=Gini | first=Corrado | year=1912 | title=Variabilità e mutabilità | bibcode=1912vamu.book.....G }} Reprinted in {{cite book | title=Memorie di metodologica statistica | editor1-last=Pizetti | editor1-first=E. | editor2-last=Salvemini | editor2-first=T. | location=Rome | publisher=Libreria Eredi Virgilio Veschi | year=1955}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Gini | first=Corrado | title=Measurement of Inequality of Incomes | journal=The Economic Journal | year=1921 | volume=31 | pages=124–126 | doi=10.2307/2223319 | jstor=2223319 | issue=121 | url=https://zenodo.org/record/1449432 }}
* {{cite journal | last=Giorgi | first=Giovanni Maria | year=1990 | title=Bibliographic portrait of the Gini concentration ratio | journal=Metron | volume=48 | pages=183–231 | url=http://econwpa.repec.org/eps/em/papers/0511/0511004.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804055002/http://econwpa.repec.org/eps/em/papers/0511/0511004.pdf | archive-date=4 August 2016 }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Karagiannis | first1=E.  | last2=Kovacevic | first2=M. | title=A Method to Calculate the Jackknife Variance Estimator for the Gini Coefficient | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2000 | volume=62 | pages=119–122 | doi=10.1111/1468-0084.00163}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Mills | first1=Jeffrey A. | last2=Zandvakili | first2=Sourushe | title=Statistical Inference via Bootstrapping for Measures of Inequality | journal=Journal of Applied Econometrics | year=1997 | volume=12 | issue=2 | pages=133–150 | doi=10.1002/(SICI)1099-1255(199703)12:2&lt;133::AID-JAE433&gt;3.0.CO;2-H | jstor=2284908 | url=http://www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/wp136.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718000000/http://www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/wp136.pdf |archive-date=2012-07-18 |url-status=live | citeseerx=10.1.1.172.5003 | hdl=10419/186818 }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Modarres | first1=Reza | last2=Gastwirth | first2=Joseph L. | title=A Cautionary Note on Estimating the Standard Error of the Gini Index of Inequality | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2006 | volume=68 | issue=3 | pages=385–390 | doi=10.1111/j.1468-0084.2006.00167.x| s2cid=122716409 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Morgan | first=James | title=The Anatomy of Income Distribution | journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics | year=1962 | volume=44 | pages=270–283 | doi=10.2307/1926398 | jstor=1926398 | issue=3 | bibcode=1962RvE&amp;S..44..270M }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Ogwang | first=Tomson | title=A Convenient Method of Computing the Gini Index and its Standard Error | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2000 | volume=62 | pages=123–129 | doi=10.1111/1468-0084.00164 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Ogwang | first=Tomson | title=Calculating a Standard Error for the Gini Coefficient: Some Further Results: Reply | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2004 | volume=66 | issue=3 | pages=435–437 | doi=10.1111/j.1468-0084.2004.00087.x| ssrn=565069 | s2cid=122160535 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Kuan |title=How has the Literature on Gini's Index Evolved in the Past 80 Years? |date=January 2004 | url=http://economics.dal.ca/RePEc/dal/wparch/howgini.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060928082244/http://economics.dal.ca/RePEc/dal/wparch/howgini.pdf | access-date=1 June 2006 | archive-date=28 September 2006 |journal=[[Social Science Research Network|SSRN Electronic Journal]] |doi=10.2139/ssrn.423200 |series=Economics Working Paper |at=[[Dalhousie University]]}} The Chinese version of this paper was published as {{cite journal | last=Xu | first=Kuan | title=How Has the Literature on Gini's Index Evolved in the Past 80 Years? | journal = China Economic Quarterly | year=2003 | volume=2 | pages=757–778 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Yitzhaki | first=Shlomo  | title=Calculating Jackknife Variance Estimators for Parameters of the Gini Method | journal=Journal of Business and Economic Statistics | year=1991 | volume=9 | pages=235–239 | doi=10.2307/1391792 | jstor=1391792 | issue=2 }}
{{Refend}}

== خارجي ڳنڍڻا ==
{{Commons category}}

* Deutsche Bundesbank: [https://web.archive.org/web/20081218111312/http://www.bundesbank.de/download/bankenaufsicht/dkp/200503dkp_b.pdf Do banks diversify loan portfolios?], 2005 (on using e.g. the Gini coefficient for risk evaluation of loan portfolios)
* [https://www.forbes.com/forbes/2003/0317/098.html Forbes: In praise of inequality]
* [http://www.theresearchkitchen.com/archives/219 Measuring Software Project Risk With The Gini Coefficient], an application of the Gini coefficient to software
* [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/EXTPA/0,,contentMDK:20238991~menuPK:492138~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:430367,00.html The World Bank: Measuring Inequality]
* [http://utip.gov.utexas.edu/tutorials/theo_basic_ineq_measures.doc Travis Hale, University of Texas Inequality Project:The Theoretical Basics of Popular Inequality Measures], online computation of examples: [http://www.poorcity.richcity.org/calculator/?quantiles=7,*18000|10,*22000|280,*25000|15,*35000|15,*40000|50,*60000|10,*75000|6,*80000|4,*120000|2,*200000|1,1000000 1A], [http://www.poorcity.richcity.org/calculator/?quantiles=12,*15000|25,*20000|1000,*30000|35,*35000|100,*45000|80,*50000|10,*60000|25,*80000|8,*175000|4,*250000|1,5000000 1B]
* [https://image.guardian.co.uk/sys-files/Guardian/documents/2009/03/13/inequality.pdf Article from The Guardian analysing inequality in the UK 1974–2006]
* [https://www.wider.unu.edu/project/wiid-world-income-inequality-database World Income Inequality Database]
* [https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 BBC News: What is the Gini coefficient?]
* [http://www.oecd.org/els/social/inequality/GU Income Distribution and Poverty in OECD Countries]
* [http://inequality.org/unequal-americas-income-distribution/ U.S. Income Distribution: Just How Unequal?]

{{گلوبلائيزيشن}}
{{محرومي جا اشارا}}
{{غربت}}
{{Authority control}}

[[زمرو:1912ع ۾ متعارف ٿيل شيون]]
[[زمرو:1912ع جي معاشي تاريخ]]
[[زمرو:ارتڪاز جا اشارا]]
[[زمرو:آبادياتي معاشيات]]
[[زمرو:آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا ماپا]]
[[زمرو:سماجي ڀلائي جي معاشيات]]
[[زمرو:اطالوي ايجادون]]
[[زمرو:بغير بُعد وارا انگ]]</text>
      <sha1>1ftkhdvdinwfn8ngv5bwy24z3046dgc</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399317</id>
      <parentid>399316</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T21:22:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399317</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="121572" sha1="o77chibx1r4qtiq6q4f9uwpszzge1yy" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|جيني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

جيني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وڪڙ]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. جيني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وڪڙ جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب جيني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته جيني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته جيني اشاريي جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري جيني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (رليٽو مين ابسوليوٽ ڊفرنس) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وڪڙ تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته جيني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا جيني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته جيني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو جيني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو جيني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به جيني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

جيني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته جيني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، جيني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! جيني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وڪڙ معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وڪڙ جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وڪڙ جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وڪڙ کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وڪڙ کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي جيني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfn|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfn|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاريا ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو}}

جيني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاريي هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاريي جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاريي هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وڪڙ ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

جيني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي جيني عدد ۽ موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاريي اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا جيني اشاريي سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاريي]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاريي يا شوراڪس جمود اشاريي به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاريي جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاريي جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته جيني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==


جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (ڪيوموليٽو پروپورشن) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حدون ==

=== نسبتي، نه مطلق ===

جيني اشاريو هڪ **نسبتي** (رليٽو) ماپ آهي. ڪنهن ترقي پذير ملڪ ۾، جيتوڻيڪ مڪمل غربت ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽجي وڃي، تڏهن به آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات وڌڻ سبب جيني اشاريو وڌي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Dramatic Poverty Reduction in the Third World: Prospects and Needed Action|first=John W.|last=Mellor|publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute|date=2 June 1989|pages=18–20|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160551/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جو سبب اهو آهي ته جيني اشاريو دولت يا آمدنيءَ جي **نسبتي** ورڇ کي ماپي ٿو، نه ڪي ان جي **مطلق** (ابسوليوٽ) مقدار کي.

جيني اشاريو سادو ۽ سمجهڻ ۾ آسان آهي، پر اها ئي سادگي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اهم فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري سگهي ٿي ۽ مختلف آباديُن جي ڀيٽ کي گمراهه ڪندڙ بڻائي سگهي ٿي. مثال طور، 2010ع ۾ [[بنگلاديش]] (في فرد آمدني 1,693 آمريڪي ڊالر) ۽ [[نيدرلينڊز]] (في فرد آمدني 42,183 آمريڪي ڊالر) ٻنهي جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=undp2010a&gt;{{cite web|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development (2010 Human Development Report – see Stat Tables)|pages=152–156|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/chapters/}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن هوندي به، ٻنهي ملڪن ۾ زندگيءَ جو معيار، معاشي موقعا ۽ حقيقي آمدني هڪجهڙا نه هئا. يعني، ٻه ملڪ ساڳيو جيني اشاريو رکي سگهن ٿا، پر سندن دولت ۾ وڏو فرق موجود هجي.

ترقي يافته معيشت ۾ بنيادي ضرورتون تقريباً سڀني ماڻهن کي دستياب ٿي سگهن ٿيون، جڏهن ته ساڳئي جيني اشاري واري ڪنهن گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ ۾ گهٽ مطلق دولت سبب اهي ضرورتون گهڻن ماڻهن لاءِ دستياب نه هجن يا غيربرابر نموني دستياب هجن.

=== رياضياتي حدون ===

جيني اشاري جون ڪجهه رياضياتي حدون پڻ آهن. اهو **جمع پذير** (ايڊيٽو) نه آهي، تنهنڪري مختلف آبادي گروهن جا جيني اشاري گڏ ڪري يا انهن جو سراسري ڪڍي سڀني گروهن لاءِ صحيح جيني اشاريو حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول الف. مختلف آمدنيءَ جون ورڇون، پر ساڳيو جيني اشاريو&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt;
|-
! گهراڻن جو گروهه
! ملڪ الف جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! ملڪ ب جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || 9,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000 || 40,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || 48,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000 || 48,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || 55,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $200,000 || $200,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.2''' || '''0.2'''
|}

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن آباديءَ جي ڪل آمدني ساڳي هجي، تڏهن به ممڪن آهي ته مختلف آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ رکندڙ ٻن ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو ساڳيو هجي، خاص طور تي جڏهن سندن [[لورينز وکر]] هڪ ٻئي کي ڪٽيندا هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt; جدول الف اهڙي ئي هڪ مثال ڏيکاري ٿي. ٻنهي ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو 0.2 آهي، پر گهراڻن جي گروهن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ مختلف آهي.

ساڳيءَ ريت، جيڪڏهن هڪ آباديءَ ۾ هيٺين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪا به آمدني نه هجي ۽ مٿين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ آمدني برابر ورهايل هجي، ته جيني اشاريو 0.5 ٿيندو. ٻي آباديءَ ۾، جيڪڏهن هيٺين 75 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 25 سيڪڙو ۽ مٿين 25 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ 75 سيڪڙو آمدني هجي، ته اتي به جيني اشاريو 0.5 هوندو.

تنهنڪري، هڪجهڙي آمدني ۽ ساڳئي جيني اشاري واريون معيشتون آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان گهڻو مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿيون. بيلو ۽ ليبيراتي جو خيال آهي ته رڳو جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ٻن آباديُن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جي درجابندي هميشه ممڪن نه هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=Maio2007&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income inequality measures|first=Fernando G.|last=De Maio|journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health|year=2007|volume=61|issue=10|pages=849–852|doi=10.1136/jech.2006.052969|pmid=17873219|pmc=2652960}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳي طرح، ڪمپيوٽري سماجي سائنسدان [[فيبين اسٽيفني]] ڏيکاريو آهي ته روايتي جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي اندر موجود مخصوص سماجي يا معاشي گروهن (مثال طور ساڳئي عمر يا تعليم وارن ماڻهن) جي آمدنيءَ واري عدم مساوات کي ظاهر ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام رهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Stephany |first=Fabian |date=2017-12-01 |title=Who are Your Joneses? Socio-Specific Income Inequality and Trust |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |journal=Social Indicators Research |language=en |volume=134 |issue=3 |pages=877–898 |doi=10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |issn=1573-0921 |pmc=5684274 |pmid=29187771}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو دولت جي عدم مساوات کي لڪائي سگهي ٿو ===

جيني اشاريو ڪنهن ملڪ يا فرد جي **مطلق آمدني** بابت ڪا به ڄاڻ فراهم نٿو ڪري. ممڪن آهي ته ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهٽ هجي، پر دولت (wealth) جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهڻو هجي.

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، تنهنڪري اهو گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي استعمال ۾ موجود فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري ڇڏي ٿو. ساڳيءَ طرح، دولت کي به (سواءِ ان حصي جي جيڪو آمدني پيدا ڪري) نظرانداز ڪيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن سبب اهڙين حالتن ۾ برابريءَ جو تاثر پيدا ٿي سگهي ٿو، جتي مقابلي هيٺ آيل ماڻهو پنهنجي زندگيءَ جي مختلف مرحلن ۾ هجن.

مثال طور، [[سوئيڊن]] جهڙي دولت مند ملڪ ۾ استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو 0.31 آهي، جنهن مان نسبتاً برابريءَ جو تاثر ملي ٿو، پر دولت جو جيني اشاريو 0.79 کان 0.86 جي وچ ۾ آهي، جيڪو سماج ۾ دولت جي انتهائي غيربرابر ورڇ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Inequality Trends in Sweden 1978–2004|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Martin|last2=Flodén|journal=Review of Economic Dynamics|volume=13|issue=1|year=2010|pages=179–208|doi=10.1016/j.red.2009.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.629.9417}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Accounting for Swedish wealth inequality|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Paul|last2=Klein|date=January 2000|url=http://fmwww.bc.edu/repec/es2000/0883.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030519155531/https://www.econometricsociety.org/meetings/wc00/pdf/0883.pdf|archive-date=May 19, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تنهنڪري، آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو دولت جي ورڇ ۾ موجود عدم مساوات کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.

=== ملڪ جي ماپ ۽ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جو اثر ===

ننڍين آباديُن لاءِ جيني اشاريو عام طور هيٺاهين طرف لاڙو (downward bias) رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Small-Sample Bias of the Gini Coefficient: Results and Implications for Empirical Research|journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics|first=George|last=Deltas|date=February 2003|volume=85|issue=1|pages=226–234|doi=10.1162/rest.2003.85.1.226|jstor=3211637|bibcode=2003RvE&amp;S..85..226D|s2cid=57572560}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهنڪري ننڍي آبادي، رياست يا ملڪ، يا اهڙيون معيشتون جن ۾ معاشي تنوع گهٽ هجي، اڪثر گهٽ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪن ٿيون.

ان جي ابتڙ، وڏي آبادي ۽ وڌيڪ متنوع معيشتن لاءِ عام طور وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو متوقع هوندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن سڄي دنيا جي معيشت ۽ سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏجي ڏٺو وڃي، ته مختلف محقق عالمي جيني اشاري جو اندازو 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ لڳائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10 /&gt;

ٻين عدم مساوات وارن اشارن وانگر، جيني اشاريو به انگن اکرن جي **تفصيل جي سطح** (granularity) کان متاثر ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي پنجن 20 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (گهٽ تفصيل) ۾ ورهايو وڃي ته حاصل ٿيندڙ جيني اشاريو عام طور ويهن 5 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (وڌيڪ تفصيل) جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ٿيندو.

فلپ مونفورٽ ڏيکاريو آهي ته جيڪڏهن مختلف مطالعي ۾ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جي سطح هڪجهڙي نه هجي يا واضح نه ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ڪيل ڀيٽون گهڻي حد تائين بي معنيٰ ٿي سگهن ٿيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Convergence of EU regions: Measures and evolution|first=Philippe|last=Monfort|publisher=European Union – Europa|page=6|year=2008|url=http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160544/http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آباديءَ ۾ تبديليون ===

جيني اشارئي سان ماپيل آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ تبديلي، سماج جي بناوت ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ آباديءَ ۾ واڌ (پيدائش جي شرح وڌڻ)، آباديءَ جي پوڙهائپ، لڏپلاڻ يا هجرت، ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت.&lt;ref name=Kwok10&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution of Hong Kong and the Gini Coefficient|author=KWOK Kwok Chuen|year=2010|publisher=The Government of Hong Kong, China|url=http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227043822/http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني اشاري جي هڪ ٻي حد اها آهي ته اهو [[مساوات پسندي]] (egalitarianism) جو مڪمل پيمانو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو رڳو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ تفاوت کي ماپي ٿو. مثال طور، فرض ڪريو ته ٻه هڪجهڙا مساوات پسند ملڪ مختلف [[اميگريشن قانون]] اختيار ڪن ٿا. جيڪڏهن انهن مان هڪ ملڪ گهٽ آمدني يا غريب مهاجرن جو وڌيڪ حصو قبول ڪري، ته اهو ملڪ وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪندو، ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت ان ۾ آمدنيءَ جي وڌيڪ عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ٿيندو، جيتوڻيڪ اها تبديلي سماجي پاليسيءَ جي نتيجي ۾ آيل هجي.

=== گهراڻو بمقابله فرد ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول ب. ساڳي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ، پر مختلف جيني اشاريا
|-
! گهراڻي جو نمبر
! ملڪ جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! گڏيل گهراڻن جو نمبر
! ملڪ الف جي گڏيل سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 1 ۽ 2 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 50,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3 ۽ 4 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 90,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5 ۽ 6 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 130,000
|-
| 6 || 70,000
|-
| 7 || 80,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7 ۽ 8 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 170,000
|-
| 8 || 90,000
|-
| 9 || 120,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9 ۽ 10 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 270,000
|-
| 10 || 150,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $710,000 || || $710,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.303''' || || '''0.293'''
|}

جيڪڏهن ساڳئي معيشت ۽ ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ لاءِ جيني اشاريو فردن بدران گهراڻن جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو وڃي، ته نتيجا مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. جيڪڏهن گهراڻن جا انگ اکر استعمال ڪيا وڃن، ته آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري جو قدر ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته &quot;گهراڻي&quot; جي تعريف ڪيئن ڪئي وئي آهي. جڏهن مختلف آباديُن ۾ گهراڻي جي تعريف هڪجهڙي نه هجي، تڏهن انهن جي ڀيٽ بامعنيٰ نه هوندي.

ان کان علاوه، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري ۾ تبديلي گهراڻي جي جوڙجڪ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو به ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيئن طلاقن ۾ واڌ يا [[گڏيل ڪٽنب]]ن جو ورهائجي [[ايڪو ڪٽنب]]ن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ.

ڊيننگر ۽ [[لن اسڪوائر]] (1996ع) ڏيکاريو ته فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاري کان مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، آمريڪا لاءِ هنن فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو 0.35، جڏهن ته فرانس لاءِ 0.43 معلوم ڪيو. سندن فرد-بنياد واري طريقي موجب، 108 ملڪن مان [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.62)، [[ملائيشيا]] جو ايشيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50)، [[برازيل]] جو لاطيني آمريڪا ۽ ڪيريبين علائقي ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.57)، ۽ [[ترڪي]] جو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50) هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Deininger |first1=K. |last2=Squire |first2=L. |title=A New Data Set Measuring Income Inequality |journal=The World Bank Economic Review |date=September 1996 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=565–591 |doi=10.1093/wber/10.3.565 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ارب پتي [[ٿامس ڪوڪ]] جو چوڻ آهي ته هانگ ڪانگ جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو (2010ع ۾ 0.434)&lt;ref name=undp2010a /&gt; جزوي طور ان جي آباديءَ جي جوڙجڪ ۾ آيل تبديلين سبب وڌيڪ رهيو آهي. گذريل ڏهاڪن دوران هانگ ڪانگ ۾ ننڍن گهراڻن، بزرگن تي ٻڌل گهراڻن ۽ اڪيلي رهندڙ بزرگ ماڻهن جو تعداد وڌيو آهي. نتيجي طور، ساڳي گڏيل آمدني هاڻي وڌيڪ گهراڻن ۾ ورهائجي وڃي ٿي. ڪوڪ جو خيال آهي ته آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو سماج جي اهڙين بناوتي تبديلين کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

هن حصي ۾ ڏنل آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ (جدول ج) پڻ ڏيکاري ٿي ته هي مسئلو رڳو هانگ ڪانگ تائين محدود ناهي. آمريڪي مردم شماري اداري موجب، 1979ع کان 2010ع تائين آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي بناوت ۾ نمايان تبديليون آيون، مهانگائيءَ مطابق سڀني آمدني گروهن جي آمدني وڌي، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ وقت سان گڏ وڌيڪ مٿين آمدني وارن گروهن ڏانهن منتقل ٿي، جڏهن ته ساڳئي عرصي دوران آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو پڻ وڌيو.&lt;ref name=cbo.p.10&gt;[http://www.cbo.gov/doc.cfm?index=12485 Congressional Budget Office: Trends in the Distribution of Household Income Between 1979 and 2007]. October 2011. see pp. i–x, with definitions on ii–iii&lt;/ref&gt;

=== لمحي واري عدم مساوات بمقابله سڄي زندگيءَ واري عدم مساوات ===

جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي بناوت ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جي اثرن کي الڳ ڪري نٿو سگهي.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

زندگيءَ جي پوري عرصي تي ٻڌل ماپن جي اهميت کي نظر ۾ رکندي، جيني اشاريو ڪنهن هڪ مخصوص وقت تي برابريءَ جو رڳو هڪ اندازو (point estimate) پيش ڪري ٿو ۽ وقت سان گڏ آمدنيءَ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين کي نظرانداز ڪري ٿو.

عام طور تي، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن سماج ۾ نوجوانن يا بزرگ ماڻهن جو تناسب وڌي وڃي، ته جيني اشاريو ظاهري طور وڌيڪ عدم مساوات ڏيکاري سگهي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نوجوان ماڻهن وٽ عام طور گهٽ آمدني ۽ دولت هوندي آهي، جڏهن ته عمر وڌڻ سان اهي وڌنديون آهن.

تنهنڪري، آباديءَ جي عمر جي ورڇ ۽ مختلف آمدني وارن طبقن جي وچ ۾ نقل و حرڪت جهڙا عنصر، آباديءَ جي بناوت جي اثرن کي نظر ۾ رکڻ کان سواءِ، اهڙي عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا جيڪا حقيقت ۾ موجود نه هجي.

اهڙيءَ طرح، ڪنهن معيشت جو ڪنهن خاص وقت تي جيني اشاريو ٻي معيشت جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿو، پر جيڪڏهن ساڳين ماڻهن جي سڄي زندگيءَ جي آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي جيني اشاريو ڳڻيو وڃي، ته ممڪن آهي ته اها معيشت ٻيءَ کان وڌيڪ برابر ثابت ٿئي، جيتوڻيڪ هڪ مخصوص وقت تي ان جو جيني اشاريو وڌيڪ نظر اچي ٿو.&lt;ref name=blomq81&gt;{{Cite journal |first=N. |last=Blomquist |s2cid=154519005 |year=1981 |title=A comparison of distributions of annual and lifetime income: Sweden around 1970 |journal=Review of Income and Wealth |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1981.tb00227.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== غير نقدي فائدا ۽ جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني ===

جيڪڏهن [[جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني]] (انڪم ان ڪائينڊ) کي مالي قدر ڏيڻ ۾ درستگي نه هجي، ته اها جيني اشاري جي حقيقي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ واري صلاحيت کي گهٽائي ڇڏي ٿي.

جيتوڻيڪ ٽيڪسن ۽ نقد منتقلي وارين ادائگين جو حساب نسبتاً سولو هوندو آهي، پر حڪومت طرفان فراهم ڪيل ٻيا فائدا، جهڙوڪ رعايتي رهائش، طبي سهولتون ۽ تعليم، جو مالي قدر مقرر ڪرڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن جو قدر انهن جي معيار ۽ فراهم ڪيل سهولتن جي مقدار تي دارومدار رکي ٿو.

آزاد منڊي جي غير موجودگيءَ ۾، اهڙين سهولتن کي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جو حصو سمجهي مالي قدر ڏيڻ هڪ موضوعي (سبجيڪٽو) عمل آهي. تنهنڪري جيني اشاري جو نظرياتي ماڊل اهڙن اندازن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ تي ڀاڙي ٿو.

پاڻڀرائي (سبسسٽنس) تي ٻڌل ۽ [[غير رسمي معيشت]]ن ۾، ماڻهن جي آمدنيءَ جو وڏو حصو پئسي بدران ٻين صورتن ۾ هوندو آهي، جهڙوڪ [[پاڻڀري زراعت]] يا [[مال جي بدلي مال]] (بارٽر) ذريعي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدني. اهڙي آمدني عام طور اڀرندڙ ۽ منتقلي واري معيشتن، خاص طور تي صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا، لاطيني آمريڪا، ايشيا ۽ اوڀر يورپ جي گهٽ آمدني وارن ماڻهن وٽ وڌيڪ هوندي آهي.

غير رسمي معيشت عالمي روزگار جو اڌ کان وڌيڪ حصو فراهم ڪري ٿي، ۽ صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا جي ڪجهه غريب ملڪن ۾، جتي سرڪاري جيني اشاريا به تمام وڌيڪ آهن، روزگار جو 90 سيڪڙو تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

شنائڊر ۽ سندس ساٿين 2010ع ۾ 162 ملڪن تي ڪيل مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته دنيا جي مجموعي [[مجموعي ملڪي پيداوار]] (GDP) جو لڳ ڀڳ 31.2 سيڪڙو، يعني لڳ ڀڳ 20 ٽريلين آمريڪي ڊالر، غير رسمي معيشت مان پيدا ٿئي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Friedrich|last1=Schneider|first2=Andreas|last2=Buehn|first3=Claudio E.|last3=Montenegro|s2cid=56060172|year=2010|title=New Estimates for the Shadow Economies all over the World|journal=International Economic Journal|volume=24|issue=4|pages=443–461|doi=10.1080/10168737.2010.525974|hdl=10986/4929|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾، امير شهري آباديءَ کان سواءِ تقريباً سڀني آمدني وارن طبقن لاءِ غير رسمي معيشت آمدنيءَ جو بنيادي ذريعو آهي. ترقي يافته ملڪن ۾ به قومي GDP جو اندازاً 8 سيڪڙو (آمريڪا) کان 27 سيڪڙو (اٽلي) تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

غير رسمي يا پاڇي واري معيشت مان حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي صحيح مقدار ۽ ان جي ورڇ جو اندازو لڳائڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، جنهن سبب آمدنيءَ جي حقيقي جيني اشاري جو صحيح اندازو لڳائڻ پڻ مشڪل ٿي پوي ٿو.&lt;ref name=mfeld&gt;{{cite web|title=Is income inequality really the problem? (Overview)|first=Martin|last=Feldstein|date=August 1998|publisher=US Federal Reserve|url=http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|access-date=2 August 2012|archive-date=3 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160558/http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=tandw&gt;{{cite book|title=Principles of Microeconomics: Global Financial Crisis Edition|first1=John|last1=Taylor|first2=Akila|last2=Weerapana|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4390-7821-1|pages=416–418|publisher=Cengage Learning}}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهڙي آمدنيءَ بابت مختلف مفروضا ۽ اندازا مختلف جيني اشاريا پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income Inequality and the Informal Economy in Transition Economies|first1=J. Barkley Jr.|last1=Rosser|first2=Marina V.|last2=Rosser|first3=Ehsan|last3=Ahmed|s2cid=49552052|journal=Journal of Comparative Economics|date=March 2000|volume=28|issue=1|pages=156–171|doi=10.1006/jcec.2000.1645}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Earnings inequality and the informal economy: evidence from Serbia|first1=Gorana|last1=Krstić|first2=Peter|last2=Sanfey|publisher=European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|date=February 2010|url=http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160550/http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-date=2012-08-03|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite report|title=The Size of the Shadow Economies of 145 Countries all over the World: First Results over the Period 1999 to 2003|first=Friedrich|last=Schneider|date=December 2004|ssrn=636661|hdl=10419/20729}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== متبادل طريقا ==

جيني اشاريي جي حدن کي نظر ۾ رکندي، آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ يا عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ ان سان گڏ يا ان جي متبادل طور ٻيا شمارياتي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، **اينٽروپي تي ٻڌل ماپا** (entropy measures) وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جن ۾ [[ٿيئل اشاريو]] (Theil Index) ۽ [[اوسط لاگ انحراف]] (مين لاگ ڊيويئيشن) شامل آهن. اهي ٻئي [[عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو]] (جنرلائيزڊ اينٽروپي انڊيڪس) جا خاص مثال آهن، يا ساڳئي مفهوم موجب [[ايٽڪنسن اشاريو]] (ايٽڪنسن انڊيڪس) جا پڻ خاص مثال سمجهيا وڃن ٿا.

اورٽيگا جو ٻه-پيماني وارو ماڊل (اورٽيگا ٽو-پيراميٽر ماڊل)&lt;ref name=&quot;ortega,1991&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Ortega | first1=P. | last2=Martín | first2=G. | last3=Fernández | first3=A. | last4=Ladoux | first4=M. | last5=García | first5=A. | title=A New Functional Form for Estimating Lorenz Curves | journal=Review of Income and Wealth | volume=37 | issue=4 | date=1991 | issn=0034-6586 | doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1991.tb00383.x | pages=447–452}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيني اشاريي جهڙن هڪ-پيماني وارن ماڊلن جي ڀيٽ ۾ سماجي نتيجن بابت وڌيڪ تفصيلي اڳڪٿيون ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت رکي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Blesch,2022&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Blesch | first1=Kristin | last2=Hauser | first2=Oliver P. | last3=Jachimowicz | first3=Jon M. | title=Measuring inequality beyond the Gini coefficient may clarify conflicting findings | journal=Nature Human Behaviour | volume=6 | issue=11 | date=2022 | issn=2397-3374 | pmid=36038775 | pmc=7614289 | doi=10.1038/s41562-022-01430-7 | pages=1525–1536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهو پڻ معلوم ٿيو آهي ته جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي وچئين حصي ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين لاءِ ضرورت کان وڌيڪ حساس هوندو آهي. ان ڪري، [[وچين آمدني]] (ميڊيئن انڪم) تي ٻڌل طريقا ان جا متبادل طور استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;u376&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last=Gastwirth | first=Joseph L. | title=Is the Gini Index of Inequality Overly Sensitive to Changes in the Middle of the Income Distribution? | journal=Statistics and Public Policy | volume=4 | issue=1 | date=2017 | issn=2330-443X | doi=10.1080/2330443X.2017.1360813 | pages=1–11 | doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ٻين شمارياتي ماپن سان لاڳاپو ==

ٻه-درجا (بائنري) درجابندي ڪندڙ نظام (ڪلاسيفائر سسٽم) جي تشخيصي ڪارڪردگيءَ جو هڪ خلاصي ماپو پڻ **جيني عدد** سڏيو ويندو آهي. ان جي تعريف [[رسيور آپريٽنگ خاصيت]] (ROC) وکر ۽ ان جي قطري ليڪ جي وچ واري ايراضيءَ جي ٻيڻي طور ڪئي ويندي آهي. هي ماپو [[آر او سي وڪڙ هيٺان ايراضي]] (ايريا انڊر دي ڪرو؛ AUC) سان لاڳاپيل آهي، جنهن کي هن مساوات سان ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;AUC = (G+1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=hand&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hand |first1=David J. |last2=Till |first2=Robert J. |title=A Simple Generalisation of the Area Under the ROC Curve for Multiple Class Classification Problems |journal=Machine Learning |date=2001 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=171–186 |doi=10.1023/A:1010920819831 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهو [[مان-وِٽني يو آزمائش]] آزمائش سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ٻنهي جيني عددن جي تعريف مخصوص وکرن جي وچ واري ايراضيءَ جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي ۽ انهن ۾ ڪجهه هڪجهڙيون خاصيتون موجود آهن، پر شمارياتي ورڇ جي جيني عدد ۽ درجابندي ڪندڙ نظام جي جيني عدد جي وچ ۾ ڪو سڌو ۽ سادو رياضيائي لاڳاپو موجود ناهي.

جيني اشاريو [[پيئٽرا اشاريو]] (Pietra Index) سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي. اهي ٻئي شمارياتي ناهمگني (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل ھيٽروجينيئٽي) کي ماپيندا آهن ۽ [[لورينز وکر]] ۽ قطري ليڪ مان اخذ ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Iddo I.|last1=Eliazar |first2=Igor M.|last2=Sokolov |year=2010 |title=Measuring statistical heterogeneity: The Pietra index|journal=Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications|volume=389|issue=1|pages=117–125|doi=10.1016/j.physa.2009.08.006|bibcode=2010PhyA..389..117E}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Wen-Chung |title=Probabilistic analysis of global performances of diagnostic tests: interpreting the Lorenz curve-based summary measures |journal=Statistics in Medicine |date=28 February 1999 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=455–471 |doi=10.1002/(sici)1097-0258(19990228)18:4&lt;455::aid-sim44&gt;3.0.co;2-a |pmid=10070686 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;

ڪجهه شعبن، جهڙوڪ [[ماحوليات]]، ۾ تنوع (ڊائورسٽي) کي ماپڻ لاءِ **الٽو سمپسن اشاريو** (&lt;math&gt;1/\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. ان کي [[سمپسن اشاريو]] (&lt;math&gt;\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) سان نه گڏي ويهڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Measurement of Species Diversity|first=Robert K.|last=Peet|s2cid=83517584|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=5|year=1974|issue=1|pages=285–307|jstor=2096890|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001441|bibcode=1974AnRES...5..285P }}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهي اشارا جيني اشاريي سان لاڳاپيل آهن. الٽو سمپسن اشاريو تنوع وڌڻ سان وڌندو آهي، جڏهن ته سمپسن اشاريو ۽ جيني اشاريو تنوع وڌڻ سان گهٽجندا آهن. سمپسن اشاري جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 جي وچ ۾ هونديون آهن، جتي 0 وڌ ۾ وڌ تنوع ۽ 1 گهٽ ۾ گهٽ تنوع (يا ناهمگني) کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو. ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ تنوع جا اڪثر اشارا ناهمگني وڌڻ سان وڌندا آهن، تنهنڪري سمپسن اشاري کي اڪثر الٽي سمپسن اشاري يا ان جي متمم (&lt;math&gt;1-\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) ۾ تبديل ڪيو ويندو آهي، جنهن کي **جيني-سمپسن اشاريو** چيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Measurement of Species Diversity|first=Robert K.|last=Peet|s2cid=83517584|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=5|year=1974|issue=1|pages=285–307|jstor=2096890|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001441|bibcode=1974AnRES...5..285P }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[لورينز وکر]] دولت جي ورڇ کي گرافيڪي صورت ۾ ڏيکارڻ جو هڪ ٻيو طريقو آهي. اهو جيني عدد کان نَوَ سال اڳ متعارف ڪرايو ويو هو. جيني عدد ان ڳالهه کي مقداري صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته لورينز وکر، مڪمل برابريءَ واري ليڪ (جنهن جو [[لاڙو]] 1 هوندو آهي) کان ڪيترو هٽي ٿو.

[[هوور اشاريو]] (ھوور انڊيڪس)، جيڪو **رابن هوڊ اشاريو** (رابن ھوڊ انڊيڪس) جي نالي سان پڻ سڃاتو وڃي ٿو، اهو ٻڌائي ٿو ته ڪل آباديءَ جي آمدنيءَ مان ڪيترو سيڪڙو ٻيهر ورهائڻو پوندو ته جيئن جيني اشاريو 0 (يعني مڪمل برابري) ٿي وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hoover Index |url=https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/economics/hoover-index/ |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=Corporate Finance Institute |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== جديد دور کان اڳ جي سماجن جا جيني اشاريا ==

گذريل ڪجهه ڏهاڪن دوران، محققن ويهين صديءَ کان اڳ وارن سماجن لاءِ جيني اشاريي جو اندازو لڳائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي آهي. ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان دور لاءِ گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ بابت سروي ۽ آمدني ٽيڪس جا انگ اکر موجود نه آهن، تنهنڪري محققن متبادل اشاري (پراڪسي ويريئبلز) استعمال ڪيا آهن.

انهن ۾ وچئين دور جي يورپي شهري رياستن ۾ دولت تي لاڳو ٽيڪس، [[رومي مصر]] ۾ زمين جي ملڪيت جا نمونا، قديم [[يونان]] کان وٺي [[ازٽيڪ]] ميڪسيڪو تائين سماجن ۾ گهرن جي ماپ ۾ فرق، ۽ بابلي سماج ۾ وراثت ۽ ڏاج جا رڪارڊ شامل آهن.
ٻيا ڪجهه انگ اکر دولت يا آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي سڌو سنئون ظاهر نٿا ڪن، پر انهن کي عدم مساوات جو عڪس سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جهڙوڪ ڀاڙي ۽ اجرت جي وچ وارو تناسب، يا محنت ۽ سرمائي جي وچ وارو تناسب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=[[Walter Scheidel]]|title=The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century|publisher=Princeton University Press|date=2017|isbn=978-0-691-16502-8|pages=15–16}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ٻيا استعمال ==

جيتوڻيڪ جيني اشاريو معاشيات ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر نظرياتي طور ان کي سائنس جي هر اهڙي شعبي ۾ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو ڪنهن ورڇ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[ماحوليات]] ۾ جيني اشاريي کي [[حياتياتي تنوع]] جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي، جتي نسلن جي گڏيل تناسب کي فردن جي گڏيل تناسب جي مقابلي ۾ ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=natureArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last1 = Wittebolle | first1 = Lieven | title = Initial community evenness favours functionality under selective stress | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | year = 2009 | volume = 458 | issue = 7238 | pmid = 19270679 | pages = 623–626 | doi = 10.1038/nature07840| display-authors = 2 | last2 = Marzorati | first2 = Massimo | last3 = Balloi | first3 = Annalisa | last4 = Daffonchio | first4 = Daniele | last5 = Heylen | first5 = Kim | last6 = De Vos | first6 = Paul | last7 = Verstraete | first7 = Willy | last8 = Boon | first8 = Nico | bibcode = 2009Natur.458..623W | s2cid = 4419280 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

صحت جي شعبي ۾، ان کي آباديءَ ۾ صحت سان لاڳاپيل [[زندگيءَ جي معيار]] جي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=popHealthArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last=Asada | first=Yukiko | title = Assessment of the health of Americans: the average health-related quality of life and its inequality across individuals and groups | journal = Population Health Metrics | year = 2005 | volume = 3 | pmid=16014174 | article-number = 7 | pmc=1192818 | doi = 10.1186/1478-7954-3-7 | doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

تعليم ۾، ان کي يونيورسٽين جي وچ ۾ عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=MinervaArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last1= Halffman | first1= Willem | last2= Leydesdorff | first2= Loet | title = Is Inequality Among Universities Increasing? Gini Coefficients and the Elusive Rise of Elite Universities | journal = Minerva | year = 2010 | volume = 48 | pmid= 20401157 | issue= 1 | pages = 55–72 | pmc= 2850525 | doi = 10.1007/s11024-010-9141-3| arxiv= 1001.2921 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪيميا ۾، جيني اشاريي کي [[پروٽين ڪائنيز روڪيندڙ|پروٽين ڪائنيز روڪيندڙن]] (پروٽين ڪائنيز انھبيٽرز) جي مختلف ڪائنيزن جي مقابلي ۾ چونڊ کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=JMedChemArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last = Graczyk | first = Piotr | title = Gini Coefficient: A New Way To Express Selectivity of Kinase Inhibitors against a Family of Kinases | journal = Journal of Medicinal Chemistry | year = 2007 | volume = 50 | issue = 23 | pmid = 17948979 | pages = 5773–5779 | doi = 10.1021/jm070562u}}&lt;/ref&gt;

انجنيئرنگ ۾، ان کي مختلف ٽرئفڪ وهڪرن مان ايندڙ پيڪٽن جي موڪل (پيڪٽ شيڊولنگ) دوران انٽرنيٽ روٽرن جي انصاف پسندي جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=GreedyFairQueueing&gt;{{Cite book |first1=Hongyuan |last1=Shi |first2=Harish |last2=Sethu |contribution=Greedy Fair Queueing: A Goal-Oriented Strategy for Fair Real-Time Packet Scheduling |pages=345–356 |title=Proceedings of the 24th IEEE Real-Time Systems Symposium |publisher=[[IEEE Computer Society]] |isbn=978-0-7695-2044-5 |year=2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[مشين سکيا]] ۾، ان کي مختلف قسمن جي انگن اکرن، جهڙوڪ تصويرن ۽ متن، جي ويڪٽر جڳهن ۾ گهڻ-بمقابله-گهڻ مشابهت کي ماپڻ لاءِ هڪ گڏيل اشاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي. اهو پڻ ڏيکاريو ويو آهي ته محدود معلومات وارن حالتن ۾ تربيتي نمونن جي چونڊ ۾ هي اشاري مؤثر رهنمائي فراهم ڪري ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | last1 = Fauber | first1 = Ben | title = Gini Coefficient as a Unified Metric for Evaluating Many-versus-Many Similarity in Vector Spaces. | date = 2024 | volume = abs/2411.07983 | arxiv = 2411.07983 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني اشاريو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[ڪريڊٽ ريٽنگ]] نظامن جي امتيازي صلاحيت کي ماپڻ لاءِ پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور تي [[ڪريڊٽ خطري]] جي انتظام ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=The Analytics of Risk Model Validation (Quantitative Finance)|editor1-first=George A.|editor1-last=Christodoulakis|editor2-first=Stephen|editor2-last=Satchell|isbn=978-0-7506-8158-2|date=November 2007|publisher=Academic Press}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2004ع ۾، [[جينيفر لوٽز]] هڪ مقالي ۾ جيني اشاريي کي &quot;ڪهڪشاني تصوير جي پکسلن جي روشنيءَ جي قدرن جي نسبتي ورڇ&quot; جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو ۽ اهو نتيجو ڪڍيو ته هي [[الٽرا-لومينس انفرا ريڊ ڪهڪشان]]ن (ULIRGs) کي عام ڪهڪشانن کان ڌار ڪرڻ جو هڪ معتبر طريقو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Lotz |first1=Jennifer M. |last2=Primack |first2=Joel |last3=Madau |first3=Piero |date=July 2004 |title=A New Nonparametric Approach to Galaxy Morphological Classification |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004AJ....128..163L/abstract |journal=The Astronomical Journal |language=en |volume=128 |issue=1 |pages=163–182 |doi=10.1086/421849 |issn=0004-6256|arxiv=astro-ph/0311352 |bibcode=2004AJ....128..163L }}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کان پوءِ جيني اشاريو [[ڪهڪشانن جي بناوتي درجابندي]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Florian |first1=Michael K. |last2=Li |first2=Nan |last3=Gladders |first3=Michael D. |date=2016-11-30 |title=The Gini Coefficient As a Morphological Measurement of Strongly Lensed Galaxies in the Same Plane |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=832 |issue=2 |pages=168 |doi=10.3847/0004-637X/832/2/168 |doi-access=free|issn=0004-637X|arxiv=1511.03617 |bibcode=2016ApJ...832..168F }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rodriguez-Gomez |first1=Vicente |last2=Lotz |first2=Jennifer |last3=Snyder |first3=Greg |date=January 2022 |title=statmorph: Non-parametric morphological diagnostics of galaxy images |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022ascl.soft01010R/abstract |journal=Astrophysics Source Code Library |language=en |pages=ascl:2201.010 |bibcode=2022ascl.soft01010R }}&lt;/ref&gt;

2005ع جي هڪ مطالعي ۾ آمريڪي مردم شماري جا انگ اکر استعمال ڪري گهرن ۾ ڪمپيوٽر جي ملڪيت جو جائزو ورتو ويو ۽ جيني اشاريي جي ذريعي اڇي فام ۽ آفريقي-آمريڪي آباديءَ جي وچ ۾ ڊجيٽل عدم مساوات ماپي وئي. نتيجن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته مجموعي عدم مساوات گهٽجڻ باوجود، ڪمپيوٽر جي ملڪيت ۾ عدم مساوات اڇي فام گهراڻن ۾ نمايان طور گهٽ هئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chakraborty|first1=J|last2=Bosman|first2=MM|title=Measuring the digital divide in the United States: race, income, and personal computer ownership|journal=Prof Geogr|year=2005|volume=57|issue=3|pages=395–410|doi=10.1111/j.0033-0124.2005.00486.x|bibcode=2005ProfG..57..395C|s2cid=154401826}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2016ع ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ هم جائزي واري مطالعي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته علاج تي مرڪوز ڊجيٽل صحت جي سماجي نيٽ ورڪن ۾ شرڪت جي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ جيني اشاريو مفيد ۽ درست آهي، پر اڪيلو استعمال ڪرڻ سان اهو نيٽ ورڪ جي مجموعي ماپ کي نظر ۾ نٿو رکي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Mierlo|first1=T|last2=Hyatt|first2=D|last3=Ching|first3=A|title=Employing the Gini coefficient to measure participation inequality in treatment-focused Digital Health Social Networks|journal=Netw Model Anal Health Inform Bioinforma|date=2016|volume=5|issue=32|pages=32|doi=10.1007/s13721-016-0140-7|pmid=27840788|pmc=5082574}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امتيازي صلاحيت مان مراد ڪنهن ڪريڊٽ خطري جي ماڊل جي اها قابليت آهي، جنهن سان اهو قرض واپس نه ڪندڙ ۽ قرض واپس ڪندڙ گراهڪن ۾ فرق ڪري سگهي. مٿين &quot;حساب&quot; واري حصي ۾ ڏنل &lt;math&gt;G_1&lt;/math&gt; وارو فارمولو آخري ماڊل ۽ ان جي انفرادي عنصرن ٻنهي جي امتيازي صلاحيت کي ماپڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو. اهو آباديءَ جي تشخيصي ماڊلن ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ **درستگيءَ جي نسبت** (ايڪيوريسي ريشو) سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

جيني اشاريو [[آن لائين ملاقاتي ايپليڪيشن|آن لائين ملاقاتي ايپليڪيشنن]] (ڊيٽنگ ايپس) ۾ موجود عدم مساوات جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=2015-03-25|title=Tinder Experiments II: Guys, unless you are really hot you are probably better off not wasting your…|url=https://medium.com/@worstonlinedater/tinder-experiments-ii-guys-unless-you-are-really-hot-you-are-probably-better-off-not-wasting-your-2ddf370a6e9a|access-date=2021-04-28|website=Medium|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Kopf|first=Dan|title=These statistics show why it's so hard to be an average man on dating apps|url=https://qz.com/1051462/these-statistics-show-why-its-so-hard-to-be-an-average-man-on-dating-apps/|access-date=2021-04-28|website=Quartz|date=15 August 2017|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪامينسڪي ۽ ڪريوتسوو&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Kaminskiy |first1=M.P.|last2=Krivtsov|first2=V.V.|date=2011|chapter=A Gini-Type Index for Aging/Rejuvenating Objects|title=Mathematical and Statistical Models and Methods in Reliability|location=Birkhäuser Boston|url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9780817649708|publisher=Springer|pages=133–140|isbn=978-0-8176-4970-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيني اشاريي جي تصور کي معاشيات مان [[اعتماديت جو نظريو]] (رلائبلٽي ٿيوري) ڏانهن وڌايو ۽ هڪ جيني-قسم جو اشاريو تجويز ڪيو، جيڪو مرمت نه ٿي سگهندڙ نظامن جي پوڙهائپ، يا مرمت لائق نظامن جي پوڙهائپ ۽ نئين سر بحالي جي درجي کي ماپڻ ۾ مدد ڏئي ٿو.

هي اشاريو −1 کان 1 جي وچ ۾ هوندو آهي ۽ تجربي تي ٻڌل توڙي پيراميٽرڪ عمر جي ورڇن ٻنهي لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ناڪاميءَ جي گهٽجندڙ شرح (ڊڪريزنگ فئليوئر ريٽ) واري ورڇن لاءِ ان جون قيمتون منفي، جڏهن ته ناڪاميءَ جي وڌندڙ شرح (انڪريزنگ فئليوئر ريٽ) واري ورڇن لاءِ مثبت هونديون آهن. صفر جي قيمت [[اُسري عمر جي ورڇ]] (اڪسپوننشل لائيف ڊسٽريبيوشن) يا [[همجنس پواسون نقطي عمل]] (Homogeneous Poisson Point Process) جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي.

== پڻ ڏسو ==

* [[تنوع جو اشاريو]]
* [[اقتصادي عدم مساوات]]
* [[گريٽ گيٽسبي وکر]]
* [[هرفنڊال-هرشمن اشاريو]]
* [[هوور اشاريو]] (رابن هوڊ اشاريو)
* [[انساني غربت جو اشاريو]]
* [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا ماپا]]
* [[ڪزنٽس وکر]]
* [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات موجب ملڪن جي فهرست]]
* [[عدم مساوات سان ترتيب ڏنل انساني ترقي اشاري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست]]
* [[دولت جي عدم مساوات موجب ملڪن جي فهرست]]
* [[آمريڪا جي رياستن جي جيني اشاريي موجب فهرست]]
* [[لورينز وکر]]
* [[ميٿيو اثر]]
* [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]
* [[آر او سي تجزيو]]
* [[سوئٽس اشاريو]]
* [[هاٿي وکر]]
* [[مثالي رياست]]
* [[سماجي ڀلائي]]
* [[سماجي ڀلائي جي معاشيات]]

== حوالا ==

{{Reflist|30em}}

== وڌيڪ مطالعي لاء==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book | last1=Amiel | first1=Y. | last2=Cowell | first2=F.&amp;nbsp;A. | year=1999 | title=Thinking about Inequality | publisher=Cambridge | isbn=978-0-521-46696-7}}
* {{Cite book | first=Sudhir | last=Anand | year=1983 | title=Inequality and Poverty in Malaysia | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=New York | isbn=978-0-19-520153-6}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Brown | first=Malcolm | title=Using Gini-Style Indices to Evaluate the Spatial Patterns of Health Practitioners: Theoretical Considerations and an Application Based on Alberta Data | journal=Social Science &amp; Medicine | year=1994 | volume=38 | pages=1243–1256 | doi=10.1016/0277-9536(94)90189-9 | pmid=8016689 | issue=9}}
* {{Cite book | first=S.&amp;nbsp;R. | last=Chakravarty | year=1990 | title=Ethical Social Index Numbers | publisher=Springer-Verlag | location=New York | isbn=978-0-387-52274-6 }}
* {{Cite book | first=Angus | last=Deaton | year=1997 | title=Analysis of Household Surveys | publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press | location=Baltimore MD | isbn=978-0-585-23787-9 }}
* {{Cite journal | title=Bootstrapping the Gini coefficient of inequality | journal=Ecology | year=1987 | volume=68 | pages=1548–1551 | doi=10.2307/1939238 | jstor=1939238 | issue=5 |last1 = Dixon| first1=Philip M. | last2=Weiner | first2=Jacob  | last3=Mitchell-Olds | first3=Thomas | last4=Woodley | first4=Robert | bibcode=1987Ecol...68.1548D | s2cid=84940050 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Dorfman | first=Robert | title=A Formula for the Gini Coefficient | journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics | year=1979 | volume=61 | pages=146–149 | doi=10.2307/1924845 | jstor=1924845 | issue=1 }}
* {{Cite book | first=Glenn | last=Firebaugh | year=2003 | title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality | publisher=Harvard University Press | location=Cambridge, Massachusetts | isbn=978-0-674-01067-3 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Gastwirth | first=Joseph L. | title=The Estimation of the Lorenz Curve and Gini Index | journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics | year=1972 | volume=54 | pages=306–316 | doi=10.2307/1937992 | jstor=1937992 | issue=3 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Giles | first=David | title=Calculating a Standard Error for the Gini Coefficient: Some Further Results | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2004 | volume=66 | issue=3 | pages=425–433 | doi=10.1111/j.1468-0084.2004.00086.x | url=http://web.uvic.ca/econ/ewp0202.pdf | citeseerx=10.1.1.202.6462 | s2cid=16972099 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040505124219/http://web.uvic.ca/econ/ewp0202.pdf | archive-date=5 May 2004 }}
* {{Cite book | last=Gini | first=Corrado | year=1912 | title=Variabilità e mutabilità | bibcode=1912vamu.book.....G }} Reprinted in {{cite book | title=Memorie di metodologica statistica | editor1-last=Pizetti | editor1-first=E. | editor2-last=Salvemini | editor2-first=T. | location=Rome | publisher=Libreria Eredi Virgilio Veschi | year=1955}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Gini | first=Corrado | title=Measurement of Inequality of Incomes | journal=The Economic Journal | year=1921 | volume=31 | pages=124–126 | doi=10.2307/2223319 | jstor=2223319 | issue=121 | url=https://zenodo.org/record/1449432 }}
* {{cite journal | last=Giorgi | first=Giovanni Maria | year=1990 | title=Bibliographic portrait of the Gini concentration ratio | journal=Metron | volume=48 | pages=183–231 | url=http://econwpa.repec.org/eps/em/papers/0511/0511004.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804055002/http://econwpa.repec.org/eps/em/papers/0511/0511004.pdf | archive-date=4 August 2016 }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Karagiannis | first1=E.  | last2=Kovacevic | first2=M. | title=A Method to Calculate the Jackknife Variance Estimator for the Gini Coefficient | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2000 | volume=62 | pages=119–122 | doi=10.1111/1468-0084.00163}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Mills | first1=Jeffrey A. | last2=Zandvakili | first2=Sourushe | title=Statistical Inference via Bootstrapping for Measures of Inequality | journal=Journal of Applied Econometrics | year=1997 | volume=12 | issue=2 | pages=133–150 | doi=10.1002/(SICI)1099-1255(199703)12:2&lt;133::AID-JAE433&gt;3.0.CO;2-H | jstor=2284908 | url=http://www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/wp136.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718000000/http://www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/wp136.pdf |archive-date=2012-07-18 |url-status=live | citeseerx=10.1.1.172.5003 | hdl=10419/186818 }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Modarres | first1=Reza | last2=Gastwirth | first2=Joseph L. | title=A Cautionary Note on Estimating the Standard Error of the Gini Index of Inequality | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2006 | volume=68 | issue=3 | pages=385–390 | doi=10.1111/j.1468-0084.2006.00167.x| s2cid=122716409 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Morgan | first=James | title=The Anatomy of Income Distribution | journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics | year=1962 | volume=44 | pages=270–283 | doi=10.2307/1926398 | jstor=1926398 | issue=3 | bibcode=1962RvE&amp;S..44..270M }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Ogwang | first=Tomson | title=A Convenient Method of Computing the Gini Index and its Standard Error | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2000 | volume=62 | pages=123–129 | doi=10.1111/1468-0084.00164 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Ogwang | first=Tomson | title=Calculating a Standard Error for the Gini Coefficient: Some Further Results: Reply | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2004 | volume=66 | issue=3 | pages=435–437 | doi=10.1111/j.1468-0084.2004.00087.x| ssrn=565069 | s2cid=122160535 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Kuan |title=How has the Literature on Gini's Index Evolved in the Past 80 Years? |date=January 2004 | url=http://economics.dal.ca/RePEc/dal/wparch/howgini.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060928082244/http://economics.dal.ca/RePEc/dal/wparch/howgini.pdf | access-date=1 June 2006 | archive-date=28 September 2006 |journal=[[Social Science Research Network|SSRN Electronic Journal]] |doi=10.2139/ssrn.423200 |series=Economics Working Paper |at=[[Dalhousie University]]}} The Chinese version of this paper was published as {{cite journal | last=Xu | first=Kuan | title=How Has the Literature on Gini's Index Evolved in the Past 80 Years? | journal = China Economic Quarterly | year=2003 | volume=2 | pages=757–778 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Yitzhaki | first=Shlomo  | title=Calculating Jackknife Variance Estimators for Parameters of the Gini Method | journal=Journal of Business and Economic Statistics | year=1991 | volume=9 | pages=235–239 | doi=10.2307/1391792 | jstor=1391792 | issue=2 }}
{{Refend}}

== خارجي ڳنڍڻا ==
{{Commons category}}

* Deutsche Bundesbank: [https://web.archive.org/web/20081218111312/http://www.bundesbank.de/download/bankenaufsicht/dkp/200503dkp_b.pdf Do banks diversify loan portfolios?], 2005 (on using e.g. the Gini coefficient for risk evaluation of loan portfolios)
* [https://www.forbes.com/forbes/2003/0317/098.html Forbes: In praise of inequality]
* [http://www.theresearchkitchen.com/archives/219 Measuring Software Project Risk With The Gini Coefficient], an application of the Gini coefficient to software
* [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/EXTPA/0,,contentMDK:20238991~menuPK:492138~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:430367,00.html The World Bank: Measuring Inequality]
* [http://utip.gov.utexas.edu/tutorials/theo_basic_ineq_measures.doc Travis Hale, University of Texas Inequality Project:The Theoretical Basics of Popular Inequality Measures], online computation of examples: [http://www.poorcity.richcity.org/calculator/?quantiles=7,*18000|10,*22000|280,*25000|15,*35000|15,*40000|50,*60000|10,*75000|6,*80000|4,*120000|2,*200000|1,1000000 1A], [http://www.poorcity.richcity.org/calculator/?quantiles=12,*15000|25,*20000|1000,*30000|35,*35000|100,*45000|80,*50000|10,*60000|25,*80000|8,*175000|4,*250000|1,5000000 1B]
* [https://image.guardian.co.uk/sys-files/Guardian/documents/2009/03/13/inequality.pdf Article from The Guardian analysing inequality in the UK 1974–2006]
* [https://www.wider.unu.edu/project/wiid-world-income-inequality-database World Income Inequality Database]
* [https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 BBC News: What is the Gini coefficient?]
* [http://www.oecd.org/els/social/inequality/GU Income Distribution and Poverty in OECD Countries]
* [http://inequality.org/unequal-americas-income-distribution/ U.S. Income Distribution: Just How Unequal?]

{{گلوبلائيزيشن}}
{{محرومي جا اشارا}}
{{غربت}}
{{Authority control}}

[[زمرو:1912ع ۾ متعارف ٿيل شيون]]
[[زمرو:1912ع جي معاشي تاريخ]]
[[زمرو:ارتڪاز جا اشارا]]
[[زمرو:آبادياتي معاشيات]]
[[زمرو:آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا ماپا]]
[[زمرو:سماجي ڀلائي جي معاشيات]]
[[زمرو:اطالوي ايجادون]]
[[زمرو:بغير بُعد وارا انگ]]</text>
      <sha1>o77chibx1r4qtiq6q4f9uwpszzge1yy</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399370</id>
      <parentid>399317</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T08:59:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399370</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="121763" sha1="dfar08rer72ruhm3miigv8u28fu6pj3" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|جيني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

جيني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وڪڙ]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. جيني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وڪڙ جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب جيني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته جيني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته جيني اشاريي جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري جيني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (رليٽو مين ابسوليوٽ ڊفرنس) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وڪڙ تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته جيني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا جيني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته جيني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو جيني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو جيني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به جيني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

جيني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته جيني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، جيني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! جيني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وڪڙ معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وڪڙ جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وڪڙ جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وڪڙ کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وڪڙ کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي جيني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfn|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfn|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاريا ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو}}

جيني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاريي هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاريي جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاريي هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وڪڙ ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

جيني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي جيني عدد ۽ موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاريي اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا جيني اشاريي سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاريي]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاريي يا شوراڪس جمود اشاريي به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاريي جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاريي جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته جيني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==


جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (ڪيوموليٽو پروپورشن) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حدون ==

=== نسبتي، نه مطلق ===

جيني اشاريو هڪ **نسبتي** (رليٽو) ماپ آهي. ڪنهن ترقي پذير ملڪ ۾، جيتوڻيڪ مڪمل غربت ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽجي وڃي، تڏهن به آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات وڌڻ سبب جيني اشاريو وڌي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Dramatic Poverty Reduction in the Third World: Prospects and Needed Action|first=John W.|last=Mellor|publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute|date=2 June 1989|pages=18–20|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160551/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جو سبب اهو آهي ته جيني اشاريو دولت يا آمدنيءَ جي **نسبتي** ورڇ کي ماپي ٿو، نه ڪي ان جي **مطلق** (ابسوليوٽ) مقدار کي.

جيني اشاريو سادو ۽ سمجهڻ ۾ آسان آهي، پر اها ئي سادگي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اهم فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري سگهي ٿي ۽ مختلف آباديُن جي ڀيٽ کي گمراهه ڪندڙ بڻائي سگهي ٿي. مثال طور، 2010ع ۾ [[بنگلاديش]] (في فرد آمدني 1,693 آمريڪي ڊالر) ۽ [[نيدرلينڊز]] (في فرد آمدني 42,183 آمريڪي ڊالر) ٻنهي جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=undp2010a&gt;{{cite web|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development (2010 Human Development Report – see Stat Tables)|pages=152–156|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/chapters/}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن هوندي به، ٻنهي ملڪن ۾ زندگيءَ جو معيار، معاشي موقعا ۽ حقيقي آمدني هڪجهڙا نه هئا. يعني، ٻه ملڪ ساڳيو جيني اشاريو رکي سگهن ٿا، پر سندن دولت ۾ وڏو فرق موجود هجي.

ترقي يافته معيشت ۾ بنيادي ضرورتون تقريباً سڀني ماڻهن کي دستياب ٿي سگهن ٿيون، جڏهن ته ساڳئي جيني اشاري واري ڪنهن گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ ۾ گهٽ مطلق دولت سبب اهي ضرورتون گهڻن ماڻهن لاءِ دستياب نه هجن يا غيربرابر نموني دستياب هجن.

=== رياضياتي حدون ===

جيني اشاري جون ڪجهه رياضياتي حدون پڻ آهن. اهو **جمع پذير** (ايڊيٽو) نه آهي، تنهنڪري مختلف آبادي گروهن جا جيني اشاري گڏ ڪري يا انهن جو سراسري ڪڍي سڀني گروهن لاءِ صحيح جيني اشاريو حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول الف. مختلف آمدنيءَ جون ورڇون، پر ساڳيو جيني اشاريو&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt;
|-
! گهراڻن جو گروهه
! ملڪ الف جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! ملڪ ب جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || 9,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000 || 40,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || 48,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000 || 48,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || 55,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $200,000 || $200,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.2''' || '''0.2'''
|}

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن آباديءَ جي ڪل آمدني ساڳي هجي، تڏهن به ممڪن آهي ته مختلف آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ رکندڙ ٻن ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو ساڳيو هجي، خاص طور تي جڏهن سندن [[لورينز وکر]] هڪ ٻئي کي ڪٽيندا هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt; جدول الف اهڙي ئي هڪ مثال ڏيکاري ٿي. ٻنهي ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو 0.2 آهي، پر گهراڻن جي گروهن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ مختلف آهي.

ساڳيءَ ريت، جيڪڏهن هڪ آباديءَ ۾ هيٺين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪا به آمدني نه هجي ۽ مٿين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ آمدني برابر ورهايل هجي، ته جيني اشاريو 0.5 ٿيندو. ٻي آباديءَ ۾، جيڪڏهن هيٺين 75 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 25 سيڪڙو ۽ مٿين 25 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ 75 سيڪڙو آمدني هجي، ته اتي به جيني اشاريو 0.5 هوندو.

تنهنڪري، هڪجهڙي آمدني ۽ ساڳئي جيني اشاري واريون معيشتون آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان گهڻو مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿيون. بيلو ۽ ليبيراتي جو خيال آهي ته رڳو جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ٻن آباديُن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جي درجابندي هميشه ممڪن نه هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=Maio2007&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income inequality measures|first=Fernando G.|last=De Maio|journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health|year=2007|volume=61|issue=10|pages=849–852|doi=10.1136/jech.2006.052969|pmid=17873219|pmc=2652960}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳي طرح، ڪمپيوٽري سماجي سائنسدان [[فيبين اسٽيفني]] ڏيکاريو آهي ته روايتي جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي اندر موجود مخصوص سماجي يا معاشي گروهن (مثال طور ساڳئي عمر يا تعليم وارن ماڻهن) جي آمدنيءَ واري عدم مساوات کي ظاهر ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام رهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Stephany |first=Fabian |date=2017-12-01 |title=Who are Your Joneses? Socio-Specific Income Inequality and Trust |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |journal=Social Indicators Research |language=en |volume=134 |issue=3 |pages=877–898 |doi=10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |issn=1573-0921 |pmc=5684274 |pmid=29187771}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو دولت جي عدم مساوات کي لڪائي سگهي ٿو ===

جيني اشاريو ڪنهن ملڪ يا فرد جي **مطلق آمدني** بابت ڪا به ڄاڻ فراهم نٿو ڪري. ممڪن آهي ته ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهٽ هجي، پر دولت (wealth) جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهڻو هجي.

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، تنهنڪري اهو گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي استعمال ۾ موجود فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري ڇڏي ٿو. ساڳيءَ طرح، دولت کي به (سواءِ ان حصي جي جيڪو آمدني پيدا ڪري) نظرانداز ڪيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن سبب اهڙين حالتن ۾ برابريءَ جو تاثر پيدا ٿي سگهي ٿو، جتي مقابلي هيٺ آيل ماڻهو پنهنجي زندگيءَ جي مختلف مرحلن ۾ هجن.

مثال طور، [[سوئيڊن]] جهڙي دولت مند ملڪ ۾ استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو 0.31 آهي، جنهن مان نسبتاً برابريءَ جو تاثر ملي ٿو، پر دولت جو جيني اشاريو 0.79 کان 0.86 جي وچ ۾ آهي، جيڪو سماج ۾ دولت جي انتهائي غيربرابر ورڇ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Inequality Trends in Sweden 1978–2004|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Martin|last2=Flodén|journal=Review of Economic Dynamics|volume=13|issue=1|year=2010|pages=179–208|doi=10.1016/j.red.2009.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.629.9417}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Accounting for Swedish wealth inequality|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Paul|last2=Klein|date=January 2000|url=http://fmwww.bc.edu/repec/es2000/0883.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030519155531/https://www.econometricsociety.org/meetings/wc00/pdf/0883.pdf|archive-date=May 19, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تنهنڪري، آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو دولت جي ورڇ ۾ موجود عدم مساوات کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.

=== ملڪ جي ماپ ۽ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جو اثر ===

ننڍين آباديُن لاءِ جيني اشاريو عام طور هيٺاهين طرف لاڙو (downward bias) رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Small-Sample Bias of the Gini Coefficient: Results and Implications for Empirical Research|journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics|first=George|last=Deltas|date=February 2003|volume=85|issue=1|pages=226–234|doi=10.1162/rest.2003.85.1.226|jstor=3211637|bibcode=2003RvE&amp;S..85..226D|s2cid=57572560}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهنڪري ننڍي آبادي، رياست يا ملڪ، يا اهڙيون معيشتون جن ۾ معاشي تنوع گهٽ هجي، اڪثر گهٽ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪن ٿيون.

ان جي ابتڙ، وڏي آبادي ۽ وڌيڪ متنوع معيشتن لاءِ عام طور وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو متوقع هوندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن سڄي دنيا جي معيشت ۽ سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏجي ڏٺو وڃي، ته مختلف محقق عالمي جيني اشاري جو اندازو 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ لڳائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10 /&gt;

ٻين عدم مساوات وارن اشارن وانگر، جيني اشاريو به انگن اکرن جي **تفصيل جي سطح** (granularity) کان متاثر ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي پنجن 20 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (گهٽ تفصيل) ۾ ورهايو وڃي ته حاصل ٿيندڙ جيني اشاريو عام طور ويهن 5 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (وڌيڪ تفصيل) جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ٿيندو.

فلپ مونفورٽ ڏيکاريو آهي ته جيڪڏهن مختلف مطالعي ۾ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جي سطح هڪجهڙي نه هجي يا واضح نه ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ڪيل ڀيٽون گهڻي حد تائين بي معنيٰ ٿي سگهن ٿيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Convergence of EU regions: Measures and evolution|first=Philippe|last=Monfort|publisher=European Union – Europa|page=6|year=2008|url=http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160544/http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آباديءَ ۾ تبديليون ===

جيني اشارئي سان ماپيل آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ تبديلي، سماج جي بناوت ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ آباديءَ ۾ واڌ (پيدائش جي شرح وڌڻ)، آباديءَ جي پوڙهائپ، لڏپلاڻ يا هجرت، ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت.&lt;ref name=Kwok10&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution of Hong Kong and the Gini Coefficient|author=KWOK Kwok Chuen|year=2010|publisher=The Government of Hong Kong, China|url=http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227043822/http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني اشاري جي هڪ ٻي حد اها آهي ته اهو [[مساوات پسندي]] (egalitarianism) جو مڪمل پيمانو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو رڳو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ تفاوت کي ماپي ٿو. مثال طور، فرض ڪريو ته ٻه هڪجهڙا مساوات پسند ملڪ مختلف [[اميگريشن قانون]] اختيار ڪن ٿا. جيڪڏهن انهن مان هڪ ملڪ گهٽ آمدني يا غريب مهاجرن جو وڌيڪ حصو قبول ڪري، ته اهو ملڪ وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪندو، ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت ان ۾ آمدنيءَ جي وڌيڪ عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ٿيندو، جيتوڻيڪ اها تبديلي سماجي پاليسيءَ جي نتيجي ۾ آيل هجي.

=== گهراڻو بمقابله فرد ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول ب. ساڳي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ، پر مختلف جيني اشاريا
|-
! گهراڻي جو نمبر
! ملڪ جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! گڏيل گهراڻن جو نمبر
! ملڪ الف جي گڏيل سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 1 ۽ 2 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 50,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3 ۽ 4 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 90,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5 ۽ 6 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 130,000
|-
| 6 || 70,000
|-
| 7 || 80,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7 ۽ 8 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 170,000
|-
| 8 || 90,000
|-
| 9 || 120,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9 ۽ 10 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 270,000
|-
| 10 || 150,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $710,000 || || $710,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.303''' || || '''0.293'''
|}

جيڪڏهن ساڳئي معيشت ۽ ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ لاءِ جيني اشاريو فردن بدران گهراڻن جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو وڃي، ته نتيجا مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. جيڪڏهن گهراڻن جا انگ اکر استعمال ڪيا وڃن، ته آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري جو قدر ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته &quot;گهراڻي&quot; جي تعريف ڪيئن ڪئي وئي آهي. جڏهن مختلف آباديُن ۾ گهراڻي جي تعريف هڪجهڙي نه هجي، تڏهن انهن جي ڀيٽ بامعنيٰ نه هوندي.

ان کان علاوه، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري ۾ تبديلي گهراڻي جي جوڙجڪ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو به ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيئن طلاقن ۾ واڌ يا [[گڏيل ڪٽنب]]ن جو ورهائجي [[ايڪو ڪٽنب]]ن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ.

ڊيننگر ۽ [[لن اسڪوائر]] (1996ع) ڏيکاريو ته فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاري کان مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، آمريڪا لاءِ هنن فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو 0.35، جڏهن ته فرانس لاءِ 0.43 معلوم ڪيو. سندن فرد-بنياد واري طريقي موجب، 108 ملڪن مان [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.62)، [[ملائيشيا]] جو ايشيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50)، [[برازيل]] جو لاطيني آمريڪا ۽ ڪيريبين علائقي ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.57)، ۽ [[ترڪي]] جو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50) هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Deininger |first1=K. |last2=Squire |first2=L. |title=A New Data Set Measuring Income Inequality |journal=The World Bank Economic Review |date=September 1996 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=565–591 |doi=10.1093/wber/10.3.565 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ارب پتي [[ٿامس ڪوڪ]] جو چوڻ آهي ته هانگ ڪانگ جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو (2010ع ۾ 0.434)&lt;ref name=undp2010a /&gt; جزوي طور ان جي آباديءَ جي جوڙجڪ ۾ آيل تبديلين سبب وڌيڪ رهيو آهي. گذريل ڏهاڪن دوران هانگ ڪانگ ۾ ننڍن گهراڻن، بزرگن تي ٻڌل گهراڻن ۽ اڪيلي رهندڙ بزرگ ماڻهن جو تعداد وڌيو آهي. نتيجي طور، ساڳي گڏيل آمدني هاڻي وڌيڪ گهراڻن ۾ ورهائجي وڃي ٿي. ڪوڪ جو خيال آهي ته آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو سماج جي اهڙين بناوتي تبديلين کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

هن حصي ۾ ڏنل آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ (جدول ج) پڻ ڏيکاري ٿي ته هي مسئلو رڳو هانگ ڪانگ تائين محدود ناهي. آمريڪي مردم شماري اداري موجب، 1979ع کان 2010ع تائين آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي بناوت ۾ نمايان تبديليون آيون، مهانگائيءَ مطابق سڀني آمدني گروهن جي آمدني وڌي، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ وقت سان گڏ وڌيڪ مٿين آمدني وارن گروهن ڏانهن منتقل ٿي، جڏهن ته ساڳئي عرصي دوران آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو پڻ وڌيو.&lt;ref name=cbo.p.10&gt;[http://www.cbo.gov/doc.cfm?index=12485 Congressional Budget Office: Trends in the Distribution of Household Income Between 1979 and 2007]. October 2011. see pp. i–x, with definitions on ii–iii&lt;/ref&gt;

=== لمحي واري عدم مساوات بمقابله سڄي زندگيءَ واري عدم مساوات ===

جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي بناوت ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جي اثرن کي الڳ ڪري نٿو سگهي.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

زندگيءَ جي پوري عرصي تي ٻڌل ماپن جي اهميت کي نظر ۾ رکندي، جيني اشاريو ڪنهن هڪ مخصوص وقت تي برابريءَ جو رڳو هڪ اندازو (point estimate) پيش ڪري ٿو ۽ وقت سان گڏ آمدنيءَ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين کي نظرانداز ڪري ٿو.

عام طور تي، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن سماج ۾ نوجوانن يا بزرگ ماڻهن جو تناسب وڌي وڃي، ته جيني اشاريو ظاهري طور وڌيڪ عدم مساوات ڏيکاري سگهي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نوجوان ماڻهن وٽ عام طور گهٽ آمدني ۽ دولت هوندي آهي، جڏهن ته عمر وڌڻ سان اهي وڌنديون آهن.

تنهنڪري، آباديءَ جي عمر جي ورڇ ۽ مختلف آمدني وارن طبقن جي وچ ۾ نقل و حرڪت جهڙا عنصر، آباديءَ جي بناوت جي اثرن کي نظر ۾ رکڻ کان سواءِ، اهڙي عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا جيڪا حقيقت ۾ موجود نه هجي.

اهڙيءَ طرح، ڪنهن معيشت جو ڪنهن خاص وقت تي جيني اشاريو ٻي معيشت جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿو، پر جيڪڏهن ساڳين ماڻهن جي سڄي زندگيءَ جي آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي جيني اشاريو ڳڻيو وڃي، ته ممڪن آهي ته اها معيشت ٻيءَ کان وڌيڪ برابر ثابت ٿئي، جيتوڻيڪ هڪ مخصوص وقت تي ان جو جيني اشاريو وڌيڪ نظر اچي ٿو.&lt;ref name=blomq81&gt;{{Cite journal |first=N. |last=Blomquist |s2cid=154519005 |year=1981 |title=A comparison of distributions of annual and lifetime income: Sweden around 1970 |journal=Review of Income and Wealth |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1981.tb00227.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== غير نقدي فائدا ۽ جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني ===

جيڪڏهن [[جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني]] (انڪم ان ڪائينڊ) کي مالي قدر ڏيڻ ۾ درستگي نه هجي، ته اها جيني اشاري جي حقيقي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ واري صلاحيت کي گهٽائي ڇڏي ٿي.

جيتوڻيڪ ٽيڪسن ۽ نقد منتقلي وارين ادائگين جو حساب نسبتاً سولو هوندو آهي، پر حڪومت طرفان فراهم ڪيل ٻيا فائدا، جهڙوڪ رعايتي رهائش، طبي سهولتون ۽ تعليم، جو مالي قدر مقرر ڪرڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن جو قدر انهن جي معيار ۽ فراهم ڪيل سهولتن جي مقدار تي دارومدار رکي ٿو.

آزاد منڊي جي غير موجودگيءَ ۾، اهڙين سهولتن کي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جو حصو سمجهي مالي قدر ڏيڻ هڪ موضوعي (سبجيڪٽو) عمل آهي. تنهنڪري جيني اشاري جو نظرياتي ماڊل اهڙن اندازن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ تي ڀاڙي ٿو.

پاڻڀرائي (سبسسٽنس) تي ٻڌل ۽ [[غير رسمي معيشت]]ن ۾، ماڻهن جي آمدنيءَ جو وڏو حصو پئسي بدران ٻين صورتن ۾ هوندو آهي، جهڙوڪ [[پاڻڀري زراعت]] يا [[مال جي بدلي مال]] (بارٽر) ذريعي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدني. اهڙي آمدني عام طور اڀرندڙ ۽ منتقلي واري معيشتن، خاص طور تي صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا، لاطيني آمريڪا، ايشيا ۽ اوڀر يورپ جي گهٽ آمدني وارن ماڻهن وٽ وڌيڪ هوندي آهي.

غير رسمي معيشت عالمي روزگار جو اڌ کان وڌيڪ حصو فراهم ڪري ٿي، ۽ صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا جي ڪجهه غريب ملڪن ۾، جتي سرڪاري جيني اشاريا به تمام وڌيڪ آهن، روزگار جو 90 سيڪڙو تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

شنائڊر ۽ سندس ساٿين 2010ع ۾ 162 ملڪن تي ڪيل مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته دنيا جي مجموعي [[مجموعي ملڪي پيداوار]] (GDP) جو لڳ ڀڳ 31.2 سيڪڙو، يعني لڳ ڀڳ 20 ٽريلين آمريڪي ڊالر، غير رسمي معيشت مان پيدا ٿئي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Friedrich|last1=Schneider|first2=Andreas|last2=Buehn|first3=Claudio E.|last3=Montenegro|s2cid=56060172|year=2010|title=New Estimates for the Shadow Economies all over the World|journal=International Economic Journal|volume=24|issue=4|pages=443–461|doi=10.1080/10168737.2010.525974|hdl=10986/4929|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾، امير شهري آباديءَ کان سواءِ تقريباً سڀني آمدني وارن طبقن لاءِ غير رسمي معيشت آمدنيءَ جو بنيادي ذريعو آهي. ترقي يافته ملڪن ۾ به قومي GDP جو اندازاً 8 سيڪڙو (آمريڪا) کان 27 سيڪڙو (اٽلي) تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

غير رسمي يا پاڇي واري معيشت مان حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي صحيح مقدار ۽ ان جي ورڇ جو اندازو لڳائڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، جنهن سبب آمدنيءَ جي حقيقي جيني اشاري جو صحيح اندازو لڳائڻ پڻ مشڪل ٿي پوي ٿو.&lt;ref name=mfeld&gt;{{cite web|title=Is income inequality really the problem? (Overview)|first=Martin|last=Feldstein|date=August 1998|publisher=US Federal Reserve|url=http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|access-date=2 August 2012|archive-date=3 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160558/http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=tandw&gt;{{cite book|title=Principles of Microeconomics: Global Financial Crisis Edition|first1=John|last1=Taylor|first2=Akila|last2=Weerapana|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4390-7821-1|pages=416–418|publisher=Cengage Learning}}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهڙي آمدنيءَ بابت مختلف مفروضا ۽ اندازا مختلف جيني اشاريا پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income Inequality and the Informal Economy in Transition Economies|first1=J. Barkley Jr.|last1=Rosser|first2=Marina V.|last2=Rosser|first3=Ehsan|last3=Ahmed|s2cid=49552052|journal=Journal of Comparative Economics|date=March 2000|volume=28|issue=1|pages=156–171|doi=10.1006/jcec.2000.1645}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Earnings inequality and the informal economy: evidence from Serbia|first1=Gorana|last1=Krstić|first2=Peter|last2=Sanfey|publisher=European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|date=February 2010|url=http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160550/http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-date=2012-08-03|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite report|title=The Size of the Shadow Economies of 145 Countries all over the World: First Results over the Period 1999 to 2003|first=Friedrich|last=Schneider|date=December 2004|ssrn=636661|hdl=10419/20729}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== متبادل طريقا ==

جيني اشاريي جي حدن کي نظر ۾ رکندي، آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ يا عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ ان سان گڏ يا ان جي متبادل طور ٻيا شمارياتي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، **اينٽروپي تي ٻڌل ماپا** (entropy measures) وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جن ۾ [[ٿيئل اشاريو]] (Theil Index) ۽ [[اوسط لاگ انحراف]] (مين لاگ ڊيويئيشن) شامل آهن. اهي ٻئي [[عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو]] (جنرلائيزڊ اينٽروپي انڊيڪس) جا خاص مثال آهن، يا ساڳئي مفهوم موجب [[ايٽڪنسن اشاريو]] (ايٽڪنسن انڊيڪس) جا پڻ خاص مثال سمجهيا وڃن ٿا.

اورٽيگا جو ٻه-پيماني وارو ماڊل (اورٽيگا ٽو-پيراميٽر ماڊل)&lt;ref name=&quot;ortega,1991&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Ortega | first1=P. | last2=Martín | first2=G. | last3=Fernández | first3=A. | last4=Ladoux | first4=M. | last5=García | first5=A. | title=A New Functional Form for Estimating Lorenz Curves | journal=Review of Income and Wealth | volume=37 | issue=4 | date=1991 | issn=0034-6586 | doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1991.tb00383.x | pages=447–452}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيني اشاريي جهڙن هڪ-پيماني وارن ماڊلن جي ڀيٽ ۾ سماجي نتيجن بابت وڌيڪ تفصيلي اڳڪٿيون ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت رکي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Blesch,2022&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Blesch | first1=Kristin | last2=Hauser | first2=Oliver P. | last3=Jachimowicz | first3=Jon M. | title=Measuring inequality beyond the Gini coefficient may clarify conflicting findings | journal=Nature Human Behaviour | volume=6 | issue=11 | date=2022 | issn=2397-3374 | pmid=36038775 | pmc=7614289 | doi=10.1038/s41562-022-01430-7 | pages=1525–1536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهو پڻ معلوم ٿيو آهي ته جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي وچئين حصي ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين لاءِ ضرورت کان وڌيڪ حساس هوندو آهي. ان ڪري، [[وچين آمدني]] (ميڊيئن انڪم) تي ٻڌل طريقا ان جا متبادل طور استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;u376&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last=Gastwirth | first=Joseph L. | title=Is the Gini Index of Inequality Overly Sensitive to Changes in the Middle of the Income Distribution? | journal=Statistics and Public Policy | volume=4 | issue=1 | date=2017 | issn=2330-443X | doi=10.1080/2330443X.2017.1360813 | pages=1–11 | doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ٻين شمارياتي ماپن سان لاڳاپو ==

ٻه-درجا (بائنري) درجابندي ڪندڙ نظام (ڪلاسيفائر سسٽم) جي تشخيصي ڪارڪردگيءَ جو هڪ خلاصي ماپو پڻ **جيني عدد** سڏيو ويندو آهي. ان جي تعريف [[رسيور آپريٽنگ خاصيت]] (ROC) وکر ۽ ان جي قطري ليڪ جي وچ واري ايراضيءَ جي ٻيڻي طور ڪئي ويندي آهي. هي ماپو [[آر او سي وڪڙ هيٺان ايراضي]] (ايريا انڊر دي ڪرو؛ AUC) سان لاڳاپيل آهي، جنهن کي هن مساوات سان ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;AUC = (G+1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=hand&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hand |first1=David J. |last2=Till |first2=Robert J. |title=A Simple Generalisation of the Area Under the ROC Curve for Multiple Class Classification Problems |journal=Machine Learning |date=2001 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=171–186 |doi=10.1023/A:1010920819831 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهو [[مان-وِٽني يو آزمائش]] آزمائش سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ٻنهي جيني عددن جي تعريف مخصوص وکرن جي وچ واري ايراضيءَ جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي ۽ انهن ۾ ڪجهه هڪجهڙيون خاصيتون موجود آهن، پر شمارياتي ورڇ جي جيني عدد ۽ درجابندي ڪندڙ نظام جي جيني عدد جي وچ ۾ ڪو سڌو ۽ سادو رياضيائي لاڳاپو موجود ناهي.

جيني اشاريو [[پيئٽرا اشاريو]] (Pietra Index) سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي. اهي ٻئي شمارياتي ناهمگني (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل ھيٽروجينيئٽي) کي ماپيندا آهن ۽ [[لورينز وکر]] ۽ قطري ليڪ مان اخذ ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Iddo I.|last1=Eliazar |first2=Igor M.|last2=Sokolov |year=2010 |title=Measuring statistical heterogeneity: The Pietra index|journal=Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications|volume=389|issue=1|pages=117–125|doi=10.1016/j.physa.2009.08.006|bibcode=2010PhyA..389..117E}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Wen-Chung |title=Probabilistic analysis of global performances of diagnostic tests: interpreting the Lorenz curve-based summary measures |journal=Statistics in Medicine |date=28 February 1999 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=455–471 |doi=10.1002/(sici)1097-0258(19990228)18:4&lt;455::aid-sim44&gt;3.0.co;2-a |pmid=10070686 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;

ڪجهه شعبن، جهڙوڪ [[ماحوليات]]، ۾ تنوع (ڊائورسٽي) کي ماپڻ لاءِ **الٽو سمپسن اشاريو** (&lt;math&gt;1/\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. ان کي [[سمپسن اشاريو]] (&lt;math&gt;\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) سان نه گڏي ويهڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Measurement of Species Diversity|first=Robert K.|last=Peet|s2cid=83517584|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=5|year=1974|issue=1|pages=285–307|jstor=2096890|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001441|bibcode=1974AnRES...5..285P }}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهي اشارا جيني اشاريي سان لاڳاپيل آهن. الٽو سمپسن اشاريو تنوع وڌڻ سان وڌندو آهي، جڏهن ته سمپسن اشاريو ۽ جيني اشاريو تنوع وڌڻ سان گهٽجندا آهن. سمپسن اشاري جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 جي وچ ۾ هونديون آهن، جتي 0 وڌ ۾ وڌ تنوع ۽ 1 گهٽ ۾ گهٽ تنوع (يا ناهمگني) کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو. ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ تنوع جا اڪثر اشارا ناهمگني وڌڻ سان وڌندا آهن، تنهنڪري سمپسن اشاري کي اڪثر الٽي سمپسن اشاري يا ان جي متمم (&lt;math&gt;1-\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) ۾ تبديل ڪيو ويندو آهي، جنهن کي **جيني-سمپسن اشاريو** چيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Measurement of Species Diversity|first=Robert K.|last=Peet|s2cid=83517584|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=5|year=1974|issue=1|pages=285–307|jstor=2096890|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001441|bibcode=1974AnRES...5..285P }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[لورينز وکر]] دولت جي ورڇ کي گرافيڪي صورت ۾ ڏيکارڻ جو هڪ ٻيو طريقو آهي. اهو جيني عدد کان نَوَ سال اڳ متعارف ڪرايو ويو هو. جيني عدد ان ڳالهه کي مقداري صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته لورينز وکر، مڪمل برابريءَ واري ليڪ (جنهن جو [[لاڙو]] 1 هوندو آهي) کان ڪيترو هٽي ٿو.

[[هوور اشاريو]] (ھوور انڊيڪس)، جيڪو **رابن هوڊ اشاريو** (رابن ھوڊ انڊيڪس) جي نالي سان پڻ سڃاتو وڃي ٿو، اهو ٻڌائي ٿو ته ڪل آباديءَ جي آمدنيءَ مان ڪيترو سيڪڙو ٻيهر ورهائڻو پوندو ته جيئن جيني اشاريو 0 (يعني مڪمل برابري) ٿي وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hoover Index |url=https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/economics/hoover-index/ |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=Corporate Finance Institute |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== جديد دور کان اڳ جي سماجن جا جيني اشاريا ==

گذريل ڪجهه ڏهاڪن دوران، محققن ويهين صديءَ کان اڳ وارن سماجن لاءِ جيني اشاريي جو اندازو لڳائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي آهي. ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان دور لاءِ گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ بابت سروي ۽ آمدني ٽيڪس جا انگ اکر موجود نه آهن، تنهنڪري محققن متبادل اشاري (پراڪسي ويريئبلز) استعمال ڪيا آهن.

انهن ۾ وچئين دور جي يورپي شهري رياستن ۾ دولت تي لاڳو ٽيڪس، [[رومي مصر]] ۾ زمين جي ملڪيت جا نمونا، قديم [[يونان]] کان وٺي [[ازٽيڪ]] ميڪسيڪو تائين سماجن ۾ گهرن جي ماپ ۾ فرق، ۽ بابلي سماج ۾ وراثت ۽ ڏاج جا رڪارڊ شامل آهن.
ٻيا ڪجهه انگ اکر دولت يا آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي سڌو سنئون ظاهر نٿا ڪن، پر انهن کي عدم مساوات جو عڪس سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جهڙوڪ ڀاڙي ۽ اجرت جي وچ وارو تناسب، يا محنت ۽ سرمائي جي وچ وارو تناسب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=[[Walter Scheidel]]|title=The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century|publisher=Princeton University Press|date=2017|isbn=978-0-691-16502-8|pages=15–16}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ٻيا استعمال ==

جيتوڻيڪ جيني اشاريو معاشيات ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر نظرياتي طور ان کي سائنس جي هر اهڙي شعبي ۾ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو ڪنهن ورڇ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[ماحوليات]] ۾ جيني اشاريي کي [[حياتياتي تنوع]] جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي، جتي نسلن جي گڏيل تناسب کي فردن جي گڏيل تناسب جي مقابلي ۾ ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=natureArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last1 = Wittebolle | first1 = Lieven | title = Initial community evenness favours functionality under selective stress | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | year = 2009 | volume = 458 | issue = 7238 | pmid = 19270679 | pages = 623–626 | doi = 10.1038/nature07840| display-authors = 2 | last2 = Marzorati | first2 = Massimo | last3 = Balloi | first3 = Annalisa | last4 = Daffonchio | first4 = Daniele | last5 = Heylen | first5 = Kim | last6 = De Vos | first6 = Paul | last7 = Verstraete | first7 = Willy | last8 = Boon | first8 = Nico | bibcode = 2009Natur.458..623W | s2cid = 4419280 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

صحت جي شعبي ۾، ان کي آباديءَ ۾ صحت سان لاڳاپيل [[زندگيءَ جي معيار]] جي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=popHealthArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last=Asada | first=Yukiko | title = Assessment of the health of Americans: the average health-related quality of life and its inequality across individuals and groups | journal = Population Health Metrics | year = 2005 | volume = 3 | pmid=16014174 | article-number = 7 | pmc=1192818 | doi = 10.1186/1478-7954-3-7 | doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

تعليم ۾، ان کي يونيورسٽين جي وچ ۾ عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=MinervaArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last1= Halffman | first1= Willem | last2= Leydesdorff | first2= Loet | title = Is Inequality Among Universities Increasing? Gini Coefficients and the Elusive Rise of Elite Universities | journal = Minerva | year = 2010 | volume = 48 | pmid= 20401157 | issue= 1 | pages = 55–72 | pmc= 2850525 | doi = 10.1007/s11024-010-9141-3| arxiv= 1001.2921 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪيميا ۾، جيني اشاريي کي [[پروٽين ڪائنيز روڪيندڙ|پروٽين ڪائنيز روڪيندڙن]] (پروٽين ڪائنيز انھبيٽرز) جي مختلف ڪائنيزن جي مقابلي ۾ چونڊ کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=JMedChemArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last = Graczyk | first = Piotr | title = Gini Coefficient: A New Way To Express Selectivity of Kinase Inhibitors against a Family of Kinases | journal = Journal of Medicinal Chemistry | year = 2007 | volume = 50 | issue = 23 | pmid = 17948979 | pages = 5773–5779 | doi = 10.1021/jm070562u}}&lt;/ref&gt;

انجنيئرنگ ۾، ان کي مختلف ٽرئفڪ وهڪرن مان ايندڙ پيڪٽن جي موڪل (پيڪٽ شيڊولنگ) دوران انٽرنيٽ روٽرن جي انصاف پسندي جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=GreedyFairQueueing&gt;{{Cite book |first1=Hongyuan |last1=Shi |first2=Harish |last2=Sethu |contribution=Greedy Fair Queueing: A Goal-Oriented Strategy for Fair Real-Time Packet Scheduling |pages=345–356 |title=Proceedings of the 24th IEEE Real-Time Systems Symposium |publisher=[[IEEE Computer Society]] |isbn=978-0-7695-2044-5 |year=2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[مشين سکيا]] ۾، ان کي مختلف قسمن جي انگن اکرن، جهڙوڪ تصويرن ۽ متن، جي ويڪٽر جڳهن ۾ گهڻ-بمقابله-گهڻ مشابهت کي ماپڻ لاءِ هڪ گڏيل اشاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي. اهو پڻ ڏيکاريو ويو آهي ته محدود معلومات وارن حالتن ۾ تربيتي نمونن جي چونڊ ۾ هي اشاري مؤثر رهنمائي فراهم ڪري ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | last1 = Fauber | first1 = Ben | title = Gini Coefficient as a Unified Metric for Evaluating Many-versus-Many Similarity in Vector Spaces. | date = 2024 | volume = abs/2411.07983 | arxiv = 2411.07983 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني اشاريو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[ڪريڊٽ ريٽنگ]] نظامن جي امتيازي صلاحيت کي ماپڻ لاءِ پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور تي [[ڪريڊٽ خطري]] جي انتظام ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=The Analytics of Risk Model Validation (Quantitative Finance)|editor1-first=George A.|editor1-last=Christodoulakis|editor2-first=Stephen|editor2-last=Satchell|isbn=978-0-7506-8158-2|date=November 2007|publisher=Academic Press}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2004ع ۾، [[جينيفر لوٽز]] هڪ مقالي ۾ جيني اشاريي کي &quot;ڪهڪشاني تصوير جي پکسلن جي روشنيءَ جي قدرن جي نسبتي ورڇ&quot; جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو ۽ اهو نتيجو ڪڍيو ته هي [[الٽرا-لومينس انفرا ريڊ ڪهڪشان]]ن (ULIRGs) کي عام ڪهڪشانن کان ڌار ڪرڻ جو هڪ معتبر طريقو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Lotz |first1=Jennifer M. |last2=Primack |first2=Joel |last3=Madau |first3=Piero |date=July 2004 |title=A New Nonparametric Approach to Galaxy Morphological Classification |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004AJ....128..163L/abstract |journal=The Astronomical Journal |language=en |volume=128 |issue=1 |pages=163–182 |doi=10.1086/421849 |issn=0004-6256|arxiv=astro-ph/0311352 |bibcode=2004AJ....128..163L }}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کان پوءِ جيني اشاريو [[ڪهڪشانن جي بناوتي درجابندي]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Florian |first1=Michael K. |last2=Li |first2=Nan |last3=Gladders |first3=Michael D. |date=2016-11-30 |title=The Gini Coefficient As a Morphological Measurement of Strongly Lensed Galaxies in the Same Plane |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=832 |issue=2 |pages=168 |doi=10.3847/0004-637X/832/2/168 |doi-access=free|issn=0004-637X|arxiv=1511.03617 |bibcode=2016ApJ...832..168F }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rodriguez-Gomez |first1=Vicente |last2=Lotz |first2=Jennifer |last3=Snyder |first3=Greg |date=January 2022 |title=statmorph: Non-parametric morphological diagnostics of galaxy images |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022ascl.soft01010R/abstract |journal=Astrophysics Source Code Library |language=en |pages=ascl:2201.010 |bibcode=2022ascl.soft01010R }}&lt;/ref&gt;

2005ع جي هڪ مطالعي ۾ آمريڪي مردم شماري جا انگ اکر استعمال ڪري گهرن ۾ ڪمپيوٽر جي ملڪيت جو جائزو ورتو ويو ۽ جيني اشاريي جي ذريعي اڇي فام ۽ آفريقي-آمريڪي آباديءَ جي وچ ۾ ڊجيٽل عدم مساوات ماپي وئي. نتيجن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته مجموعي عدم مساوات گهٽجڻ باوجود، ڪمپيوٽر جي ملڪيت ۾ عدم مساوات اڇي فام گهراڻن ۾ نمايان طور گهٽ هئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chakraborty|first1=J|last2=Bosman|first2=MM|title=Measuring the digital divide in the United States: race, income, and personal computer ownership|journal=Prof Geogr|year=2005|volume=57|issue=3|pages=395–410|doi=10.1111/j.0033-0124.2005.00486.x|bibcode=2005ProfG..57..395C|s2cid=154401826}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2016ع ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ هم جائزي واري مطالعي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته علاج تي مرڪوز ڊجيٽل صحت جي سماجي نيٽ ورڪن ۾ شرڪت جي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ جيني اشاريو مفيد ۽ درست آهي، پر اڪيلو استعمال ڪرڻ سان اهو نيٽ ورڪ جي مجموعي ماپ کي نظر ۾ نٿو رکي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Mierlo|first1=T|last2=Hyatt|first2=D|last3=Ching|first3=A|title=Employing the Gini coefficient to measure participation inequality in treatment-focused Digital Health Social Networks|journal=Netw Model Anal Health Inform Bioinforma|date=2016|volume=5|issue=32|pages=32|doi=10.1007/s13721-016-0140-7|pmid=27840788|pmc=5082574}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امتيازي صلاحيت مان مراد ڪنهن ڪريڊٽ خطري جي ماڊل جي اها قابليت آهي، جنهن سان اهو قرض واپس نه ڪندڙ ۽ قرض واپس ڪندڙ گراهڪن ۾ فرق ڪري سگهي. مٿين &quot;حساب&quot; واري حصي ۾ ڏنل &lt;math&gt;G_1&lt;/math&gt; وارو فارمولو آخري ماڊل ۽ ان جي انفرادي عنصرن ٻنهي جي امتيازي صلاحيت کي ماپڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو. اهو آباديءَ جي تشخيصي ماڊلن ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ **درستگيءَ جي نسبت** (ايڪيوريسي ريشو) سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

جيني اشاريو [[آن لائين ملاقاتي ايپليڪيشن|آن لائين ملاقاتي ايپليڪيشنن]] (ڊيٽنگ ايپس) ۾ موجود عدم مساوات جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=2015-03-25|title=Tinder Experiments II: Guys, unless you are really hot you are probably better off not wasting your…|url=https://medium.com/@worstonlinedater/tinder-experiments-ii-guys-unless-you-are-really-hot-you-are-probably-better-off-not-wasting-your-2ddf370a6e9a|access-date=2021-04-28|website=Medium|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Kopf|first=Dan|title=These statistics show why it's so hard to be an average man on dating apps|url=https://qz.com/1051462/these-statistics-show-why-its-so-hard-to-be-an-average-man-on-dating-apps/|access-date=2021-04-28|website=Quartz|date=15 August 2017|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪامينسڪي ۽ ڪريوتسوو&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Kaminskiy |first1=M.P.|last2=Krivtsov|first2=V.V.|date=2011|chapter=A Gini-Type Index for Aging/Rejuvenating Objects|title=Mathematical and Statistical Models and Methods in Reliability|location=Birkhäuser Boston|url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9780817649708|publisher=Springer|pages=133–140|isbn=978-0-8176-4970-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيني اشاريي جي تصور کي معاشيات مان [[اعتماديت جو نظريو]] (رلائبلٽي ٿيوري) ڏانهن وڌايو ۽ هڪ جيني-قسم جو اشاريو تجويز ڪيو، جيڪو مرمت نه ٿي سگهندڙ نظامن جي پوڙهائپ، يا مرمت لائق نظامن جي پوڙهائپ ۽ نئين سر بحالي جي درجي کي ماپڻ ۾ مدد ڏئي ٿو.

هي اشاريو −1 کان 1 جي وچ ۾ هوندو آهي ۽ تجربي تي ٻڌل توڙي پيراميٽرڪ عمر جي ورڇن ٻنهي لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ناڪاميءَ جي گهٽجندڙ شرح (ڊڪريزنگ فئليوئر ريٽ) واري ورڇن لاءِ ان جون قيمتون منفي، جڏهن ته ناڪاميءَ جي وڌندڙ شرح (انڪريزنگ فئليوئر ريٽ) واري ورڇن لاءِ مثبت هونديون آهن. صفر جي قيمت [[اُسري عمر جي ورڇ]] (اڪسپوننشل لائيف ڊسٽريبيوشن) يا [[همجنس پواسون نقطي عمل]] (Homogeneous Poisson Point Process) جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي.

== پڻ ڏسو ==

* [[تنوع جو اشاريو]]
* [[اقتصادي عدم مساوات]]
* [[گريٽ گيٽسبي وکر]]
* [[هرفنڊال-هرشمن اشاريو]]
* [[هوور اشاريو]] (رابن هوڊ اشاريو)
* [[انساني غربت جو اشاريو]]
* [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا ماپا]]
* [[ڪزنٽس وکر]]
* [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات موجب ملڪن جي فهرست]]
* [[عدم مساوات سان ترتيب ڏنل انساني ترقي اشاري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست]]
* [[دولت جي عدم مساوات موجب ملڪن جي فهرست]]
* [[آمريڪا جي رياستن جي جيني اشاريي موجب فهرست]]
* [[لورينز وکر]]
* [[ميٿيو اثر]]
* [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]
* [[آر او سي تجزيو]]
* [[سوئٽس اشاريو]]
* [[هاٿي وکر]]
* [[مثالي رياست]]
* [[سماجي ڀلائي]]
* [[سماجي ڀلائي جي معاشيات]]

== حوالا ==

{{Reflist|30em}}

== وڌيڪ مطالعي لاء==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book | last1=Amiel | first1=Y. | last2=Cowell | first2=F.&amp;nbsp;A. | year=1999 | title=Thinking about Inequality | publisher=Cambridge | isbn=978-0-521-46696-7}}
* {{Cite book | first=Sudhir | last=Anand | year=1983 | title=Inequality and Poverty in Malaysia | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=New York | isbn=978-0-19-520153-6}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Brown | first=Malcolm | title=Using Gini-Style Indices to Evaluate the Spatial Patterns of Health Practitioners: Theoretical Considerations and an Application Based on Alberta Data | journal=Social Science &amp; Medicine | year=1994 | volume=38 | pages=1243–1256 | doi=10.1016/0277-9536(94)90189-9 | pmid=8016689 | issue=9}}
* {{Cite book | first=S.&amp;nbsp;R. | last=Chakravarty | year=1990 | title=Ethical Social Index Numbers | publisher=Springer-Verlag | location=New York | isbn=978-0-387-52274-6 }}
* {{Cite book | first=Angus | last=Deaton | year=1997 | title=Analysis of Household Surveys | publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press | location=Baltimore MD | isbn=978-0-585-23787-9 }}
* {{Cite journal | title=Bootstrapping the Gini coefficient of inequality | journal=Ecology | year=1987 | volume=68 | pages=1548–1551 | doi=10.2307/1939238 | jstor=1939238 | issue=5 |last1 = Dixon| first1=Philip M. | last2=Weiner | first2=Jacob  | last3=Mitchell-Olds | first3=Thomas | last4=Woodley | first4=Robert | bibcode=1987Ecol...68.1548D | s2cid=84940050 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Dorfman | first=Robert | title=A Formula for the Gini Coefficient | journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics | year=1979 | volume=61 | pages=146–149 | doi=10.2307/1924845 | jstor=1924845 | issue=1 }}
* {{Cite book | first=Glenn | last=Firebaugh | year=2003 | title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality | publisher=Harvard University Press | location=Cambridge, Massachusetts | isbn=978-0-674-01067-3 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Gastwirth | first=Joseph L. | title=The Estimation of the Lorenz Curve and Gini Index | journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics | year=1972 | volume=54 | pages=306–316 | doi=10.2307/1937992 | jstor=1937992 | issue=3 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Giles | first=David | title=Calculating a Standard Error for the Gini Coefficient: Some Further Results | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2004 | volume=66 | issue=3 | pages=425–433 | doi=10.1111/j.1468-0084.2004.00086.x | url=http://web.uvic.ca/econ/ewp0202.pdf | citeseerx=10.1.1.202.6462 | s2cid=16972099 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040505124219/http://web.uvic.ca/econ/ewp0202.pdf | archive-date=5 May 2004 }}
* {{Cite book | last=Gini | first=Corrado | year=1912 | title=Variabilità e mutabilità | bibcode=1912vamu.book.....G }} Reprinted in {{cite book | title=Memorie di metodologica statistica | editor1-last=Pizetti | editor1-first=E. | editor2-last=Salvemini | editor2-first=T. | location=Rome | publisher=Libreria Eredi Virgilio Veschi | year=1955}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Gini | first=Corrado | title=Measurement of Inequality of Incomes | journal=The Economic Journal | year=1921 | volume=31 | pages=124–126 | doi=10.2307/2223319 | jstor=2223319 | issue=121 | url=https://zenodo.org/record/1449432 }}
* {{cite journal | last=Giorgi | first=Giovanni Maria | year=1990 | title=Bibliographic portrait of the Gini concentration ratio | journal=Metron | volume=48 | pages=183–231 | url=http://econwpa.repec.org/eps/em/papers/0511/0511004.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804055002/http://econwpa.repec.org/eps/em/papers/0511/0511004.pdf | archive-date=4 August 2016 }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Karagiannis | first1=E.  | last2=Kovacevic | first2=M. | title=A Method to Calculate the Jackknife Variance Estimator for the Gini Coefficient | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2000 | volume=62 | pages=119–122 | doi=10.1111/1468-0084.00163}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Mills | first1=Jeffrey A. | last2=Zandvakili | first2=Sourushe | title=Statistical Inference via Bootstrapping for Measures of Inequality | journal=Journal of Applied Econometrics | year=1997 | volume=12 | issue=2 | pages=133–150 | doi=10.1002/(SICI)1099-1255(199703)12:2&lt;133::AID-JAE433&gt;3.0.CO;2-H | jstor=2284908 | url=http://www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/wp136.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718000000/http://www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/wp136.pdf |archive-date=2012-07-18 |url-status=live | citeseerx=10.1.1.172.5003 | hdl=10419/186818 }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Modarres | first1=Reza | last2=Gastwirth | first2=Joseph L. | title=A Cautionary Note on Estimating the Standard Error of the Gini Index of Inequality | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2006 | volume=68 | issue=3 | pages=385–390 | doi=10.1111/j.1468-0084.2006.00167.x| s2cid=122716409 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Morgan | first=James | title=The Anatomy of Income Distribution | journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics | year=1962 | volume=44 | pages=270–283 | doi=10.2307/1926398 | jstor=1926398 | issue=3 | bibcode=1962RvE&amp;S..44..270M }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Ogwang | first=Tomson | title=A Convenient Method of Computing the Gini Index and its Standard Error | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2000 | volume=62 | pages=123–129 | doi=10.1111/1468-0084.00164 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Ogwang | first=Tomson | title=Calculating a Standard Error for the Gini Coefficient: Some Further Results: Reply | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2004 | volume=66 | issue=3 | pages=435–437 | doi=10.1111/j.1468-0084.2004.00087.x| ssrn=565069 | s2cid=122160535 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Kuan |title=How has the Literature on Gini's Index Evolved in the Past 80 Years? |date=January 2004 | url=http://economics.dal.ca/RePEc/dal/wparch/howgini.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060928082244/http://economics.dal.ca/RePEc/dal/wparch/howgini.pdf | access-date=1 June 2006 | archive-date=28 September 2006 |journal=[[Social Science Research Network|SSRN Electronic Journal]] |doi=10.2139/ssrn.423200 |series=Economics Working Paper |at=[[Dalhousie University]]}} The Chinese version of this paper was published as {{cite journal | last=Xu | first=Kuan | title=How Has the Literature on Gini's Index Evolved in the Past 80 Years? | journal = China Economic Quarterly | year=2003 | volume=2 | pages=757–778 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Yitzhaki | first=Shlomo  | title=Calculating Jackknife Variance Estimators for Parameters of the Gini Method | journal=Journal of Business and Economic Statistics | year=1991 | volume=9 | pages=235–239 | doi=10.2307/1391792 | jstor=1391792 | issue=2 }}
{{Refend}}

== خارجي ڳنڍڻا ==
{{Commons category}}
* Deutsche Bundesbank: [https://web.archive.org/web/20081218111312/http://www.bundesbank.de/download/bankenaufsicht/dkp/200503dkp_b.pdf Do banks diversify loan portfolios?], 2005 (on using e.g. the Gini coefficient for risk evaluation of loan portfolios)
* [https://www.forbes.com/forbes/2003/0317/098.html Forbes: In praise of inequality]
* [http://www.theresearchkitchen.com/archives/219 Measuring Software Project Risk With The Gini Coefficient], an application of the Gini coefficient to software
* [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/EXTPA/0,,contentMDK:20238991~menuPK:492138~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:430367,00.html The World Bank: Measuring Inequality]
* [http://utip.gov.utexas.edu/tutorials/theo_basic_ineq_measures.doc Travis Hale, University of Texas Inequality Project:The Theoretical Basics of Popular Inequality Measures], online computation of examples: [http://www.poorcity.richcity.org/calculator/?quantiles=7,*18000|10,*22000|280,*25000|15,*35000|15,*40000|50,*60000|10,*75000|6,*80000|4,*120000|2,*200000|1,1000000 1A], [http://www.poorcity.richcity.org/calculator/?quantiles=12,*15000|25,*20000|1000,*30000|35,*35000|100,*45000|80,*50000|10,*60000|25,*80000|8,*175000|4,*250000|1,5000000 1B]
* [https://image.guardian.co.uk/sys-files/Guardian/documents/2009/03/13/inequality.pdf Article from The Guardian analysing inequality in the UK 1974–2006]
* [https://www.wider.unu.edu/project/wiid-world-income-inequality-database World Income Inequality Database]
* [https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 BBC News: What is the Gini coefficient?]
* [http://www.oecd.org/els/social/inequality/GU Income Distribution and Poverty in OECD Countries]
* [http://inequality.org/unequal-americas-income-distribution/ U.S. Income Distribution: Just How Unequal?]

{{گلوبلائيزيشن}}
{{محرومي جا اشارا}}
{{غربت}}
{{Authority control}}

[[زمرو:1912ع ۾ متعارف ٿيل شيون]]
[[زمرو:1912ع جي معاشي تاريخ]]
[[زمرو:ارتڪاز جا اشارا]]
[[زمرو:آبادياتي معاشيات]]
[[زمرو:آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا ماپا]]
[[زمرو:سماجي ڀلائي جي معاشيات]]
[[زمرو:اطالوي ايجادون]]
[[زمرو:بغير بُعد وارا انگ]]

[[زمرو:انگ]]
[[زمرو:ايجادون]]
[[زمرو:معاشيات]]
[[زمرو:ڀلائي]] 
[[زمرو:ماپ]]
[[زمرو:شماريات]]
[[زمرو:اٽلي]]
[[زمرو:1912ع]]</text>
      <sha1>dfar08rer72ruhm3miigv8u28fu6pj3</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399371</id>
      <parentid>399370</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T09:03:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399371</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="121571" sha1="mbjvlw5w2p3qkwyx8hok2cqexjst43h" xml:space="preserve">
[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|thumb|400px|2022ع ۾ دنيا جو [[گني عدد]] (سيڪڙو %) ڏيکاريندڙ نقشو، [[غربت ۽ عدم مساوات پليٽفارم]] (PIP) موجب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Image key
|{{Legend|#2d6da6|30 کان گهٽ}}
|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30–35}}
|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35–40}}
|{{Legend|#f2a488|40–45}}
|{{Legend|#d66552|45–50}}
|{{Legend|#a6243c|50 يا وڌيڪ}}
}}
]]


'''جيني ضربيندڙ عدد'''  :{{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Gini Coefficient'''}} جنھن کي '''جيني عام جزو''' پڻ چوندا آهن. اردو ۾ ان کي '''جيني عددي سر''' چون ٿا. ڪڏھن ڪڏھن ان کي '''جيني انڊيڪس''' يا '''جيني اشاريو''' يا '''جيني تناسب ''' (Gini ratio) پڻ چون ٿا. معاشيات ۾ اھو شمارياتي ڦھلاء جو ھڪ ماپو آهي جيڪو قوم ماڻھن ۾ دولت۽ آمدني جي ورھاست کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽ ماڻھن ۾ دولت ۽ آمدني جي نابرابري سمجھڻ لاء استعمال ٿيندو آهي. اھو ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو پھريون ڀيرو 1912 ۾  اٽليءَ جي شماريات جي ماھر ۽ سماجياتدان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1936). &quot;On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics&quot;, Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.&lt;/ref&gt; پنھنجي ھڪ تحقيقي مقالي '''تغيرپذيري ۽ ڦيرگھير''' (Variability and Mutability) ۾ متعارف ڪريو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt; '''جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ''' ورھاستي ورجاء وارين شين جي وچ ۾ نابرابري جي ماپ ڪندو آهي. اھڙين شين جو ھڪ مثال آمدني جا ڏاڪا آھن. ٻڙي (0) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ مڪمل برابري کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي ۽  ھڪ (1) جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ نابرابري جي وڌ کان وڌ سطح کي ظاھر ڪندو آهي. جيڪڏهن ماڻھن جي گروھ ۾ صرف ھڪ ڄڻو ڪمائيندڙ يا کپائيندڙ آھي ۽ ٻين جي ڪابہ آمدني يا کپت ڪانھي تہ ان گروه جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ (1) چئبو.&lt;ref name=&quot;US Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html|publisher=US Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note: Gini coefficient becomes 1, only in a large population where one person has all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For 5 people set, where 4 have no income and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf FAO, United Nations – Inequality Analysis, The Gini Index Module] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF format), fao.org.&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن ڪجهه ماڻھو جو حصو جملي ٻين ماڻھن جي ڀيٽ منفي ھوندو تہ جيني ضربيندڙ عدد يا عام جزو ھڪ (1) کان وڏو ٿيندو. گھڻي تعداد ۾ ماڻھن جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ ھڪ جي ويجھو يا ان کان وڏي عدد عام طور تي ممڪن نہ ھوندو آھي. [[معاشي سھڪار ۽ ترقي جي تنظيم]] (OECD) جي رڪن ملڪن جي ويھين صديءَ جي پوئين حصي جي ٽيڪس ۽ ٽرانسفر وارين ادائگين ۽ آمدني جو جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ جي شرح 0.24 کان 0.49 تائين ھئي ۽ ان ۾ گھٽ ۾ گھٽ شرح سلووانيا جي ھئي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ چلي جي ھئي.&lt;ref name=OECD1&gt;{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archivedate=9 November 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==تاريخ==
اطالوي شماريات دان [[ڪوراڊو جيني]]، گني عدد جو تصور پيش ڪيو ۽ ان کي پنهنجي 1912ع جي مقالي ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' (تبديلي پذيري ۽ تغير پذيري) ۾ شايع ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;Gini, C. (1909). &quot;Concentration and dependency ratios&quot; (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}&lt;/ref&gt; معاشيات دان [[ميڪس لورينز]] جي ڪم تي بنياد رکندي، جيني تجويز ڏني ته مڪمل برابري کي ظاهر ڪندڙ فرضي سڌي ليڪ ۽ ماڻهن جي حقيقي آمدني کي ظاهر ڪندڙ ليڪ جي وچ ۾ فرق کي عدم مساوات جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن مقالي ۾ هن ''سادي اوسط فرق'' (سمپل مين ڊفرنس) جو تصور پڻ تبديلي پذيري جي ماپ طور متعارف ڪرايو.

بعد ۾، هن پنهنجي 1914ع جي تصنيف ''آن دي ميرمينٽ آف ڪنسنٽريشن اينڊ ويريئبلٽي آف ڪيريڪٽرس'' ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل متغيرن جي سادي اوسط فرق کي آمدني ۽ دولت جي عدم مساوات جي ماپ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو. هن اتي ''ارتڪازي نسبت'' ([[نسبت]]) پيش ڪئي، جيڪا اڳتي هلي اڄ جي جيني عدد جي بنياد بڻي. ان سان گڏ جيني اهو به مشاهدو ڪيو ته [[ميڪس لورينز|لورينز]]، چيٽيليئن (Chatelain) ۽ سيائل (Séailles) پاران پيش ڪيل سڌريل طريقن سان پڻ سندس تجويز ڪيل نسبت حاصل ڪري سگهجي ٿي.

1915ع ۾ [[گائيتانو پيئترا]]، جيني جي تجويز ڪيل نسبت جي جاميٽري تشريح پيش ڪئي، جنهن ۾ مشاهدي هيٺ آيل ارتڪاز واري ايراضي ۽ وڌ ۾ وڌ ممڪن ارتڪاز واري ايراضي جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپو بيان ڪيو ويو. جيني عدد جو هي تبديل ٿيل روپ ايندڙ سالن ۾ عدم مساوات جي سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندڙ اشاريي طور مشهور ٿيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[او اي سي ڊي]] (OECD) جي انگن اکرن موجب، جيني عدد پهريون ڀيرو 1970ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ [[ڪينيڊا]] ۾ سڄي ملڪ جي سطح تي سرڪاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو. ڪينيڊا ۾ آمدني جي عدم مساوات جو اشاري 1976ع کان 1980ع واري ڏهاڪي جي پڇاڙيءَ تائين 0.303 کان گهٽجي 0.284 ٿي ويو. 21هين صدي جي شروعات کان وٺي او اي سي ڊي ٻين ملڪن بابت پڻ وڌيڪ انگ اکر شايع ڪندي رهي آهي. 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي [[سلووينيا]]، [[چيڪيا]] ۽ [[سلوواڪيا]] وچ يورپ جا اهي ملڪ رهيا آهن، جن وٽ او اي سي ڊي جي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ عدم مساوات وارو اشاري موجود رهيو آهي. [[اسڪينڊي نيويا]] جا ملڪ پڻ تازن ڏهاڪن دوران برابري جي فهرست ۾ مسلسل مٿين درجن تي رهيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وصف==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|جيني عدد اُن ايراضي ''A'' جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا ''A'' ۽ ''B'' جي گڏيل ايراضي تي ورهائي ويندي آهي، يعني &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B}&lt;/math&gt;۔ ٻنهي محورن جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 تائين آهن، تنهنڪري ''A'' ۽ ''B'' گڏجي &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; ايراضي وارو مثلث ٺاهين ٿا، ۽ &lt;math&gt;\text{Gini}=2A=1-2B&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو آهي.]]

جيني عدد آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ ۾ عدم مساوات جي درجي کي ماپڻ وارو هڪ اشاري آهي، جيڪو اهو اندازو لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي ته ڪنهن ملڪ ۾ دولت يا آمدني جي ورڇ مڪمل برابري واري ورڇ کان ڪيتري حد تائين مختلف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي رياضيائي وصف عام طور [[لورينز وڪڙ]] (Lorenz curve) جي بنياد تي ڏني ويندي آهي. لورينز وکر ۾ افقي محور (x) تي آبادي جو مجموعي حصو ۽ عمودي محور (y) تي اُن آبادي طرفان گڏيل طور حاصل ڪيل ڪل آمدني جو حصو ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 45 درجن واري سڌي ليڪ مڪمل برابري جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي. جيني عدد اُن ايراضي (''A'') جي نسبت آهي، جيڪا برابري واري ليڪ ۽ لورينز وڪڙ جي وچ ۾ موجود هوندي آهي، ۽ برابري واري ليڪ هيٺ موجود ڪل ايراضي (''A'' + ''B'') سان ڀيٽ ڪئي ويندي آهي؛ يعني {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. جيڪڏهن ڪا به آمدني منفي نه هجي ته پوءِ {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}} هجڻ سبب جيني عدد &lt;math&gt;2A&lt;/math&gt; يا &lt;math&gt;1-2B&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر پڻ هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيڪڏهن سڀني ماڻهن جي آمدني يا دولت غير منفي هجي، ته جيني عدد جو نظرياتي دائرو 0 (مڪمل برابري) کان 1 (مڪمل عدم مساوات) تائين هوندو آهي. ان کي اڪثر سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ 0 کان 100 تائين به ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي. جيڪڏهن منفي قدر، جهڙوڪ قرض، به شامل ڪيا وڃن ته جيني اشاريي جي قيمت 1 کان به وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿي. عام طور تي مثبت اوسط آمدني يا دولت فرض ڪئي ويندي آهي، تنهنڪري جيني عدد صفر کان گهٽ نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني عدد جي هڪ ٻي وصف موجب، اهو ''نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق'' (رليٽو مين ابسوليوٽ ڊفرنس) جي اڌ جي برابر هوندو آهي، جيڪا لورينز وڪڙ تي ٻڌل وصف سان برابر آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |title=On Economic Inequality |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |edition=2nd |year=1977}}&lt;/ref&gt; اوسط مطلق فرق مان مراد آبادي جي سڀني فردن جي آمدني يا دولت جي هر ممڪن جوڙي جي مطلق فرقن جو اوسط آهي، جڏهن ته نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق اهو اوسط مطلق فرق آهي، جنهن کي حسابي اوسط &lt;math&gt;\bar{x}&lt;/math&gt; تي ورهايو ويندو آهي ته جيئن پيماني جو اثر ختم ٿي وڃي. جيڪڏهن ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدني يا دولت هجي ۽ ڪل فردن جو تعداد ''n'' هجي، ته جيني عدد ''G'' هن ريت لکيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}}&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن آمدني يا دولت جي ورڇ کي هڪ مسلسل [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''p''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد ٻيهر نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق جي اڌ جي برابر ٿيندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,p(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

ورڇ جي اوسط آهي. جيڪڏهن سڀئي آمدنيون مثبت هجن، ته انٽيگريشن جي هيٺين حد &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; بدران &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; رکي سگهجي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== ڳڻپ ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار حصو ''u'' (ڳاڙهو) ڪل آمدني يا دولت جو حصو ''f'' پاڻ ۾ هڪجهڙو ورهائي ٿو، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو (سائو) بچيل حصو هڪجهڙو ورهائين ٿا: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري هموار ورڇ (نيري) لاءِ هميشه {{nowrap|''G'' &gt; ''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو آهي.|right]]

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن به مخصوص ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ [[سڀئي نمونا غلط آهن|نظرياتي نمونن سان مڪمل طور هڪجهڙائي نه رکندي]]، پر اهي نمونا جيني عدد جي بنياد تي ڪنهن ملڪ جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي نوعيتي تشريح مهيا ڪري سگهن ٿا.

=== مثال: آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون ===
انتهائي حالتن مان هڪ سڀ کان وڌيڪ برابريءَ وارو ممڪن سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ کي هڪجهڙي آمدني ملي ٿي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}})، جڏهن ته ٻي حالت سڀ کان وڌيڪ اڻبرابريءَ وارو سماج آهي، جنهن ۾ ''N'' فردن مان هڪ ماڻهو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 100 سيڪڙو حاصل ڪري ٿو ۽ باقي {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} ماڻهن کي ڪا به آمدني نٿي ملي ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

هڪ سادي حالت ۾ رڳو آمدنيءَ جون ٻه سطحون، گهٽ ۽ وڌيڪ، فرض ڪيون وڃن ٿيون. جيڪڏهن وڌيڪ آمدنيءَ وارو گروهه آباديءَ جو حصو ''u'' هجي ۽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو حصو ''f'' ڪمائي، ته جيني عدد {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} هوندو. ساڳين ''u'' ۽ ''f'' قدرن واري وڌيڪ درجاوار ورڇ جو جيني عدد هميشه {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}} کان وڌيڪ هوندو.

مثال طور، جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو سڀ کان شاهوڪار {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 20%}} حصو ڪل آمدنيءَ جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 80%}} رکي ٿو (ڏسو [[پاريٽو اصول]])، ته آمدنيءَ جو گني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 60 سيڪڙو هوندو. ٻي مثال ۾،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪڏهن دنيا جي آباديءَ جو {{nowrap|''u'' {{=}} 1%}} حصو ڪل دولت جو {{nowrap|''f'' {{=}} 50%}} رکي ٿو، ته دولت جو جيني عدد گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 49 سيڪڙو هوندو.

=== متبادل اظهار ===

ڪجهه حالتن ۾ هي مساوات [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ڏانهن سڌي حوالي کانسواءِ به جيني عدد ڳڻڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' ڪنهن فرد يا گهراڻي جي آمدني يا دولت کي ظاهر ڪري:

* ''n'' فردن واري آباديءَ لاءِ، جن جا قدر &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; هجن،&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfram Mathworld&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{n}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

:هن کي هن ريت سادو ڪري سگهجي ٿو:

::&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي [[نسبتي اوسط مطلق فرق]] جي اڌ طور پڻ سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. قدرن &lt;math&gt;y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n&lt;/math&gt; واري بي ترتيب نموني ''S'' لاءِ، نموني جو گني عدد

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left(n+1 - 2\left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو هڪ [[مسلسل تخمينوڪار]] آهي، پر عام طور [[تخمينوڪار#نقطي تخمينوڪار|غير متعصب]] نه هوندو آهي. ان جي سادي صورت هيءَ آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left(n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙو ڪو به نموني وارو شمارياتي مقدار موجود نه آهي، جيڪو هر حالت ۾ آباديءَ جي جيني عدد جو غير متعصب تخمينوڪار هجي.

=== جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ ===

[[جدا جدا امڪاني ورڇ]] لاءِ، جنهن جو امڪاني ڪتلي فنڪشن &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جتي &lt;math qid=Q120636410&gt;i = 1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; ۽ &lt;math&gt;f(y_i)&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جو اهو حصو هجي، جنهن جي آمدني يا دولت &lt;math&gt;y_i&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; هجي، جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sum\limits_{j=1}^n f(y_i)f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).&lt;/math&gt;

جيڪڏهن غير صفر امڪانن وارن نقطن کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ درجابند ڪيو وڃي &lt;math&gt;(y_i &lt; y_{i+1})&lt;/math&gt;، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}&lt;/math&gt;

جتي

:&lt;math&gt;S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j),y_j&lt;/math&gt;

۽

:&lt;math&gt;S_0 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

اهي فارمولا حد واري حالت ۾ به لاڳو ٿين ٿا، جڏهن &lt;math&gt;n\rightarrow\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

=== لڳاتار امڪاني ورڇ ===

جڏهن آبادي تمام وڏي هجي، ته آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي لڳاتار [[امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن]] ''f''(''x'') سان ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جتي ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' آباديءَ جو اهو حصو آهي، جنهن جي دولت يا آمدني ''x'' جي چوڌاري ''dx'' واري وقفي ۾ هجي. جيڪڏهن ''F''(''x'')، ''f''(''x'') جو [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t),dt&lt;/math&gt;

۽ ''L''(''x'') لورينز فنڪشن هجي:

:&lt;math&gt;L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t,f(t),dt}{\int_0^\infty t,f(t),dt}&lt;/math&gt;

ته [[لورينز وڪڙ]] ''L''(''F'') کي ''L''(''x'') ۽ ''F''(''x'') جي لحاظ کان پيراميٽري فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ''B'' جي قيمت [[انٽيگريشن]] وسيلي معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿي:

:&lt;math&gt;B = \int_0^1 L(F),dF.&lt;/math&gt;

جيني عدد کي ورڇ جي [[مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن]] ''F''(''y'') مان پڻ سڌو ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن ''μ'' ورڇ جو اوسط هجي ۽ سڀني منفي قدرن لاءِ ''F''(''y'') کي صفر مقرر ڪيو وڃي، ته جيني عدد هن ريت هوندو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)),dy&lt;/math&gt;

پوئين نتيجي کي [[حصن وسيلي انٽيگريشن]] مان حاصل ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ''(ياد رهي ته جيڪڏهن انٽيگريشن منفي لامحدود کان مثبت لامحدود تائين ڪئي وڃي، ته هي فارمولو منفي قدرن جي حالت ۾ پڻ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو.)''

جيني عدد کي [[ڪوانٽائيل فنڪشن]] ''Q''(''F'') جي لحاظ کان پڻ ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن جو ابتڙ آهي: ''Q(F(x)) = x''.

:&lt;math&gt;G=\frac{1}{2\mu}\int_0^1\int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|,dF_1,dF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

جيئن ته جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون|پيماني کان آزاد]] هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري جيڪڏهن ورڇ فنڪشن کي ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' جي صورت ۾ لکيو وڃي، جتي ''φ'' پيماني جو جزو ۽ ''a, b, c...'' بنا بُعد وارا پيراميٽر هجن، ته جيني عدد رڳو ''a, b, c...'' جو فنڪشن هوندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi=10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042 |access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، [[اُسري ورڇ]] لاءِ، جيڪا رڳو ''x'' ۽ هڪ پيماني واري پيراميٽر جو فنڪشن آهي، جيني عدد هڪ مستقل مقدار، يعني 1/2، هوندو آهي.

ڪجهه فنڪشني صورتن لاءِ گني عدد سڌيءَ طرح ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ''y'' [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]] جي پيروي ڪري ۽ لاگ قدرن جو معياري انحراف &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; هجي، ته:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}&lt;/math&gt; [[غلطي فنڪشن]] آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ:

:&lt;math&gt;G=2\Phi\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; معياري نارمل ورڇ جو مجموعي ورڇ فنڪشن آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;&gt;Crow, E. L., &amp; Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.&lt;/ref&gt; هيٺين جدول ۾ &lt;math&gt;[0,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; تي سهارو رکندڙ ڪجهه امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشنن جا مثال ڏنل آهن. ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا ورڇ اها حالت ظاهر ڪري ٿي، جنهن ۾ هر ماڻهوءَ وٽ هڪجهڙي دولت يا آمدني هجي؛ تنهنڪري آمدنين ۾ ڪو به فرق نه هوندو.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|-
! آمدنيءَ جو ورڇ فنڪشن
! امڪاني ڪثافت فنڪشن، PDF(x)
! جيني عدد
|-
| [[ڊيراڪ ڊيلٽا فنڪشن]]
| &lt;math&gt;\delta(x-x_0),\quad x_0&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[هڪجهڙي ورڇ (لڳاتار)|هڪجهڙي ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{1}{b-a}, &amp; a\leq x\leq b,\\
0, &amp; \text{ٻيءَ صورت ۾}.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{b-a}{3(b+a)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[اُسري ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\lambda e^{-\lambda x},\quad x&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-نارمل ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;LNdist&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;لاگ-نارمل ورڇ ۾ جڏهن &lt;math&gt;\sigma=0&lt;/math&gt;، تڏهن &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{erf}(0)=0&lt;/math&gt;؛ ۽ &lt;math&gt;2\Phi(0)-1=2(0.5)-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}}
\exp\left[
-\dfrac{1}{2}
\left(
\dfrac{\ln(x)-\mu}{\sigma}
\right)^2
\right]
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\operatorname{erf}\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{2}\right)
=
2\Phi\left(\dfrac{\sigma}{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}}, &amp; x\geq k,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;k.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
G=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
1, &amp; 0&lt;\alpha&lt;1,\\
\dfrac{1}{2\alpha-1}, &amp; \alpha\geq 1.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mathworld.wolfram.com&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
f(x;k)=
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}
{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)},
&amp; x\geq 0,\\
0, &amp; x&lt;0.
\end{array}
\right.
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
(-1)^k
\left|
I_{-1}\left(k,\dfrac{1}{2}\right)
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[ڪائي-چورس ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{2^{-k/2}e^{-x/2}x^{k/2-1}}
{\Gamma(k/2)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
2\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma\left(\dfrac{k}{2}\right)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[گاما ورڇ]]&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}
{\Gamma(k)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
\Gamma\left(\dfrac{2k+1}{2}\right)
}{
k\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[وائيبل ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{k}{\lambda}
\left(\dfrac{x}{\lambda}\right)^{k-1}
e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;1-2^{-1/k}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[بيٽا ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}}
{B(\alpha,\beta)}
&lt;/math&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\left(\dfrac{2}{\alpha}\right)
\dfrac{
B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)
}{
B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)
}
&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[لاگ-لاجسٽڪ ورڇ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
&lt;math&gt;
\dfrac{
(\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1}
}{
\left(1+(x/\alpha)^\beta\right)^2
}
&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;\dfrac{1}{\beta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{{clear}}

* &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[گاما فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;B(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.
* &lt;math&gt;I_k(,)&lt;/math&gt;، [[بيٽا فنڪشن|باقاعدي ڪيل اڻپورو بيٽا فنڪشن]] آهي.

=== ٻيا طريقا ===

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن مڪمل لورينز وڪڙ معلوم نه هوندو آهي ۽ رڳو ڪجهه وقفي وارن نقطن جا قدر ڏنل هوندا آهن. اهڙي حالت ۾ لورينز وڪڙ جي اڻڄاتل قدرن کي [[انٽرپوليشن|درمياني قدرن جي اندازي]] جي مختلف طريقن سان ڀري، گني عدد جو لڳ ڀڳ قدر معلوم ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جيڪڏهن (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) لورينز وڪڙ جا معلوم نقطا هجن ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي وڌندڙ ترتيب ۾ رکيو ويو هجي (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)، ته:

* ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آباديءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; آمدنيءَ واري متغير جو گڏيل حصو آهي، جتي ''k'' = 0,...,''n''، ۽ ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0، ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.
* ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; کي غير گهٽجندڙ ترتيب ۾ هجڻ گهرجي (''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k'' − 1&lt;/sub&gt;).

جيڪڏهن هر وقفي ۾ لورينز وڪڙ کي لڳاتار نقطن جي وچ ۾ هڪ سڌي ليڪ طور لڳ ڀڳ سمجهيو وڃي، ته ايراضي ''B'' کي [[ٽرپيزائڊل قاعدو|ٽرپيزائڊن]] وسيلي لڳ ڀڳ ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو، ۽:

:&lt;math&gt;G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n}(X_k-X_{k-1})(Y_k+Y_{k-1})&lt;/math&gt;

''G'' جو حاصل ٿيندڙ لڳ ڀڳ قدر هوندو.

وڌيڪ درست نتيجا ايراضي ''B'' جي [[عددي انٽيگريشن|عددي اندازي]] جي ٻين طريقن سان حاصل ڪري سگهجن ٿا؛ مثال طور، وقفي جي جوڙن تي لورينز وڪڙ کي [[سمپسن جو قاعدو|درجي ٻئي جي فنڪشن]] سان لڳ ڀڳ ظاهر ڪرڻ يا اهڙي هموار بنيادي ورڇ فنڪشن جو اندازو ٺاهڻ، جيڪو معلوم انگن اکرن سان ٺهڪي اچي. جيڪڏهن آباديءَ جو اوسط ۽ هر وقفي جون حدون به معلوم هجن، ته اهي پڻ اندازي جي درستگي وڌائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿيون.

نموني مان ڳڻيل گني عدد هڪ شمارياتي مقدار آهي، تنهنڪري ان جي معياري غلطي يا آباديءَ جي جيني عدد لاءِ ڀروسي جا وقفا پڻ ٻڌائڻ گهرجن. اهي [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#بوٽ اسٽرئپ|بوٽ اسٽرئپ]] طريقن سان ڳڻي سگهجن ٿا، جيڪي تيز ڪمپيوٽرن جي دور ۾ به رياضيائي طور پيچيدا ۽ ڳڻپ جي لحاظ کان گهڻي محنت گهرندڙ آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

معاشيات دان [[ٽامسن اوگوانگ]] هن عمل کي وڌيڪ ڪارائتو بڻائڻ لاءِ هڪ “چالاڪ رجريشن نمونو” ترتيب ڏنو، جنهن ۾ نموني جي آمدنيءَ وارن متغيرن کي درجو ڏنو وڃي ٿو ۽ سڀ کان گهٽ آمدنيءَ کي درجو 1 ڏنو وڃي ٿو. پوءِ نمونو درجي کي، جيڪو تابع متغير آهي، مستقل ''A'' ۽ [[نارمل ورڇ|نارمل]] غلطيءَ واري جزو جي مجموعي طور ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جنهن جو ويريئنس ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; سان ابتڙ نسبت رکي ٿو:

:&lt;math&gt;k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k)&lt;/math&gt;

اهڙيءَ طرح ''G'' کي مستقل ''A'' جي وزن ڏنل [[گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخمينو|گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس تخميني]] جي فنڪشن طور ظاهر ڪري سگهجي ٿو، ۽ ان وسيلي معياري غلطيءَ لاءِ [[ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ (شماريات)#جيڪ نائيف|جيڪ نائيف]] تخمينو تيزيءَ سان ڳڻي سگهجي ٿو. معاشيات دان ڊيوڊ گائلز دليل ڏنو ته ''A'' جي تخميني جي [[معياري غلطي]] کي جيڪ نائيف استعمال ڪرڻ کانسواءِ سڌو ''G'' جو تخمينو ڪڍڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. هن طريقي ۾ نموني جي انگن اکرن کي ترتيب ڏيڻ کان پوءِ رڳو عام گهٽ ۾ گهٽ چورس رجريشن جي ضرورت پوي ٿي. ان جا نتيجا [[جيڪ نائيف ٻيهر نمونو وٺڻ|جيڪ نائيف]] جي تخمينن سان چڱيءَ طرح ٺهڪن ٿا، ۽ نموني جي ماپ وڌڻ سان اها هڪجهڙائي وڌيڪ بهتر ٿئي ٿي.{{sfn|Giles|2004}}

بهرحال، اهو دليل ڏنو ويو آهي ته هي طريقو غلطيءَ جي ورڇ ۽ غلطيءَ وارن جزن جي هڪ ٻئي کان آزادي بابت نموني جي مفروضن تي دارومدار رکي ٿو. حقيقي انگن اکرن ۾ اهي مفروضا اڪثر درست نه هوندا آهن. ان موضوع بابت اڃا تائين بحث جاري آهي.

[[گيلرمينا جاسو]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Jasso |first=Guillermina |year=1979 |title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=867–870 |jstor=2094535 |doi=10.2307/2094535}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اينگس ڊيٽن]]{{sfn|Deaton|1997|p=139}} آزاد نموني گني عدد لاءِ هي فارمولو پيش ڪيو:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}\left(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i\right)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; آباديءَ جي اوسط آمدني آهي، ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; فرد ''i'' جي آمدنيءَ جو درجو آهي، ۽ ''X'' ان فرد جي آمدني آهي؛ سڀ کان شاهوڪار فرد کي درجو 1 ۽ سڀ کان غريب فرد کي درجو ''N'' ڏنو وڃي ٿو. هي طريقو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ غريب ماڻهن کي عملي طور وڌيڪ وزن ڏئي ٿو، جنهن سبب جيني عدد [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جون ماپون#منتقلي اصول|منتقلي اصول]] پورو ڪري ٿو. ياد رهي ته جاسو–ڊيٽن فارمولو عدد کي اهڙي نموني ٻيهر پيمانو ڏئي ٿو، جو جيڪڏهن رڳو هڪ &lt;math&gt;X_i&lt;/math&gt; کانسواءِ باقي سڀ قدر صفر هجن، ته ان جو قدر هڪ ٿئي. تنهن هوندي به، ايليسن پنهنجي جواب ۾ دليل ڏنو ته ان بدران ''N''² تي ورهائڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Reply to Jasso |first=Paul D. |last=Allison |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=44 |issue=5 |year=1979 |pages=870–872 |jstor=2094536 |doi=10.2307/2094536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت واري تنظيم|ايف اي او]] پڻ هن فارمولي جي هڪ ٻي صورت بيان ڪري ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations |first1=Lorenzo Giovanni |last1=Bellù |first2=Paolo |last2=Liberati |year=2006 |url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== عام ڪيل عدم مساوات جا اشاريا ==
{{See also|عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو}}

جيني عدد جي ابتڙ، عدم مساوات جا ڪيترائي ٻيا معياري اشاريي هڪ گڏيل صورت ۾ آڻي سگهجن ٿا. مڪمل برابري، يعني عدم مساوات جي مڪمل غيرموجودگي، تڏهن ۽ رڳو تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن ڪنهن آباديءَ جي سڀني ''j'' وحدتن لاءِ عدم مساوات جي نسبت

:&lt;math&gt;r_j=\frac{x_j}{\overline{x}}&lt;/math&gt;

هڪ جي برابر هجي. مثال طور، آمدنيءَ ۾ مڪمل برابري تڏهن هوندي آهي جڏهن هر شخص جي آمدني &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; اوسط آمدني &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; جي برابر هجي، تنهنڪري هر شخص لاءِ &lt;math&gt;r_j=1&lt;/math&gt; ٿيندو.

ان ڪري، عدم مساوات جون ماپون اصل ۾ &lt;math&gt;r_j&lt;/math&gt; جي 1 کان اوسط انحراف جون ماپون آهن. جيترو اوسط انحراف وڌيڪ هوندو، اوتري عدم مساوات وڌيڪ هوندي. انهن مشاهدن جي بنياد تي، عدم مساوات جا اشاري هن گڏيل صورت ۾ لکيا وڃن ٿا:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\text{عدم مساوات}=\sum_j p_j\,f(r_j)&lt;/math&gt;

جتي ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; هر وحدت کي آباديءَ ۾ ان جي حصي موجب وزن ڏئي ٿو، ۽ ''f''(''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) هر وحدت جي ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; جي برابريءَ واري نقطي 1 کان انحراف جو فنڪشن آهي.

هن عام ڪيل عدم مساوات اشاريي جو بنيادي خيال اهو آهي ته مختلف عدم مساوات جا اشاريي هڪ ٻئي کان ان ڪري مختلف ٿين ٿا، جو اهي عدم مساوات جي نسبتن، يعني ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;، جي 1 کان فاصلي لاءِ مختلف فنڪشن استعمال ڪن ٿا.

گني عدد کي هن صورت ۾ ظاهر نٿو ڪري سگهجي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ آباديءَ جي هر وحدت جو حصو رڳو ان وحدت جي آمدني ۽ اوسط آمدنيءَ تي دارومدار نٿو رکي، پر ان کان گهٽ آمدني رکندڙ سڀني وحدتن جي گڏيل آمدنيءَ تي پڻ دارومدار رکي ٿو.

== آمدني جي ورڇ بابت ==
{{See also|آمدني جي برابري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست}}

[[File:Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg|thumb|2011ع ۾ عالمي آمدني لاءِ لورينز وڪڙ ۽ جيني عدد جي اخذڪاري]]
آمدنيءَ بابت جيني عدد عام طور ٻن بنيادن تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي: **بازاري آمدني** (مارڪيٽ انڪم) ۽ **استعمال لائق آمدني** (ڊسپوزبل انڪم).

بازاري آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن **ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد** (پري-ٽيڪز جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين (ٽرانسفرس) کان اڳ واري آمدني جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. هي اشاري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، بغير ان ڳالهه کي نظر ۾ رکڻ جي ته ملڪ ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جون پاليسيون اڳ ئي ڪهڙو اثر وجهي رهيون آهن.

استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني عدد، جنهن کي **ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو جيني عدد** (آفٽر-ٽيڪس جيني ڪوئيفيشنٽ) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ بچيل آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو ويندو آهي. اهو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ملڪ ۾ لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن جي اثرن کي شامل ڪندي ماپي ٿو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages=719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=imf2000&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2008ع کان 2009ع واري عرصي دوران [[او اي سي ڊي]] جي ملڪن ۾، سڄي آبادي لاءِ ٽيڪسن ۽ سرڪاري منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 0.34 کان 0.53 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[اٽلي]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو. ساڳئي عرصي ۾ ٽيڪسن ۽ منتقلي وارين ادائگين کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.25 کان 0.48 جي وچ ۾ رهيو، جتي [[ڊينمارڪ]] جو قدر سڀ کان گهٽ ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ هو.

[[آمريڪا]]، جيڪو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي آبادي وارو ملڪ آهي، ان جو ٽيڪس کان اڳ وارو گني عدد 2008ع–2009ع ۾ 0.49، جڏهن ته ٽيڪس کان پوءِ وارو گني عدد 0.38 هو. ان عرصي دوران او اي سي ڊي ملڪن جي مجموعي آباديءَ لاءِ سراسري گني عدد ٽيڪس کان اڳ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.46 ۽ ٽيڪس کان پوءِ واري آمدنيءَ لاءِ 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=OECD1 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&amp;radioindic=158&amp;idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ 2008ع–2009ع دوران لاڳو ٽيڪسن ۽ سماجي خرچن مؤثر طور آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي نمايان حد تائين گهٽايو. مجموعي طور تي، يورپي ملڪ، خاص طور تي نارڊڪ ۽ براعظمي [[فلاحي رياست]]ون، ٻين ملڪن جي ڀيٽ ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا گهٽ درجا حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ وڌيڪ ڪامياب رهيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گني عدد جي استعمال سان مختلف ملڪن جي [[فلاحي خرچ]]ن، [[گذر لائق اجورو|گذر لائق اجوري]] جي پاليسين ۽ معاشرتي فلسفن جي وچ ۾ فرق کي مقداري صورت ۾ بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو. بهرحال، اهو به ذهن ۾ رکڻ گهرجي ته جڏهن وڏي ۽ ننڍي آبادي وارن ملڪن يا مختلف اميگريشن پاليسين وارن ملڪن جي سياسي ڀيٽ ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني عدد ڪڏهن ڪڏهن گمراهه ڪندڙ نتيجا به ڏئي سگهي ٿو (ڏسو [[#حدون|حدون]]).

سڄي دنيا لاءِ گني عدد جا مختلف ادارن طرفان ڪيل اندازا 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ آهن.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10&gt;{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn=978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|author1=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل گراف ڪيترن ئي ملڪن ۾ وقت سان گڏ گني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي کي سيڪڙو جي صورت ۾ ڏيکاري ٿو.

[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ مختلف ملڪن ۾ جيني عدد جي تاريخي تبديلي.]]

=== علائقائي آمدني جيني اشاريو ===

يونيسيف (UNICEF) موجب، 2008ع ۾ خالص آمدني جي جيني اشاريي جي لحاظ کان [[لاطيني آمريڪا]] ۽ [[ڪيريبين]] جو علائقو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عدم مساوات وارو علائقو هو، جتي غير وزنيل سراسري جيني اشاري جو قدر 48.3 هو. ٻين علائقن جا سراسري قدر هن ريت هئا:

* [[صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]: 44.2
* [[ايشيا]]: 40.4
* [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]]: 39.2
* [[اوڀر يورپ]] ۽ [[مرڪزي ايشيا]]: 35.4
* [[اعليٰ آمدني وارا ملڪ]]: 30.9

ساڳئي طريقي سان ڪيل اندازن موجب، [[آمريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريي 36 هو، جڏهن ته [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] وٽ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ جيني اشاريي، يعني 67.8، موجود هو.&lt;ref name=unicef2011&gt;{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 1800ع واري ڏهاڪي کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاري ===

جيڪڏهن دنيا جي سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو وڃي، ته عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات 19هين صديءَ جي شروعات کان مسلسل وڌندي رهي آهي (۽ ڪيترن ئي سالن تائين ان ۾ واڌ جو رجحان جاري رهيو). 1820ع کان 2002ع تائين عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي ۾ لڳاتار اضافو ڏٺو ويو، جڏهن ته 1980ع کان 2002ع جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ هي واڌ خاص طور تي تيز هئي.

بهرحال، لڳي ٿو ته هي رجحان پنهنجي انتها تي پهچي پوءِ اُبتو ٿيڻ شروع ٿيو، جنهن جو اهم سبب اڀرندڙ معيشتن ۾ تيز معاشي واڌ هو، خاص طور تي [[برڪ]] (BRIC) ملڪن جي وڏي آباديءَ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance &amp; Development|date=September 2011|volume=48|issue=3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾، ميلانووچ (Milanovic) جي حسابن موجب، گذريل ٻن سؤ سالن دوران عالمي آمدنيءَ جي جيني اشاريي جا اندازي وارا قدر ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Milanovic |first=Branko |year=2009 |title=Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1820ع–2005ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=unicef2011 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry|first2=John|last2=Serieux|publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1820ع || 0.43
|-
| 1850ع || 0.53
|-
| 1870ع || 0.56
|-
| 1913ع || 0.61
|-
| 1929ع || 0.62
|-
| 1950ع || 0.64
|-
| 1960ع || 0.64
|-
| 1980ع || 0.66
|-
| 2002ع || 0.71
|-
| 2005ع || 0.68
|}

ساڳين ذريعن مان حاصل ڪيل وڌيڪ تفصيلي انگ اکر ڏيکارين ٿا ته 1988ع کان عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ مسلسل گهٽتائي اچي رهي آهي. ان جو وڏو سبب [[گلوبلائيزيشن]] کي قرار ڏنو وڃي ٿو، جنهن [[چين]] ۽ [[ڀارت]] جهڙن ملڪن ۾ اربين غريب ماڻهن جي آمدني وڌائڻ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [[برازيل]] جهڙن ترقي پذير ملڪن صحت، تعليم ۽ صفائي جهڙين بنيادي خدمتن ۾ نمايان بهتري آندي آهي، جڏهن ته [[چلي]] ۽ [[ميڪسيڪو]] جهڙن ملڪن وڌيڪ [[ترقي پسند ٽيڪس]] پاليسيون اختيار ڪيون آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality|website=NPR|date=25 January 2017|last1=Gharib|first1=Malaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ عالمي آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريي – دنيا، 1988ع–2013ع
|-
! سال
! عالمي جيني اشاريي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-15|url-status=live|author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank}}. Figure O.10: Global Inequality, 1988–2013&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 1988ع || 0.80
|-
| 1993ع || 0.76
|-
| 1998ع || 0.74
|-
| 2003ع || 0.72
|-
| 2008ع || 0.70
|-
| 2013ع || 0.65
|}

[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px|وقت سان گڏ عالمي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات (جيني اشاريي) ۾ تبديلي]]

== سماجي ترقي بابت ==

جيني عدد سماجيات، معاشيات، صحت جي سائنس، ماحوليات، انجنيئرنگ ۽ زراعت سميت ڪيترن ئي مختلف شعبن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sadras 2004 303–310&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، سماجي سائنسن ۽ معاشيات ۾، آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد کان علاوه، محققن تعليم جي جيني عدد ۽ موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پڻ تحقيق ۽ اشاعتون ڪيون آهن.

=== تعليم ===

تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ڪنهن مخصوص آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي عدم مساوات جو اندازو لڳائيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وقت سان گڏ تعليمي حاصلات جي بنياد تي سماجي ترقيءَ جي رجحانن کي سمجهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

[[ورلڊ بئنڪ]] جي ٽن معاشيات دانن، ونود ٿامس، يان وانگ ۽ شيبو فان، 85 ملڪن تي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته 1990ع ۾ [[مالي]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.92 هو، جيڪو آباديءَ ۾ تعليمي حاصلات جي انتهائي اڻبرابري ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] جو تعليمي جيني اشاريي 0.14 هو، جيڪو سڀ کان گهٽ تعليمي عدم مساوات ڏيکاري ٿو. 1960ع کان 1990ع جي وچ ۾ [[چين]]، [[ڀارت]] ۽ [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]] ۾ تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ سڀ کان تيز گهٽتائي آئي. انهن اهو به دعويٰ ڪيو ته 1980ع کان 1990ع جي عرصي دوران آمريڪا ۾ تعليم جو جيني اشاريي ٿورو وڌيو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڀارت ۾ 1960ع کان 1990ع تائين تعليمي جيني اشاريي ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، پر آباديءَ جي وڏي حصي کي اڃا تائين ڪا به تعليم حاصل نه ٿي هئي، جڏهن ته آباديءَ جي فقط 10 سيڪڙو ماڻهن ملڪ جي ڪل تعليمي ڪلاڪن مان 40 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ حاصل ڪيا. ان جو مطلب آهي ته ملڪ ۾ وڏي انگ ۾ اهڙا قابل ٻار موجود آهن، جن کي سماج ۾ مثبت ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاءِ ضروري تعليمي سهڪار نٿو ملي. نتيجي طور، قومي سماج کي معاشي ۽ سماجي نقصان پهچي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪيترائي ماڻهو پنهنجي صلاحيتن موجب ترقي نٿا ڪري سگهن ۽ سندن قابليت مڪمل طور استعمال نٿي ٿئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&amp;dq=gini+coefficient&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== موقعا ===

آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد وانگر، موقعن جو گني عدد به موقعن جي عدم مساوات کي ماپيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=roemer06&gt;{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي تصور [[امرتيا سين]] جي ان تجويز تي ٻڌل آهي ته سماجي ترقيءَ ۾ عدم مساوات جي ماپن جو بنياد ماڻهن جي چونڊن کي وڌائڻ ۽ انهن جي صلاحيتن کي بهتر بڻائڻ واري عمل تي هجڻ گهرجي، نه رڳو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي گهٽائڻ تي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪوواچيويچ، موقعن جي جيني عدد بابت پنهنجي جائزي ۾، وضاحت ڪئي ته هي اشاريي اهو اندازو لڳائي ٿو ته ڪو سماج پنهنجن شهرين کي زندگيءَ ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ جا موقعا ڪيتري حد تائين فراهم ڪري ٿو، جتي ڪاميابي جو دارومدار فرد جي چونڊن، محنت ۽ صلاحيتن تي هجي، نه ته ڄمڻ وقت مقرر ٿيل حالتن، جهڙوڪ جنس، نسل، ڄمڻ جي جاءِ، والدين جي آمدني يا ٻين اهڙين حالتن تي، جيڪي فرد جي اختيار کان ٻاهر هجن.

2003ع ۾، رومر&lt;ref name=roemer06 /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻڌايو ته ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ [[اٽلي]] ۽ [[اسپين]] جا موقعن جي عدم مساوات وارا جيني اشاريي سڀ کان وڌيڪ هئا.

=== آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت ===

1978ع ۾ [[اينٿوني شوراڪس]] آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن تي ٻڌل هڪ ماپ متعارف ڪرائي، جنهن جو مقصد آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت (income mobility) جو اندازو لڳائڻ هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ ماسومي ۽ زندوڪيلي&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili|year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume=22|issue=1|pages=97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کي وڌيڪ عام بڻايو، ۽ هاڻي ان کي عام طور [[شوراڪس اشاريي]] جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو؛ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان کي شوراڪس نقل و حرڪت اشاريي يا شوراڪس جمود اشاريي به چيو ويندو آهي.

هن اشاريي جو مقصد اهو اندازو لڳائڻ آهي ته آمدنيءَ جي جيني عدد سان ظاهر ٿيندڙ عدم مساوات مستقل آهي يا عارضي، ۽ اهو ته ڪو ملڪ يا علائقو پنهنجي ماڻهن کي معاشي نقل و حرڪت جا ڪيترا موقعا ڏئي ٿو، جيئن اهي وقت سان گڏ هڪ آمدني درجي (مثال طور هيٺين 20 سيڪڙو) مان ٻئي درجي (مثال طور وچئين 20 سيڪڙو) ڏانهن منتقل ٿي سگهن.

شوراڪس اشاريي جا ڪيترائي حسابي طريقا آهن، پر سڀ کان عام طريقو ساڳئي ملڪ يا علائقي لاءِ مختصر مدي واري ۽ ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي نسبت تي ٻڌل آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010&gt;{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk|first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez|first3=Jae|last3=Song|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume=125|issue=1|pages=91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2010ع ۾ آمريڪا جي 1937ع کان موجود سماجي تحفظ جي آمدنيءَ جي انگن اکرن ۽ گني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي استعمال ڪندي ڪيل هڪ مطالعي مان معلوم ٿيو ته آمريڪا ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جي تاريخ ڪافي پيچيده رهي آهي، جنهن جو هڪ وڏو سبب ٻي عالمي جنگ کان پوءِ وڏي تعداد ۾ عورتن جو مزدور قوت ۾ شامل ٿيڻ هو. 1937ع کان 2000ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين مردن ۽ عورتن جي آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت جا رجحان هڪجهڙا نه رهيا. جڏهن مردن ۽ عورتن ٻنهي کي گڏيل طور ڏٺو ويو، ته جيني عدد تي ٻڌل شوراڪس اشاريي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته تازن ڏهاڪن دوران آمريڪا ۾ سڀني مزدورن جي ڊگهي مدي واري آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ نمايان گهٽتائي آئي آهي.&lt;ref name=kss2010 /&gt;

ٻين محققن، جيڪي صرف 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي يا ٻين مختصر عرصن جي انگن اکرن تي ڀاڙيندا هئا، مختلف نتيجا حاصل ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany|first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date=March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; مثال طور، ساسٽري ۽ آيالا ڇهن ترقي يافته معيشتن ۾ 1993ع کان 1998ع تائين آمدنيءَ جي جيني عددن جي بنياد تي نتيجو ڪڍيو ته [[فرانس]] ۾ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت سڀ کان گهٽ، [[اٽلي]] ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ، جڏهن ته [[آمريڪا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] وچولي سطح جي آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت رکندڙ ملڪ هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala|publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== خاصيتون ==


جيني عدد جون ڪي اهڙيون خاصيتون آهن، جيڪي ان کي ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ جي تفاوت، ۽ خاص طور تي عدم مساوات، جي ماپ لاءِ هڪ ڪارائتو اشاريو بڻائين ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot; /&gt;
جيني عدد جي قيمت 0 کان 1 تائين هوندي آهي. 0 مڪمل برابريءَ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو، جڏهن ته 1 مڪمل عدم مساوات جي نشاندهي ڪري ٿو.
جيني عدد آباديءَ جي گڏيل تناسب (ڪيوموليٽو پروپورشن) ۽ ان آباديءَ کي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي گڏيل تناسب جي پاڻ ۾ ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;data.oecd&quot;/&gt;

== حدون ==

=== نسبتي، نه مطلق ===

جيني اشاريو هڪ **نسبتي** (رليٽو) ماپ آهي. ڪنهن ترقي پذير ملڪ ۾، جيتوڻيڪ مڪمل غربت ۾ رهندڙ ماڻهن جو انگ گهٽجي وڃي، تڏهن به آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات وڌڻ سبب جيني اشاريو وڌي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Dramatic Poverty Reduction in the Third World: Prospects and Needed Action|first=John W.|last=Mellor|publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute|date=2 June 1989|pages=18–20|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160551/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان جو سبب اهو آهي ته جيني اشاريو دولت يا آمدنيءَ جي **نسبتي** ورڇ کي ماپي ٿو، نه ڪي ان جي **مطلق** (ابسوليوٽ) مقدار کي.

جيني اشاريو سادو ۽ سمجهڻ ۾ آسان آهي، پر اها ئي سادگي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن اهم فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري سگهي ٿي ۽ مختلف آباديُن جي ڀيٽ کي گمراهه ڪندڙ بڻائي سگهي ٿي. مثال طور، 2010ع ۾ [[بنگلاديش]] (في فرد آمدني 1,693 آمريڪي ڊالر) ۽ [[نيدرلينڊز]] (في فرد آمدني 42,183 آمريڪي ڊالر) ٻنهي جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو 0.31 هو.&lt;ref name=undp2010a&gt;{{cite web|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development (2010 Human Development Report – see Stat Tables)|pages=152–156|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/chapters/}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهن هوندي به، ٻنهي ملڪن ۾ زندگيءَ جو معيار، معاشي موقعا ۽ حقيقي آمدني هڪجهڙا نه هئا. يعني، ٻه ملڪ ساڳيو جيني اشاريو رکي سگهن ٿا، پر سندن دولت ۾ وڏو فرق موجود هجي.

ترقي يافته معيشت ۾ بنيادي ضرورتون تقريباً سڀني ماڻهن کي دستياب ٿي سگهن ٿيون، جڏهن ته ساڳئي جيني اشاري واري ڪنهن گهٽ ترقي يافته ملڪ ۾ گهٽ مطلق دولت سبب اهي ضرورتون گهڻن ماڻهن لاءِ دستياب نه هجن يا غيربرابر نموني دستياب هجن.

=== رياضياتي حدون ===

جيني اشاري جون ڪجهه رياضياتي حدون پڻ آهن. اهو **جمع پذير** (ايڊيٽو) نه آهي، تنهنڪري مختلف آبادي گروهن جا جيني اشاري گڏ ڪري يا انهن جو سراسري ڪڍي سڀني گروهن لاءِ صحيح جيني اشاريو حاصل نٿو ڪري سگهجي.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول الف. مختلف آمدنيءَ جون ورڇون، پر ساڳيو جيني اشاريو&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt;
|-
! گهراڻن جو گروهه
! ملڪ الف جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! ملڪ ب جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || 9,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000 || 40,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || 48,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000 || 48,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || 55,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $200,000 || $200,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.2''' || '''0.2'''
|}

جيتوڻيڪ ڪنهن آباديءَ جي ڪل آمدني ساڳي هجي، تڏهن به ممڪن آهي ته مختلف آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ رکندڙ ٻن ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو ساڳيو هجي، خاص طور تي جڏهن سندن [[لورينز وکر]] هڪ ٻئي کي ڪٽيندا هجن.&lt;ref name=&quot;fao gini&quot;/&gt; جدول الف اهڙي ئي هڪ مثال ڏيکاري ٿي. ٻنهي ملڪن جو جيني اشاريو 0.2 آهي، پر گهراڻن جي گروهن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ مختلف آهي.

ساڳيءَ ريت، جيڪڏهن هڪ آباديءَ ۾ هيٺين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪا به آمدني نه هجي ۽ مٿين 50 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ آمدني برابر ورهايل هجي، ته جيني اشاريو 0.5 ٿيندو. ٻي آباديءَ ۾، جيڪڏهن هيٺين 75 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ ڪل آمدنيءَ جو 25 سيڪڙو ۽ مٿين 25 سيڪڙو ماڻهن وٽ 75 سيڪڙو آمدني هجي، ته اتي به جيني اشاريو 0.5 هوندو.

تنهنڪري، هڪجهڙي آمدني ۽ ساڳئي جيني اشاري واريون معيشتون آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي لحاظ کان هڪ ٻئي کان گهڻو مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿيون. بيلو ۽ ليبيراتي جو خيال آهي ته رڳو جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ٻن آباديُن ۾ آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جي درجابندي هميشه ممڪن نه هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=Maio2007&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income inequality measures|first=Fernando G.|last=De Maio|journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health|year=2007|volume=61|issue=10|pages=849–852|doi=10.1136/jech.2006.052969|pmid=17873219|pmc=2652960}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ساڳي طرح، ڪمپيوٽري سماجي سائنسدان [[فيبين اسٽيفني]] ڏيکاريو آهي ته روايتي جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي اندر موجود مخصوص سماجي يا معاشي گروهن (مثال طور ساڳئي عمر يا تعليم وارن ماڻهن) جي آمدنيءَ واري عدم مساوات کي ظاهر ڪرڻ ۾ ناڪام رهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Stephany |first=Fabian |date=2017-12-01 |title=Who are Your Joneses? Socio-Specific Income Inequality and Trust |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |journal=Social Indicators Research |language=en |volume=134 |issue=3 |pages=877–898 |doi=10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |issn=1573-0921 |pmc=5684274 |pmid=29187771}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو دولت جي عدم مساوات کي لڪائي سگهي ٿو ===

جيني اشاريو ڪنهن ملڪ يا فرد جي **مطلق آمدني** بابت ڪا به ڄاڻ فراهم نٿو ڪري. ممڪن آهي ته ڪنهن آباديءَ ۾ آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهٽ هجي، پر دولت (wealth) جو جيني اشاريو تمام گهڻو هجي.

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات کي ماپي ٿو، تنهنڪري اهو گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي استعمال ۾ موجود فرقن کي نظرانداز ڪري ڇڏي ٿو. ساڳيءَ طرح، دولت کي به (سواءِ ان حصي جي جيڪو آمدني پيدا ڪري) نظرانداز ڪيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن سبب اهڙين حالتن ۾ برابريءَ جو تاثر پيدا ٿي سگهي ٿو، جتي مقابلي هيٺ آيل ماڻهو پنهنجي زندگيءَ جي مختلف مرحلن ۾ هجن.

مثال طور، [[سوئيڊن]] جهڙي دولت مند ملڪ ۾ استعمال لائق آمدنيءَ جو جيني اشاريو 0.31 آهي، جنهن مان نسبتاً برابريءَ جو تاثر ملي ٿو، پر دولت جو جيني اشاريو 0.79 کان 0.86 جي وچ ۾ آهي، جيڪو سماج ۾ دولت جي انتهائي غيربرابر ورڇ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Inequality Trends in Sweden 1978–2004|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Martin|last2=Flodén|journal=Review of Economic Dynamics|volume=13|issue=1|year=2010|pages=179–208|doi=10.1016/j.red.2009.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.629.9417}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Accounting for Swedish wealth inequality|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Paul|last2=Klein|date=January 2000|url=http://fmwww.bc.edu/repec/es2000/0883.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030519155531/https://www.econometricsociety.org/meetings/wc00/pdf/0883.pdf|archive-date=May 19, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تنهنڪري، آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو دولت جي ورڇ ۾ موجود عدم مساوات کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.

=== ملڪ جي ماپ ۽ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جو اثر ===

ننڍين آباديُن لاءِ جيني اشاريو عام طور هيٺاهين طرف لاڙو (downward bias) رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Small-Sample Bias of the Gini Coefficient: Results and Implications for Empirical Research|journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics|first=George|last=Deltas|date=February 2003|volume=85|issue=1|pages=226–234|doi=10.1162/rest.2003.85.1.226|jstor=3211637|bibcode=2003RvE&amp;S..85..226D|s2cid=57572560}}&lt;/ref&gt; تنهنڪري ننڍي آبادي، رياست يا ملڪ، يا اهڙيون معيشتون جن ۾ معاشي تنوع گهٽ هجي، اڪثر گهٽ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪن ٿيون.

ان جي ابتڙ، وڏي آبادي ۽ وڌيڪ متنوع معيشتن لاءِ عام طور وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو متوقع هوندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن سڄي دنيا جي معيشت ۽ سڀني انسانن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي گڏجي ڏٺو وڃي، ته مختلف محقق عالمي جيني اشاري جو اندازو 0.61 کان 0.68 جي وچ ۾ لڳائين ٿا.&lt;ref name=fao2009 /&gt;&lt;ref name=undp10 /&gt;

ٻين عدم مساوات وارن اشارن وانگر، جيني اشاريو به انگن اکرن جي **تفصيل جي سطح** (granularity) کان متاثر ٿيندو آهي. مثال طور، جيڪڏهن ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي پنجن 20 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (گهٽ تفصيل) ۾ ورهايو وڃي ته حاصل ٿيندڙ جيني اشاريو عام طور ويهن 5 سيڪڙو وارن گروهن (وڌيڪ تفصيل) جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ ٿيندو.

فلپ مونفورٽ ڏيکاريو آهي ته جيڪڏهن مختلف مطالعي ۾ انگن اکرن جي تفصيل جي سطح هڪجهڙي نه هجي يا واضح نه ڪئي وڃي، ته جيني اشاري جي بنياد تي ڪيل ڀيٽون گهڻي حد تائين بي معنيٰ ٿي سگهن ٿيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Convergence of EU regions: Measures and evolution|first=Philippe|last=Monfort|publisher=European Union – Europa|page=6|year=2008|url=http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160544/http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== آباديءَ ۾ تبديليون ===

جيني اشارئي سان ماپيل آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات ۾ تبديلي، سماج جي بناوت ۾ ايندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ آباديءَ ۾ واڌ (پيدائش جي شرح وڌڻ)، آباديءَ جي پوڙهائپ، لڏپلاڻ يا هجرت، ۽ آمدنيءَ جي نقل و حرڪت.&lt;ref name=Kwok10&gt;{{cite web|title=Income Distribution of Hong Kong and the Gini Coefficient|author=KWOK Kwok Chuen|year=2010|publisher=The Government of Hong Kong, China|url=http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227043822/http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني اشاري جي هڪ ٻي حد اها آهي ته اهو [[مساوات پسندي]] (egalitarianism) جو مڪمل پيمانو نه آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهو رڳو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ ۾ تفاوت کي ماپي ٿو. مثال طور، فرض ڪريو ته ٻه هڪجهڙا مساوات پسند ملڪ مختلف [[اميگريشن قانون]] اختيار ڪن ٿا. جيڪڏهن انهن مان هڪ ملڪ گهٽ آمدني يا غريب مهاجرن جو وڌيڪ حصو قبول ڪري، ته اهو ملڪ وڌيڪ جيني اشاريو ظاهر ڪندو، ۽ اهڙيءَ ريت ان ۾ آمدنيءَ جي وڌيڪ عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ٿيندو، جيتوڻيڪ اها تبديلي سماجي پاليسيءَ جي نتيجي ۾ آيل هجي.

=== گهراڻو بمقابله فرد ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; float: right; margin-left:1em;&quot;
|+ جدول ب. ساڳي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ، پر مختلف جيني اشاريا
|-
! گهراڻي جو نمبر
! ملڪ جي سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
! گڏيل گهراڻن جو نمبر
! ملڪ الف جي گڏيل سالياني آمدني (آمريڪي ڊالر)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 1 ۽ 2 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 50,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3 ۽ 4 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 90,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5 ۽ 6 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 130,000
|-
| 6 || 70,000
|-
| 7 || 80,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7 ۽ 8 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 170,000
|-
| 8 || 90,000
|-
| 9 || 120,000 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9 ۽ 10 || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 270,000
|-
| 10 || 150,000
|-
| ڪل آمدني || $710,000 || || $710,000
|-
| ملڪ جو جيني اشاريو || '''0.303''' || || '''0.293'''
|}

جيڪڏهن ساڳئي معيشت ۽ ساڳئي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ لاءِ جيني اشاريو فردن بدران گهراڻن جي بنياد تي ڳڻيو وڃي، ته نتيجا مختلف ٿي سگهن ٿا. جيڪڏهن گهراڻن جا انگ اکر استعمال ڪيا وڃن، ته آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري جو قدر ان ڳالهه تي دارومدار رکي ٿو ته &quot;گهراڻي&quot; جي تعريف ڪيئن ڪئي وئي آهي. جڏهن مختلف آباديُن ۾ گهراڻي جي تعريف هڪجهڙي نه هجي، تڏهن انهن جي ڀيٽ بامعنيٰ نه هوندي.

ان کان علاوه، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ واري جيني اشاري ۾ تبديلي گهراڻي جي جوڙجڪ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جو نتيجو به ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيئن طلاقن ۾ واڌ يا [[گڏيل ڪٽنب]]ن جو ورهائجي [[ايڪو ڪٽنب]]ن ۾ تبديل ٿيڻ.

ڊيننگر ۽ [[لن اسڪوائر]] (1996ع) ڏيکاريو ته فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاري کان مختلف هوندو آهي. مثال طور، آمريڪا لاءِ هنن فردن جي آمدنيءَ تي ٻڌل جيني اشاريو 0.35، جڏهن ته فرانس لاءِ 0.43 معلوم ڪيو. سندن فرد-بنياد واري طريقي موجب، 108 ملڪن مان [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]] جو جيني اشاريو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.62)، [[ملائيشيا]] جو ايشيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50)، [[برازيل]] جو لاطيني آمريڪا ۽ ڪيريبين علائقي ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.57)، ۽ [[ترڪي]] جو او اي سي ڊي ملڪن ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ (0.50) هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Deininger |first1=K. |last2=Squire |first2=L. |title=A New Data Set Measuring Income Inequality |journal=The World Bank Economic Review |date=September 1996 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=565–591 |doi=10.1093/wber/10.3.565 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ارب پتي [[ٿامس ڪوڪ]] جو چوڻ آهي ته هانگ ڪانگ جو آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو (2010ع ۾ 0.434)&lt;ref name=undp2010a /&gt; جزوي طور ان جي آباديءَ جي جوڙجڪ ۾ آيل تبديلين سبب وڌيڪ رهيو آهي. گذريل ڏهاڪن دوران هانگ ڪانگ ۾ ننڍن گهراڻن، بزرگن تي ٻڌل گهراڻن ۽ اڪيلي رهندڙ بزرگ ماڻهن جو تعداد وڌيو آهي. نتيجي طور، ساڳي گڏيل آمدني هاڻي وڌيڪ گهراڻن ۾ ورهائجي وڃي ٿي. ڪوڪ جو خيال آهي ته آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو سماج جي اهڙين بناوتي تبديلين کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

هن حصي ۾ ڏنل آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ (جدول ج) پڻ ڏيکاري ٿي ته هي مسئلو رڳو هانگ ڪانگ تائين محدود ناهي. آمريڪي مردم شماري اداري موجب، 1979ع کان 2010ع تائين آمريڪا جي گهراڻن جي بناوت ۾ نمايان تبديليون آيون، مهانگائيءَ مطابق سڀني آمدني گروهن جي آمدني وڌي، گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ وقت سان گڏ وڌيڪ مٿين آمدني وارن گروهن ڏانهن منتقل ٿي، جڏهن ته ساڳئي عرصي دوران آمدنيءَ وارو جيني اشاريو پڻ وڌيو.&lt;ref name=cbo.p.10&gt;[http://www.cbo.gov/doc.cfm?index=12485 Congressional Budget Office: Trends in the Distribution of Household Income Between 1979 and 2007]. October 2011. see pp. i–x, with definitions on ii–iii&lt;/ref&gt;

=== لمحي واري عدم مساوات بمقابله سڄي زندگيءَ واري عدم مساوات ===

جيني اشاريو آباديءَ جي بناوت ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين جي اثرن کي الڳ ڪري نٿو سگهي.&lt;ref name=Kwok10 /&gt;

زندگيءَ جي پوري عرصي تي ٻڌل ماپن جي اهميت کي نظر ۾ رکندي، جيني اشاريو ڪنهن هڪ مخصوص وقت تي برابريءَ جو رڳو هڪ اندازو (point estimate) پيش ڪري ٿو ۽ وقت سان گڏ آمدنيءَ ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين کي نظرانداز ڪري ٿو.

عام طور تي، جيڪڏهن ڪنهن سماج ۾ نوجوانن يا بزرگ ماڻهن جو تناسب وڌي وڃي، ته جيني اشاريو ظاهري طور وڌيڪ عدم مساوات ڏيکاري سگهي ٿو، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ نوجوان ماڻهن وٽ عام طور گهٽ آمدني ۽ دولت هوندي آهي، جڏهن ته عمر وڌڻ سان اهي وڌنديون آهن.

تنهنڪري، آباديءَ جي عمر جي ورڇ ۽ مختلف آمدني وارن طبقن جي وچ ۾ نقل و حرڪت جهڙا عنصر، آباديءَ جي بناوت جي اثرن کي نظر ۾ رکڻ کان سواءِ، اهڙي عدم مساوات جو تاثر پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا جيڪا حقيقت ۾ موجود نه هجي.

اهڙيءَ طرح، ڪنهن معيشت جو ڪنهن خاص وقت تي جيني اشاريو ٻي معيشت جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ ٿي سگهي ٿو، پر جيڪڏهن ساڳين ماڻهن جي سڄي زندگيءَ جي آمدنيءَ جي بنياد تي جيني اشاريو ڳڻيو وڃي، ته ممڪن آهي ته اها معيشت ٻيءَ کان وڌيڪ برابر ثابت ٿئي، جيتوڻيڪ هڪ مخصوص وقت تي ان جو جيني اشاريو وڌيڪ نظر اچي ٿو.&lt;ref name=blomq81&gt;{{Cite journal |first=N. |last=Blomquist |s2cid=154519005 |year=1981 |title=A comparison of distributions of annual and lifetime income: Sweden around 1970 |journal=Review of Income and Wealth |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1981.tb00227.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== غير نقدي فائدا ۽ جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني ===

جيڪڏهن [[جنس جي صورت ۾ آمدني]] (انڪم ان ڪائينڊ) کي مالي قدر ڏيڻ ۾ درستگي نه هجي، ته اها جيني اشاري جي حقيقي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ واري صلاحيت کي گهٽائي ڇڏي ٿي.

جيتوڻيڪ ٽيڪسن ۽ نقد منتقلي وارين ادائگين جو حساب نسبتاً سولو هوندو آهي، پر حڪومت طرفان فراهم ڪيل ٻيا فائدا، جهڙوڪ رعايتي رهائش، طبي سهولتون ۽ تعليم، جو مالي قدر مقرر ڪرڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ انهن جو قدر انهن جي معيار ۽ فراهم ڪيل سهولتن جي مقدار تي دارومدار رکي ٿو.

آزاد منڊي جي غير موجودگيءَ ۾، اهڙين سهولتن کي گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ جو حصو سمجهي مالي قدر ڏيڻ هڪ موضوعي (سبجيڪٽو) عمل آهي. تنهنڪري جيني اشاري جو نظرياتي ماڊل اهڙن اندازن جي درست يا غلط هجڻ تي ڀاڙي ٿو.

پاڻڀرائي (سبسسٽنس) تي ٻڌل ۽ [[غير رسمي معيشت]]ن ۾، ماڻهن جي آمدنيءَ جو وڏو حصو پئسي بدران ٻين صورتن ۾ هوندو آهي، جهڙوڪ [[پاڻڀري زراعت]] يا [[مال جي بدلي مال]] (بارٽر) ذريعي حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدني. اهڙي آمدني عام طور اڀرندڙ ۽ منتقلي واري معيشتن، خاص طور تي صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا، لاطيني آمريڪا، ايشيا ۽ اوڀر يورپ جي گهٽ آمدني وارن ماڻهن وٽ وڌيڪ هوندي آهي.

غير رسمي معيشت عالمي روزگار جو اڌ کان وڌيڪ حصو فراهم ڪري ٿي، ۽ صحارا کان ڏکڻ آفريڪا جي ڪجهه غريب ملڪن ۾، جتي سرڪاري جيني اشاريا به تمام وڌيڪ آهن، روزگار جو 90 سيڪڙو تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

شنائڊر ۽ سندس ساٿين 2010ع ۾ 162 ملڪن تي ڪيل مطالعي ۾ اندازو لڳايو ته دنيا جي مجموعي [[مجموعي ملڪي پيداوار]] (GDP) جو لڳ ڀڳ 31.2 سيڪڙو، يعني لڳ ڀڳ 20 ٽريلين آمريڪي ڊالر، غير رسمي معيشت مان پيدا ٿئي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Friedrich|last1=Schneider|first2=Andreas|last2=Buehn|first3=Claudio E.|last3=Montenegro|s2cid=56060172|year=2010|title=New Estimates for the Shadow Economies all over the World|journal=International Economic Journal|volume=24|issue=4|pages=443–461|doi=10.1080/10168737.2010.525974|hdl=10986/4929|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ترقي پذير ملڪن ۾، امير شهري آباديءَ کان سواءِ تقريباً سڀني آمدني وارن طبقن لاءِ غير رسمي معيشت آمدنيءَ جو بنيادي ذريعو آهي. ترقي يافته ملڪن ۾ به قومي GDP جو اندازاً 8 سيڪڙو (آمريڪا) کان 27 سيڪڙو (اٽلي) تائين حصو غير رسمي معيشت سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

غير رسمي يا پاڇي واري معيشت مان حاصل ٿيندڙ آمدنيءَ جي صحيح مقدار ۽ ان جي ورڇ جو اندازو لڳائڻ ڏکيو هوندو آهي، جنهن سبب آمدنيءَ جي حقيقي جيني اشاري جو صحيح اندازو لڳائڻ پڻ مشڪل ٿي پوي ٿو.&lt;ref name=mfeld&gt;{{cite web|title=Is income inequality really the problem? (Overview)|first=Martin|last=Feldstein|date=August 1998|publisher=US Federal Reserve|url=http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|access-date=2 August 2012|archive-date=3 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160558/http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=tandw&gt;{{cite book|title=Principles of Microeconomics: Global Financial Crisis Edition|first1=John|last1=Taylor|first2=Akila|last2=Weerapana|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4390-7821-1|pages=416–418|publisher=Cengage Learning}}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهڙي آمدنيءَ بابت مختلف مفروضا ۽ اندازا مختلف جيني اشاريا پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Income Inequality and the Informal Economy in Transition Economies|first1=J. Barkley Jr.|last1=Rosser|first2=Marina V.|last2=Rosser|first3=Ehsan|last3=Ahmed|s2cid=49552052|journal=Journal of Comparative Economics|date=March 2000|volume=28|issue=1|pages=156–171|doi=10.1006/jcec.2000.1645}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Earnings inequality and the informal economy: evidence from Serbia|first1=Gorana|last1=Krstić|first2=Peter|last2=Sanfey|publisher=European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|date=February 2010|url=http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160550/http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf|archive-date=2012-08-03|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite report|title=The Size of the Shadow Economies of 145 Countries all over the World: First Results over the Period 1999 to 2003|first=Friedrich|last=Schneider|date=December 2004|ssrn=636661|hdl=10419/20729}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== متبادل طريقا ==

جيني اشاريي جي حدن کي نظر ۾ رکندي، آباديءَ ۾ ورڇ يا عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ ان سان گڏ يا ان جي متبادل طور ٻيا شمارياتي طريقا پڻ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. مثال طور، **اينٽروپي تي ٻڌل ماپا** (entropy measures) وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندا آهن، جن ۾ [[ٿيئل اشاريو]] (Theil Index) ۽ [[اوسط لاگ انحراف]] (مين لاگ ڊيويئيشن) شامل آهن. اهي ٻئي [[عام ڪيل اينٽروپي اشاريو]] (جنرلائيزڊ اينٽروپي انڊيڪس) جا خاص مثال آهن، يا ساڳئي مفهوم موجب [[ايٽڪنسن اشاريو]] (ايٽڪنسن انڊيڪس) جا پڻ خاص مثال سمجهيا وڃن ٿا.

اورٽيگا جو ٻه-پيماني وارو ماڊل (اورٽيگا ٽو-پيراميٽر ماڊل)&lt;ref name=&quot;ortega,1991&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Ortega | first1=P. | last2=Martín | first2=G. | last3=Fernández | first3=A. | last4=Ladoux | first4=M. | last5=García | first5=A. | title=A New Functional Form for Estimating Lorenz Curves | journal=Review of Income and Wealth | volume=37 | issue=4 | date=1991 | issn=0034-6586 | doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1991.tb00383.x | pages=447–452}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيني اشاريي جهڙن هڪ-پيماني وارن ماڊلن جي ڀيٽ ۾ سماجي نتيجن بابت وڌيڪ تفصيلي اڳڪٿيون ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت رکي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Blesch,2022&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Blesch | first1=Kristin | last2=Hauser | first2=Oliver P. | last3=Jachimowicz | first3=Jon M. | title=Measuring inequality beyond the Gini coefficient may clarify conflicting findings | journal=Nature Human Behaviour | volume=6 | issue=11 | date=2022 | issn=2397-3374 | pmid=36038775 | pmc=7614289 | doi=10.1038/s41562-022-01430-7 | pages=1525–1536}}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهو پڻ معلوم ٿيو آهي ته جيني اشاريو آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ جي وچئين حصي ۾ ٿيندڙ تبديلين لاءِ ضرورت کان وڌيڪ حساس هوندو آهي. ان ڪري، [[وچين آمدني]] (ميڊيئن انڪم) تي ٻڌل طريقا ان جا متبادل طور استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;u376&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last=Gastwirth | first=Joseph L. | title=Is the Gini Index of Inequality Overly Sensitive to Changes in the Middle of the Income Distribution? | journal=Statistics and Public Policy | volume=4 | issue=1 | date=2017 | issn=2330-443X | doi=10.1080/2330443X.2017.1360813 | pages=1–11 | doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ٻين شمارياتي ماپن سان لاڳاپو ==

ٻه-درجا (بائنري) درجابندي ڪندڙ نظام (ڪلاسيفائر سسٽم) جي تشخيصي ڪارڪردگيءَ جو هڪ خلاصي ماپو پڻ **جيني عدد** سڏيو ويندو آهي. ان جي تعريف [[رسيور آپريٽنگ خاصيت]] (ROC) وکر ۽ ان جي قطري ليڪ جي وچ واري ايراضيءَ جي ٻيڻي طور ڪئي ويندي آهي. هي ماپو [[آر او سي وڪڙ هيٺان ايراضي]] (ايريا انڊر دي ڪرو؛ AUC) سان لاڳاپيل آهي، جنهن کي هن مساوات سان ظاهر ڪيو ويندو آهي:

:&lt;math&gt;AUC = (G+1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=hand&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hand |first1=David J. |last2=Till |first2=Robert J. |title=A Simple Generalisation of the Area Under the ROC Curve for Multiple Class Classification Problems |journal=Machine Learning |date=2001 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=171–186 |doi=10.1023/A:1010920819831 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهو [[مان-وِٽني يو آزمائش]] آزمائش سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ٻنهي جيني عددن جي تعريف مخصوص وکرن جي وچ واري ايراضيءَ جي بنياد تي ڪئي ويندي آهي ۽ انهن ۾ ڪجهه هڪجهڙيون خاصيتون موجود آهن، پر شمارياتي ورڇ جي جيني عدد ۽ درجابندي ڪندڙ نظام جي جيني عدد جي وچ ۾ ڪو سڌو ۽ سادو رياضيائي لاڳاپو موجود ناهي.

جيني اشاريو [[پيئٽرا اشاريو]] (Pietra Index) سان پڻ لاڳاپيل آهي. اهي ٻئي شمارياتي ناهمگني (اسٽيٽسٽيڪل ھيٽروجينيئٽي) کي ماپيندا آهن ۽ [[لورينز وکر]] ۽ قطري ليڪ مان اخذ ڪيا ويندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first1=Iddo I.|last1=Eliazar |first2=Igor M.|last2=Sokolov |year=2010 |title=Measuring statistical heterogeneity: The Pietra index|journal=Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications|volume=389|issue=1|pages=117–125|doi=10.1016/j.physa.2009.08.006|bibcode=2010PhyA..389..117E}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Wen-Chung |title=Probabilistic analysis of global performances of diagnostic tests: interpreting the Lorenz curve-based summary measures |journal=Statistics in Medicine |date=28 February 1999 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=455–471 |doi=10.1002/(sici)1097-0258(19990228)18:4&lt;455::aid-sim44&gt;3.0.co;2-a |pmid=10070686 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald1974&quot;/&gt;

ڪجهه شعبن، جهڙوڪ [[ماحوليات]]، ۾ تنوع (ڊائورسٽي) کي ماپڻ لاءِ **الٽو سمپسن اشاريو** (&lt;math&gt;1/\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. ان کي [[سمپسن اشاريو]] (&lt;math&gt;\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) سان نه گڏي ويهڻ گهرجي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Measurement of Species Diversity|first=Robert K.|last=Peet|s2cid=83517584|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=5|year=1974|issue=1|pages=285–307|jstor=2096890|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001441|bibcode=1974AnRES...5..285P }}&lt;/ref&gt;

اهي اشارا جيني اشاريي سان لاڳاپيل آهن. الٽو سمپسن اشاريو تنوع وڌڻ سان وڌندو آهي، جڏهن ته سمپسن اشاريو ۽ جيني اشاريو تنوع وڌڻ سان گهٽجندا آهن. سمپسن اشاري جون قيمتون 0 کان 1 جي وچ ۾ هونديون آهن، جتي 0 وڌ ۾ وڌ تنوع ۽ 1 گهٽ ۾ گهٽ تنوع (يا ناهمگني) کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو. ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ تنوع جا اڪثر اشارا ناهمگني وڌڻ سان وڌندا آهن، تنهنڪري سمپسن اشاري کي اڪثر الٽي سمپسن اشاري يا ان جي متمم (&lt;math&gt;1-\lambda&lt;/math&gt;) ۾ تبديل ڪيو ويندو آهي، جنهن کي **جيني-سمپسن اشاريو** چيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Measurement of Species Diversity|first=Robert K.|last=Peet|s2cid=83517584|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=5|year=1974|issue=1|pages=285–307|jstor=2096890|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001441|bibcode=1974AnRES...5..285P }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[لورينز وکر]] دولت جي ورڇ کي گرافيڪي صورت ۾ ڏيکارڻ جو هڪ ٻيو طريقو آهي. اهو جيني عدد کان نَوَ سال اڳ متعارف ڪرايو ويو هو. جيني عدد ان ڳالهه کي مقداري صورت ۾ ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته لورينز وکر، مڪمل برابريءَ واري ليڪ (جنهن جو [[لاڙو]] 1 هوندو آهي) کان ڪيترو هٽي ٿو.

[[هوور اشاريو]] (ھوور انڊيڪس)، جيڪو **رابن هوڊ اشاريو** (رابن ھوڊ انڊيڪس) جي نالي سان پڻ سڃاتو وڃي ٿو، اهو ٻڌائي ٿو ته ڪل آباديءَ جي آمدنيءَ مان ڪيترو سيڪڙو ٻيهر ورهائڻو پوندو ته جيئن جيني اشاريو 0 (يعني مڪمل برابري) ٿي وڃي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hoover Index |url=https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/economics/hoover-index/ |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=Corporate Finance Institute |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== جديد دور کان اڳ جي سماجن جا جيني اشاريا ==

گذريل ڪجهه ڏهاڪن دوران، محققن ويهين صديءَ کان اڳ وارن سماجن لاءِ جيني اشاريي جو اندازو لڳائڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي آهي. ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ان دور لاءِ گهراڻن جي آمدنيءَ بابت سروي ۽ آمدني ٽيڪس جا انگ اکر موجود نه آهن، تنهنڪري محققن متبادل اشاري (پراڪسي ويريئبلز) استعمال ڪيا آهن.

انهن ۾ وچئين دور جي يورپي شهري رياستن ۾ دولت تي لاڳو ٽيڪس، [[رومي مصر]] ۾ زمين جي ملڪيت جا نمونا، قديم [[يونان]] کان وٺي [[ازٽيڪ]] ميڪسيڪو تائين سماجن ۾ گهرن جي ماپ ۾ فرق، ۽ بابلي سماج ۾ وراثت ۽ ڏاج جا رڪارڊ شامل آهن.
ٻيا ڪجهه انگ اکر دولت يا آمدنيءَ جي ورڇ کي سڌو سنئون ظاهر نٿا ڪن، پر انهن کي عدم مساوات جو عڪس سمجهيو وڃي ٿو، جهڙوڪ ڀاڙي ۽ اجرت جي وچ وارو تناسب، يا محنت ۽ سرمائي جي وچ وارو تناسب.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=[[Walter Scheidel]]|title=The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century|publisher=Princeton University Press|date=2017|isbn=978-0-691-16502-8|pages=15–16}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ٻيا استعمال ==

جيتوڻيڪ جيني اشاريو معاشيات ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، پر نظرياتي طور ان کي سائنس جي هر اهڙي شعبي ۾ لاڳو ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جيڪو ڪنهن ورڇ جو مطالعو ڪري ٿو. مثال طور، [[ماحوليات]] ۾ جيني اشاريي کي [[حياتياتي تنوع]] جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي، جتي نسلن جي گڏيل تناسب کي فردن جي گڏيل تناسب جي مقابلي ۾ ڏيکاريو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=natureArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last1 = Wittebolle | first1 = Lieven | title = Initial community evenness favours functionality under selective stress | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | year = 2009 | volume = 458 | issue = 7238 | pmid = 19270679 | pages = 623–626 | doi = 10.1038/nature07840| display-authors = 2 | last2 = Marzorati | first2 = Massimo | last3 = Balloi | first3 = Annalisa | last4 = Daffonchio | first4 = Daniele | last5 = Heylen | first5 = Kim | last6 = De Vos | first6 = Paul | last7 = Verstraete | first7 = Willy | last8 = Boon | first8 = Nico | bibcode = 2009Natur.458..623W | s2cid = 4419280 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

صحت جي شعبي ۾، ان کي آباديءَ ۾ صحت سان لاڳاپيل [[زندگيءَ جي معيار]] جي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=popHealthArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last=Asada | first=Yukiko | title = Assessment of the health of Americans: the average health-related quality of life and its inequality across individuals and groups | journal = Population Health Metrics | year = 2005 | volume = 3 | pmid=16014174 | article-number = 7 | pmc=1192818 | doi = 10.1186/1478-7954-3-7 | doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

تعليم ۾، ان کي يونيورسٽين جي وچ ۾ عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=MinervaArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last1= Halffman | first1= Willem | last2= Leydesdorff | first2= Loet | title = Is Inequality Among Universities Increasing? Gini Coefficients and the Elusive Rise of Elite Universities | journal = Minerva | year = 2010 | volume = 48 | pmid= 20401157 | issue= 1 | pages = 55–72 | pmc= 2850525 | doi = 10.1007/s11024-010-9141-3| arxiv= 1001.2921 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪيميا ۾، جيني اشاريي کي [[پروٽين ڪائنيز روڪيندڙ|پروٽين ڪائنيز روڪيندڙن]] (پروٽين ڪائنيز انھبيٽرز) جي مختلف ڪائنيزن جي مقابلي ۾ چونڊ کي ظاهر ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=JMedChemArticle&gt;{{cite journal | last = Graczyk | first = Piotr | title = Gini Coefficient: A New Way To Express Selectivity of Kinase Inhibitors against a Family of Kinases | journal = Journal of Medicinal Chemistry | year = 2007 | volume = 50 | issue = 23 | pmid = 17948979 | pages = 5773–5779 | doi = 10.1021/jm070562u}}&lt;/ref&gt;

انجنيئرنگ ۾، ان کي مختلف ٽرئفڪ وهڪرن مان ايندڙ پيڪٽن جي موڪل (پيڪٽ شيڊولنگ) دوران انٽرنيٽ روٽرن جي انصاف پسندي جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=GreedyFairQueueing&gt;{{Cite book |first1=Hongyuan |last1=Shi |first2=Harish |last2=Sethu |contribution=Greedy Fair Queueing: A Goal-Oriented Strategy for Fair Real-Time Packet Scheduling |pages=345–356 |title=Proceedings of the 24th IEEE Real-Time Systems Symposium |publisher=[[IEEE Computer Society]] |isbn=978-0-7695-2044-5 |year=2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[مشين سکيا]] ۾، ان کي مختلف قسمن جي انگن اکرن، جهڙوڪ تصويرن ۽ متن، جي ويڪٽر جڳهن ۾ گهڻ-بمقابله-گهڻ مشابهت کي ماپڻ لاءِ هڪ گڏيل اشاري طور استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي. اهو پڻ ڏيکاريو ويو آهي ته محدود معلومات وارن حالتن ۾ تربيتي نمونن جي چونڊ ۾ هي اشاري مؤثر رهنمائي فراهم ڪري ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | last1 = Fauber | first1 = Ben | title = Gini Coefficient as a Unified Metric for Evaluating Many-versus-Many Similarity in Vector Spaces. | date = 2024 | volume = abs/2411.07983 | arxiv = 2411.07983 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

جيني اشاريو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن [[ڪريڊٽ ريٽنگ]] نظامن جي امتيازي صلاحيت کي ماپڻ لاءِ پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور تي [[ڪريڊٽ خطري]] جي انتظام ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=The Analytics of Risk Model Validation (Quantitative Finance)|editor1-first=George A.|editor1-last=Christodoulakis|editor2-first=Stephen|editor2-last=Satchell|isbn=978-0-7506-8158-2|date=November 2007|publisher=Academic Press}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2004ع ۾، [[جينيفر لوٽز]] هڪ مقالي ۾ جيني اشاريي کي &quot;ڪهڪشاني تصوير جي پکسلن جي روشنيءَ جي قدرن جي نسبتي ورڇ&quot; جي ماپ طور استعمال ڪيو ۽ اهو نتيجو ڪڍيو ته هي [[الٽرا-لومينس انفرا ريڊ ڪهڪشان]]ن (ULIRGs) کي عام ڪهڪشانن کان ڌار ڪرڻ جو هڪ معتبر طريقو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Lotz |first1=Jennifer M. |last2=Primack |first2=Joel |last3=Madau |first3=Piero |date=July 2004 |title=A New Nonparametric Approach to Galaxy Morphological Classification |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004AJ....128..163L/abstract |journal=The Astronomical Journal |language=en |volume=128 |issue=1 |pages=163–182 |doi=10.1086/421849 |issn=0004-6256|arxiv=astro-ph/0311352 |bibcode=2004AJ....128..163L }}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کان پوءِ جيني اشاريو [[ڪهڪشانن جي بناوتي درجابندي]] ۾ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Florian |first1=Michael K. |last2=Li |first2=Nan |last3=Gladders |first3=Michael D. |date=2016-11-30 |title=The Gini Coefficient As a Morphological Measurement of Strongly Lensed Galaxies in the Same Plane |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=832 |issue=2 |pages=168 |doi=10.3847/0004-637X/832/2/168 |doi-access=free|issn=0004-637X|arxiv=1511.03617 |bibcode=2016ApJ...832..168F }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rodriguez-Gomez |first1=Vicente |last2=Lotz |first2=Jennifer |last3=Snyder |first3=Greg |date=January 2022 |title=statmorph: Non-parametric morphological diagnostics of galaxy images |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022ascl.soft01010R/abstract |journal=Astrophysics Source Code Library |language=en |pages=ascl:2201.010 |bibcode=2022ascl.soft01010R }}&lt;/ref&gt;

2005ع جي هڪ مطالعي ۾ آمريڪي مردم شماري جا انگ اکر استعمال ڪري گهرن ۾ ڪمپيوٽر جي ملڪيت جو جائزو ورتو ويو ۽ جيني اشاريي جي ذريعي اڇي فام ۽ آفريقي-آمريڪي آباديءَ جي وچ ۾ ڊجيٽل عدم مساوات ماپي وئي. نتيجن مان ظاهر ٿيو ته مجموعي عدم مساوات گهٽجڻ باوجود، ڪمپيوٽر جي ملڪيت ۾ عدم مساوات اڇي فام گهراڻن ۾ نمايان طور گهٽ هئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chakraborty|first1=J|last2=Bosman|first2=MM|title=Measuring the digital divide in the United States: race, income, and personal computer ownership|journal=Prof Geogr|year=2005|volume=57|issue=3|pages=395–410|doi=10.1111/j.0033-0124.2005.00486.x|bibcode=2005ProfG..57..395C|s2cid=154401826}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2016ع ۾ شايع ٿيل هڪ هم جائزي واري مطالعي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته علاج تي مرڪوز ڊجيٽل صحت جي سماجي نيٽ ورڪن ۾ شرڪت جي عدم مساوات کي ماپڻ لاءِ جيني اشاريو مفيد ۽ درست آهي، پر اڪيلو استعمال ڪرڻ سان اهو نيٽ ورڪ جي مجموعي ماپ کي نظر ۾ نٿو رکي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Mierlo|first1=T|last2=Hyatt|first2=D|last3=Ching|first3=A|title=Employing the Gini coefficient to measure participation inequality in treatment-focused Digital Health Social Networks|journal=Netw Model Anal Health Inform Bioinforma|date=2016|volume=5|issue=32|pages=32|doi=10.1007/s13721-016-0140-7|pmid=27840788|pmc=5082574}}&lt;/ref&gt;

امتيازي صلاحيت مان مراد ڪنهن ڪريڊٽ خطري جي ماڊل جي اها قابليت آهي، جنهن سان اهو قرض واپس نه ڪندڙ ۽ قرض واپس ڪندڙ گراهڪن ۾ فرق ڪري سگهي. مٿين &quot;حساب&quot; واري حصي ۾ ڏنل &lt;math&gt;G_1&lt;/math&gt; وارو فارمولو آخري ماڊل ۽ ان جي انفرادي عنصرن ٻنهي جي امتيازي صلاحيت کي ماپڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿو. اهو آباديءَ جي تشخيصي ماڊلن ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ **درستگيءَ جي نسبت** (ايڪيوريسي ريشو) سان لاڳاپيل آهي.

جيني اشاريو [[آن لائين ملاقاتي ايپليڪيشن|آن لائين ملاقاتي ايپليڪيشنن]] (ڊيٽنگ ايپس) ۾ موجود عدم مساوات جو جائزو وٺڻ لاءِ پڻ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=2015-03-25|title=Tinder Experiments II: Guys, unless you are really hot you are probably better off not wasting your…|url=https://medium.com/@worstonlinedater/tinder-experiments-ii-guys-unless-you-are-really-hot-you-are-probably-better-off-not-wasting-your-2ddf370a6e9a|access-date=2021-04-28|website=Medium|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Kopf|first=Dan|title=These statistics show why it's so hard to be an average man on dating apps|url=https://qz.com/1051462/these-statistics-show-why-its-so-hard-to-be-an-average-man-on-dating-apps/|access-date=2021-04-28|website=Quartz|date=15 August 2017|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪامينسڪي ۽ ڪريوتسوو&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Kaminskiy |first1=M.P.|last2=Krivtsov|first2=V.V.|date=2011|chapter=A Gini-Type Index for Aging/Rejuvenating Objects|title=Mathematical and Statistical Models and Methods in Reliability|location=Birkhäuser Boston|url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9780817649708|publisher=Springer|pages=133–140|isbn=978-0-8176-4970-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيني اشاريي جي تصور کي معاشيات مان [[اعتماديت جو نظريو]] (رلائبلٽي ٿيوري) ڏانهن وڌايو ۽ هڪ جيني-قسم جو اشاريو تجويز ڪيو، جيڪو مرمت نه ٿي سگهندڙ نظامن جي پوڙهائپ، يا مرمت لائق نظامن جي پوڙهائپ ۽ نئين سر بحالي جي درجي کي ماپڻ ۾ مدد ڏئي ٿو.

هي اشاريو −1 کان 1 جي وچ ۾ هوندو آهي ۽ تجربي تي ٻڌل توڙي پيراميٽرڪ عمر جي ورڇن ٻنهي لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ناڪاميءَ جي گهٽجندڙ شرح (ڊڪريزنگ فئليوئر ريٽ) واري ورڇن لاءِ ان جون قيمتون منفي، جڏهن ته ناڪاميءَ جي وڌندڙ شرح (انڪريزنگ فئليوئر ريٽ) واري ورڇن لاءِ مثبت هونديون آهن. صفر جي قيمت [[اُسري عمر جي ورڇ]] (اڪسپوننشل لائيف ڊسٽريبيوشن) يا [[همجنس پواسون نقطي عمل]] (Homogeneous Poisson Point Process) جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿي.

== پڻ ڏسو ==

* [[تنوع جو اشاريو]]
* [[اقتصادي عدم مساوات]]
* [[گريٽ گيٽسبي وکر]]
* [[هرفنڊال-هرشمن اشاريو]]
* [[هوور اشاريو]] (رابن هوڊ اشاريو)
* [[انساني غربت جو اشاريو]]
* [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا ماپا]]
* [[ڪزنٽس وکر]]
* [[آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات موجب ملڪن جي فهرست]]
* [[عدم مساوات سان ترتيب ڏنل انساني ترقي اشاري موجب ملڪن جي فهرست]]
* [[دولت جي عدم مساوات موجب ملڪن جي فهرست]]
* [[آمريڪا جي رياستن جي جيني اشاريي موجب فهرست]]
* [[لورينز وکر]]
* [[ميٿيو اثر]]
* [[پاريٽو ورڇ]]
* [[آر او سي تجزيو]]
* [[سوئٽس اشاريو]]
* [[هاٿي وکر]]
* [[مثالي رياست]]
* [[سماجي ڀلائي]]
* [[سماجي ڀلائي جي معاشيات]]

== حوالا ==

{{Reflist|30em}}

== وڌيڪ مطالعي لاء==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book | last1=Amiel | first1=Y. | last2=Cowell | first2=F.&amp;nbsp;A. | year=1999 | title=Thinking about Inequality | publisher=Cambridge | isbn=978-0-521-46696-7}}
* {{Cite book | first=Sudhir | last=Anand | year=1983 | title=Inequality and Poverty in Malaysia | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=New York | isbn=978-0-19-520153-6}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Brown | first=Malcolm | title=Using Gini-Style Indices to Evaluate the Spatial Patterns of Health Practitioners: Theoretical Considerations and an Application Based on Alberta Data | journal=Social Science &amp; Medicine | year=1994 | volume=38 | pages=1243–1256 | doi=10.1016/0277-9536(94)90189-9 | pmid=8016689 | issue=9}}
* {{Cite book | first=S.&amp;nbsp;R. | last=Chakravarty | year=1990 | title=Ethical Social Index Numbers | publisher=Springer-Verlag | location=New York | isbn=978-0-387-52274-6 }}
* {{Cite book | first=Angus | last=Deaton | year=1997 | title=Analysis of Household Surveys | publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press | location=Baltimore MD | isbn=978-0-585-23787-9 }}
* {{Cite journal | title=Bootstrapping the Gini coefficient of inequality | journal=Ecology | year=1987 | volume=68 | pages=1548–1551 | doi=10.2307/1939238 | jstor=1939238 | issue=5 |last1 = Dixon| first1=Philip M. | last2=Weiner | first2=Jacob  | last3=Mitchell-Olds | first3=Thomas | last4=Woodley | first4=Robert | bibcode=1987Ecol...68.1548D | s2cid=84940050 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Dorfman | first=Robert | title=A Formula for the Gini Coefficient | journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics | year=1979 | volume=61 | pages=146–149 | doi=10.2307/1924845 | jstor=1924845 | issue=1 }}
* {{Cite book | first=Glenn | last=Firebaugh | year=2003 | title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality | publisher=Harvard University Press | location=Cambridge, Massachusetts | isbn=978-0-674-01067-3 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Gastwirth | first=Joseph L. | title=The Estimation of the Lorenz Curve and Gini Index | journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics | year=1972 | volume=54 | pages=306–316 | doi=10.2307/1937992 | jstor=1937992 | issue=3 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Giles | first=David | title=Calculating a Standard Error for the Gini Coefficient: Some Further Results | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2004 | volume=66 | issue=3 | pages=425–433 | doi=10.1111/j.1468-0084.2004.00086.x | url=http://web.uvic.ca/econ/ewp0202.pdf | citeseerx=10.1.1.202.6462 | s2cid=16972099 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040505124219/http://web.uvic.ca/econ/ewp0202.pdf | archive-date=5 May 2004 }}
* {{Cite book | last=Gini | first=Corrado | year=1912 | title=Variabilità e mutabilità | bibcode=1912vamu.book.....G }} Reprinted in {{cite book | title=Memorie di metodologica statistica | editor1-last=Pizetti | editor1-first=E. | editor2-last=Salvemini | editor2-first=T. | location=Rome | publisher=Libreria Eredi Virgilio Veschi | year=1955}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Gini | first=Corrado | title=Measurement of Inequality of Incomes | journal=The Economic Journal | year=1921 | volume=31 | pages=124–126 | doi=10.2307/2223319 | jstor=2223319 | issue=121 | url=https://zenodo.org/record/1449432 }}
* {{cite journal | last=Giorgi | first=Giovanni Maria | year=1990 | title=Bibliographic portrait of the Gini concentration ratio | journal=Metron | volume=48 | pages=183–231 | url=http://econwpa.repec.org/eps/em/papers/0511/0511004.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804055002/http://econwpa.repec.org/eps/em/papers/0511/0511004.pdf | archive-date=4 August 2016 }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Karagiannis | first1=E.  | last2=Kovacevic | first2=M. | title=A Method to Calculate the Jackknife Variance Estimator for the Gini Coefficient | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2000 | volume=62 | pages=119–122 | doi=10.1111/1468-0084.00163}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Mills | first1=Jeffrey A. | last2=Zandvakili | first2=Sourushe | title=Statistical Inference via Bootstrapping for Measures of Inequality | journal=Journal of Applied Econometrics | year=1997 | volume=12 | issue=2 | pages=133–150 | doi=10.1002/(SICI)1099-1255(199703)12:2&lt;133::AID-JAE433&gt;3.0.CO;2-H | jstor=2284908 | url=http://www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/wp136.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718000000/http://www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/wp136.pdf |archive-date=2012-07-18 |url-status=live | citeseerx=10.1.1.172.5003 | hdl=10419/186818 }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Modarres | first1=Reza | last2=Gastwirth | first2=Joseph L. | title=A Cautionary Note on Estimating the Standard Error of the Gini Index of Inequality | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2006 | volume=68 | issue=3 | pages=385–390 | doi=10.1111/j.1468-0084.2006.00167.x| s2cid=122716409 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Morgan | first=James | title=The Anatomy of Income Distribution | journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics | year=1962 | volume=44 | pages=270–283 | doi=10.2307/1926398 | jstor=1926398 | issue=3 | bibcode=1962RvE&amp;S..44..270M }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Ogwang | first=Tomson | title=A Convenient Method of Computing the Gini Index and its Standard Error | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2000 | volume=62 | pages=123–129 | doi=10.1111/1468-0084.00164 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Ogwang | first=Tomson | title=Calculating a Standard Error for the Gini Coefficient: Some Further Results: Reply | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2004 | volume=66 | issue=3 | pages=435–437 | doi=10.1111/j.1468-0084.2004.00087.x| ssrn=565069 | s2cid=122160535 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Kuan |title=How has the Literature on Gini's Index Evolved in the Past 80 Years? |date=January 2004 | url=http://economics.dal.ca/RePEc/dal/wparch/howgini.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060928082244/http://economics.dal.ca/RePEc/dal/wparch/howgini.pdf | access-date=1 June 2006 | archive-date=28 September 2006 |journal=[[Social Science Research Network|SSRN Electronic Journal]] |doi=10.2139/ssrn.423200 |series=Economics Working Paper |at=[[Dalhousie University]]}} The Chinese version of this paper was published as {{cite journal | last=Xu | first=Kuan | title=How Has the Literature on Gini's Index Evolved in the Past 80 Years? | journal = China Economic Quarterly | year=2003 | volume=2 | pages=757–778 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Yitzhaki | first=Shlomo  | title=Calculating Jackknife Variance Estimators for Parameters of the Gini Method | journal=Journal of Business and Economic Statistics | year=1991 | volume=9 | pages=235–239 | doi=10.2307/1391792 | jstor=1391792 | issue=2 }}
{{Refend}}

== خارجي ڳنڍڻا ==
{{Commons category}}
* Deutsche Bundesbank: [https://web.archive.org/web/20081218111312/http://www.bundesbank.de/download/bankenaufsicht/dkp/200503dkp_b.pdf Do banks diversify loan portfolios?], 2005 (on using e.g. the Gini coefficient for risk evaluation of loan portfolios)
* [https://www.forbes.com/forbes/2003/0317/098.html Forbes: In praise of inequality]
* [http://www.theresearchkitchen.com/archives/219 Measuring Software Project Risk With The Gini Coefficient], an application of the Gini coefficient to software
* [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/EXTPA/0,,contentMDK:20238991~menuPK:492138~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:430367,00.html The World Bank: Measuring Inequality]
* [http://utip.gov.utexas.edu/tutorials/theo_basic_ineq_measures.doc Travis Hale, University of Texas Inequality Project:The Theoretical Basics of Popular Inequality Measures], online computation of examples: [http://www.poorcity.richcity.org/calculator/?quantiles=7,*18000|10,*22000|280,*25000|15,*35000|15,*40000|50,*60000|10,*75000|6,*80000|4,*120000|2,*200000|1,1000000 1A], [http://www.poorcity.richcity.org/calculator/?quantiles=12,*15000|25,*20000|1000,*30000|35,*35000|100,*45000|80,*50000|10,*60000|25,*80000|8,*175000|4,*250000|1,5000000 1B]
* [https://image.guardian.co.uk/sys-files/Guardian/documents/2009/03/13/inequality.pdf Article from The Guardian analysing inequality in the UK 1974–2006]
* [https://www.wider.unu.edu/project/wiid-world-income-inequality-database World Income Inequality Database]
* [https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 BBC News: What is the Gini coefficient?]
* [http://www.oecd.org/els/social/inequality/GU Income Distribution and Poverty in OECD Countries]
* [http://inequality.org/unequal-americas-income-distribution/ U.S. Income Distribution: Just How Unequal?]

{{گلوبلائيزيشن}}
{{محرومي جا اشارا}}
{{غربت}}
{{Authority control}}

[[زمرو:اطالوي ايجادون]]
[[زمرو:ارتڪاز جا اشارا]]
[[زمرو:آبادياتي معاشيات]]
[[زمرو:بغير بُعد وارا انگ]]
[[زمرو:سماجي ڀلائي جي معاشيات]]
[[زمرو:1912ع جي معاشي تاريخ]]
[[زمرو:1912ع ۾ متعارف ٿيل شيون]]
[[زمرو:آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا ماپا]]</text>
      <sha1>mbjvlw5w2p3qkwyx8hok2cqexjst43h</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>لاوا (شھر)</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>49323</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399181</id>
      <parentid>397925</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:16:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>399181</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3364" sha1="hl5kwkg2i5wa7ipygon93yupa8b4zzn" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
| name                   = لاوا
| settlement_type        = شھر
| other_name
|image=|right|thumb|         
|coordinate={{Coord|32|69|50|N|71|93|5|E|region:PK|display=title}}
| image_skyline          =
| imagesize              =
| image_caption          = گوگل ارٿ ۾ لاوا جو مقام
| image_map              =
| pushpin_map            =

Punjab Pakistan #Pakistan
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_mapsize        =
| pushpin_map_caption    =پاڪستان ۾ مقام
| subdivision_type       =ملڪ
| subdivision_name       =پاڪستان
| subdivision_type1      = [[پاڪستان جا صوبا|صوبو]]
| subdivision_name1      = [[پنجاب، پاڪستان|پنجاب]]
| subdivision_type2      = [[پاڪستان جا ضلعا|ضلعو]]
| subdivision_name2      = [[چڪوال ضلعو]] 
| subdivision_type3      = 
| subdivision_name3      =
| subdivision_type4      = 
| subdivision_name4      =
| government_footnotes   =
| government_type        =
| leader_title           =
| leader_name            = 
| leader_title1          =
| leader_name1           = 
| established_title      =
| established_date       = 
| area_total_km2         =
| area_metro_km2         =
| population_as_of       =
| population_footnotes   =
| population_note        =
| population_total       =
| population_density_km2 =
| population_urban       =
| population_density_urban_km2   =
| coordinates            = 
| elevation_footnotes    = 
| elevation_m            =
| elevation_ft           =
| timezone               =[[پاڪستان جو معياري وقت ]]
| utc_offset             = +5
| timezone_DST           =
| utc_offset_DST         = 
| postal_code_type       = 
| postal_code            =
| area_code              = 0543
| blank_info             =
| website                = 
| footnotes              = 
}}


[[File:Pakistan_-_Punjab_-_Talagang.png | thumb | 220x124px | right | پنجاب ۾ تلہ گنگ ضلعو]]
'''لاوا''' يا '''لاوہ''': {{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Lawa'''}} پاڪستان جي صوبي پنجاب جي ضلعي [[چڪوال ضلعو|چڪوال]] جو ھڪ شھر ۽ لاوا تحصيل جو صدر مقام آهي.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nrb.gov.pk/lg_election/union.asp?district=6&amp;dn=Chakwal Tehsils &amp; Unions in the District of Chakwal] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080124031142/http://www.nrb.gov.pk/lg_election/union.asp?district=6&amp;dn=Chakwal |date=2008-01-24 }}&lt;/ref&gt; پھرين ھي شھر تلہ گنگ تحصيل جو حصو ھيو بعد ۾ ان کي تحصيل جو درجو ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Location of Lawa - Falling Rain Genomics |url=http://www.fallingrain.com/world/PK/4/Lawa.html |access-date=2019-08-20 |archive-date=2016-03-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303184350/http://www.fallingrain.com/world/PK/4/Lawa.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; ميانوالي ضلعي ۾ واقع نمل ڪاليج ھن شھر کان 15 ڪلوميٽرن جي فاصلي تي واقع آھي. ھن شھر جي آبادي جي اڪثريت اعواڻ برادري سان تعلق رکندڙ آھي. ھن شھر ۾ ھر سال مارچ جي مھيني ۾ جشن نيزہ بازي منعقد ٿيندو آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:تله گنگ ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پنجاب جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>hl5kwkg2i5wa7ipygon93yupa8b4zzn</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399182</id>
      <parentid>399181</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:20:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>399182</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3416" sha1="t7op66yttjwj8jd2yf44unae5unf145" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
| name                   = لاوا
| settlement_type        = شھر
| other_name
|image=|right|thumb|         
|coordinate={{Coord|32|69|50|N|71|93|5|E|region:PK|display=title}}
| image_skyline          =
| imagesize              =
| image_caption          = گوگل ارٿ ۾ لاوا جو مقام
| image_map              =
| pushpin_map            =

Punjab Pakistan #Pakistan
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_mapsize        =
| pushpin_map_caption    =پاڪستان ۾ مقام
| subdivision_type       =ملڪ
| subdivision_name       =پاڪستان
| subdivision_type1      = [[پاڪستان جا صوبا|صوبو]]
| subdivision_name1      = [[پنجاب، پاڪستان|پنجاب]]
| subdivision_type2      = [[پاڪستان جا ضلعا|ضلعو]]
| subdivision_name2      = [[چڪوال ضلعو]] 
| subdivision_type3      = 
| subdivision_name3      =
| subdivision_type4      = 
| subdivision_name4      =
| government_footnotes   =
| government_type        =
| leader_title           =
| leader_name            = 
| leader_title1          =
| leader_name1           = 
| established_title      =
| established_date       = 
| area_total_km2         =
| area_metro_km2         =
| population_as_of       =
| population_footnotes   =
| population_note        =
| population_total       =
| population_density_km2 =
| population_urban       =
| population_density_urban_km2   =
| coordinates            = 
| elevation_footnotes    = 
| elevation_m            =
| elevation_ft           =
| timezone               =[[پاڪستان جو معياري وقت ]]
| utc_offset             = +5
| timezone_DST           =
| utc_offset_DST         = 
| postal_code_type       = 
| postal_code            =
| area_code              = 0543
| blank_info             =
| website                = 
| footnotes              = 
}}


[[File:Pakistan_-_Punjab_-_Talagang.png | thumb | 220x124px | right | پنجاب ۾ تلہ گنگ ضلعو]]
'''لاوا''' يا '''لاوہ''': {{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Lawa'''}} پاڪستان جي صوبي پنجاب جي ضلعي [[چڪوال ضلعو|چڪوال]] جو ھڪ شھر ۽ لاوا تحصيل جو صدر مقام آهي.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nrb.gov.pk/lg_election/union.asp?district=6&amp;dn=Chakwal Tehsils &amp; Unions in the District of Chakwal] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080124031142/http://www.nrb.gov.pk/lg_election/union.asp?district=6&amp;dn=Chakwal |date=2008-01-24 }}&lt;/ref&gt; پھرين ھي شھر تلہ گنگ تحصيل جو حصو ھيو بعد ۾ ان کي تحصيل جو درجو ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Location of Lawa - Falling Rain Genomics |url=http://www.fallingrain.com/world/PK/4/Lawa.html |access-date=2019-08-20 |archive-date=2016-03-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303184350/http://www.fallingrain.com/world/PK/4/Lawa.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; ميانوالي ضلعي ۾ واقع نمل ڪاليج ھن شھر کان 15 ڪلوميٽرن جي فاصلي تي واقع آھي. ھن شھر جي آبادي جي اڪثريت اعواڻ برادري سان تعلق رکندڙ آھي. ھن شھر ۾ ھر سال مارچ جي مھيني ۾ جشن نيزہ بازي منعقد ٿيندو آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Chakwal District}}
[[زمرو:چڪوال ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پنجاب، پاڪستان جا ننڍا شهر]]</text>
      <sha1>t7op66yttjwj8jd2yf44unae5unf145</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399183</id>
      <parentid>399182</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:21:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* حوالا */</comment>
      <origin>399183</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3546" sha1="clkp5mlfmadh2hmwa3kx0buzngyal0m" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
| name                   = لاوا
| settlement_type        = شھر
| other_name
|image=|right|thumb|         
|coordinate={{Coord|32|69|50|N|71|93|5|E|region:PK|display=title}}
| image_skyline          =
| imagesize              =
| image_caption          = گوگل ارٿ ۾ لاوا جو مقام
| image_map              =
| pushpin_map            =

Punjab Pakistan #Pakistan
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_mapsize        =
| pushpin_map_caption    =پاڪستان ۾ مقام
| subdivision_type       =ملڪ
| subdivision_name       =پاڪستان
| subdivision_type1      = [[پاڪستان جا صوبا|صوبو]]
| subdivision_name1      = [[پنجاب، پاڪستان|پنجاب]]
| subdivision_type2      = [[پاڪستان جا ضلعا|ضلعو]]
| subdivision_name2      = [[چڪوال ضلعو]] 
| subdivision_type3      = 
| subdivision_name3      =
| subdivision_type4      = 
| subdivision_name4      =
| government_footnotes   =
| government_type        =
| leader_title           =
| leader_name            = 
| leader_title1          =
| leader_name1           = 
| established_title      =
| established_date       = 
| area_total_km2         =
| area_metro_km2         =
| population_as_of       =
| population_footnotes   =
| population_note        =
| population_total       =
| population_density_km2 =
| population_urban       =
| population_density_urban_km2   =
| coordinates            = 
| elevation_footnotes    = 
| elevation_m            =
| elevation_ft           =
| timezone               =[[پاڪستان جو معياري وقت ]]
| utc_offset             = +5
| timezone_DST           =
| utc_offset_DST         = 
| postal_code_type       = 
| postal_code            =
| area_code              = 0543
| blank_info             =
| website                = 
| footnotes              = 
}}


[[File:Pakistan_-_Punjab_-_Talagang.png | thumb | 220x124px | right | پنجاب ۾ تلہ گنگ ضلعو]]
'''لاوا''' يا '''لاوہ''': {{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Lawa'''}} پاڪستان جي صوبي پنجاب جي ضلعي [[چڪوال ضلعو|چڪوال]] جو ھڪ شھر ۽ لاوا تحصيل جو صدر مقام آهي.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nrb.gov.pk/lg_election/union.asp?district=6&amp;dn=Chakwal Tehsils &amp; Unions in the District of Chakwal] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080124031142/http://www.nrb.gov.pk/lg_election/union.asp?district=6&amp;dn=Chakwal |date=2008-01-24 }}&lt;/ref&gt; پھرين ھي شھر تلہ گنگ تحصيل جو حصو ھيو بعد ۾ ان کي تحصيل جو درجو ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Location of Lawa - Falling Rain Genomics |url=http://www.fallingrain.com/world/PK/4/Lawa.html |access-date=2019-08-20 |archive-date=2016-03-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303184350/http://www.fallingrain.com/world/PK/4/Lawa.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; ميانوالي ضلعي ۾ واقع نمل ڪاليج ھن شھر کان 15 ڪلوميٽرن جي فاصلي تي واقع آھي. ھن شھر جي آبادي جي اڪثريت اعواڻ برادري سان تعلق رکندڙ آھي. ھن شھر ۾ ھر سال مارچ جي مھيني ۾ جشن نيزہ بازي منعقد ٿيندو آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Chakwal District}}
[[زمرو:چڪوال ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پنجاب، پاڪستان جا ننڍا شهر]]
[[زمرو:چڪوال ضلعي جا آباد علائقا]]
[[زمرو:چڪوال ضلعي جون يونين ڪائونسلون]]</text>
      <sha1>clkp5mlfmadh2hmwa3kx0buzngyal0m</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399184</id>
      <parentid>399183</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:23:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added [[Category:پنجاب (پاڪستان) جا آباد مقام]] [[وڪيپيڊيا:ھاٽ ڪيٽ|ھاٽ ڪيت]] جي مدد سان</comment>
      <origin>399184</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3610" sha1="k0chqp44gimnklw2rf4x0t6w2lff8tv" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
| name                   = لاوا
| settlement_type        = شھر
| other_name
|image=|right|thumb|         
|coordinate={{Coord|32|69|50|N|71|93|5|E|region:PK|display=title}}
| image_skyline          =
| imagesize              =
| image_caption          = گوگل ارٿ ۾ لاوا جو مقام
| image_map              =
| pushpin_map            =

Punjab Pakistan #Pakistan
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_mapsize        =
| pushpin_map_caption    =پاڪستان ۾ مقام
| subdivision_type       =ملڪ
| subdivision_name       =پاڪستان
| subdivision_type1      = [[پاڪستان جا صوبا|صوبو]]
| subdivision_name1      = [[پنجاب، پاڪستان|پنجاب]]
| subdivision_type2      = [[پاڪستان جا ضلعا|ضلعو]]
| subdivision_name2      = [[چڪوال ضلعو]] 
| subdivision_type3      = 
| subdivision_name3      =
| subdivision_type4      = 
| subdivision_name4      =
| government_footnotes   =
| government_type        =
| leader_title           =
| leader_name            = 
| leader_title1          =
| leader_name1           = 
| established_title      =
| established_date       = 
| area_total_km2         =
| area_metro_km2         =
| population_as_of       =
| population_footnotes   =
| population_note        =
| population_total       =
| population_density_km2 =
| population_urban       =
| population_density_urban_km2   =
| coordinates            = 
| elevation_footnotes    = 
| elevation_m            =
| elevation_ft           =
| timezone               =[[پاڪستان جو معياري وقت ]]
| utc_offset             = +5
| timezone_DST           =
| utc_offset_DST         = 
| postal_code_type       = 
| postal_code            =
| area_code              = 0543
| blank_info             =
| website                = 
| footnotes              = 
}}


[[File:Pakistan_-_Punjab_-_Talagang.png | thumb | 220x124px | right | پنجاب ۾ تلہ گنگ ضلعو]]
'''لاوا''' يا '''لاوہ''': {{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Lawa'''}} پاڪستان جي صوبي پنجاب جي ضلعي [[چڪوال ضلعو|چڪوال]] جو ھڪ شھر ۽ لاوا تحصيل جو صدر مقام آهي.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nrb.gov.pk/lg_election/union.asp?district=6&amp;dn=Chakwal Tehsils &amp; Unions in the District of Chakwal] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080124031142/http://www.nrb.gov.pk/lg_election/union.asp?district=6&amp;dn=Chakwal |date=2008-01-24 }}&lt;/ref&gt; پھرين ھي شھر تلہ گنگ تحصيل جو حصو ھيو بعد ۾ ان کي تحصيل جو درجو ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Location of Lawa - Falling Rain Genomics |url=http://www.fallingrain.com/world/PK/4/Lawa.html |access-date=2019-08-20 |archive-date=2016-03-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303184350/http://www.fallingrain.com/world/PK/4/Lawa.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; ميانوالي ضلعي ۾ واقع نمل ڪاليج ھن شھر کان 15 ڪلوميٽرن جي فاصلي تي واقع آھي. ھن شھر جي آبادي جي اڪثريت اعواڻ برادري سان تعلق رکندڙ آھي. ھن شھر ۾ ھر سال مارچ جي مھيني ۾ جشن نيزہ بازي منعقد ٿيندو آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Chakwal District}}
[[زمرو:چڪوال ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پنجاب، پاڪستان جا ننڍا شهر]]
[[زمرو:چڪوال ضلعي جا آباد علائقا]]
[[زمرو:چڪوال ضلعي جون يونين ڪائونسلون]]
[[زمرو:پنجاب (پاڪستان) جا آباد مقام]]</text>
      <sha1>k0chqp44gimnklw2rf4x0t6w2lff8tv</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399185</id>
      <parentid>399184</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:24:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added [[Category:پاڪستان جون يونين ڪاؤنسلون]] [[وڪيپيڊيا:ھاٽ ڪيٽ|ھاٽ ڪيت]] جي مدد سان</comment>
      <origin>399185</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3673" sha1="kr7xpmdvntkfcfl4mo65j1n7ourpr9x" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
| name                   = لاوا
| settlement_type        = شھر
| other_name
|image=|right|thumb|         
|coordinate={{Coord|32|69|50|N|71|93|5|E|region:PK|display=title}}
| image_skyline          =
| imagesize              =
| image_caption          = گوگل ارٿ ۾ لاوا جو مقام
| image_map              =
| pushpin_map            =

Punjab Pakistan #Pakistan
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_mapsize        =
| pushpin_map_caption    =پاڪستان ۾ مقام
| subdivision_type       =ملڪ
| subdivision_name       =پاڪستان
| subdivision_type1      = [[پاڪستان جا صوبا|صوبو]]
| subdivision_name1      = [[پنجاب، پاڪستان|پنجاب]]
| subdivision_type2      = [[پاڪستان جا ضلعا|ضلعو]]
| subdivision_name2      = [[چڪوال ضلعو]] 
| subdivision_type3      = 
| subdivision_name3      =
| subdivision_type4      = 
| subdivision_name4      =
| government_footnotes   =
| government_type        =
| leader_title           =
| leader_name            = 
| leader_title1          =
| leader_name1           = 
| established_title      =
| established_date       = 
| area_total_km2         =
| area_metro_km2         =
| population_as_of       =
| population_footnotes   =
| population_note        =
| population_total       =
| population_density_km2 =
| population_urban       =
| population_density_urban_km2   =
| coordinates            = 
| elevation_footnotes    = 
| elevation_m            =
| elevation_ft           =
| timezone               =[[پاڪستان جو معياري وقت ]]
| utc_offset             = +5
| timezone_DST           =
| utc_offset_DST         = 
| postal_code_type       = 
| postal_code            =
| area_code              = 0543
| blank_info             =
| website                = 
| footnotes              = 
}}


[[File:Pakistan_-_Punjab_-_Talagang.png | thumb | 220x124px | right | پنجاب ۾ تلہ گنگ ضلعو]]
'''لاوا''' يا '''لاوہ''': {{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي= ''' Lawa'''}} پاڪستان جي صوبي پنجاب جي ضلعي [[چڪوال ضلعو|چڪوال]] جو ھڪ شھر ۽ لاوا تحصيل جو صدر مقام آهي.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nrb.gov.pk/lg_election/union.asp?district=6&amp;dn=Chakwal Tehsils &amp; Unions in the District of Chakwal] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080124031142/http://www.nrb.gov.pk/lg_election/union.asp?district=6&amp;dn=Chakwal |date=2008-01-24 }}&lt;/ref&gt; پھرين ھي شھر تلہ گنگ تحصيل جو حصو ھيو بعد ۾ ان کي تحصيل جو درجو ڏنو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Location of Lawa - Falling Rain Genomics |url=http://www.fallingrain.com/world/PK/4/Lawa.html |access-date=2019-08-20 |archive-date=2016-03-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303184350/http://www.fallingrain.com/world/PK/4/Lawa.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; ميانوالي ضلعي ۾ واقع نمل ڪاليج ھن شھر کان 15 ڪلوميٽرن جي فاصلي تي واقع آھي. ھن شھر جي آبادي جي اڪثريت اعواڻ برادري سان تعلق رکندڙ آھي. ھن شھر ۾ ھر سال مارچ جي مھيني ۾ جشن نيزہ بازي منعقد ٿيندو آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Chakwal District}}
[[زمرو:چڪوال ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پنجاب، پاڪستان جا ننڍا شهر]]
[[زمرو:چڪوال ضلعي جا آباد علائقا]]
[[زمرو:چڪوال ضلعي جون يونين ڪائونسلون]]
[[زمرو:پنجاب (پاڪستان) جا آباد مقام]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان جون يونين ڪاؤنسلون]]</text>
      <sha1>kr7xpmdvntkfcfl4mo65j1n7ourpr9x</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>وڪيپيڊيا:وڪي منصوبو ڪووڊ-19/موت</title>
    <ns>4</ns>
    <id>58008</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399363</id>
      <parentid>397537</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T07:59:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ListeriaBot</username>
        <id>10240</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Wikidata list updated [V2]</comment>
      <origin>399363</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="531453" sha1="o5e4bgz4t3jyz7zfjaox5987wc0g962" xml:space="preserve">{{WikiProject COVID-19 tabs}}
{{Wikidata list
|sparql=SELECT ?item WHERE { ?item wdt:P509 wd:Q84263196 }
|section=
|sort=P39/Q15124404/P570
|sort_order=desc
|columns=label:مضمون,وضاحت,P27:ڏيھُ,P39/Q15124404/P569:تاريخ پيدائش,P39/Q15124404/P570:تاريخ وفات,P18:فوٽو
|thumb=128
|min_section=2
}}
{| class='wikitable sortable'
! مضمون
! وضاحت
! ڏيھُ
! تاريخ پيدائش
! تاريخ وفات
! فوٽو
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2124|Valéry Giscard d'Estaing]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Valéry Giscard d'Estaing (1975).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q26776|Momčilo Krajišnik]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Momcilo Krajisnik crop.jpeg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q44752|Angelo Sodano]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ويٽيڪن سٽي]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Angelo Cardinal Sodano in 2016 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q45495|Elmar Fischer]]''
| 
| [[آسٽريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q57343|Pierre Nkurunziza]]''
| 
| [[برونڊي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Pierre Nkurunziza - World Economic Forum on Africa 2008.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q57446|Pranab Mukherjee]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Secretary Tim Geithner and Finance Minister Pranab Mukherjee 2010 crop.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q71823|George Bălan]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]&lt;br/&gt;[[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q75019|Aleksandr (Ishein)]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Александр (Ищеин).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q81758|Jan Niemiec]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jan Niemiec.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88876|Klaus Emmerich]]''
| 
| [[آسٽريا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:2014 Klaus Emmerich (14274003686).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92819|Edmund M. Clarke]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Edmund Clarke FLoC 2006.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94333|Michael Laughlin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95926|Wilhelm Knabe]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q713750|West Germany]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Wilhelm Knabe (15782113727).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97616|Dan van Husen]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:DanvanHusenMar2011.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100419|Stefan Lippe]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Stefan Lippe - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting Davos 2010.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107319|Ferdinand Kinsky]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110986|Maggie Mae]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q117141|Marc-André Bédard]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Marc-André Bédard01.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q117439|Ioannis Zizioulas]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:John Zizioulas at IOCS Westcott House.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q117448|Luigi Snozzi]]''
| 
| [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Snozzi 01m.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q118199|Flavio Cotti]]''
| 
| [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dodis-P25146-F4.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q118915|Isao Suzuki]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Isao Suzuki.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q127219|Casimir Oyé-Mba]]''
| 
| [[گيبون]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q132193|Jožef Smej]]''
| 
| [[سلووينیا]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[يوگوسلاويا جي بادشاهت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Smej.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q150851|Colin Powell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Colin Powell official Secretary of State photo.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q152929|Meat Loaf]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Meatloaf 1971 (cropped).JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q173923|Ilija Petković]]''
| 
| [[يوگوسلاويا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سربيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ilija Petković in 2006.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q200015|Vladimir Zhirinovsky]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Vladimir Zhirinovsky - Ldpr.ru (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q202807|Henrique Soares da Costa]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Por Suas Chagas fomos Curados, D. Henrique Soares (Repare, SH Aju - Abril de 2014), cropped.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q204369|Zindzi Mandela]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Zindzi Mandela (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q212990|Kim Ki-duk]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kim Ki-duk at the 69th Venice International Film Festival (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q213793|Phil Spector]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Phil Spector 2000.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q215351|Fidel Ramos]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Fidel Valdez Ramos Official Photo as President of the Philippines (1995).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q226030|Irena Veisaitė]]''
| 
| [[لٿوينيا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Irena Veisaite 2009 2.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q249251|Sándor Puhl]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Plaque of association football referee Sándor Puhl, Eger.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q259722|Yuichiro Hata]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Yūichirō Hata 20190516.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q268961|John Horton Conway]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:John H Conway 2005 (cropped) (2).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q269014|Milkha Singh]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Milkha Singh.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q283351|Selma Gürbüz]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Selma Gürbüz01.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q296724|Mahmoud Jibril]]''
| 
| [[لبيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mahmoud Jibril - World Economic Forum Special Meeting on Economic Growth and Job Creation in the Arab World cropped GNC.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q299161|Javier Marías]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Javier Marías (Feria del Libro de Madrid, 31 de mayo de 2008).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q303293|Aarón Padilla Gutiérrez]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Aarón Padilla Gutiérrez.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| [[عبدالقدیر خان|عبدالقدير خان]]
| 
| ''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Abdul Qadeer Khan.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q310886|Hissène Habré]]''
| 
| [[چاڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:President Hissène Habré of Chad.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q314338|Stanislaw Shushkievich]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[بيلاروس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Šuškievič bchd.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q316413|Ricardo Bofill]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ricardo bofill levi.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q318424|Abel Gabuza]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q319350|Enzo Mari]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Enzo Mari 1974b.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q323501|Adalberto Álvarez]]''
| 
| [[ڪيوبا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q324831|Dick Rutan]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:DickRutan.jpeg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q326508|Matheus Shikongo]]''
| 
| [[نميبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q329644|Giuseppe Ros]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Giuseppe Ros 1973.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q334126|Luis Sepúlveda]]''
| 
| [[چلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Luis Sepúlveda 2014.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q336711|Irinej]]''
| 
| [[سربيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Патриарх Сербский Ириней 2019.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q342045|Đorđe Balašević]]''
| 
| [[سربيا]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q838261|Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:2010-11-03 Balašević Arena Zagreb.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q343378|Wallace Roney]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Wallace Roney Pori Jazz 2012.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q348565|Mile Bogović]]''
| 
| [[ڪروشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bogovic mile biskup.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q349212|Adam Dyczkowski]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Biskup Adam Dyczkowski (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q350075|Jan Nowicki]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jan Nowicki2.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q351732|Sonny Chiba]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sonny Chiba 1961.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q352030|Jiří Menzel]]''
| 
| [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jiří Menzel III (2017).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q353036|Henry Orenstein]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q360348|Toots Hibbert]]''
| 
| [[جميڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Toots Hibbert (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q367017|Kenneth Colley]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kenneth Colley Gen SW 2010 2.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q370560|David Crosby]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:CrosbyDavid1983 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q372086|Leopoldo Luque]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Leopoldo Luque 1978.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q373408|Raymond Cauchetier]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Raymond Cauchetier.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q375290|Robert Hossein]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Robert Hossein Cannes 2018 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q380916|Pierre Buyoya]]''
| 
| [[برونڊي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Pierre Buyoya at Chatham House 2013 crop.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q384616|Petar Fajfrić]]''
| 
| [[سربيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q386235|Dante Crippa]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Juventus FC (1962) - Salvadore, Crippa, Catella, Giordanetti.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q386550|Fausta Morganti]]''
| 
| [[سان مارينو|سان مرينو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q387953|Sadiq al-Mahdi]]''
| 
| [[سوڊان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sadiq AlMahdi 12-06-2015.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q389831|Aga Mikolaj]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q401433|Ahmad Radhi]]''
| 
| [[عراق]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:احمد راضي (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q403471|Muhammad Mustafa Mero]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q146885|Second Syrian Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[شام]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q428966|Muharrem Fejzo]]''
| 
| [[البانيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dede Ahmeti (Baba Madhi).jpeg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q430746|Norman Hunter]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Norman Hunter.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q432274|Robert L. Carroll]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q432916|Zoran Simjanović]]''
| 
| [[سربيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Zoran Simjanovic-mc.rs (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q434588|Gerardo Vera]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q436664|Ben Bova]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ben Bova at Minicon 8(1974).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q436869|Philip Tartaglia]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Philip Tartaglia1 (cropped).png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q442768|Reanna Solomon]]''
| 
| [[نائورو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q443823|Antonio Sabàto]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Antonio Sabàto.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q445829|Manu Dibango]]''
| 
| [[ڪيمرون]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:LesEscales2019ManuDibango 03 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q447509|Hal Willner]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Hal Willner.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q450643|Ernest Vinberg]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:VinbergEB-wiki-1.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q451302|Nur Hassan Hussein]]''
| 
| [[صوماليا|سوماليا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Nur Hassan Hussein.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q452606|Irina Antonova]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Irina Antonova 03-06-2014.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q453393|Lee Konitz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Lee Konitz Bad Mergentheim.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q454927|Kenzō Takada]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kenzo Takada cropped 2 Kenzo Takada 20170310.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q455728|Charles Konan Banny]]''
| 
| [[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Visit by Charles Konan Banny, Ivorian Prime Minister, to the EC 02.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q458290|Barbara Shelley]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Rasputin the Mad Monk (1966) trailer - Barbara Shelley 3.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q459130|Ali Bozer]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ali Bozer (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q460071|Hayko]]''
| 
| [[آرمينيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:ESC 2007 Armenia - Hayko.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q462276|Tahani al-Gebali]]''
| 
| [[مصر]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:تهاني الجبالي - مستشارة مصرية 2014.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q462990|Ion Mihai Pacepa]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ion Mihai Pacepa 1975cr.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q464186|Fatma Girik]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q469523|Samantha Fox]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q470007|Dawn Wells]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dawn Wells Gilligan's Island 1964.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q470463|Amfilohije Radović]]''
| 
| [[مونٽي نيگرو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Amfilohije Radovic-mc.rs (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q481801|Ambrosius of Dorostol]]''
| 
| [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Доростолски митрополит Амвросий.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q487043|Ellis Marsalis Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ellis Marsalis (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q487927|Anatoly Alyabyev]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q491019|Herman Cain]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Herman Cain by Gage Skidmore 4.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q498025|Segismundo Martínez Álvarez]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q499944|João Alves Filho]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:João Alves Filho governador Sergipe.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q508497|Fernando Solanas]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Fernando Solanas, 1985.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q508658|Mauro Bellugi]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mauro Bellugi 1973.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q509775|Kadir Topbaş]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kadir Topbas at 38th Istanbul Vodafone Marathon (2) cropped.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q520296|John Prine]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:John Prine by Ron Baker.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q520761|Florentín Giménez]]''
| 
| [[پيراگوئي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q523020|Peter Sutcliffe]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q525806|Eric Wagner]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Eric Wagner.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q527026|Vincent Malone]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q528421|Nelly Kaplan]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Nelly Kaplan.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q530205|Oscar Cruz]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q532632|Jorge Liberato Urosa Savino]]''
| 
| [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jorge Liberato Urosa Savino.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q536199|Angelo Moreschi]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q540134|Trini Lopez]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Aankomst Trini Lopez op Schiphol voor bijwonen Grand Gala du Disque Aankomst T, Bestanddeelnr 915-6212 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q542162|Johnny Crawford]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Chuck Connors Johnny Crawford The Rifleman 1960.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q546817|José Freire Falcão]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:José Freire Falcão.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q546904|Eusébio Scheid]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q553410|Romell Broom]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q556533|Mauro Aparecido dos Santos]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mauro Aparecido cropped 2.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q558837|Lars Norén]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Lars Norén 2012-10-24 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q567965|Abdul Rehman Malik]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Foreign Secretary in Pakistan (4727720266) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q572992|Anthony Casso]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:AnthonyCassoNJmugshot.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q577242|Alfred Leslie]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q579253|Jaime Murrell]]''
| 
| [[پاناما]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q582727|Uruguay Graffigna]]''
| 
| [[يوراگوائي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q587249|Lee McNeill]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q592160|Antonio Ángel Algora Hernando]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Antonio Ángel Algora Hernando.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q596515|János Kóbor]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kóbor János (Stekovics Gáspár).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q606354|Szilveszter Csollány]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q607219|Franco Marini]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Franco Marini 4.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q609559|Líviusz Gyulai]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Gyulai Líviusz 2.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q610544|Antón García Abril]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q642708|Giulio Giorello]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Giorello4.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q658507|Jan Gałecki]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jan Galecki 1987.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q659494|Boris Chochiev]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڏکڻ اوسيتيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q665951|J. R. Richard]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:JR Richard.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q676051|Corey Yuen]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q679049|Vittorio Gregotti]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Vittorio Gregotti - Festival Economia 2016.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q679377|Joseph Benz]]''
| 
| [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q693875|Arnie Robinson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Arnie Robinson 1972.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q699412|Otto Barić]]''
| 
| [[يوگوسلاويا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڪروشيا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آسٽريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q706629|Marko Radosavljević]]''
| 
| [[سربيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Артемије Радосављевић.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q710123|Arthur Keaveney]]''
| 
| [[جمھوريا آئرلينڊ|ريپبلڪ آف آئرلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q712058|Christian Wiyghan Tumi]]''
| 
| [[ڪيمرون]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Wiyghan Tumi.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q713358|Lewis Wolpert]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Lewis Wolpert.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q715328|Arturo Lona Reyes]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mons. Arturo Lona Reyes en la Parroquia del Espinal Orizaba 2019 02.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q715633|Yevhen Marchuk]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Yevhen Marchuk.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q716656|Alfredo Lim]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Alfredo Lim at Mendiola.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q719759|Henry Grimes]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Henry grimes 01.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q720068|Allen Daviau]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Deyellspielbergdaviau (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q726105|Vladimir Menshov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Владимир Меньшов 2018 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q726615|Alex Kurzem]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q728029|Harold Budd]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Harold Budd (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q729048|Olavo de Carvalho]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Olavo de Carvalho em 2019 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q732062|Ali Mahdi Muhammad]]''
| 
| [[صوماليا|سوماليا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Али Махди Мохамед 08 (2020).png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q732608|Michel Kilo]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]&lt;br/&gt;[[شام]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Michel Kilo.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q740411|Joachim Yhombi-Opango]]''
| 
| [[جمهوريا ڪانگو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q750714|Sandor Zicherman]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Zicherman Sandor Robert.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q758097|Attila Horváth]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q768776|Phyllis Eisenstein]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Phyllis.eisenstein.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q778094|Fred Dean]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q782651|Michel Parisse]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Michel Parisse.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q789843|Ferenc Balázs]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Balázs Fecó fortepan 125621.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q798810|Badal Roy]]''
| 
| [[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q809046|Barry Harris]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Barry Harris 1981.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q809978|Bashkim Fino]]''
| 
| [[البانيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bashkim Fino (2014).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q810460|Bassam Saba]]''
| 
| [[لبنان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q826422|Chris Karrer]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q838648|Diána Igaly]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Igaly Diána 2017 RTG 3213.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q852791|György Bálint]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bálint György.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q862274|Bill Mack]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q888222|Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:King Goodwill Zwelithini.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q889224|John Y. Brown Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:John Y. Brown Jr. (KY).png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q890445|Bogdan Wojtuś]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bogdan Wojtuś.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q893179|Bootsie Barnes]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q893817|Borisav Jović]]''
| 
| [[يوگوسلاويا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Borisav Jović.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q897432|Géza Szőcs]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]&lt;br/&gt;[[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Geza Szőcs (poet) - Transylvanian Hungarian politician.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q904365|Daniel S. Kemp]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q909047|Dorce Gamalama]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dorce Gamalama on Interview Halo Selebriti.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q914201|Tim Brooke-Taylor]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Tim Brooke-Taylor 2014.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q923365|Khosrow Sinai]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q207991|Pahlavi dynasty]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Khosro Sinaei 1 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q927269|Yukhym Zvyahilskyi]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Yukhym Zvyahilsky 2013.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q927918|Stephen Sulyk]]''
| 
| [[يوڪرين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q928356|Miroslav Tuđman]]''
| 
| [[ڪروشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q928446|Reynaert]]''
| 
| [[بيلجيم]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q932204|Allen Garfield]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q932779|Donald Machholz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Donald Machholz.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q943520|Karel Loprais]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Karel Loprais.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q944421|Dmitri Smirnov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[گڏيل بادشاھت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dmitri N Smirnov ©Kompozitor.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q948295|Daviz Simango]]''
| 
| [[موزمبيق]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Daviz Simango.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q957463|Peter M. Neumann]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Peter-Neumann.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q959434|Victoria Kovalchuk]]''
| 
| [[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Wirawika.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q964474|Philippe Nahon]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Philippe Nahon, Porto, 1999.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q965475|John Richardson]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:John Richardson (actor).png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q969048|Yehoshua Kenaz]]''
| 
| [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q970706|Saeb Erekat]]''
| 
| [[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Saeb Erekat December 2014.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q973020|Víctor Víctor]]''
| 
| [[ڊومينيڪن ريپبلڪ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Victor Victor.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q974836|Henryk Hoser]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Henryk Hoser 2009.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q983418|Kamala]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:KamalaWrestler2009Cropped.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q987791|Egbert Mulder]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Scheidsrechter Mulder met gele kaart, Bestanddeelnr 932-4211 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q996436|Dénes Farkasfalvy]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q999960|Jean-Laurent Cochet]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:IMG 20180508 154623 edit1 edit.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1000366|Bucky Pizzarelli]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bucky Pizzarelli (14925973538) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1001162|Buddy Deppenschmidt]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Buddy Deppenschmidt.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1008502|Josep Maria Benet i Jornet]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:BenetiJornet MAE 313002-2.tif|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1029381|Dobby Dobson]]''
| 
| [[جميڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1033478|György Handel]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1040340|Paul Nihill]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Paul Nihill.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1043133|Carlos Pedro Zilli]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1062335|Leonid Potapov]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Potapov in 2004.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1066772|Charley Pride]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Charley-Pride 1981.JPEG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1067412|Lorenzo Sanz]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:LorenzoSanz.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1086279|Christophe]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Festival des Vieilles Charrues 2014 - Christophe - 027.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1088901|Abdullahi Ibrahim]]''
| 
| [[نائيجيريا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Abdullahi Ibrahim (died 24 January 2021).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1089108|Chuck Deardorf]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1093350|Germano Celant]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1106138|Csaba Kelemen]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1124093|Mehrdad Minavand]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mehrdad Minavand 139410121224417216831434.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1133900|Benito Boldi]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1135233|Corrado Olmi]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Corrado Olmi 74.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1139415|André Leon Talley]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Andre Leon Talley at the 2009 Tribeca Film Festival.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1149821|Cástor Oswaldo Azuaje Pérez]]''
| 
| [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1165610|Gábor Maros]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Maros Gábor egy Seress Rezső-emlékkoncerten, a slágerszerző szerepében.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1172509|Giovanni Sacco]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Juventus FC 1967-1968 Giovanni Sacco.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1174220|David Dias Pimentel]]''
| 
| [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1193243|John Houghton]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:John Houghton High Wycombe 20050226.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1196262|Fou Ts'ong]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[جمھوريا چين (1912ء–1949ء)]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Fou Ts'ong 1965b.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1216185|Michel Host]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1218992|Reginald Foster]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Reginald Foster in Arpinum (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1232708|Dmitry Kovtun]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1237349|Jiří Toman]]''
| 
| [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1240022|Donald Kennedy]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Donald Kennedy photo.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1240701|Donato Bilancia]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Donato Bilancia.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1240726|Donato Sabia]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Donato Sabia.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1241220|Juan Francisco Sarasti Jaramillo]]''
| 
| [[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1248209|Harvey Goldstein]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1249194|Juan del Río Martín]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mons. del Rio (30279527124).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1249774|Ivan Klajn]]''
| 
| [[سربيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ivan Klajn.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1250218|Ismael Ivo]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:AW BU TAN 4690-9 1609.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1260657|Aldo Giordano]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Aldo Giordano par Claude Truong-Ngoc juin 2013.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1261293|Tarcísio Meira]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Tarcísio Meira, sem data.tif|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1267921|Igor Zhelezovski]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[بيلاروس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Igor Zjelezovski.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1285622|József Sas]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sas Jozsef 2007.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1287084|Tom Seaver]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Tom Seaver 2011.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1287976|Júlia Sigmond]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]&lt;br/&gt;[[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1291091|Eduardo Mirás]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:EVM.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1295235|Edén Pastora]]''
| 
| [[نڪاراگوا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Edén Pastora en 2020.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1320080|Ken Shimura]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1327911|Elena Pulcini]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1337533|Emilio S. Allué]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1338254|Emmanuel Félémou]]''
| 
| [[گني|گائينا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Emmanuel Félémou.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1340521|Henri Weber]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Henri Weber.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1344922|Yvon Douis]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Yvon Douis (1966).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1349129|Robert Opron]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1355980|Alijan Ibragimov]]''
| 
| [[بيلجيم]]&lt;br/&gt;[[قازقستان|قازڪستان]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1356172|Ernemann Sander]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:ErnemannSANDER.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1360086|Rafael Albrecht]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Rafael Albrecht.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1361912|Viačasław Kiebič]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[بيلاروس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Вячеслав Францевич Кебич.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1362757|Alber Elbaz]]''
| 
| [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1363756|Paul Goma]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q842794|Socialist Republic of Romania]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q203493|Kingdom of Romania]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Placa memorială Paul Goma din s.Mana.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1370390|Alfredo Bosi]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1372228|Marc Ferro]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Historian Marc Ferro.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1373340|Eugenio Scarpellini]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1379110|Tulio Manuel Chirivella Varela]]''
| 
| [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1379351|Eva Maria Pracht]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:EPseoul1988.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1380592|Krzysztof Krawczyk]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Krawczyk 2019.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1381158|Gustavo Peña]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Gustavo Peña.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1381809|Hamed Karoui]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q2017684|French protectorate of Tunisia]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[تيونس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Hamed karoui (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1382152|Joël Robert]]''
| 
| [[بيلجيم]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:MX Spanish GP 250cc 19730408 Joel Robert (cropped).png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1382825|Fausto Gresini]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Fausto Gresini 1992 Japanese GP.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1383590|Patrick Devedjian]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:UMP regional elections IlM 2010-02-18 n04.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1392426|Philaret]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]&lt;br/&gt;[[بيلاروس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mitrapalit Filaret 01.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1393978|Mohamed El Ouafa]]''
| 
| [[مراڪش]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mohamed Louafa (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1398571|Luis Eduardo Aute]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Aute recogida premio.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1401982|Anikó Varsányi]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1402238|Gábor Vass]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Vass Gábor.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1406740|Fernando Mario Chávez Ruvalcaba]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Fernando Chávez Ruvalcaba (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1411944|Jaroslav Mostecký]]''
| 
| [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1423970|Juan Guillermo López Soto]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Monseñor Juan Guillermo López Soto en la Catedral de Cuauhtémoc, Chihuahua.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1426480|Manuel Felguérez]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:EL MAESTRO FELGUEREZ Y SANTIAGO POLVOS..jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1427902|Frank Klötzli]]''
| 
| [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:ETH-BIB-Klötzli, Frank (1934-2020)-Portr 16637.tif|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1433175|Giovanni D’Alise]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1441576|Francis Rapp]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Francis Rapp par Claude Truong-Ngoc février 2014.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1441997|Francisco Haghenbeck]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Haghenbeckfoto.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1442590|Franco Giraldi]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1453045|Armando Manzanero]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bustos de Armando Manzanero (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1475741|Juraj Filas]]''
| 
| [[سلوواڪيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1485817|Tarcísio Padilha]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Tarcísio Padilha.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1509146|Georgi Ananiev]]''
| 
| [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Georgi Ananiev.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1528752|Giuseppi Logan]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Giuseppi Logan 2010.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1531997|Marco Dino Brogi]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1545256|Goyo Benito]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Goyo Benito.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1558046|Atanasije Jevtić]]''
| 
| [[سربيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bishop Atanasije (Jevtić) crop.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1559010|Gérard Mulumba Kalemba]]''
| 
| [[عوامي جمهوريا ڪانگو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1562744|Milutin Knežević]]''
| 
| [[سربيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bishop Milutin (Knežević) photo.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1565285|Predrag Živković Tozovac]]''
| 
| [[سربيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Predrag Zivkovic Tozovac crop.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1565966|Gordon Forbes]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1566335|Terrence McNally]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Terrence McNally.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1576705|Vlastimil Zábranský]]''
| 
| [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1585971|Haroldo Rodas]]''
| 
| [[گواتيمالا|گوئٽي مالا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Haroldo Rodas.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1603952|Helmut Nanz]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1610862|Juventino Kestering]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1625817|James Cross]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1634290|Walter Hooper]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1653757|Moses M. Costa]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1665644|Ryszard Ronczewski]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ryszard Ronczewski.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1667744|Oscar Rizzato]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Oscar Rizzato (cropped, 2).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1680315|James E. Humphreys]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1680463|James Gordon, Baron Gordon of Strathblane]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Official portrait of Lord Gordon of Strathblane crop 2.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1682267|Jan Szarek]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jan Szarek (ur. 1936).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1688700|Marcus Lamb]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1691384|Joe Diffie]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Joe Diffie 10-14-17 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1699253|John Baptist Kaggwa]]''
| 
| [[يوگنڊا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:John Baptist Kaggwa Bischof Uganda Masaka Besuch Pfarrei Hannberg Deutschland 2018 Foto Stefan Reinmann.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1700895|John Lutz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Lutz, John (WGA).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1701415|John Pfahl]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1703488|Vadim Abdrashitov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Вадим Абдрашитов (19-09-2020) (cropped).png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1709139|José Daniel Falla Robles]]''
| 
| [[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1709264|José Isidro Guerrero Macías]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1709475|Suhaila Seddiqi]]''
| 
| [[افغانستان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sohaila sediq.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1709485|José María de la Torre Martín]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1709519|José Murilo de Carvalho]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Josemurilo tvbrasil.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1710489|Juan Giménez]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Juan Giménez, dibuixant de còmic (2006).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1730056|Karl-Josef Neukirchen]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1733939|Rémy Julienne]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Rémy Julienne 2014.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1738072|Keith Nichols]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1738970|Michel Murr]]''
| 
| [[لبنان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1753869|Silas Silvius Njiru]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1770882|Ali Akbar Mohtashamipur]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q207991|Pahlavi dynasty]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ali Akbar Mohtashamipur.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1771679|Vadim Kapranov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1787758|Onésimo Cepeda]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Onésimo Cepeda Silva.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1789955|Carlos Lessa]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Carlos Lessa economist.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1791614|Duda Mendonça]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:DudaMendonca117188.jpeg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1805539|Marc Meneau]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1814289|Martin Ros]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Martin Ros.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1818693|Leo Panitch]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Leo Panitch.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1824877|Cléber Arado]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1850695|Ahmed Patel]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Shri Ahmed Patel.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1860698|Sergei Shmatko]]''
| 
| [[روس]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sergei Shmatko.jpeg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1868688|Mark Blum]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1869884|Khalil el-Moumni]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مراڪش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1872988|Zaccaria Cometti]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1874119|Pierluigi Consonni]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1876296|Luis Adriano Piedrahita Sandoval]]''
| 
| [[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1876339|Luis Armando Bambarén Gastelumendi]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1876397|Luis Feito]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1890518|Aldo Moser]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Aldo Moser 1964.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1893368|Marcelo Angiolo Melani]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1898700|Mario Cecchini]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1903976|Willy Kuijpers]]''
| 
| [[بيلجيم]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1933279|Mike Longo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1937666|Ricardo Brennand]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ricardo Brennand, Armando Monteiro e Jarbas Vasconcelos (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1968297|Soumitra Chatterjee]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Soumitra Chatterjee - Kolkata 2011-05-09 2856.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1973622|Necdet Üruğ]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1975824|Danilo Lim]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:D LIM.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q1985869|Joe Williams]]''
| 
| [[نيوزيلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Joe Williams 7 April 2011.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2016538|José Luis Cruz]]''
| 
| [[هونڊورس|هنڊوراس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2034293|Osman Öcalan]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Osman Öcalan (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2035589|Sven Wollter]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sven Wollter (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2045019|Alexander Vedernikov]]''
| 
| [[روس]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Alexander Vedernikov.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2049688|S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:S. P. Balasubrahmanyam.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2061560|Paul Oscher]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2068950|Guy N. Smith]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2069522|Bart de Vries]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2092123|Harmoko]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Harmoko, The DPR-RI Stance on the Reform Process and the Resignation of President Soeharto, p39.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2093605|Pierre Lacroix]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2147327|Reşit Karabacak]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2154782|Marijke Harberts]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2157518|Robert Hellwarth]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2212292|Ot Louw]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ot louw-1676624202 (cropped).JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2221582|Sanford Clark]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2243275|Dirk Mudge]]''
| 
| [[نميبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2252474|Frits Flinkevleugel]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Frits Flinkevleugel (1965).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2268878|Bob Lazier]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bob-Lazier-SVRA-IMS-2018-1.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2328723|Anto Kovačević]]''
| 
| [[ڪروشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2332562|Tatyana Lolova]]''
| 
| [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Tatyana-Lolova-20101208-cropped.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2343159|Loris Dominissini]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2348185|Renê Weber]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2360635|Anatoly Kvashnin]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kvashnin (2007-05-15).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2369235|Pyotr Mamonov]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Pyotr Mamonov, April 2019-6.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2371573|Milenko Savović]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q37024|Serbia and Montenegro]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[سربيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2376704|Olexander Omelchenko]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Олександр Омельченко.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2378031|Bram van der Vlugt]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bram van der Vlugt (cropped).png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2386112|Marcel Moreau]]''
| 
| [[بيلجيم]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Portrait Moreau brouillons wik.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2394296|Tarek El-Bishry]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مصر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2405235|Marc Wilmore]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2421842|Marco Maciel]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Marco Maciel.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2427354|Gennady Yukhtin]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2434130|Tim Lester]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2439627|Tom Dempsey]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Tom Dempsey 1975.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2441262|Tomás Osvaldo González Morales]]''
| 
| [[چلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Monseñor Tomás González.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2444480|Vlasta Velisavljević]]''
| 
| [[سربيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Vlasta Velisavljević (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2450102|Dave Greenfield]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dave-Greenfield (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2458606|Nadhum Shaker]]''
| 
| [[عراق]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2462506|Ty]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2470863|Porfirio Betancourt]]''
| 
| [[هونڊورس|هنڊوراس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Armando betancourt iu 1981 750.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2484956|Vincent Logan]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2512048|Howard Finkel]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Howard Finkel WrestleMania 28.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2521512|Alfons Verplaetse]]''
| 
| [[بيلجيم]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Fons verplaetse-1602852523.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2524068|Vigolvino Wanderley Mariz]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2524635|Elsa Joubert]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2530501|Nadeem-Shravan]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Shravan Kumar at the special screening of 'Bol Bachchan' 20.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2567189|James Forbes]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2570032|Viktor Zimin]]''
| 
| [[روس]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Viktor Zimin.jpeg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2579054|William H. Gerdts]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2580286|William R. Fey]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2586848|Wittko Francke]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Wittko Francke.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2587259|Vladimir Fortov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Science talk (2016-04-27) 02.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2602273|Yves Ramousse]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mgr Yves Ramousse 2.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2609597|Charles Siebert]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Charles Siebert, 2006 (b&amp;w).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2626298|Vasily Lanovoy]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:LanovoiV2001.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2629787|Yevgeny Shaposhnikov]]''
| 
| [[روس]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Shaposhnikov170.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2640005|Yevgeny Nesterenko]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:EENesterenko.PNG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2640500|Aldo Andretti]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Andretti pre-flight 070713-F-1234N-003 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2655701|Harry Aarts]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Tweede Kamer, CV ontwikkelingssamenwerking, voorzitter Aarts, Bestanddeelnr 933-2539 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2658232|Cristina Calderón]]''
| 
| [[چلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Cristina Calderón (8639878993) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2682651|Claes Borgström]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Claes Borgström 2012-06-05 001.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2705740|Suleiman Mahmoud]]''
| 
| [[لبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2717789|Dzyanis Kowba]]''
| 
| [[بيلاروس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Denis Kovba 2007.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2727991|Luc Versteylen]]''
| 
| [[بيلجيم]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2746785|Claude Goasguen]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Claude Goasguen, gymnase Japy 2008 02 27 n7.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2750504|Linda de Suza]]''
| 
| [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Linda De Suza en 2017.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2756943|Chetan Chauhan]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:The Union Minister for Textiles, Smt. Smriti Irani lighting the lamp at the convocation ceremony of the National Institute of Fashion Technology (NIFT), in New Delhi.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2777120|Hasu Yajnik]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Hasu Yagnik.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2784407|Hans Prade]]''
| 
| [[سورينام]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Hans Prade (1981).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2784436|Hasan al-Lawzi]]''
| 
| [[يمن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2798280|Ing Yoe Tan]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2821111|Abdelkhalek Louzani]]''
| 
| [[مراڪش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2821348|Abdoul Aziz Mbaye]]''
| 
| [[سينيگال]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2824007|Adam Schlesinger]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Adam-Schlesinger-(in-Tinted-Windows).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2830175|Alain Pluchet]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2830569|Alan Pastrana]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Alan Pastrana.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2831441|Alberto Carpani]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2848905|Andréa Guiot]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2850116|Anis al-Naqqash]]''
| 
| [[لبنان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Anis Al-Naqash.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2862088|Armando Romero Manríquez]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2863379|Arnold Sowinski]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2871915|Aurlus Mabélé]]''
| 
| [[جمهوريا ڪانگو]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2886724|Baselios Mar Thoma Paulose II]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Catholicos Patriarch H.H. Baselius MarThoma Paulose II.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2894948|Leib Groner]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ahron Daum Schneerson.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2896274|Meshulam Dovid Soloveitchik]]''
| 
| [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:רבי משולם דוד הלוי סולובייצ'יק.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2898193|Carlos Escudé]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]&lt;br/&gt;[[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Carlos escude.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2907092|Nawaf Massalha]]''
| 
| [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Nawaf Massalha, 1993 Dan Hadani Archive.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2909679|Yehuda Barkan]]''
| 
| [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dan Hadani collection (990044478710205171).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2915906|Teruyuki Okazaki]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Teruyuki Okazaki 2006 07 17.gif|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2915985|Denis MacEoin]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2918270|Alan Merrill]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Alan Merrill 2013.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2919712|Víctor Crisólogo]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2920357|Otar Patsatsia]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[جارجيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2926450|Bruce Myers]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2929679|Béchir Ben Yahmed]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q2017684|French protectorate of Tunisia]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[تيونس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:PortraitBechirBenYahmedAvril1984.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2949959|Lev Shcheglov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2961945|Chedly Ayari]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q2017684|French protectorate of Tunisia]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[تيونس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Chadly ayari.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2964883|Chris Trousdale]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q2977352|Claude Evrard]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Identite-ClaudeEvrard-1974-Sacem.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3002872|Cristina]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3013834|Daniel Cauchy]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Daniel Cauchy.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3015089|Danilo Barozzi]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3032232|Paul Johnson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Paul Johnson 2008.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3032943|Djibril Tamsir Niane]]''
| 
| [[گني|گائينا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سينيگال]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3047247|Eddie Borysewicz]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Eddie &quot;Eddie B&quot; Borysewicz.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3048569|Edward Jay Epstein]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Edward Jay Epstein (32802723452) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3050992|Elijah Moshinsky]]''
| 
| [[آسٽريليا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3051483|Ellinah Wamukoya]]''
| 
| [[اسواتيني|سوازي لينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ellinah Wamukoya.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3054705|Enrique Múgica]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Enrique Múgica en la rueda de prensa posterior al Consejo de Ministros.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3081861|Francisco Hernando Contreras]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Francisco Hernando en Alcalá de Henares.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3084441|Steve Dalkowski]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3093517|Gabi Luncă]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3100743|Genival Lacerda]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Genival Lacerda (2017).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3104996|Ghyslain Tremblay]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ghyslain Tremblay.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3111408|Gosaku Ota]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3121597|Guy Brice Parfait Kolélas]]''
| 
| [[جمهوريا ڪانگو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3121620|Guy Camberabero]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Guy Camberabero (1971).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3121642|Guy Chaty]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Guy-chaty.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3124154|Gérard Mannoni]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Gerard Mannoni.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3124366|Gérard Voulouzan]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Voulouzan.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3126373|Hamdi Benani]]''
| 
| [[الجزائر]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3131533|Henri Madelin]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Henri Madelin-FIG 2002.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3131915|Henri Richelet]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:RicheletAutoportrait.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3132075|Henri Tincq]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3144732|Hélène Châtelain]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3157537|Jacob Desvarieux]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jacob DESVARIEUX 2012.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3158941|Jacques Frémontier]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3159292|Jacques Le Brun]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3159696|Jacques Oudin]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jacques Oudin-IMG 3689.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3159726|Jacques Pellen]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jacques Pellen - Festival de Cornouaille 2018 - 01.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3159913|Jacques Rosny]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3165934|Jean-François Voguet]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jean-François Voguet.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3166986|Jean-Louis Servan-Schreiber]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jean-louis Servan-Schreiber.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3167959|Jean-Michel Boris]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3169816|Jean-Pierre Vincent]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jean-Pierre Vincent - portrait de Fernand Michaud - btv1b10329544j.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3172048|Jean Fontaine]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3173461|Jean Matouk]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3173769|Jean Obeid]]''
| 
| [[لبنان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jean Obeid - 1988.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3173832|Jean Panisse]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3179571|Joan Dougherty]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3180252|Joel M. Reed]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Joel M. Reed at his apartment December 2018.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3180277|Joeli Vidiri]]''
| 
| [[فجي]]&lt;br/&gt;[[نيوزيلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3180917|Ebrahim Amini]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ebrahim Amini in Ministry of Interior 1394.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3187822|Juan de Dios Castro Lozano]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3189161|Julie Bennett]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Julie Bennett.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3191682|Kabran Appiah]]''
| 
| [[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3192352|Kambuzia Partovi]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q207991|Pahlavi dynasty]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kamboziya Partovi.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3216625|Lambert Amon Tanoh]]''
| 
| [[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3219186|Laurent Dona Fologo]]''
| 
| [[آئيوري ڪوسٽ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Fologo1.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3229123|Lehlohonolo Ledwaba]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3265068|Waldir Lucas Pereira]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3265525|Lucien Gourong]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Lucien Gourong.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3265723|Lucien Sève]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3282984|Koos van den Berg]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Koos van den Berg.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3285700|Mangala Samaraweera]]''
| 
| [[سري لنڪا|سريلنڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mangala Samaraweera.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3288102|Marc Hamilton]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3289453|Marcel Uderzo]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Marcel Uderzo - Salon du livre de Paris 2010 bis.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3289573|Marcelle Ranson-Hervé]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3290692|Marguerite Aucouturier]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3297752|Massimo Cuttitta]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:MausCuttitta.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3300367|Maurice Barrier]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3303356|Franciszek Kokot]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3306991|Messaoud Nedjahi]]''
| 
| [[الجزائر]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Messaoud Nedjahi et le groupe Iwal (espoire) 1.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3308616|Mikhail Studenetsky]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3310166|Michel Lelong]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3310736|Michel Robin]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Michel Robin - portrait de Fernand Michaud - btv1b10329519j.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3312928|Miguel Angel Castellini]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Castellini-Perez-Galindez-10DIC1976.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3313368|Mike Huckaby]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3318485|Mohand Cherif Hannachi]]''
| 
| [[الجزائر]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3326196|Moussa Benhamadi]]''
| 
| [[الجزائر]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3339641|Hassan Firouzabadi]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q107258515|Pahlavi Iran]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Hassan Firouzabadi 2019.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3340026|Nicolas Alfonsi]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3348270|Obren Joksimović]]''
| 
| [[سربيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3349343|Tarun Gogoi]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Tarun Gogoi - Kolkata 2013-02-10 4885.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3355833|Adam Alsing]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Adam Alsing 2015-09-17 001.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3356966|Oscar Castro]]''
| 
| [[چلي]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Óscar Castro Ramírez (25966264435) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3362625|Paolo Giordano]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3362634|Paolo Graziosi]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Paolo Graziosi.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3362788|Pape Diouf]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سينيگال]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3379373|Philippe Bodson]]''
| 
| [[بيلجيم]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3380286|Philippe Malaurie]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3386032|Pierre Lumbi Okongo]]''
| 
| [[عوامي جمهوريا ڪانگو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:MONUSCO Headquarters, Kinshasa, RD Congo- president of the G7, Pierre Lumbi. (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3386113|Pierre Marcotte]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Les Tannants Brossard.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3390432|Benito Joanet]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3399496|Justo Jorge Padrón]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3421020|Raymond Lévesque]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Raymond Lévesque, Laurent Gascon, 2011. (50808482641).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3427126|Renée Claude]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Renée Claude.tif|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3430000|Riad Ismat]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q146885|Second Syrian Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[شام]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Riad Ismat.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3433512|Joe Long]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Joe Long musician (1966) (cropped).png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3434303|Tommy DeVito]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Tommy DeVito (musician) (1966) (cropped).png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3434789|Robert Chaudenson]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3435833|Roviros Manthoulis]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3436216|Robert Saint-Cricq]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3443079|Jens Erik Fenstad]]''
| 
| [[ناروي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3453638|Ruth Roberta de Souza]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3471309|Samvel Gasparov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3473390|Sarah Maldoror]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sarah Maldoror.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3479678|Sergio Onofre Jarpa]]''
| 
| [[چلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sergio Onofre Jarpa (1965) cropped.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3491740|Soumaïla Cissé]]''
| 
| [[مالي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Soumaïla Cissé 2013 Portrait.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3498879|Steve Carver]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3513750|Marina Tucaković]]''
| 
| [[سربيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3515979|Tasso Adamopoulos]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Tasso Adamopoulos.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3532513|K. V. Anand]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:KV Anand at MovieBuff First Clap Awards Function (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3533955|Touriya Jabrane]]''
| 
| [[مراڪش]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Touriya Jabrane.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3547896|Ezio Vendrame]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ezio Vendrame.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3551677|Victor Wood]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3569608|Abraham J. Twerski]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Twerski (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3570660|Xavier Dor]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dr Xavier Dor.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3572419|Santiago Lanzuela]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:(Santiago Lanzuela) José María Aznar recibe al presidente de la Diputación General de Aragón. Pool Moncloa. 16 de mayo de 1996 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3575702|Zoltan Sabo]]''
| 
| [[يوگوسلاويا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سربيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3592141|Étienne Draber]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3593648|Óscar Chávez]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Óscar Chávez en el Zócalo 2016 - 6.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| [[وحيدالدين خان|مولانا وحيدالدين]]
| 
| [[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Maulanawahiduddin.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3608395|Alberto Malavasi]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Alberto Malavasi Palermo.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3615732|Andrea Galasso]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Andrea Galasso.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3615807|Andrea Lo Vecchio]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3618360|Ansley Truitt]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3622555|Juan Carlos Copes]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Juan Carlos Copes Día del Tango.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3634905|Raghuvansh Prasad Singh]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Raghuvansh Prasad Singh briefing the press about various achievements of Total Sanitation Campaign highlighting the revised unit cost norms under TSC, in New Delhi on August 22, 2008.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3645774|Bruno Ghedina]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bruno Ghedina 1970.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3645814|Bruno Longhi]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3651544|Camillo Milli]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Amore in 4 dimensioni - Giuffré Milli.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3656048|Leonid Bujor]]''
| 
| [[مالدووا|مولدووا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Leonid Bujor (crop).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3659617|Carlo Meliciani]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Carlo Meliciani.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3659902|Carlo Tognoli]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Carlo Tognoli.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3664107|Cecilia Fusco]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Cecilia Fusco - collezione Tino Barindelli.tif|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3680239|Claudio Sorrentino]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3694250|Corrado Lamberti]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:CorradoLamberti.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3700324|Piotr Machalica]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Piotr Machalica2.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3703087|David Anthony Kraft]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3706229|Detto Mariano]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Detto Mariano.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3731997|Ermes Polli]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3732244|Ernesto Galli]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3732324|Ernesto Ros]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3737689|Fabio Enzo]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3743804|Ferruccio Pisoni]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ferruccio Pisoni daticamera.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3745178|Umbu Landu Paranggi]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3749916|Francesco Di Carlo]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Francesco di carlo.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3750130|Francesco La Rosa]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3751683|Raghunath Mohapatra]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Raghunath Mohapatra.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3753357|Carlos Seco Serrano]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3757094|Gaetano Rampin]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Gaetano Rampin 1.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3758095|Gangchen Tulku Rinpoche]]''
| 
| [[چين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Lama Tulku Gangchen Rimpoche.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3761230|Geronimo Meynier]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Totò, Fabrizi e i giovani d'oggi 05.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3762524|Giampiero Grevi]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3762585|Gian Battista Odone]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3762710|Gian Mario Bravo]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3764085|Gigi Dall'Aglio]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3766838|Giovanni Blandino]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3772436|Gloria Piedimonte]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3788117|Héctor Luis Silva]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Hector silva pumas.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3798974|Innocenzo Donina]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3804395|Italo De Zan]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Italo de Zan 1946.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3810475|José Luis Capón]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3816656|Rodolfo González Rissotto]]''
| 
| [[يوراگوائي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3817497|Kurt Stettler]]''
| 
| [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kurt-stettler.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3829209|Lea Vergine]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Lea Vergine 1974.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3832043|Lidia Menapace]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Lidia Menapace (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3836866|Lorenzo Acquarone]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Lorenzo Acquarone.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3837545|Lou A. Kouvaris]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3838576|Luciano Federici]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3845680|Federico Roncoroni]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Federico Roncoroni 1989.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3845853|Marcio Veloz Maggiolo]]''
| 
| [[ڊومينيڪن ريپبلڪ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:MARCIO vELOZ mAGGIOLO.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3846460|Marco Santagata]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3848217|Marino Quaresimin]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Marino Quaresimin.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3848323|Mario Benedetti]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3849205|Mario Valdemarin]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Nata di marzo 5 (Mario Valdemarin).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3852649|Maurizio Mattei]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3852820|Mauro Favilla]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mauro Favilla datisenato 1987.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3854273|Melo Mafali]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Melo Mafali.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3857269|Miguel Jones]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3858870|Mirko Pavinato]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bologna FC - 1961 Mitropa Cup - Renato Dall'Ara, Mirko Pavinato.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3892458|Ron Johnson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:1985 Nashville Ron Johnson.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3894504|Paolo Taggi]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3903362|Piero Schlesinger]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3905292|Pino Scaccia]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3920003|Roman Viktiuk]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q207272|Second Polish Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Roman Viktuk 2-1 by Alexey Nikishin.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3929115|Raffaele Masto]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3930163|Raoul Casadei]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Raoul Casadei.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3938207|Robert Beck]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Robert Lee Beck 1958.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3938263|Robert Durst]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Robert Alan Durst.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3938637|Roberto Brivio]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3938885|Roberto Lavorenti]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3939577|Rocco Filippini]]''
| 
| [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Rocco Filippini ©Cosimo Filippini 2009.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3941597|Rossana Di Bello]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3956022|Sergio Bassi]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:SergioBassi2.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3956296|Sergio Staino]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sergio Staino - Lucca Comics &amp; Games 2016 02.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3960891|Silvio Lega]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Silvio Lega daticamera.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3972445|Stefano D'Orazio]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Stefano (primo priano).JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3981101|Tarcisio Stramare]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q3993232|Tony Fuochi]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4006322|Urano Navarrini]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4059734|Hakob Hakobyan]]''
| 
| [[آرمينيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4067585|Nikolay Antoshkin]]''
| 
| [[روس]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:2019 Nikolay Antoshkin.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4069097|Gregory Areshian]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آرمينيا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:GEA istanbul.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4072594|Anatoly Afanasyev]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[بيلاروس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4073544|Baloğlan Əşrəfov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آذربائيجان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4074396|Valeriy Babych]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:НДУ 3 Бабич Валерій Георгійович.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4084007|Maurice Berger]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Maurice Berger PR (centré).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4095066|Patricia Bosworth]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4095606|Douglas Bravo]]''
| 
| [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Douglas Bravo 1.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4098970|Sergej Aleksandrovič Bulyga]]''
| 
| [[بيلاروس]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sergey Bulyha.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4100792|Bhakti Charu Swami]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bhakti Charu Swami at Santiago de Compostela.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4104601|Dmitry Vasilyev]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4107168|Beniamin]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4112721|Anatoly Vishnevsky]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Anatoly Vishnevsky.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4114833|Anastasia Voznesenskaya]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4121380|Sol Tolchinsky]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4128446|Alexander Vustin]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Vustin2.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4135231|Vladimir Gendlin]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4148136|Boris Grachevsky]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Boris Grachevskiy 2018.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4152147|Sven Gundlakh]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4152247|Seyfaddin Gurbanov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4162412|Sixto Brillantes]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sixto Brillantes (cropped).png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4167363|Yury Dokhoian]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Yury Dokhoian 2011.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4173011|Eulogius (Smirnov)]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Eulogius (Smirnov).JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4173593|Gurgen Yeghiazaryan]]''
| 
| [[آرمينيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Gurgen Yeghiazaryan 01.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4183618|Yevgeniy Zagorulko]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4195359|Aydin Ibrahimov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آذربائيجان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4197538|Mikhail Ignatyev]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mikhail Ignatyev (2013-10-30).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4219061|Gulnazar Keldi]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[تاجڪستان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Gulnazar Keldi 03.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4219653|Hennadiy Kernes]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Кернес Геннадий.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4221830|Vladimir Kirsanov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Vladimir Kirsanov.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4232862|Vladimir Korenev]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Владимир Коренев 01 (13-04-2019) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4233774|Caesar Korolenko]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Короленко Цезарь Петрович.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4234678|Irina Koryukina]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Корюкина Ирина Петровна.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4236363|Ryszard Kotys]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ryszard Kotys 2009.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4249854|Gennady Kutsev]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4262971|Farida Pasha]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4264242|Viktor Likhonosov]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Viktor Likhonosov.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4264879|Martin Lovett]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:AmadeusQuartet1.gif|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4267240|Vladimir Loskot]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4269192|Anatoly Lukyanov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Anatoly Evgenievich Lukyanov.jpeg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4272534|Lyudmila Lyadova]]''
| 
| [[روس]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Lyudmila Lyadova.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4273958|Arif Musa oğlu Məhərrəmov]]''
| 
| [[آذربائيجان]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4276406|Nikolay Maksyuta]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Nikolay Maksyuta 007.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4281196|Vitaly Margelov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Vitaliy Margelov.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4284352|Ben Masters]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ben masters.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4290811|Viktor Merezhko]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Viktor Merezhko.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4302604|Nicette Bruno]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Nicette Bruno.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4319727|Viktor Nikitin]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4322836|Vyacheslav Novitsky]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4334832|Chylgychy Ondar]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Chylgychy Ondar.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4355718|Maria Piątkowska]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:MariaPiatkowska.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4356594|Scott Erskine]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Scott T. Erskine 2001.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4357649|Raghunandan Lal Bhatia]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:R. L. Bhatia.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4365356|Boris Plotnikov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Борис Плотников 02.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4382246|Tatyana Protsenko]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4404372|Kenzhegaly A. Sagadiyev]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[قازقستان|قازڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4416595|Seraphim (Glushakov)]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4420621|Sergey Sinyakin]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4422543|Anatoly Skripkin]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4442473|Alexander Stefanovich]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4443470|Gennady Strakhov]]''
| 
| [[روس]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4464627|Anatoly Trushkin]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Trushkin.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4468157|Billie Lee Turner]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4477044|Andreï Ouritski]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Andrey Uritsky.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4517602|Marietta Chudakova]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mariehtta Chudakova 2017 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4525695|William Schmidt]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Шмидт В. В.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4525925|Larisa Flamenbaum]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Shoygu Larisa.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4527351|Viktor Shudegov]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Viktor Shudegov.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4528002|Valentin Shurchanov]]''
| 
| [[روس]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Valentin Shurchanov.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4540413|Abd as-Sattar Qasm]]''
| 
| [[اردن]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4662382|Aaron Rubashkin]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4669126|Abraham Palatnik]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Abraham palatnik cni.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4669133|Avrohom Pinter]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Rabbi Avrohom Pinter Z’L.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4681741|Adelaide João]]''
| 
| [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4683852|Adnan Abdallat]]''
| 
| [[اردن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4684841|Adrian Barber]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4687771|Aeneas Chigwedere]]''
| 
| [[زمبابوي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4695942|Ahmed Mumin Warfa]]''
| 
| [[صوماليا|سوماليا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ahmed Mumin Warfa.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4699805|Ajit Singh]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ajit Singh at press conference.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4703486|Al Angrisani]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4710395|Albert Hale]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1783171|Navajo Nation]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4713827|Aldir Blanc]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4720226|Alexander Thynn, 7th Marquess of Bath]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4722019|Alfonso Cortina]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4724658|Ali Ansarian]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ali Ansarian.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4738568|Aly Zaker]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Aly-Zaker.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4746478|Aminu Isa Kontagora]]''
| 
| [[نائيجيريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4757445|Andrew Jack]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Andrew Jack, Dialect Coach.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4760733|Andy Gray]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Andy Gray, Perth born Actor.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4764670|Anil Panachooran]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4765474|Anisuzzaman]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:আনিসুজ্জামান ২০১০.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4768323|Anne Feeney]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4769295|Annie Glenn]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Annie Glenn in 1965.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4770680|Anshuman Singh]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4776555|Antonio Cuenco]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Rep. Antonio V. Cuenco (8th Congress).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4776662|Antonio Giménez-Rico]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4776961|Antonio Sanchez]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Antonio Sanchez Politician 01.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4792170|Arlene Saunders]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4794109|S. I. Padmavati]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Si-padmavati.webp|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4795016|Arnold Demain]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4804549|Ashalata Wabgaonkar]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4808284|Hasan Muratović]]''
| 
| [[يوگوسلاويا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[بوسنيا ۽ ھرزگوينيا|بوسينيا ۽ ھرزگوينيہ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:HasanMuratovic.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4822123|Haydar Baş]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Prof. Dr. Haydar Baş.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4831235|Ayhan Ulubelen]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ayhan Ulubelen during her 60 years.pdf|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4832169|Azam Khan]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4838863|Bachi Singh Rawat]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4841138|Badruddin Shaikh]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4889708|J. Bennett Johnston]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:John Bennett Johnston.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4893517|Bernard P. Randolph]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bernard P Randolph.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4900648|Bhagirathi Majhi]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4900699|Bhagwati Singh]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4900762|Nirmal Singh Khalsa]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Nirmal Singh Khalsa.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4907449|Bikramjeet Kanwarpal]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kanwarpal Bikramjit.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4910396|Bill Olner]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4910565|Bill Pursell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4928876|Frank Mdlalose]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4932376|Bob Enyart]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bob Enyart in radio studio.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4934739|Bobby Ball]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bobby Ball.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4941401|Ingamay Bylund]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4949186|Rosita Sokou]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4960104|Annette Kullenberg]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4966749|Bridget Rowe]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q4977068|Rita Sargsyan]]''
| 
| [[آرمينيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Rita Sargsyan nimg.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5000739|Burt Wilson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Burt Wilson 2008.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5015068|C M Chang]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5026605|Camilla Wicks]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:25806 Camilla Wicks.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5043614|Carmen Vázquez]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Carmen Vasquez.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5057941|Celestino Bonifacio Bacale]]''
| 
| [[ايڪوئٽوريل گني|استوائي جيني]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5067804|Chaim Dov Keller]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5069439|Chaman Lal Gupta]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5071333|Robert M. Laughlin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5071476|Chandrawati]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5082746|Charles Stuart Bowyer]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5103384|Cho Se-hui]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5104483|Abla al-Kahlawi]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مصر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5105543|Chowdhury Kamal Ibne Yusuf]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5112720|Christopher Lee]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5121945|Ciro Pessoa]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ciro Pessoa 2010.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5128707|Claude Beauchamp]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5128778|Claude Crabb]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5162670|Conrado Miranda]]''
| 
| [[ايل سيلويڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5171422|Cornelius Mwalwanda]]''
| 
| [[ملاوي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5172694|Corra Dirksen]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5173979|Cosmas Magaya]]''
| 
| [[زمبابوي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Cosmas-Magaya-Zim2010.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5181398|Craig Ruddy]]''
| 
| [[آسٽريليا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Craig Ruddy.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5181443|Craig Shergold]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5212769|Damodar Barku Shingada]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5213280|Dan Collins]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5213508|Dan Foster]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5219264|Daniele Cioni]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5228272|Dave Bacuzzi]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5231508|David Boe]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5231741|David Bright]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5232007|David Driskell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:David C. Driskell.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5233307|David Egerton]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5234349|David Green]]''
| 
| [[نڪاراگوا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:David Greenwiki 1983.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5237631|David Mixner]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:15.DavidMixner.NEM.Rally.USC.WDC.11October2009 (53581387587) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5239194|David Romero Ellner]]''
| 
| [[هونڊورس|هنڊوراس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5248630|Debu Chaudhuri]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Pandit debu chaudhuri 2014-06-24 10-36.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5253272|Henk Overgoor]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Henk Overgoor.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5273153|Dick Lucas]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5274838|Diego Verdaguer]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Diego Verdaguer en junio de 2016.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5276823|Dilipkumar Mansukhlal Gandhi]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5294991|Donald Perry Polsky]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5295091|Donald Rowe]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dee Rowe.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5300456|Doug Ericksen]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Doug Ericksen in 2021.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5300613|Doug Jones]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Doug Jones Indians.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5304908|Dragan Vučić]]''
| 
| [[اتر مقدونيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5305018|Dragoljub Đuričić]]''
| 
| [[سربيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dragoljub Đuričić.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5336214|Eddie Large]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Eddie Large.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5336223|Eddie Lee Jackson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5350512|Eknath Gaikwad]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5362050|Eliyahu Bakshi-Doron]]''
| 
| [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Eliyahu Bakshi-Doron.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5362067|Eliyantha White]]''
| 
| [[سري لنڪا|سريلنڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dr-eliyantha-white-treats-sachin.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5367651|Elsimar Coutinho]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dr.Elsimar Coutinho.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5379762|Enrique Molina]]''
| 
| [[ڪيوبا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Enrique Molina4 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5386649|Eric Hall]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5435227|Fariborz Raisdana]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5441062|Federico Salas]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5444074|Fereshteh Taerpour]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Fereshteh Taerpour.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5470446|Forrest Compton]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Forrest Compton &quot;The Edge of Night&quot; (1977 ABC press photo).JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5476150|Luisa Molina]]''
| 
| [[بوليويا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5484875|Frank A. Howard]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Frank Howard 1956.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5485058|Frank Arok]]''
| 
| [[آسٽريليا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5493306|Mohammad Shahabuddin]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mohammad shahabuddin.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5495767|Fred Levin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Fred Levin - Pensacola, Florida - 2013.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5496221|Fred Sasakamoose]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5497310|Frederick B. Chary]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5498180|Frederick K. C. Price]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5512123|G. Anand]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5531217|Gene Fraise]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Gene Fraise - Official Portrait - 84th GA.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5531445|Gene Shay]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5531517|Gene Ward Smith]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5534035|Geoff Barnett]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:GeoffBarnett1972.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5540004|George H. Carley]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5542916|George Nock]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5543953|George Robertson]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:GeoRobertson.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5549047|Daniel Velázquez]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Daniel Velázquez (1975).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5549344|Gerald Locklin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5561073|Gilbert Centina]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Authorgilbertluisrcentinaiii.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5562310|Gillian Wise]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5569175|Glenn Wheatley]]''
| 
| [[آسٽريليا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5569181|Erik Belfrage]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5574061|Isael Villa Villa]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5576708|Ramón Martínez]]''
| 
| [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:RAMON MARTINEZ.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5586441|Hassan Brijany]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5596280|Grant Jackson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Grant Jackson Orioles.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5618246|Heherson Alvarez]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Heherson Alvarez.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5628238|H. G. Carrillo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5628624|H. Vasanthakumar]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:H. Vasanthakumar.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5644603|Hamid Jasemian]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q207991|Pahlavi dynasty]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Hamid Jasemian 139209021934598431597814.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5650308|Hans Knudsen]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q756617|Kingdom of Denmark]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5657289|Haribhau Jawale]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5662859|Alberto Canapino]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Alberto Canapino (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5663596|Alberto Szpunberg]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Alberto Szpunberg.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5665087|Alejandro Guzmán Brito]]''
| 
| [[چلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5670811|Harry M. Rosenfeld]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5679000|Riay Tatary]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:(Riay Tatary) El Arzobispado de Valencia y la Comisión Islámica colaboran en la atención de refugiados (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5697713|Antonio Alcántara]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5702560|Helen Jones Woods]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5703827|Helène Aylon]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Helene Aylon (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5710392|Kioumars Derambakhsh]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kioumars Derambakhsh.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5710665|Khosrow Seif]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Khosrow Seif 2006-09-13 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5711988|Aurelio Iragorri Hormaza]]''
| 
| [[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Aurelio Iragorri Hormaza.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5717242|Balfre Vargas Cortéz]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5728387|Henry Slaughter]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5728685|Henry Stephen]]''
| 
| [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5736171|Herbin Hoyos]]''
| 
| [[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Herbin Hoyos ceremony.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5744458|Hershel Shanks]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5749726|Carlos Armando Biebrich]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5750208|Carlos Eduardo Enríquez Maya]]''
| 
| [[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5757661|Csaba Szabó]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Szabó Csaba.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5760952|Hilary Dwyer]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Hilary Dwyer.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5791581|Cristián Cuturrufo]]''
| 
| [[چلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Cristián Cuturrufo - 2247945022 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5798779|Daniel Vélez]]''
| 
| [[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5799587|Darío Vivas]]''
| 
| [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Darío Vivas, Vicepresidente de la Asamblea Legislativa de Venezuela y miembro del Grupo Geopolítico de Latinoamérica y el Caribe (GRULAC), en compañía de José Gavidia, diputado de Venezuela e (8486684250) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5808715|Manuel Dammert]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Manuel Dammert Ego Aguirre.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5830829|Emilia Currás]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5833760|Enrique Rodríguez Galindo]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5836757|Ernesto Contreras]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ernesto Contreras - El Gráfico 1942.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5846421|Rinat Ibragimov]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5848817|Estanislao de Grandes]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Estanislao de Grandes Pascual (13423607215).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5865148|Francisco Aritmendi]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5865636|Ezzatollah Mehravaran]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ezzat-mehravaran.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5879998|Gino Renni]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Gino Renni (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5886305|Esmail Shangaleh]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Esmaeil Shengeleh 3476646.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5888565|Guillermo Galeote Jiménez]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5896244|Hernán Pinto]]''
| 
| [[چلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Hernán Pinto (2009) 2.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5902375|Horacio González]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Horacio gonzález.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5904665|Hugo Stuven Cangas de Onís]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Hugostuven2012.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5906851|Abbas Saffari]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:عباس صفاری.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5908946|Hossam Mohammed Amin]]''
| 
| [[عراق]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5918706|Houshang Seddigh]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Houshang Seddigh-Official photo.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5922098|Howie Pyro]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5922865|Israel Beltrán Montes]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5930117|Jesús Fichamba]]''
| 
| [[ايڪواڊور]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jesús Fichamba.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5932104|Hugh Newell Jacobsen]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Hugh Newell Jacobsen.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5937444|Gunnar Larsson]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5938530|Changiz Jalilvand]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Changiz Jalilvand 13920408.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5939731|José Folgado]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:José Folgado 2015 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5939778|José Francisco Gallardo Rodríguez]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5940793|José Joaquín Puig de la Bellacasa]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5941462|Siamak Atlasi]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Siamak Atlasi (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5942704|José María Calleja]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Presentación del libro ‘Cómo informar sobre violencia machista’.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5943690|Parviz PoorHosseini]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q107258515|Pahlavi Iran]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:1828481-parviz pour hoseini.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5945510|Badr al-Zaman Gharib]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Badrzaman Gharib 139610041445358512884434.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| [[فاطما رهبر]]
| 
| ''[[:d:Q107258515|Pahlavi Iran]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Fatemeh Rahbar.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5950619|Kambiz Derambakhsh]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:کامبیز درمبخش - Kambiz Derambakhsh.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5955737|Hassan Zare Dehnavi]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5966302|Mats Lundegård]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5971996|Lazarus Takawira]]''
| 
| [[زمبابوي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5973562|Stig Malm]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5976814|Sigvard Marjasin]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5979729|Roger Matthews]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5997337|Ildegarda Taffra]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q5999378|Marissa Garrido]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Marisa Garrido 2011 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6001514|Ilya Shtemler]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6009560|Allan Nilsson]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6019655|Olle Nygren]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Olle Nygren.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6026759|Ayla Karaca]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6027175|Indu Jain]]''
| 
| [[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Indu-jain.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6042168|İrfan Gürpınar]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6044824|Norberto Oyarbide]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Norberto Oyarbide.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6051778|Yılmaz Atadeniz]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6055650|Ayten Erman]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6059131|Tuncay Mataracı]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6063093|Haydar Dümen]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6065858|Ülkü Azrak]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6068274|Pedro Bastidas]]''
| 
| [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Pedro Bastidas.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6070306|Iris M. Zavala]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Iris Zavala.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6073889|Luran Ahmeti]]''
| 
| [[اتر مقدونيا]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6074227|Irvin Baxter Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6089269|Aytaç Yalman]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6096528|Iván Izquierdo]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:IvanIzquierdo.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6097742|Rafael Navarro González]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6097749|Burhanettin Uysal]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6104592|J. Anbazhagan]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6105727|René Juárez Cisneros]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Rene Juarez Cisneros 1.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6117269|Jackson Mthembu]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6120010|Sandro Cohen]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6120818|Jacques Puisais]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6120996|Santiago Manuin Valera]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Santiago Manuín Valera.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6122347|Jagdish Singh Rana]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6140367|Yukio Okamoto]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Yukio Okamoto 2002.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6148664|Tomás Vidiella]]''
| 
| [[چلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Tomás Vidiella 2000.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6150166|Jan Waszkiewicz]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6165767|Víctor Valencia de los Santos]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Victorvalenciadelossantos.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6166387|Jay Benedict]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6166776|Jay Johnstone]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jay Johnstone Dodgers.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6169679|Jean-Michel Bokamba-Yangouma]]''
| 
| [[جمهوريا ڪانگو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6182507|Jerold Ottley]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6183301|Jerry Brandt]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6195534|Jim Henderson]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6197321|Jim Pace]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6210297|Joe Hernandez]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6214060|Thorleif Torstensson]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6220532|John Bangsund]]''
| 
| [[آسٽريليا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6240700|Kay Wiestål]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kay Wiestål, IFK Holmsund 1960 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6243015|John Keston]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6244212|John Laws]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Lord Justice Laws 2012.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6246730|Jhon Mario Ramírez]]''
| 
| [[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6248589|John Meyer]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6251147|John Ogilvie]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6267108|Johnny Leeze]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6268369|Johnson Mlambo]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6278435|Jorge Oñate]]''
| 
| [[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jorge Oñate.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6285854|Joseph Nyagah]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6293085|José Maranhão]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:José Maranhão.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6297452|Joyce Davidson]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6300926|Juan Roldán]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Juan Domingo Roldán.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6324079|K. T. Oslin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:K.T. Oslin 1987 Promo.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6324114|K. Thangavel]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6344324|Kabori Sarwar]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sarah Begum Kabori Receives Lifetime Achievement Award National Film Awards Dhaka 2015-04-04 (PID-0060031) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6356800|Kamen Tchanev]]''
| 
| [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kamen Chanev.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6373666|Karuna Shukla]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6388519|Ken Snow]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6389975|Kenneth Church]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6390090|Ken Farnum]]''
| 
| [[جميڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6396195|Kevin Duffy]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kevin Duffy (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6408465|Kim Chernin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kimchernin.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6414812|Kiran Maheshwari]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6416282|Kirunda Kivejinja]]''
| 
| [[يوگنڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6416528|Kishan Rungta]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6419024|Kiyoko Ono]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[جاپان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kiyoko Ono 1964d.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6444091|Kumutha Rahman]]''
| 
| [[ملائيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6445132|Kunwar Bechain]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dr Kunwar Bechain.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6455079|Kōbō Kenichi]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6474309|Lajim Ukin]]''
| 
| [[ملائيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6480359|Lalit Behl]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6480683|Lam Quang Thi]]''
| 
| [[ويٽنام]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:General Lâm Quang Thi.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6490204|Larry Dixon]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6491294|Larry Willoughby]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6517024|Lefteris Hapsiadis]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:LefterisHapsiadisNew.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6520721|Leland Christensen]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6524568|Leon Claire Metz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6550228|Linah Mohohlo]]''
| 
| [[بوٽسوانا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Linah Mohohlo - Closing Plenary- Africa's Next Chapter - World Economic Forum on Africa 2011 crop.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6552990|Lindy McDaniel]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Lindy McDaniel Yankees.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6555796|Hashem Bathaie Golpayegani]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Hashem Bathaie Golpayegani 2160728.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6557470|Rahnaward Zaryab]]''
| 
| [[افغانستان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Rahnaward Zaryab (2016, cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6587520|Yitzchok Scheiner]]''
| 
| [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:הרב יצחק שיינר.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6711768|Lệ Thu]]''
| 
| [[ويٽنام]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Lệ Thu.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6733203|Maharaj Krishan Kaushik]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6733563|Mahaveer Bhagora]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6733859|Mahesh Kumar Kanodia]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6752754|Manuel Morato]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6756606|Marcelo Peralta]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6757838|Marcos Cruz Molina]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6762954|Hassan Abdullah al-Sharafi]]''
| 
| [[يمن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:الشاعر حسن عبدالله الشرفي- من اليمن.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6766164|Marjan Lazovski]]''
| 
| [[اتر مقدونيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6769832|Mark Steiner]]''
| 
| [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6771327|Shamsur Rahman Faruqi]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Shamsur Rahman Farooqi.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6776522|Martin Sandoval]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6778086|Marv Luster]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Marv Luster - Southern Campus 1960.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6781944|María Colombo de Acevedo]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:María Colombo de Acevedo - Diputados.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6791209|Matthew Seligman]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Matthew Seligman, Alexandra Arms, Cambridge, UK (April 2018).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6814633|Abdul Hadi Majali]]''
| 
| [[اردن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6817775|Meor Aziddin Yusof]]''
| 
| [[ملائيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6830619|Michael Gilkes]]''
| 
| [[گيانا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6831484|David Refael ben Ami]]''
| 
| [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:דדי בן עמי 1.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6832740|Michael McKinnell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6834517|Michael Sorkin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Michael Sorkin.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6835123|Elias Rahbani]]''
| 
| [[لبنان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Elias Rahbani.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6844641|Miguel Lifschitz]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Miguel Lifschitz en conferencia.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6845046|Mihai Cotorobai]]''
| 
| [[مالدووا|مولدووا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6851247|Milena Jelinek]]''
| 
| [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Milena Jelinek on Cinema Then, Cinema Now (1986).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6853968|Muhammad Tariq Al-Khadra]]''
| 
| [[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6885751|Mluleki George]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6893246|Mohammed Nasim]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mohammed Nasim in New Delhi on April 13, 2016.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6893292|Mohammed Sabila]]''
| 
| [[مراڪش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6909686|Mordechai Yissachar Ber Leifer]]''
| 
| [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mordechai Yissachar Ber Leifer.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6917707|Motilal Vora]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Motilal Vora.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6939760|Murtoza Bashir]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mortaza Bashir.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6944629|Mwalimu Masudi Mwahima]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6947701|Itzhak Ilan]]''
| 
| [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:יצחק אילן.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6957551|Nader Dastneshan]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Nader Dastneshan.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6963057|Nancy Walker Bush]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6963293|Nandi Yellaiah]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6965785|Narendra Kohli]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Narendra Kohli (Dec. 2008).JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6965830|Naresh Kanodia]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6980389|Natty Hollmann]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q6986729|Neela Satyanarayanan]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7000421|Omar Pirrera]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Omar-Maria.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7035671|Nikola Spasov]]''
| 
| [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Nikola spasov.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7044225|Itzhak Jacky Edry]]''
| 
| [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:גקי אדרי.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7045291|Noach Dear]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7046976|Noel Guzmán Boffil Rojas]]''
| 
| [[ڪيوبا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Noel Guzmán Boffil Rojas.jpeg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7063903|Noureddine Saâdi]]''
| 
| [[الجزائر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7070307|Nurul Islam Babul]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Nurul Islam Babul, Jamuna Group.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7085856|Olle Holmquist]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7106297|Oscar W. McConkie, Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7121484|Paatje Phefferkorn]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Paatje Phefferkorn.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7143415|Pat Dye]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Pat Dye on His Homestead Before Christmas.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7151698|Paul Karslake]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7154144|Paul Varelans]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7155119|Paulinho Paiakan]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7167845|Perence Shiri]]''
| 
| [[زمبابوي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7173124|Peter C. Clapman]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7173657|Peter DiFronzo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:DiFronzo Pete.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7173914|Peter F. Secchia]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Peter F. Secchia &amp; Gerald Ford.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7174885|Peter J. N. Sinclair]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7174966|Peter Jenkins]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7177692|Peter Whiteside]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7181551|Phi Nhung]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ويٽنام]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Phi Nhung (cropped).png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7182506|Phil Valentine]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Phil Valentine in 2019.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7184198|Philip Paul]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Philip Paul at The Cincinnatian Hotel in Cincinnati, Ohio, USA.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7184510|Philip Voss]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7193787|Pilar Pellicer]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Pilar Pellicer in the 1960s (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7225858|Pollycarpus Priyanto]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7228895|Poovachal Khader]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Poovachal-Khader.jpg.image.845.440.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7262061|Kakhi Kavsadze]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[جارجيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kakhi Kavsadze in R. Harwood's &quot;Quartet&quot; 2003.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7277337|Aleksandr Dubyansky]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dubyansky1.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7279488|Rachhpal Singh]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7282307|Rafael Roncagliolo]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Rafael roncagliolo.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7283319|Rahat Indori]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Rahat Saab At Ahmedabad.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7287844|Ralph McGehee]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7292463|Randy Tate]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Randy Tate Mets.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7294844|Rasheed Masood]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7295860|Ratnakar Matkari]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:A still of Shri Ratnakar Ramakrishna Matkari Rest.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7302790|Abdul Ghani Gilong]]''
| 
| [[ملائيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7322819|Ricardo Silva Elizondo]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ricardo Silva en 2014.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7324359|Richard L. Brodsky]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7325646|Richard Fenno]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7331216|Rick Baldwin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Rick Baldwin 1978.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7333210|Rifat Chadirji]]''
| 
| [[عراق]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Rifaat-jaderji.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7347307|Robert Mandell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Robert Mandell American Conductor.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7352565|Robin Jackman]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7364094|Ron Lurie]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7369214|Ross Browner]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7373072|Roy Lester]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Roy Lester 1969.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7373430|Roy Torrens]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7395978|Sabbam Hari]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7399497|Sahara Khatun]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ms. Sahara Khatun in New Delhi on 24 February 2012.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7403307|Sal Rocca]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sal Rocca.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7404974|Salleh Abas]]''
| 
| [[ملائيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7406368|Shivajirao Patil Nilangekar]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7407423|Sam Domoni]]''
| 
| [[فجي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:PNC2010 (40).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7408775|Samar Banerjee]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Samar Badru Banerjee.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7423706|Sardar Muhammad Aslam]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7423826|Sardool Sikander]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7426286|Satish Kaul]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7426298|Satish Prasad Singh]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7438419|Siti Sarah]]''
| 
| [[ملائيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7442806|Sebouh Chouldjian]]''
| 
| [[آرمينيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:BishopSebouh.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7446652|Seif Sharif Hamad]]''
| 
| [[تنزانيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Seif Sharif Hamad.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7461426|Shahadat Hossain Khan]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7462294|Shahrum Kashani]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Shahrum Kashani.webp|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7488743|Shankha Ghosh]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sankha Ghosh - Kolkata 2011-05-09 2833.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7505951|Shyama Charan Gupta]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7508832|Sidik Mia]]''
| 
| [[ملاوي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sidik Mia 2010 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7518233|Simon Barrington-Ward]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Simon Barrington-Ward 2011.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7557756|Soli Sorabjee]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Soli Sorabjee lecture (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7562042|Sonny Fox]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sonny-fox.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7599168|Stanisław Kogut]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Stanisław Kogut Kancelaria Senatu.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7609172|Stephen F. Williams]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Stephen Fain Williams.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7612166|Steve Carter]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7612907|Steve Ingle]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7613158|Steve Lightle]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| [[اسٽيو ولھائيٽ]]
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7635072|Sugathakumari]]''
| 
| [[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sugathakumari.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7635151|Sugrib Singh]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7635912|Sukumar Hansda]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7645674|Surendra Prakash Goyal]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7645718|Suresh Angadi]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ambigara chouwdayya jayanti procession mp suresh angadi.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| [[سید منور حسن]]
| 
| [[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7660970|Sylvia Murphy]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7666107|Sérgio Sant'Anna]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Feira de Frankfurt 2013 (10276676994).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7679487|Talib Jauhari 1929-2020]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7804179|Tim Robinson]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Tim Robinson photo by John Drever.jpeg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7814981|Tom Blackwell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7816000|Tom Green]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7816917|Tom Moody]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7822149|Tony Curcillo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Football player Tony Curcillo, no. 99 Le joueur de football Tony Curcillo, no 99.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7822625|Tony Ingle]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7824296|Tootie Robbins]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7827796|Toshiro Kandagawa]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Toshiro Kandagawa famous Japanese Cook 2013.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7916745|Vasilis Botinos]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7924918|Vic Stelly]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Vic Stelly (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7931761|Vincent Di Maio]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7932723|Vinod Dua]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Vinod Dua.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7938377|Vladimir Ivanov]]''
| 
| [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7945731|W. J. M. Lokubandara]]''
| 
| [[سري لنڪا|سريلنڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:WJM Lokubandara.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7966917|Wambali Mkandawire]]''
| 
| [[ملاوي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Wambali Mkandawire in 2019.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q7970391|Warren Mitchell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Warren Mitchell basketball.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q8003575|Willem Konjore]]''
| 
| [[نميبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q8009341|William Frankland]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dr Bill Frankland.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q8018795|William Stern]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]&lt;br/&gt;[[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q8040173|Wynn Handman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Wynn Handman Studio photo.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q8046301|Yaakov Perlow]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:הרב מנובומינסק.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q8053832|Yisa Sofoluwe]]''
| 
| [[نائيجيريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q8059945|Yu Lihua]]''
| 
| [[جمھوريا چين (1912ء–1949ء)]]&lt;br/&gt;[[تائيوان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q8061948|Yusuf Grillo]]''
| 
| [[نائيجيريا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Yusuf Grillo, 'Yoruba Bride'.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q8066134|Zanele kaMagwaza-Msibi]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Zanele KaMagwaza Msibi (NFP President).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q8201895|Antonio Álvarez Solís]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Antonio Alvarez Solis 2012an.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q8353446|Daisy Lúcidi]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Daisy Lucidi cropped.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9012220|Joaquín Carbonell]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Joaquín Carbonell cantando en el acto de recogida medalla de oro de los amantes CITT Teruel 2020 -primer plano (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9012935|Jorge Trías Sagnier]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9015433|Juan Cotino]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Juan Cotino.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9025128|Luis Ibero]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9026939|Maguito Vilela]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:ELEIÇÕES- MAGUITO VILELA FALA SOBRE PLANO DE GOVERNO.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9055167|Papaléo Paes]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Papaléo Paes em 2015.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9066796|Raymundo Capetilo]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Raymundo Capetillo (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9139800|Adam Kopczyński]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9147802|Alfred Rzegocki]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9152862|Andrzej Maryniarczyk]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9179979|Bronisława Kowalska]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bronisława Kowalska w swoim biurze poselskim 1997.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9200218|Célio Taveira Filho]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9202000|Dariusz Gnatowski]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dariusz Gnatowski 2011.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9250881|Edward Gnat]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9319012|Yaghoub Zoroofchi]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آذربائيجان]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9324836|Ryszard Miazek]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9341835|Stanisław Dulias]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9375799|Witold Paszt]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Witold paszt.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9376370|Wojciech Borowik]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9388447|Zbigniew Zysk]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9621049|Antônio Bivar]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Antonio Bivar (Antônio Bivar) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9630040|Arolde de Oliveira]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Arolde de Oliveira em abril de 2016.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9631197|Artenir Werner]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9674168|Calane da Silva]]''
| 
| [[موزمبيق]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9697014|Carlos Eduardo Cadoca]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q9697147|Carlos José Ramos dos Santos]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10263911|Daniel Azulay]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Lançamento da cartilha do artista Daniel Azulay “Juntos, dizemos não ao crack e outras drogas”.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10267669|Djalma Bastos de Morais]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Placa Correio (Altos).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10270686|Eduardo Galvão]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Eduardo Galvão cropped.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10278098|Euclides Scalco]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Aécio Neves - Caminhada em Curitiba - 02 08 2014 (14625368348).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10278404|Evaldo Gouveia]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:00 evaldo gouvea bsb.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10280059|Farid Abrahão David]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Neguinho da Beija-Flor and Farid Abrahão David.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10285766|Frederico Campos]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Frederico Campos.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10286851|Fábio Campana]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10287856|Gabriel Donato de Andrade]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10289133|Gerardo Juraci Campelo Leite]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10293304|Gésio Amadeu]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10293637|Hamilton Carvalhido]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Hamilton carvalhido.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10293964|Haroldo Lima]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Haroldo Lima ANP.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10294485|Helenês Cândido]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Crédito Obrigatório-Carlos Costa da ALEGO.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10294895|Henrique do Rego Almeida]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10303554|Irani Barbosa]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Iranibarbosa.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10304355|Ivair Nogueira do Pinho]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10306865|Jesús Martín-Barbero]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jesús Martín Barbero &amp; Manuel Ángel Vázquez Medel (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10306940|Jimy Raw]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10308683|José Adauto Bezerra]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Adauto Bezerra.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10310137|José Mentor]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mentor141122.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10310270|José Paulo de Andrade]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10312042|João Peixoto]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dom João Câncio Peixoto.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10320776|Luiz Humberto Carneiro]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10321916|Irmão Lázaro]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Cantor evangélico Lazáro.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10321989|Líber Gadelha]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10325015|Marcelino da Mata]]''
| 
| [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Marcelino da Mata.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10325178|Marcelo Veiga]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Marcelo Veiga (2019).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10326164|Maria de Sousa]]''
| 
| [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Maria de Sousa.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10326942|Martinho Lutero Galati]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Luther kingw.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10336064|Nelson Bornier]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Nelson Bornier 2016.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10336108|Nelson Proença]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10336785|Nicolau dos Santos Neto]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10340557|Olga Savary]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10341534|Orlando Duarte]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10346369|Paulinho]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Paulinho.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10346618|Paulo Gustavo]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Paulo Gustavo em novembro de 2019 no Humor Multishow (cropped).png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10346700|Paulo Medina]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:João Paulo Medina, presidente do conselho e fundador da Universidade do Futebol.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10346832|Paulo Stein]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10347522|Pedro Ivo Ferreira Caminhas]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10349697|Pietro Mário]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10358966|Reinaldo Rayol]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10359396|Renato de Jesus]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10361058|Ricardo Akinobu Yamauti]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10361074|Ricardo Archer]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10363213|Robert de Almendra Freitas]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10363935|Rodrigo Rodrigues]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10364607|Roseli Machado]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10365459|Ruy Scarpino]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10370805|Severiano Mário Porto]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10371761|Simão Sessim]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Simão Sessim em novembro de 2017.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10390246|Vicente Fialho]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10393782|Wilson Braga]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10395021|Zenóbio Toscano]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10515493|Ian Palmer]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10554334|John Rowlands]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10857537|Zdeněk Hoření]]''
| 
| [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Horení foto z pohrbu (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10920570|Zhou Qingjun]]''
| 
| [[جمھوريا چين (1912ء–1949ء)]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[تائيوان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:周慶峻.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10951750|Sunnam Rajaiah]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10964510|Myoma Myint Kywe]]''
| 
| [[ميانمار]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Myoma Myint Kywe.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q10999909|Dalal Abdel Aziz]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مصر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11101097|Yang Xiaobo]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11154007|Ragaa Al Geddawy]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مصر]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ragaa El Geddawy 1960s.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11299490|Gurbanmuhammet Kasymow]]''
| 
| [[ترڪمانستان]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11417946|Shū Wada]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11423265|Takashi Tsuchiya]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11437791|Fujio Ōmaki]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11451301|Sanechika Andō]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11460203|Hideo Kojima]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11467981|Tsutomu Yamazaki]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Yamazaki Tsutomu (Parliamentary Secretary).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11473366|Kumiko Okae]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11605203|Yukio Beniyama]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11632964|Tomoichi Tanimura]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11685350|Alfred Kucharczyk]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11685938|Andrzej Koprowski]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Andrzej Koprowski SJ.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11686026|Andrzej Owczarek]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Andrzej Owczarek 2015.08.24.jpeg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11699820|Gildardo García]]''
| 
| [[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Gildardo Garcia.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11720447|Janusz Sanocki]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Janusz Sanocki Sejm 2016.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11724981|Jerzy Limon]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jerzy Limon.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11765368|Maciej Grubski]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Maciej Grubski VII kadencja Kancelaria Senatu.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11779890|Mieczysław Morański]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11865551|Jaakko Syrjä]]''
| 
| [[فنلينڊ|فن لينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jaakko Syrjä (1958) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11912441|Carles Trullols i Clemente]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11915238|Vlastimil Marek]]''
| 
| [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:AutoportretWiki.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11928824|Josep Mussons i Mata]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:JosepMussons.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11952113|Toni Coromina]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q11954665|Vicenç Capdevila]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12017014|František Filip]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12017274|František Lízna]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Frantisek Lizna 2009.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12022755|Jan Křen]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jan-Křen-(2014).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12023229|Jan Vodňanský]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jan Vodnansky 2008.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12023238|Jan Vrba]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12023387|Jana Andresíková]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12024163|Jaroslav Šaroun]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12026421|Josef Nekl]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12032649|Ladislav Štaidl]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:L.Štaidl.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12036766|Michal Mejstřík]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Michal Mejstřík (1952-2021).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12036789|Michal Polák]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Brno, Šelepka, Synkopy 61 (02).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12040463|Naďa Urbánková]]''
| 
| [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Nada Urbankova 1.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12044941|Petr Kužel]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12073214|Vladislav Yegin]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12098532|Vitaliy Hurnak]]''
| 
| [[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12104430|Viktor Zhenchenko]]''
| 
| [[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Viktor Zhenchenko.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12111312|Oleksandr Kozarenko]]''
| 
| [[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Oleksandr Kozarenko in Krushelnytska museum 02.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12118151|Timur Litovchenko]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Forum vydavtsiv 2017.235.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12120757|Vitalii Malakhov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Віталій Малахов.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12122416|Anatolii Melnyk]]''
| 
| [[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12124173|Anatolii Mokrousov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:НДУ 4 Мокроусов Анатолій Олексійович.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12130376|Mykola Moshyk]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12140136|Mykola Petrenko]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12146863|Vasyl Raichynets]]''
| 
| [[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Райчинець В.Ф..jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12153381|Ihor Skochylias]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12165467|Vasyl Fedoryuk]]''
| 
| [[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12178780|Ahmed bin Yahya Al-Bahkali]]''
| 
| [[سعودي عرب]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12178851|Ahmed Khalil]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مصر]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ahmed Khalil 1.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12199735|Bahjat Suleiman]]''
| 
| [[شام]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:السفير د- بهجت سليمان في مكتبه 2013-10-25 23-05.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12205315|جريس سماوي]]''
| 
| [[اردن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12205653|Galal El-Sharkawy]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مصر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12205887|Jamal Salameh]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مصر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12208000|Hassan Alwan]]''
| 
| [[يمن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12211513|Dakhil Allah bin Shilwan]]''
| 
| [[سعودي عرب]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12215887|Saad Al Tmami]]''
| 
| [[سعودي عرب]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12216684|Souleymen Bakhelili]]''
| 
| [[الجزائر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12217290|Sawsan Rabie]]''
| 
| [[مصر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12218187|Shākir ʻAbd al-Ḥamīd]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مصر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12219578|Saleh al-Shehi]]''
| 
| [[سعودي عرب]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12219707|Sabah Abdul-Jalil]]''
| 
| [[عراق]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12220206|Salah Abdel-Fattah Al-Khalidi]]''
| 
| [[اردن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:صورة شخصية صلاح عبد الفتاح الخالدي.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12222428|ʻAbbas Tarabili]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مصر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12222559|عبد الحكيم الطاهر]]''
| 
| [[سوڊان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12223917|Abdul Wahab Al-Dailami]]''
| 
| [[يمن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12224294|Abeer Al Khader]]''
| 
| [[ڪويت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12224793|Eizzaldin al-Manasrah]]''
| 
| [[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:عز الدين المناصرة.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12228063|Ali Hasan al-Halabi]]''
| 
| [[اردن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12240387|Muhammad Hasan al-Amin]]''
| 
| [[لبنان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mhmdhassanamine02.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12240900|Mohammed Atassi]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q146885|Second Syrian Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[شام]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12241232|Mahmoud Khedri]]''
| 
| [[الجزائر]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12242111|مرزوق سعيد]]''
| 
| [[ڪويت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12243038|Mashari Al-Ballam]]''
| 
| [[ڪويت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mashari Al-Ballam.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12247638|Nadia Al-Iraqia]]''
| 
| [[عراق]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12249124|Noureddine Saïl]]''
| 
| [[مراڪش]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Noureddine Saïl, Al Jasra Cultural and Social Club - Apr 10, 2017.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12249589|Hady El Gayar]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مصر]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:هادي الجيار - مسلسل شطرنج.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12250383|Wael el-Ebrashy]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مصر]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Wael El-Ebrashy.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12252122|Youssef Chaban]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مصر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12276288|Georgi Belev]]''
| 
| [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12276521|Georgi Koritarov]]''
| 
| [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Georgi koritarov.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12282041|Ioannis Tassias]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Metropolitan Bishop of Lagada Ioannis.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12293596|Seraphim Papakostas]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Serafeim Papakostas.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12297558|Fidel Beev]]''
| 
| [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Fidel Beev (40NS).png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12344974|Anatoly Goncharov]]''
| 
| [[روس]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Анатолий Гончаров.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12355047|Sen Rodin]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12383193|Araceli Herrero Figueroa]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Araceli Herrero Figueroa (AELG)-3.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12447464|Mridula Sinha]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Governor Mridula Sinha.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12470547|Abdul Gafur]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Abdul Gafur, The DPR-RI Stance on the Reform Process and the Resignation of President Soeharto, p39.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12472162|Anicetus Bongsu Antonius Sinaga]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mgr Anicetus Bongsu Antonius Sinaga.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12472429|Aria Baron]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12480859|Dani Anwar]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dani Anwar.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12487277|Jane Shalimar]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jane Shalimar.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12496129|Mahyuddin N.S]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Vice Governor of South Sumatra Mahyuddin NS.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12499829|Naek Lumban Tobing]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12507600|Rachmawati Sukarnoputri]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Rachmawati Soekarnoputri, 2020.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12508669|Rina Gunawan]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12511451|Saefullah]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Saefullah as the Administrative Mayor of Central Jakarta.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12512106|Santosa Doellah]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12515951|Soraya Abdullah]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12520062|Tasiman]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bupati Pati 2001 - 2011 H. Tasiman SH.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12572362|Gaziza Abdinabiyeva]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[قازقستان|قازڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12636953|Milka Babović]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q15102440|Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[يوگوسلاويا جي بادشاهت]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[ڪروشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Milka Babović 2.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12647422|Albinas Stankus]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Albinas Stankus.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12687567|Harussani Zakaria]]''
| 
| [[ملائيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12720803|Anton Gămurari]]''
| 
| [[مالدووا|مولدووا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12722975|Bruce Williamson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12723353|Camil Marinescu]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12725593|Constantin Simirad]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12736493|Nelu Ploieșteanu]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12737850|Petrică Mîțu Stoian]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Petrică Mâțu Stoian.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12746078|Miloš Šobajić]]''
| 
| [[سربيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Miloš Šobajić.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12748222|Sanja Ilic]]''
| 
| [[سربيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Aleksandar Sanja Ilić.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12755511|Miodrag Lazić]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mural dedicated to dr Lazić in Inđija.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12755659|Mićo Mićić]]''
| 
| [[بوسنيا ۽ ھرزگوينيا|بوسينيا ۽ ھرزگوينيہ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mićo Mićić (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12803861|Tadej Hrušovar]]''
| 
| [[سلووينیا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Tadej Hrušovar.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12808962|Burhan Kuzu]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Burhankuzu.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12835999|Arif Ali Guliyev]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آذربائيجان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12840776|Kamil Ibrahimov]]''
| 
| [[آذربائيجان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12842530|Məcnun Hacıbəyov]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12844831|Rafael Cəbrayılov]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12845273|Rasmi Dzhabrailov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12846537|Teymur Əhmədov]]''
| 
| [[آذربائيجان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12848564|Çingiz Briya]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12850214|Amiraslan xan Avsar]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12861745|Anzor Erkomaishvili]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Anzor Erkomaishvili 2025 stamp of Georgia.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12875379|Giorgos Tragas]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12877939|Theodoros Katsanevas]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12880973|Metropolitan  Aetolia και Acarnania Cosmas]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Μακαριστός Μητροπολίτης Αιτωλίας και Ακαρνανίας Κοσμάς.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12906548|Zafir Hadžimanov]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12906617|Zoran Dzhorlev]]''
| 
| [[اتر مقدونيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:С.Спасовска и З.Џорлев во вториот блок на концертот.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12960757|Đurđa Ivezić]]''
| 
| [[يوگوسلاويا جي بادشاهت]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q153128|Independent State of Croatia]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[ڪروشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12963488|Douglas Cagas]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q12969927|Reynaldo Umali]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q13024946|Sergio Víctor Palma]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Victor palma en 1983 cropped.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q13028014|Ivan Pratasenya]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q13028248|Aleh Makušnikaŭ]]''
| 
| [[بيلاروس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q13050762|Aharon Adibekjan]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q13054711|Sergo Karapetyan]]''
| 
| [[آرمينيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sergo-Karapetyan-Armenia-Minister.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q13055374|Ranjit Sinha]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q13057474|Kamal Lohani]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kamal Lohani.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q13058789|Badar Uddin Ahmed Kamran]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q13059317|Mahbubey Alam]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mahbube alam 2017.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q13071314|Min Yu Wai]]''
| 
| [[ميانمار]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q13110295|Alleppey Ranganath]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Alleppey ranganath DSC 0671.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q13112872|Narayan]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Narayan DSW.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q13159219|Chennaveera Kanavi]]''
| 
| [[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dr Chennaveera Kanavi.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q13207856|Fäyrüzä Möslimevä]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q13512620|Hamish Wilson]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q13560249|Lucille Times]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Lucille Times &amp; Historical Marker.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q13570123|Lalli Partinen]]''
| 
| [[فنلينڊ|فن لينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Lalli-Partinen-1965.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q13742419|Kees Bakker]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q14492130|Leo Goodman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q14857056|Wout Holverda]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Wout Holverda (1984).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q14949590|Augustine Mahiga]]''
| 
| [[تنزانيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Augustine Mahiga (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q14950917|Jim Fraser]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jim Fraser - Germantown Academy 1954.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q14981932|Patrick Hanks]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15077049|Sergej Sokolkin]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15077313|Blas Camacho Zancada]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15131268|Michel Tibon-Cornillot]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15141208|Marco Ferrari]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:MarcoVirgilioFerrari.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15260378|Carlos Casamiquela]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Carlos Casamiquela.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15379160|Beatriz Yamamoto Cázarez]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15429090|Joel Shatzky]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15442290|Joel J. Kupperman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15443253|Swapan Kumar Chakravorty]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Swapan Kumar Chakravorty - Kolkata 2011-08-02 4503.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15445520|Judy Irola]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15455926|Manuel Juárez]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Manolo Juárez at Biblioteca Nacional 2014 (15701603999).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15485954|Nicholas Rinaldi]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15531146|Roza Sabiryankyzy Akkuchukova]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15618745|Manglesh Dabral]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Manglesh Dabral. Dec 1993. New Delhi. By Amarjit Chandan.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15636630|Marek Pivovar]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Marek Pivovar 2015.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15711854|Jan Veentjer]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:HockeyNL-HDM1963.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15723603|Ajit Das]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15723647|Amarendra Mohanty]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Amarendra Mohanty Odia Film Music Director.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15724226|Tapu Mishra]]''
| 
| [[اوڙيسا|اوڙيسيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Tapu Mishra Bengaluru Odia Ganesa Puja1.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15725319|Shantiraj Khosla]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15730390|Kamal Rani]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15731459|Turi Simeti]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Turi Simeti.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15819842|Ibrahim Mbombo Njoya]]''
| 
| [[ڪيمرون]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ibrahim Mbombo Njoya KdfsultanIb.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15835700|Moses Hamungole]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15876044|Jarmila Rýznarová]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15883033|Yauhien Anischanka]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[بيلاروس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15896972|Ho Chau-chu]]''
| 
| [[تائيوان]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15921673|Franz Marx]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15942109|Eugenio Minasso]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Eugenio Minasso.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15943581|Bartolomeo Pepe]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bartolomeo Pepe datisenato 2013.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q15994807|Michael Wakelam]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16046136|Houshang Mansourkhaki]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16052047|Karim Akbari Mobarakeh]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Karim akbari mobarake 02.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16052285|Mohammad Mirmohammadi]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q207991|Pahlavi dynasty]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Seyyed Mohammad Mirmohammadi 2018-06-23.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16053060|Hossein Sheikholeslam]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q207991|Pahlavi dynasty]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Hossein Sheikholeslam.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16090540|M. Narasimham]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16091761|Aurora Cornu]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16093542|Anthony Bailey]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:AnthonyBailey.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16093633|Stanley Chera]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16104508|Janos Mohoss]]''
| 
| [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16104930|Shyam Bihari Misra]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16104964|Renzo Gattegna]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16105298|Roger Chappot]]''
| 
| [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16105431|Basil Pesambili Mramba]]''
| 
| [[تنزانيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16105794|Stephen Susman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16105925|Robert H. Garff]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16106394|John Palmer]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16106734|Aubrey Mokoape]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16116741|Željko Mavrović]]''
| 
| [[ڪروشيا]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Zeljko Mavrovic Sarastro.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16117386|David Shepard]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:David Shepard (13860572183) (1).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16118380|Abdelkader Jerbi]]''
| 
| [[تيونس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16119295|Ahmed Halawa]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مصر]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:أحمد حلاوة.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16121789|Mahmoud El Idrissi]]''
| 
| [[مراڪش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16123725|Kamal Amer]]''
| 
| [[مصر]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16124469|Marwan Mahfouz]]''
| 
| [[لبنان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Marouan Mahfouz, Damascus Opera House - Aug 13, 2020.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16124968|Saleh Abdullah Ali Al-Sanabani]]''
| 
| [[يمن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16128982|Oleg Zalotnev]]''
| 
| [[بيلاروس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16138667|Thanwa Raseetanu]]''
| 
| [[ٿائيلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16138911|Somsak Jaikaew]]''
| 
| [[ٿائيلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16143657|Agnaldo Timóteo]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Agnaldo Timóteo (8488377495).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16144880|Abdul Hamid Sebba]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16145812|Ferenc Tóth]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16151657|Nand Kumar Singh Chauhan]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16151874|Benny Napoleon]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Benny Napoleon.jpeg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16162589|Mohamed Nejib Berriche]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q2017684|French protectorate of Tunisia]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[تيونس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16166855|Yaakov Schwei]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16184437|Jeanne PMR Winaktu]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16185240|Miša Aleksić]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q838261|Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[سربيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Misa Aleksic 2008.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16191015|Isidro Pedraza Chávez]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16195218|Olan Montgomery]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16197612|Gerry Cottle]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16200336|Eve Branson]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Eve Branson.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16202862|Lance Carson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16204248|José Alberto Ciurana]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16205288|David Cook]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16207131|Little Walter DeVenne]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Little Walter Devenne.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16215977|Lee Nurse]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16263095|André Manaranche]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16269511|Howard Schoenfield]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16297882|Heikki Aarva]]''
| 
| [[فنلينڊ|فن لينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16301834|Eugenio Rojas Apaza]]''
| 
| [[بوليويا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Eugenio Rojas Apaza en 2019.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16307459|Boonruen Choonhavan]]''
| 
| [[ٿائيلينڊ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1081620|Siam]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16327525|Dimitris Talaganis]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16328064|Sakēs Totlēs]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16336402|Almeida Henriques]]''
| 
| [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16336608|André Zacharow]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16336792|Arnaldo Faria de Sá]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Arnaldo Faria de Sá ABr.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16336946|Bonifácio José Tamm de Andrada]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Deputado Federal Bonifácio Andrada.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16337113|Cecília Guimarães]]''
| 
| [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16337360|Domingos de Freitas Diniz Neto]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16337378|Dulce Nunes]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16337681|José de Oliveira Fernandes]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Museu da Cidade de Manaus - 15.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16337792|Lúcia Braga]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Plenário do Congresso (39777958125).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16337889|Maria José Valério]]''
| 
| [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Maria José Valério, 1968 (cropped).png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16366590|Elbrus Abbasov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آذربائيجان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16371865|Nizameddin Quliyev]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16376838|Zöhrab Alıyev]]''
| 
| [[آذربائيجان]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16377555|Ingilab Nasirov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آذربائيجان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16382689|Leon Adyan]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16466511|Laxman Giluwa]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16485758|Antonio González Pacheco]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16490286|Carlos Holmes Trujillo]]''
| 
| [[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Holmes Trujillo.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16493623|Aritana Yawalapiti]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16494414|Artur Portela Filho]]''
| 
| [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16498472|Kerstin Behrendtz]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16518797|Sabina de la Cruz]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sabina de la Cruz.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16526878|André Osi]]''
| 
| [[بيلجيم]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Andre Osi 20100207 Bagnols-sur-Ceze 1.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16530501|Aslanbek Fidarov]]''
| 
| [[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16534529|Aron Atabek]]''
| 
| [[قازقستان|قازڪستان]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Aron Atabek imprisoned poet Kazakhstan Astana 2012.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16538862|Danil Khalimov]]''
| 
| [[قازقستان|قازڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16559534|Giorgio Gatti]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16562408|Guido Stagnaro]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16595738|Marianne Lundquist]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Marianne Lundquist SOK.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16624314|Ramón Romero Roa]]''
| 
| [[پيراگوئي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:RamonRomeroRoa.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16625708|Roberto Valcárcel]]''
| 
| [[بوليويا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Roberto Valcarcel.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16631776|Vladimir Voronov]]''
| 
| [[روس]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Vladimir Voronov i Aleksandr Michkov.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16632989|Kjell Grane]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16647536|Arthur Whistler]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16656949|Mishik Kazaryan]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kazaryan Mishik, cutted.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16670158|Pino van Lamsweerde]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Pino van Lamsweerde 3.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16672105|Vladimir Lopukhin]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Lopukhin Vladimir.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16701731|Roy Horn]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q713750|West Germany]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Las Vegas, Nevada's headlining illusionists Siegfried &amp; Roy (Roy Horn cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16727899|Ben Chafin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16728415|Bill C. Davis]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16728630|R. Doraikkannu]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16728723|Nasir Durrani]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16729376|Gordon Van Wylen]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16729793|Marlene Herrera Díaz]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16729954|Hudeidi]]''
| 
| [[صوماليا|سوماليا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16730231|Omar Jazouli]]''
| 
| [[مراڪش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16730710|Brandis Kemp]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16732661|José Babel Mireles Valverde]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:José Manuel Mireles Valverde.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16732956|Alia Muhammad Baker]]''
| 
| [[عراق]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16744309|Butana Komphela]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16746913|Mykola Myatlitski]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q2895|Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[بيلاروس]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16842006|Corky Lee]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Corky Lee at the Chinese American Museum DC in 2019.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16847056|Nick Cordero]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16865759|Enrico Comba]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16885966|Suresh Kumar Srivastava]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16910068|Florentino Domínguez Ordoñez]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16910076|Gilberto Ensástiga]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16912496|Philippe Lécrivain]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16939853|Cláudio Petraglia]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16940061|Dinaldo Medeiros Wanderley]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16940336|Nelson Meurer]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:NELSON MEURER.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16940411|José Itamar de Freitas]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16940797|Sérgio Olímpio Gomes]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Deputado Major Olimpio no Senado 2 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16977833|Syed Muhammad Fazal Agha]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16979865|Azmeera Chandulal]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Chandulal Ajmeera.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16979978|Neil D. Jones]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q756617|Kingdom of Denmark]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Neil D. Jones.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q16999679|Rafel Tur i Costa]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17032692|África Lorente Castillo]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Africa Malaga.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17034981|Trần Ngọc Châu]]''
| 
| [[ويٽنام]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q180573|South Vietnam]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dân-biểu đơn-vị Kiến-Hòa Trần Ngọc Châu.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17123751|Ismail Bhamjee]]''
| 
| [[بوٽسوانا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17126490|Tullio Abbate]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Tullio Abbate and Ayrton Senna.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17154848|Паращенко Владимир Михайлович]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Паращенко Владимир Михайлович.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17198221|Dennis Johnson]]''
| 
| [[جميڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17279336|Robert Martin Gumbura]]''
| 
| [[زمبابوي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17285375|Luigi Reitani]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17305968|Henry Graff]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Henry F. Graff.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17322473|Iris Love]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17370650|Jean-Pierre Jossua]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17388929|Dinesh Chandra Yadav]]''
| 
| [[نيپال]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17395359|Arianna W. Rosenbluth]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Arianna W Rosenbluth.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17410598|Imam Suroso]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Anggota DPR RI Komisi IX, Imam Suroso.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17410704|Masud Yunus]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Wali Kota Mojokerto Mas'ud Yunus.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17411404|Soegiharto]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:KIB Sugiharto.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17453217|Vinicio Bernardini]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Vinicio Bernardini.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17486036|Henri Kichka]]''
| 
| [[بيلجيم]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Henri Kichka au Ciné-Club Educatif et Culturel le 11 mars 2010 à Mons (Crop).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17489803|Nipper Read]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17505073|Amaranth Ehrenhalt]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Étienne Hajdu et Amaranth Ehrenhalt photo Olivier DUMAY.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17505980|Muhammad Amin]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Wagub NTB Muhammad Amin.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17622463|Miguel Ángel Furones]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Miguel angel furones.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17632923|William Izarra]]''
| 
| [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:William Izarra.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17661487|Unnikrishnan Namboothiri]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Unnikrishnan Namboothiri.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17746498|Kanybek Isakov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڪرغزستان|ڪِرگزِستانُ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kanybek Abduvasitovich Isakov. 14.05.2013.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q17859863|Kalsoom Perveen]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18037895|Chrístos Sikánis]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18043515|Evgeny Mikrin]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18057030|Bennie G. Adkins]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Medal of Honor (15257829652).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18129450|Daniel Yuste]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18162113|Vekuii Rukoro]]''
| 
| [[نميبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18209595|Oyewusi Ibidapo Obe]]''
| 
| [[نائيجيريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18217421|Rao Dharampal]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18236146|Yulyen Balmusov]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18246554|Enio Mainardi]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18249366|Theodore Bugas]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18249465|Othón Cuevas Córdova]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18275399|Gláucio Ary Dillon Soares]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18280349|Vladimir Shnitke]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18327523|György Snell]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:SnellGyorgyFotoThalerTamas.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18350877|Alberto Amador Leal]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18390781|Roberto Leitão]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Roberto Leitão.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18391983|Sekhar Basu]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sekhar Basu.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18405881|Nikiforos]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18421453|Subiakto Tjakrawerdaya]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Subiakto Tjakrawerdaya.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18538499|Adrian Bărar]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Adi Barar (Cargo) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18539289|Cornelia Catangă]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18546585|Hilary S. Chapman]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18549704|Nicolae Sabău]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18618827|Igor Bogdanoff]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Igor Bogdanov.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18618829|Grichka Bogdanoff]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Grichka B, Présentation équipe DMBC, 10 septembre 2016 - 6.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18634038|Anfim (Tudos)]]''
| 
| [[مالدووا|مولدووا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18649004|Avelino Méndez Rangel]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Avelino Mendez Rangel 1 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18683826|Krishan Kumar Aggarwal]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18685775|Jim Dornan]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18685824|Ayatullah Durrani]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18687827|Morris Hood III]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18688035|Jitendra Nath Pande]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18738911|Mack Walker]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18747673|Reynaldo Salazar]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18750351|Maulana Ameer Zaman]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18750460|Ram Lal Rahi]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18752973|Tiit Lilleorg]]''
| 
| [[اسٽونيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18764064|Martin S. Fox]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18810088|Elidio Espinoza]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Elidio Espinoza Quispe.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18811939|Terry Doran]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q18921500|Felicia F. Campbell]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19271880|Sami Hasan Al Nash]]''
| 
| [[يمن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19281555|Manzoor Ahtesham]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19301055|María Araujo]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19361829|Giovanni Battista Rabino]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Giovanni Battista Rabino.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19517945|Pir Noor Muhammad Shah Jillani]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19518853|Luis Enrique Mercado]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19547762|Munirathna Anandakrishnan]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Anandakrishnan.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19547902|கோ. இளவழகன்]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19561531|Nolan Mettetal]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19564424|Dietmar Seyferth]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19605243|Ashok Kumar Walia]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19608131|Caio Narcio]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Caio Narcio.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19609869|Chandro Tomar]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19611679|Yusuf Kenan Sönmez]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19635577|Dimitris Kremastinos]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:KremastinosDimitris.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19665021|Helen Damico]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19667174|Shingoose]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19667683|Kim H. Veltman]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kim Veltman at EVA London 2017.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19668626|Rajkumar Keswani]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19710290|José Carlos Schiavinato]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19725072|Dadang Wigiarto]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bupati Situbondo Dadang Wigiarto periode kedua.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19787577|Rubén Anguiano]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19871563|Frank Brew]]''
| 
| [[آسٽريليا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19872432|Ken Colvin]]''
| 
| [[آسٽريليا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19880661|Miguel Ángel Gutiérrez Machado]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19895787|Brijendra Singh Rathore]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19915711|Abdulmanap Nurmagomedov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Abdulmanap Nurmagomedov in 2021.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19942870|Dadang Hawari]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19953017|Abd ar-Rahman ibn Khalifa]]''
| 
| [[الجزائر]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q19974584|Lukman Niode]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20004583|Josep Ferrer Peris]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20004758|Josep Sala i Mañé]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Primera actuacio castellers de barcelona.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20016600|Alberto Sonsol]]''
| 
| [[يوراگوائي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20045601|Antônio de Jesus Dias]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20048117|José Júlio Venâncio Antunes]]''
| 
| [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:José Júlio VFXira 01.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20049141|Mário Coelho]]''
| 
| [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Monumento a Mário Coelho, Vila Franca de Xira 03.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20054063|John M. Squire]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20064152|Kuo Nan-hung]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20069206|Vasyl Pisnyi]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20090063|Vakha Agaev]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Vaha Agaev.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20403285|Tony Moussa]]''
| 
| [[شام]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20418100|Riyāḍ Najīb Al-Rayyis]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q146885|Second Syrian Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[شام]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20426392|Bens Leo]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20426512|Hilmi Aminuddin]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20479636|Venelin Mitev]]''
| 
| [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20480938|István Kozma]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kozma István NB.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20501917|Avraham Yeshayahu Heber]]''
| 
| [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:הרב הבר.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20507884|Karen Babayan]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آرمينيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20509962|Grigor Brutyan]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آرمينيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20513641|Harutyun Topikyan]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20525356|Benjamin Tolić]]''
| 
| [[ڪروشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Benjamin Tolić.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20528490|Tõivo Sarmet]]''
| 
| [[اسٽونيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Toivo sarmet2.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20533125|Dositeo Rodríguez]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20559646|A. Yunus Kunju]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:A younus kunju x mla.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20560624|Mehman Aghayev]]''
| 
| [[آذربائيجان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20560807|Naini Narshimha Reddy]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Nayini Narsimha Reddy.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20565316|Alasgar Gurbanaliyev]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آذربائيجان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20605416|Bakari Mwapachu]]''
| 
| [[تنزانيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20610736|Tasoltan Mamsurov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20665651|Pydikondala Manikyala Rao]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20670029|Dalenda Abdou]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q2017684|French protectorate of Tunisia]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[تيونس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20685591|Troy Sneed]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20751292|Mostafa Khorramdel]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q207991|Pahlavi dynasty]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:دوستان دکتر خرمدل، کمال مولودپوری و سایر دانشجویان مهاباد.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20856252|Giorgio Mondino]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Giorgio Mondino.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20871871|José Ramón Fernández Gordo]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20873631|Kanstancin Sieviaryniec]]''
| 
| [[بيلاروس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20888651|Mikhail Vinogradov]]''
| 
| [[روس]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20891855|Elena Hrenova]]''
| 
| [[مالدووا|مولدووا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Elena Hrenova (2015-01-19).png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q20985282|Aqel Biltaji]]''
| 
| [[اردن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Hayder Murad Death anniversary 75 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21002307|Abba Kyari]]''
| 
| [[نائيجيريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21035340|Rick May]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21039937|Anatoli Bondarenko]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21064276|Gertrude Rwakatare]]''
| 
| [[تنزانيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21074108|Jaugen Bialassin]]''
| 
| [[بيلاروس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jaugen Bialassin.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21104193|Achyut Madhav Gokhale]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21338525|Pakshirajan Lakshminarasimhan]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:6472-Image-32531-1-17-20200727.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21339879|Zlatko Kvaček]]''
| 
| [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21341636|Nina I. Strelnikova]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21391159|Amnon Freidberg]]''
| 
| [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:אמנון פרידברג, סירה.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21400588|Hafez Abu Seada]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مصر]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:HafezAbuSeada.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21405631|Hamid Kahram]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q207991|Pahlavi dynasty]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21440948|Jerzy Zacharko]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21463610|Walter Spitzer]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21464665|Philip Morsberger]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21467243|David Leverett]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21480753|Juanjo Rocafort]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21513748|Edayathumangalam Kandaswamy Ganesan]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21515658|Edman Ayvazyan]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Edman Ayvazyan 1(Cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21572745|Firsat Sofi]]''
| 
| [[عراق]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:فرسەت سۆفی.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21597734|Georges Trussart]]''
| 
| [[بيلجيم]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21651710|Nomula Narsimhaiah]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21663093|Musa Yerniyazov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21663972|Alexander Vasserman]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21674648|Mohammad Kiavash]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q207991|Pahlavi dynasty]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:سید محمد علوی تبار.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21682616|కె.కె.రంగనాథాచార్యులు]]''
| 
| [[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21685126|Narendra Kumar Swain]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:NKS2.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21747070|Dan Tătaru]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21827250|Sarat Kumar Kar]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sarat Kumar Kar.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21833015|Gaetano Rebecchini]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21933841|Suresh Gore]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q21974445|Charan Ramdas]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q22003024|Riyaz Ahmad]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q22004843|Nate Hawkins]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q22006946|Mita Haque]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mita haque cropped from the image of Sheikh Hasina presents Ekushey Padak 2020, Osmani Memorial Auditorium, Dhaka, 2020-02-20 (PID-0034166) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q22087194|Baddegama Samitha Thero]]''
| 
| [[سري لنڪا|سريلنڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q22095691|Thandika Mkandawire]]''
| 
| [[ملاوي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q22277578|Rajendra Devlekar]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q22690302|Michel Tabet]]''
| 
| [[لبنان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q22812069|Θανάσης Αγγέλου]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q22921036|Sergio Rossi]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q22926728|Cristopher Mansilla]]''
| 
| [[چلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Cristopher Mansilla (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q22947427|Abdul Hameed Abu Al-Naeem]]''
| 
| [[مراڪش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q23062821|Mahamane Jean Padonou]]''
| 
| [[نائيجر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q23302699|Yosiwo George]]''
| 
| [[مائڪرونيشيا جون فيڊريٽيڊ اسٽيٽس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Federated States of Micronesia Opening Ceremony 150622-N-MK341-013 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q23304286|P. R. Krishna Kumar]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q23561648|Bernd Grimmer]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:2015 Bernd Grimmer (Landesparteitag AfD Baden-Württemberg) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q23674715|Edward Sienkiewicz]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q23753137|Salvador Vives]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q23815604|Carol Sutton]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q23837608|Rubén Tierrablanca González]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q23887677|Dhanare Paskal Janya]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q23893571|Angelo Perugini]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Perugini.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q23908916|K. V. Vijayadas]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:K.V. Vijayadas.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q23914052|Nelu Bălășoiu]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q23920645|Ömer Döngeloğlu]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ömer Döngeloğlu.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q23927424|Želimir Altarac Čičak]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[بوسنيا ۽ ھرزگوينيا|بوسينيا ۽ ھرزگوينيہ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Želimir Altarac Čičak .jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q23927812|Claudio Zupo]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q23930665|Daniel-Ștefan Drăgulin]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q24009927|Yuri Ponomarev]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Пономарёв Юрий Иванович.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q24021020|Ion D. Aliman]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q24083233|Ionel M. Michiu]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q24230776|Lyavon Hryshuk]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[بيلاروس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q24248306|Orlando McDaniel]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q24251127|Joel Otim]]''
| 
| [[يوگنڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q24294484|Ducange Sylvain]]''
| 
| [[هيٽي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q24351545|Abrek Ayupov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Abrek Ayupov 03.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q24431331|Andrzej Jan Noras]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q24525349|Vasile Gherasim]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q24565738|Joe Hand Sr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Joe Hand, Sr. at Joe Hand Promotions, Inc. 40th Anniversary Party.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q24572394|Appaji M. J.]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q24572544|Tanveer Akhtar]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q24809974|Vladimir Gerdt]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q24852023|A. M. M. Safiullah]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q24877346|Jiří Ventruba]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:JiriVentruba.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q24940009|Miguel Ángel Troitiño]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Miguel Angel Troitiño.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q24941932|Michele Serio]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Michele Serio.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q24949382|Asit Bandopadhyay]]''
| 
| [[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q25111059|Anusuya Prasad Maikhuri]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q25136946|Kamel Lemoui]]''
| 
| [[الجزائر]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q25189922|Colin Jones]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q25423626|Ali Soleimani]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ali Soleimani at the Eighth Ammar Film Festival (01).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q25438009|Danilo Pertsov]]''
| 
| [[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Д. Перцов.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q25463188|Neta S. Pane]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q25463883|Edy Oglek]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q25466692|Ade Firman Hakim]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q25468009|Frederik Batti Sorring]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Frederik Batti Sorring, Bupati Toraja Utara.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q25468371|Nadjmi Adhani]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Nadjmi Adhani, Wali Kota Banjarbaru.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q25468378|Sudjati]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sudjati Bupati Bulungan.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q25469512|Kuryana Azis]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Drs. H. Kuryana Azis.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q25471296|Muharram]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Muharram berau.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q25471771|Shazni Munir Mohd Ithnin]]''
| 
| [[ملائيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q25473657|Irena Alijošiūtė]]''
| 
| [[لٿوينيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q25542625|Knyaz Hacıyev]]''
| 
| [[آذربائيجان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q25588647|P. Gopinathan Nair]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q25640123|Guus Smeets]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Guus Smeets.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q25998965|Marius Dinulescu]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q26251738|Shamsuzzaman Khan]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Shamsuzzaman Khan Dhaka 2019 (3).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q26256181|Sálvio Dino]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q26466079|Onkar Nath Srivastava]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q26677234|David Stypka]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q26856800|Muhammad Hamza]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q26923140|Emil J. Freireich Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q26924548|Rohit Sardana]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q26971502|Jan Žižka]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q27022448|Adlin Mair-Clarke]]''
| 
| [[جميڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q27044994|Hooshang Mirzaee]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q27062983|Muhammad Mohaiminul Islam]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q27063489|MA Hashem]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q27063631|B.J. Marsh]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q27195991|Valeria Gagealov]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Valeria Gagealov 2014 Romania stamp.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q27207944|Najma Chowdhury]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Najma Chowdhury speaking.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q27514682|Samuel Wembé]]''
| 
| [[ڪيمرون]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q27525876|Gyula Horvath]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q27589327|Pablo Cámbar]]''
| 
| [[هونڊورس|هنڊوراس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Pablo José Cámbar.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q27662830|Ann Katharine Mitchell]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q27664982|Carlos Falcó, 5th Marquess of Griñón]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Carlos Falcó.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q27690287|Ruth Lewis]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q27734548|Bill Bullard, Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q27804545|Maqbul Ahmed]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q27835309|Félix Mendonça]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:BA10200 div Felix Mendonça 2006.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q27862807|Walmir Oliveira da Costa]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q27950616|Munir Al-Aboushi]]''
| 
| [[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[اردن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q27975003|Alícia Guri i Canivell]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q28001421|Jerry Relph]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Minnesota State Senator Jerry Relph.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q28007795|Hella Brock]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q16957|German Democratic Republic]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q28039797|Nicolaie-Sebastian-Valentin Radu]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q28086077|Kebby Maphatsoe]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q28121682|Arpik Hasratyan]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Arpik Asratyan.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q28122480|Brian Arrowsmith]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q28370205|Surendra Singh Jeena]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jeena Bhaiya.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q28370231|Gopal Singh Rawat]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Gopal Singh Rawat.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q28403467|Jaybee Sebastian]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q28420151|Buruji Kashamu]]''
| 
| [[نائيجيريا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Buruji Kashamu.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q28485065|Aptripel Tumimomor]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Aptripel Tumimomor.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q28498255|David Brooks]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q28555913|José Carlos da Silva Júnior]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q28664898|Mikhail Plotkin]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q28708192|Llorenç Cassi i Morató]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q28716759|حمد الريح]]''
| 
| [[سوڊان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q28843094|Luís Macedo]]''
| 
| [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q28867793|Jacques Thobie]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q28911753|Branislav Blažić]]''
| 
| [[سربيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q28962630|Gladys Beckwith]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q29078601|Nedal Abu Tabaq]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Nedal Abu Tabaq portret 1.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q29079958|Bogusław Cygler]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q29358941|Vladimir Zuykov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q29370558|Ujwal Thapa]]''
| 
| [[نيپال]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ujwal Thapa.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q29452463|Pradeep Maharathy]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Pradeep Maharathy.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q29462882|Alan Abel]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Alan Abel of The Philadelphia Orchestra (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q29505408|Lew Hill]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q29525790|Marc Engels]]''
| 
| [[بيلجيم]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q29527515|Abdul Mahdi Hadi]]''
| 
| [[عراق]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q29568123|Tohami Khaled]]''
| 
| [[لبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q29639760|Luis Arias Graziani]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q29640879|Surat Mathur]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q29727768|Francesco Perrone]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Francesco perrone Olimpiadi Roma 1960.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q29887876|Israel Zelitch]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q29944026|Richard Mendani]]''
| 
| [[پاپوا نيو گني]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q30081749|Hadi Khosroshahi]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:هادي خسروشاهي.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q30231744|Piotr Wowry]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q30320385|Walter Robb]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q30404445|José Évrard]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Saint-Laurent-Blangy - Congrès fondateur des Patriotes le 18 février 2018 (061).JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q30687590|Vijay Kumar Kashyap]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Vijay Kashyap BJP Minister.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q30687834|G. P. Venkidu]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:GPV Gobi.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q30728097|Yves Vander Cruysen]]''
| 
| [[بيلجيم]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q30729040|Jean-Marc Manducher]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q30789633|Huba Rozsnyai]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q30930334|Gil Vianna]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q30934103|Ibsen Henrique de Castro]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q30935116|Herzem Gusmão]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Herzem Gusmão em 23 de julho de 2019 (2).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q31199474|Baldo Podić]]''
| 
| [[ڪروشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q31201089|Subhadra Sen Gupta]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q31296778|Anvar Nahmadov]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q31451910|Mukar Cholponbayev]]''
| 
| [[ڪرغزستان|ڪِرگزِستانُ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q31724199|Sadek Bachchu]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q31724856|Mirza Mazharul Islam]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q31741007|Pearson Jordan]]''
| 
| [[بارباڊوس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q32291770|Thomas H. Kunz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q32362040|Olga Domuladzhanova]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q33236658|Jean-Philippe Ruggieri]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q33239234|Fábio Hissa Vieira Hazin]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q34113948|Giovanni Pretorius]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q34970774|Olga Levko]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q2895|Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[بيلاروس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q35342309|Tawfiq al-Yasiri]]''
| 
| [[عراق]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q36489247|Muhammad Jadam Mangrio]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q36514477|Brian J. Axsmith]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q36657949|R.Y. Anderson]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q38002088|Cesare Leonardi]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q38583129|N. Appaji Gowda]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q39058126|Anand Mohan Zutshi Gulzar Dehlvi]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Gulzar dehlvi.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q39070358|Habib ur Rahman]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q40038189|Naoteru Nabeshima]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q40232921|Hasna Begum]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Hasna Begum 2.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q40331041|Rajan Mishra]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q41596279|Johan van Zyl]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Johan Van Zyl 1 (Toyota Motors Europe) at Toyota Press Conference IAA 2017 by Nicolas Völcker.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q41791790|Debashis Panigrahi]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dr. Debasis Panigrahi (Author).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q42303508|Marius van Heerden]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q42331566|Hamid Rashid Ma`ala]]''
| 
| [[عراق]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q42389822|Waldemar Silva]]''
| 
| [[يوراگوائي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q42428973|Jamshed Uddin Kakakhel]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q42429343|Waldemar Post]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q42571276|Gita Ramjee]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q42800040|Elizabeth Muyovwe]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q43106474|Henri-Thomas Lokondo]]''
| 
| [[عوامي جمهوريا ڪانگو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q43180489|Sibusiso Moyo]]''
| 
| [[زمبابوي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sibusiso Moyo, Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, Republic of Zimbabwe (28014487638) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q43210860|Farida Mansurova]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[تاجڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q43274270|Rodela]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Rodela (Luiz Carlos Ribeiro).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q43377246|Joshua Kyeremeh]]''
| 
| [[گھانا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q45781300|James Kamwambi]]''
| 
| [[ملاوي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q45781379|John Chikalimba]]''
| 
| [[ملاوي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q45781626|Lingson Belekanyama]]''
| 
| [[ملاوي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q45843259|Leïla Menchari]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q2017684|French protectorate of Tunisia]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[تيونس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q45996744|Kwadwo Owusu Afriyie]]''
| 
| [[گھانا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kwadwo Owusu Afriyie - 2019 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q46250843|Danial Jahić]]''
| 
| [[سربيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q46644655|Konstantin L. Ivanov]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q46995325|Hans Cohen]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q47011474|Asdrubal Bentes]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Asdrubal Bentes 2014.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q47011506|Roberto Torres]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q47030659|Narinder Bragta]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q47357805|Ole Hansen-Løve]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q47387297|Sardar Dur Muhammad Nasar]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q47389631|Ghulam Murtaza Baloch]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q47389945|Jam Madad Ali Khan]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q47392395|Muhammad Adil Siddiqui]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q47402338|Lea Harpaz]]''
| 
| [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:לאה הרפז.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q47411298|Shaukat Manzoor Cheema]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q47465350|Shani Mahadevappa]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q47507023|Tamás Böröndi]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q47528906|Carl Tighe]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q47529646|Priscilla Tozama Mantashe]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q47529773|Martha Mmola]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q47529782|Esteban Bocaranda]]''
| 
| [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q47537495|Amdi Bajram]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Амди Бајрам.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q47544874|Sabbaruddin Chik]]''
| 
| [[ملائيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q47639046|Antonín Nedbal]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q47668952|Duan Zhengcheng]]''
| 
| [[جمھوريا چين (1912ء–1949ء)]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q48167728|Indra Mohan Rajbongshi]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q48315912|Bernard Stalter]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bernard Stalter.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q48719857|Ramu]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q48872746|Naomi Munakata]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Naomi Munakata (2011).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q48951979|Viktor Koval]]''
| 
| [[روس]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:2007-01-26 kovalskie 1010450 .jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q49250207|Muladi]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Menteri Sekretaris Negara Muladi.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q49254213|Adang Sudrajat]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Adang Sudrajat.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q49561853|Anwarul Kabir Talukdar]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q50049590|A. K. M. Mosharraf Hossain]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q50396635|Sindisiwe van Zyl]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dr Doreen Sindisiwe van Zyl.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q50660601|AKM Jahangir Hossain]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q50828767|Moisés Mamani Colquehuanca]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Moisés Mamani.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q51048751|Angela Salazar]]''
| 
| [[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q51120523|Christine McHorse]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q51336938|Fiona Denison]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q51461749|El Príncipe Gitano]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q51670534|Teimuraz Tsiklauri]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[جارجيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q51670771|Vladimir Kharchenko]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Vladimir Kharchenko.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q51881137|Katalin Korinthus]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q52274178|Dave Nalle]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Davenalle.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q52315000|Md. Israfil Alam]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q52369511|Lorina Kamburova]]''
| 
| [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Lorina Kamburova in Bulgaria promotional video.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q52723219|SK. Md. Nurul Haque]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q53086459|Ugo Tessitore]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q53544897|Antonio Beneyto]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Antonio Beneyto.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q54861257|Nizar al-Haraki]]''
| 
| [[شام]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q54862182|Fayeq Azab]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مصر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q54875090|Kamal Ballan]]''
| 
| [[شام]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kamal Ballan in Durova Theater.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q54932411|Sandra Nyaira]]''
| 
| [[زمبابوي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q55020621|François de Gaulle]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q55178473|Tauba Katzenstein]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q55459951|Alí Humar González]]''
| 
| [[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q55585267|Lefteris Mytilineos]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q55622382|Massoud Achkar]]''
| 
| [[لبنان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q55624059|Muhammad Afzal]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q55628232|P. Vetrivel]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q55641249|Neville Fernando]]''
| 
| [[سري لنڪا|سريلنڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q55688673|Manuel Domecq Zurita]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q55694390|Ziauddin Ahmed Bablu]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ziauddin Ahmed Bablu.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q55694406|Abdul Matin Khasru]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Abdul Matin Khasru.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q55694715|Mahmud Us Samad Chowdhury]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q55943735|Mario Roberto Morales]]''
| 
| [[گواتيمالا|گوئٽي مالا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q55971501|Adolf Lüchinger]]''
| 
| [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q55998474|Princess María Teresa of Parma]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]&lt;br/&gt;[[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:María Teresa of Bourbon Parma (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q55999120|Antonio García-Moreno]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:AGMoreno2003.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q56000305|Jacqueline Rubellin-Devichi]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q56065281|Munira Yamin Satti]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q56065399|Shaheen Raza]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q56173541|Margarita Lambrinou]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q56195647|Vitor Sapienza]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q56223573|Milan Hurtala]]''
| 
| [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q56248458|Cyril Lawrence]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q56257287|Fabio Restrepo]]''
| 
| [[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Fabio Restrepo.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q56299115|Nomvuzo Francisca Shabalala]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q56393467|Jalaludin Rakhmat]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jalaludin Rakhmat.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q56399697|Yopie Latul]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q56399754|Burhan Abdurahman]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Wali Kota Ternate Burhan Abdurahman.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q56410339|Camille Bonnet]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:L'équipe du SU Agen finaliste du championnat de France de rugby, en mars 1943 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q56600042|Younus Soomro]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q56630743|Vincent Mhlanga]]''
| 
| [[اسواتيني|سوازي لينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q56641288|László Gróf]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q56651269|Waqar Ahmed Seth]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q56678261|Bernie Juskiewicz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q56678450|Dick Hinch]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q56743555|Martha Sánchez Néstor]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q56841045|Mongameli Bobani]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q56862871|Brian Crowe]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q57037216|Marcello Brunelli]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Brunelli Marcello.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q57342370|Nikhil Nandy]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:The Minister of State (Independent Charge) for Youth Affairs &amp; Sports, Dr. M.S. Gill felicitated the Indian Football Heroes, who reached the semi - finals of Melbourne Olympics, 1956, in New Delhi on February 23, 2009 (1).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q57617645|Fernand Turcotte]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q57829968|Faith Alupo]]''
| 
| [[يوگنڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q57903860|Elmer Pato]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q57973856|Ambrose Mandvulo Dlamini]]''
| 
| [[اسواتيني|سوازي لينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:10.08 總統接見「史瓦帝尼王國總理戴安伯伉儷」 (48863175906).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q57986405|Ndifor Afanwi Franklin]]''
| 
| [[ڪيمرون]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q58004322|Ulfat Mustafin]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q58175439|Ajay Kumar Tripathi]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Justice Ajay Kumar Tripathi.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q59226203|Cabo Almi]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q59245275|Silvio Favero]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q59327278|Raj Mohan Vohra]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Raj Mohan Vohra.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q59387154|Dennis G. Peters]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dennis G. Peters (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q59594563|Shin So-gol]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:신소걸.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q59822632|David Corrêa]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:David Corrêa na Tradição 2013.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q60048453|Carlos Burga]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q60428775|Ron Wright]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ron Wright, official portrait, 116th Congress.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q60578644|Khaled Al Amir]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مصر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q60676275|Anthony Mwamba]]''
| 
| [[زيمبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q60676348|István Turu]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q60682885|Nikolay Petrunin]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Петрунин Н.Ю.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q60684463|Hussain Ahmed]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:The Minister of State (Independent Charge) for Youth Affairs &amp; Sports, Dr. M.S. Gill felicitated the Indian Football Heroes, who reached the semi - finals of Melbourne Olympics, 1956, in New Delhi on February 23, 2009 (3).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q60734385|Jim Cross]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q60734833|Danny Campbell]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q60735860|Jack Page]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q60829798|Rebeca Guber]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q60944987|Roger Maes]]''
| 
| [[بيلجيم]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q61029386|Gérard Gire]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q61080701|Abu Hena]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q61080791|Sheikh Md Abdullah]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:State Minister for Religious Affairs Alhaj Advocate Sheikh Md Abdullah delivers speech at Hajj management meeting 2019-05-16 (PID-0038640) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q61101983|מנחם מנדל]]''
| 
| [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q61161331|Stephen Schwartz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q61221263|Jean Luc Rosat]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q61229497|SM Mohsin]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:S. M. Mohsin cropped Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina awards Ekushey Padak 2020 at Osmani Memorial Auditorium Dhaka 2020-02-20 (PID-0034165) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q61283036|Azmi Mohamed Megahed]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مصر]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:عزمي مجاهد.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q61314646|Kartikeswar Patra]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q61355370|Godfrey Grima]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q61375379|Skariah Thomas]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Scariah Thomas.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q61481724|Luigi Roni]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q61556012|Bikram Keshari Barma]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q61625027|Mac Jack]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q61670448|Leanid Dziejka]]''
| 
| [[بيلاروس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Пасведчанне дэпутата Вярхоўнага Савета Рэспублікі Беларусь 12 склікання на імя Леаніда Дзейкі.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q61707992|Stephen C. de St. Jeor]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q61746483|Pierre Housieaux]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q61781035|Hans Grotz]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q61893591|Ravi Shankar Patnaik]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q61945598|Marc Pilcher]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q62072676|Adebayo Osinowo]]''
| 
| [[نائيجيريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q62081852|José Daniel Guccione]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:José Guccione.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q62126551|Roberto Rivas Reyes]]''
| 
| [[نڪاراگوا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Roberto Rivas 2013.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q62381879|Nick Mourouzis]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q62570988|John Obiero Nyagarama]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q62691119|Mutko Tsvetkov]]''
| 
| [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q62713325|Viktor Kelner]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q63004552|Wilberforce Kisamba Mugerwa]]''
| 
| [[يوگنڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q63197527|Florence Ridley]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q63198327|Dora Werzberg]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q63342260|Miguel Ángel Giubergia]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Miguel Giubergia.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q63381257|Pascal Monkam]]''
| 
| [[ڪيمرون]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q63457716|Mohammed Oreibi Majid al Khalifa]]''
| 
| [[عراق]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q63999140|Sangram Keshari Jena]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q64019473|Ludwig Wiedenmann]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q64095652|Фелікс Уладзіміравіч Шкірманкоў]]''
| 
| [[بيلاروس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q64097038|Jos De Man]]''
| 
| [[بيلجيم]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q64141250|Balli Durga Prasad Rao]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q64149281|Bernard Grégoire]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q64348965|Nitsa Tsitra]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q64399281|Zamuxolo Joseph Peter]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q64399294|Pumza Patricia Dyantyi]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q64399328|Jacqueline Mofokeng]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q64399347|Dorah Dunana Dlamini]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q64399408|Tandi Gloria Mpambo-Sibhukwana]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q64681381|Rayyān, Aḥmad ʻAlī Ṭāhā]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مصر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q64855254|Alexandros Isaris]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q64859158|Gouri Sankar Dutta]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q64860750|Anish Deb]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Anish Deb - Kolkata 2015-10-10 5402.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q64918366|Zdeněk Preclík]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q64929872|Joseph Ferris]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q64949184|Aminul Islam Mintu]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q65030790|Richard Laird]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q65038140|Svatopluk Kasalý]]''
| 
| [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Svatopluk Kasalý 28. 3. 2011.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q65166902|Joselito Falcão de Amorim]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Joselito Falcao de Amorim.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q65174387|Flaviola]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q65199622|Saeid Tashakkori]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:تشکری.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q65275379|Zaur Kantemirov]]''
| 
| [[آذربائيجان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q65428531|Chavalit Soemprungsuk]]''
| 
| [[ٿائيلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q65548621|Suresh Amonkar]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q65561109|Satya Deo Singh]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q65587383|Jacques Lajeanne]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q65587693|François Lantz]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q65590587|Alain Lescouet]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Hazan Lescouet Quénard Pinon 743 (M Lescouet).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q65592292|Gérard Marulier]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q65600672|Muslihan DS]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q65602099|Claude Schoettel]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q65602496|Patrick Simon]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Patrick Simon 1.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q65602566|Fernande Singer]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q65606835|Jean-Marie Zoellé]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jean-Marie Zoellé 18122010.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q65925031|Karim Salman]]''
| 
| [[عراق]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q65945406|Miguel Ángel Tábet]]''
| 
| [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Miguel Angel Tabet.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q66087270|Lakhdar Bouregaa]]''
| 
| [[الجزائر]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:لخضر بورڤعة.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q66124526|Ubong King]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ubong King in 2019.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q66144602|István Bérczi]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q66765131|Ramesh Tikaram]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q66777086|Ma. Bernardita Ramos]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q67100745|Myron J. Echenberg]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q67930607|Giovanni Gastel]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:2017 02 03 Pizzarotti Ferraris mostra le 100 facce della musica italiana Giovanni Gastel-1.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q68213462|Quarto Pianesi]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q68696106|Samsuddin Ahmed]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q68797025|Ada Bello]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ada C. Bello-LSU-1961.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q69802933|Ziaur Rahman Khan]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q69908032|Charles Bukeko]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q70250846|Felix Malyarenko]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Felix Malyarenko (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q70278592|William B. Helmreich]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q70554553|Amzad Hossain Sarker]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q70991299|Marcel Meys]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Marcel Meys1943.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q71965647|Vassilis Sevastis]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sevastis long-jump.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q74477144|Meyer Rubin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q74751689|René Sylvestre]]''
| 
| [[هيٽي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q75313948|Jocelyn Feilding]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q75388941|Princess Diana of Bourbon-Parma]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q75390661|Lord David Douglas-Hamilton]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q75599416|Michael Conybeare Sender]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q75620301|Clotilda Douglas-Yakimchuk]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q75661811|Alexander Brunton Badenoch]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q75866189|Sally Yolanda England]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q75904125|Maria-Alice de Marsillac Plunkett]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]&lt;br/&gt;[[جمھوريا آئرلينڊ|ريپبلڪ آف آئرلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q75936458|Melanie Forestier-Walker]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q76044131|Raja Kollure]]''
| 
| [[سري لنڪا|سريلنڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q76079057|Andrew Moncreiff]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q76120799|Morgan Rees-Williams, 3rd Baron Ogmore]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q76170613|Christopher Sanders]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q76367719|Ostap Lozynsky]]''
| 
| [[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q76429596|Kostas Kleftogiannis]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q76433189|Farid Ahmed]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q76814385|AKM Amanul Islam Chowdhury]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q76836042|Mockbul Hossain]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q76945602|Theo Jubitana]]''
| 
| [[سورينام]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Theo Jubitana.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q76947388|Osvaldo Cochrane Filho]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q77058159|Fernando Sandoval]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q77254925|Jean-Charles Nègre]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q77324578|Geoff Makhubo]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Geoff Makhubo, Mayor of Johannesburg.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q77353829|Mohamed Melehi]]''
| 
| [[مراڪش]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mohamed Melehi, Le360 - May 4, 2019.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q78575739|Bhekizizwe Peterson]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q78626233|Ana Magdalena]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q78933325|Charles Ehlinger]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q79275451|Ricardo Valderrama Fernández]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q79666066|Kiing Shooter]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q80253264|Carlos Marincovich]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Carlos Marincovich 1970s.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q80308776|Marc Daniëls]]''
| 
| [[بيلجيم]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Marc daniels-1720510798 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q80505957|Horacio Luis López]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q82504773|Mohammed Yaseen Mohammed]]''
| 
| [[عراق]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q82925403|Pino Grimaldi]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q83135813|Morris J. Viljoen]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q83214686|San'yūtei Takasuke]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q83618559|Jean-Claude Menand]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q83630761|Francisco Daniel Rivera Sánchez]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q84138873|Caterina Emili]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q84174794|Lorna Irungu]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q84497471|Li Wenliang]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:LiWengliang.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q84596019|Michel Rosenblatt]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q84737258|Hong Ling]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q84975812|Yoshio Tateishi]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q85005219|Lin Zhengbin]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q85098459|Mohammad-Reza Rahchamani]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:MohammadReza RahChamani 1397-08-23.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q85245727|Liang Wudong]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q85332141|Liu Shouxiang]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q85354114|Wang Xianliang]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q85504174|Liu Zhiming]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q85755827|Roy Edwards]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q85770058|Isaac Robinson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q85853174|Liu Xiaoxian]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q85853305|Xu Defu]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q85853522|Xiao Jun]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q85853556|Peng Yinhua]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q85861427|Grzegorz Guziński]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q85867731|Robert Znajomski]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Robert Znajomski.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q85873158|José Gentil Rosa]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q85877322|Simão Almeida]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q85881430|Liu Fan]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q85967536|Azizur Rahman]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q85969531|Habibullah Peiravi]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q85991636|Ibnu Saleh]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ibnu Saleh.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q85991691|Imran]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Anggota DPR Imran.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q85994920|Tengku Zulkarnain]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Tengku Zulkarnain.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q86206276|Xia Sisi]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q86206710|Huang Wenjun]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q86426444|Sami Shousha]]''
| 
| [[مصر]]&lt;br/&gt;[[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q86550970|Carlos Tapia García]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Carlos Tapia en LaMula.pe 2-38 screenshot.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q86709709|Mohammad Ali Ramazani Dastak]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q87066622|Ahmad Songi]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q87072653|Gonzalo Cerezo Barredo]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q87186121|Buchanan Sharp]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q87205979|Dukha Bhagat]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q87219910|Valerio Moro]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q87451176|Benon Magezi]]''
| 
| [[يوگنڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q87495680|Ikenwoli Godfrey Emiko]]''
| 
| [[نائيجيريا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:The Olu of Warri, Ogiame Ikenwoli.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q87511491|Lee Cha-su]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ ڪوريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q87558710|Roberto Stella]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q87652750|Nasser Shabani]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Nasser Shabani.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q87697765|Wen Zengxian]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q87830378|Francesco Saverio Pavone]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q87849018|Jiang Xueqing]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q87967184|Aris Dijksman]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q87975501|Narjes Khanalizadeh]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q87975990|Reza Mohammadi Langroudi]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q87976706|Esmail Yazdi]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Esmaeil Yazdi 2017-09-04.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q87999700|Hipólito Chaiña]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88036515|Ashutosh Mohanta]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88094808|Antonio Michele Stanca]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88179804|Joan Cuadrench i Aragonès]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88181154|Aileen Baviera]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Aileen Baviera.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88196412|António Vieira Monteiro]]''
| 
| [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88206609|Jean Leber]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88209709|Larry Edgeworth]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88223813|Admir Džubur]]''
| 
| [[بوسنيا ۽ ھرزگوينيا|بوسينيا ۽ ھرزگوينيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88326495|Jean-Jacques Razafindranazy]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]&lt;br/&gt;[[مڊگاسڪر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88332749|Sérgio Trindade]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88364089|José María Loizaga Viguri]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88373250|Sylvain Welling]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88373576|Jean-Marie Boegle]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88376163|María José Rubio Fuentes]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88382284|Calogero Rizzuto]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88386281|Nashom Wooden]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88387865|Hassan Milani]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88387896|Peter Myles]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88394294|Zororo Makamba]]''
| 
| [[زمبابوي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88420752|Olivier Schneller]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88430796|Borja Domecq Solís]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88461558|Maroof Afzal]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88465219|Dez-Ann Romain]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ٽرينيڊاڊ ۽ ٽوباگو|ٽرنيڊاڊ اينڊ ٽبيگو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88465409|David Edwards]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88465891|Lee Green]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88471669|Qiu Jun]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88505446|Orlando Staton]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Orlando Staton with the Fabulous Flemtones on February 28, 2020 at Tierney's Tavern in Montclair, New Jersey.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88529356|Abraham Levy Bressler]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88552871|Black N Mild]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88553411|Floyd Cardoz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Floyd Cardoz demonstrating Indian cuisine (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88564303|Lillo Venezia]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88592566|Jenny Polanco]]''
| 
| [[ڊومينيڪن ريپبلڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88602759|Giuseppe Berardelli]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88605041|Steven Dick]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88660090|Mohamed Farah]]''
| 
| [[صوماليا|سوماليا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88696349|Vasile Ouatu]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88719792|John F. Murray]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88720437|Kious Kelly]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88720923|Rose Marie Compaoré]]''
| 
| [[برڪینا فاسو|برڪينا فاسو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88788580|Alan Finder]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88799719|Usama Riaz]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88862963|Ruben Melogno]]''
| 
| [[يوراگوائي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88866458|Jésus Gayoso Rey]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88876722|Narciso Arranz Cerezo]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88919704|Jörn Kubicki]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88928087|Jacob Plange-Rhule]]''
| 
| [[گھانا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88946519|Romi Cohn]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88948586|Freddy Rodriguez]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88960423|Chato Galante]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Chato Galante Premios Goya 2019 - Mejor Película Documental (cropped) (2).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88961624|Daniel Davisse]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Daniel Davisse, Journée mémoire Holocauste, Esch-sur-Alzette-103.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88963159|Angelo Rottoli]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88974861|Amged S. El-Hawrani]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88975447|Adil El Tayar]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88978483|Maria Mercader]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q88979371|Javier Docampo]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89018986|Denise Millet]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89034303|Manuel Adolfo Varas]]''
| 
| [[ايڪواڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89043679|Peregrine Broadbent]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89044367|Lorena Borjas]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89047239|David Hodgkiss]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89058562|James T. Goodrich]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89090767|Viktar Dashkevich]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[بيلاروس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Viktar daszkievicz 01.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89107781|Tomas Oneborg]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89108362|Ángel Sánchez Mendoza]]''
| 
| [[ايڪواڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89118435|Rafael Gómez Nieto]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Inauguración del Jardín de los Combatientes de la Nueve en Madrid 14.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89126458|Pat Midgley]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89127551|Antonio Nonato Lima Gomes]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89190157|John Hartwall]]''
| 
| [[فنلينڊ|فن لينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89193385|José Antonio Martínez Bayo]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jose Antonio Martinez Bayo en Villel de Mesa.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89250938|April Dunn]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89251950|Bernardita Catalla]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ambassador Bernardita Catalla (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89266944|Cemil Taşcıoğlu]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89271759|Bob Glanzer]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89272139|Reggie Bagala]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89277337|Miquel Àngel Vaquer]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89278617|José Luis González Novalín]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89284961|Jacques F. Acar]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jacques-F-Acar.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89290024|Constantino Juri]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89300558|William Wolf]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89328137|Chang Kai]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89336547|Liu Li]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89336556|Mei Zhongming]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89337077|Zhu Heping]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89355538|Avram Goia]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89358641|Bernard Epin]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89388448|Omar Quintana]]''
| 
| [[ايڪواڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89388934|Rodrigo Pesántez Rodas]]''
| 
| [[ايڪواڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89392342|Carlo Colombara]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89412554|Florindo Corral]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89416505|Ismail Mohamed Abdulwahab]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89417365|Montserrat Sabater Bacigalupi]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89444493|Yang Jun]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89445395|Carlos González-Artigas]]''
| 
| [[ايڪواڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89452309|Jorge Orlando Semería]]''
| 
| [[ايڪواڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89455052|Muhammad Sirajul Islam]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89465759|Ito Curata]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ito Curata in his Mansion (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89469646|Silvio Devoto]]''
| 
| [[ايڪواڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89472100|Sa'ad Galadiman Patigi]]''
| 
| [[نائيجيريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89477474|Mel Boyaner]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89477590|Arlene Stringer-Cuevas]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89499451|Anick Jesdanun]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89499594|Shona Ferguson]]''
| 
| [[بوٽسوانا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Shona Ferguson.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89499996|Cyril Boulanger]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89500010|Fernando Labra Hidalgo]]''
| 
| [[چلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89501894|Ahmad Taheri]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89502052|Fuad Nahdi]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89502662|Kalil Haché]]''
| 
| [[ڊومينيڪن ريپبلڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89503586|Mary Roman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89514702|Feriha Öz]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89520802|Giovanni Coppiano]]''
| 
| [[ايڪواڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89526192|Wilhelm Burmann]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89532539|Patrick Gibson]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Gibson Brothers - 2018082190008 2018-03-23 Radio Regenbogen Award 2018 - Sven - 1D X MK II - 0178 - AK8I9908.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89552274|Abhay Bhardwaj]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Abhay Bharadwaj.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89559728|Wilson Villa]]''
| 
| [[ايڪواڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89562034|Jorge Chica]]''
| 
| [[ايڪواڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89564475|Lee Fierro]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89573517|Ahmad Tuyserkani]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89575597|Hervé de Buyer]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89579907|Seyed Mohsen Habibi]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89580542|Ali Khalafi]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89580736|Farzad Tazari]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89580754|Jean-Jacques Gressier]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89580995|Shahriar Sharifi]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89582186|Ezzat Khamoshi]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89582543|Seyed Abdullah Zavieh]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89582558|Plato Sohrabi]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89582564|Reza Neghaban]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89582569|Frida Wattenberg]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89584157|Jean-Jacques Siegel]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89584521|Terry Cutmore]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89584637|Brian Lambert]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89588532|Henri Ecochard]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ecochard.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89589522|Laurent Gruson]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89590162|Ron Rich]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89592254|Israel Carrera]]''
| 
| [[ڪيوبا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89599147|Jitendra Rathod]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89620524|Michael Yun]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89637292|Dolors Sala Carrió]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89656990|Juan Martín Velasco]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89666393|Ruben Burks]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89669404|Vincent Lionti]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89679283|Vicente Villagrá Blanco]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89690342|Eli Velder]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89697563|Anton Sebastianpillai]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89703537|Anita Fial]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89703948|Patrick Jones]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89768813|Charlotte Figi]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89795205|Marguerite Lescop]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89799501|Art Paleczny]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89819791|Joaquim Tosas i Mir]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89819849|Conrad Buchanan]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89826765|Rebecca Mack]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89860442|Marcelino García Pérez]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89888640|Christophe Pras]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89898390|Alex Layne]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89912075|Eddy Davis]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Eddy Davis Lisbon 2006.JPEG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89918324|Abdul Mabud Chowdhury]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89918929|Manolo Navarro]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89919082|Laneeka Barksdale]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89919363|Ricardo Castaneda]]''
| 
| [[گواتيمالا|گوئٽي مالا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89919484|Roberto Román Valencia]]''
| 
| [[ايڪواڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89924623|Liliane Marchais]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89932032|Sam McGhee]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89933671|Lee Bossom]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89934267|Ronnie A. Dixon]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89936212|Kiminobu Okada]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89938688|Giorgio Valoti]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89939488|Raimondo Balicco]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89952002|Leila Benitez-McCollum]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89957906|Ronald William Lewis]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89986954|Sento Masià]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:SentoMasia.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q89998424|Ben Hirschmann]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90025534|TM Giasuddin Ahmed]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90025619|Ugo Rozzo]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90027431|Hannes Schopf]]''
| 
| [[آسٽريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90030093|Edoardo Valli]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90046004|L. Douglas James]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90060899|Santiago Llorente Fernández]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90078508|Gonzalo Dasilva]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90121082|Ho Kam Ming]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90136425|Frank Gabrin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90143887|Burt Ballanfant]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90153083|Abdurakhman Martazanov]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90162943|Richard Richardson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90250643|Hamid Manouchehri]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90251510|Ali Behzad]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90274240|Elio Armas Nahón]]''
| 
| [[ايڪواڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90278503|Kapil Deo Kamat]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kapil Deo Kamat during his term as Panchayati Raj minister (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90314365|Syed Haider]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90324980|Azar Ahrabi]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90324982|Fayaz Ayache]]''
| 
| [[شام]]&lt;br/&gt;[[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90324987|Habib Zaidi]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90347409|Gustavo Orellana]]''
| 
| [[ايڪواڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90404814|Eulàlia Amorós Solà]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90405588|Kishen Bholasing]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kishen Bholasing 2015 - 3.PNG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90409657|Lionel Longueville]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90412083|Bas Mulder]]''
| 
| [[سورينام]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90415987|Leilani Jordan]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90416143|Zafar Sarfraz]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90419272|Lila Fenwick]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90419878|Baldiri Alavedra]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90424601|Victor Batista Falla]]''
| 
| [[ڪيوبا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90433310|Valeria Viveros]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90435726|Maria Krier]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90457604|J. Ronald Verrier]]''
| 
| [[هيٽي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90463320|Jaime Ruiz Sacristán]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90465882|Fevzi Aksoy]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90478547|Alby Kass]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90479494|Ann Sullivan]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90482625|Jason Hargrove]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90509901|Marylou Armer]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90515325|Jacqueline Cruz]]''
| 
| [[ڊومينيڪن ريپبلڪ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90531405|Gerald O. Glenn]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90561312|Tom Moore]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Tom Moore (soldier) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90605392|Robby Browne]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90642033|John Driscoll]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90683696|David Katzenstein]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90701193|Jorge Sebá]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90723872|Jerzy Eligiusz Główczewski]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Witkacy - Jerzy Główczewski - 1931-12.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90732093|Clida Martinez Ellison]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90792247|Gabriele Baldassini]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90812370|David Méresse]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90849569|Glider Ushñahua]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90852078|Gil Bailey]]''
| 
| [[جميڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Gil Bailey.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90855527|Richard Passman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90878164|Julio Andrade Malde]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90902581|Elio Peretto]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90909454|Ernesto Gutiérrez Vera]]''
| 
| [[ايڪواڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90925826|Rajesh Jayaseelan]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90959889|Alexander Ivan Bedini Guthrie]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90961853|Margit Feldman]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q90963525|Anjanette Miller]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91017527|Gian Carlo Ceruti]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91023351|Brian R. Miller]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91023739|Deon M. Crowell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91024228|James Norvell Flowers Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91024238|Annis Creese]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سينٽ ونسنٽ ۽ گريناڊائنز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91024446|Dave Roland]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91024806|Kenneth J. Moore]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91025303|Sterling Matthews]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91025490|Jerry Manley]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91025565|Gary Holmberg]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Gary Holmberg - 1959.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91025695|John-Sebastian Laird-Hammond]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91027383|Marie-France Chabanel]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91033075|Chad Capule]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91036102|Augusto Itúrburu]]''
| 
| [[ايڪواڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91073092|Louis Wilsenach]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91075109|Eastern Stewart]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91077024|Terrance Burke]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91077402|Noel Sinkiat]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91079038|Maria Linda Villanueva Sun]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91079360|George Valentine]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91079952|Keith Redding]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91079959|Susan Rokus]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91080484|Sterling Maddox]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sterling Ruffin Maddox, Jr. - 1959.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91083307|Krishan Arora]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91085228|Jane Murphy]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91087157|Gladys Mujajati]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91087664|Mary Agyeiwaa Agyapong]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91088331|Gérard Willocq]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91088373|Amrik Bamotra]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91088921|René Rosset]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91089299|Peter Tun]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91089367|Maureen Ellington]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91089388|Cheryl Williams]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91089696|Josiane Zauma Ebonja Ekoli]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91090296|Melujean Ballesteros]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91090318|Yves Latour]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91090338|Sara Trollope]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91090369|Julie Omar]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91102468|Gareth Roberts]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91106049|Edmond Adedeji]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91110677|ATM Alamgir]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91115657|Louis Jeannin]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91116120|Joseph Djivélékian]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91118642|Elsie Sazuze]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ملاوي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91120080|Alice Kit Tak Ong]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91120760|Leilani Dayrit]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91121189|Janice Graham]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91121613|Syed Zishan Haider]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91121930|Aimee O'Rourke]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91122088|Areema Nasreen]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91122861|Lynsay Coventry]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91146921|Ted Monette]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:FEMA - 40478 - Ted Monette, FEMA's Director of the Office of Federal Coordinati.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91151546|John Percy Leon Lewis]]''
| 
| [[گيانا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91159963|Jerry Givens]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91167491|Claude Lafortune]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Claude Lafortune - 04 (cropped).JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231278|Hamza Pacheeri]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231280|Fayez Ayache]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231284|Eric Labeja-Acellam]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231288|Alfa Saadu]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231290|Liz Glanister]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231294|Rahima Bibi Sidhanee]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ٽرينيڊاڊ ۽ ٽوباگو|ٽرنيڊاڊ اينڊ ٽبيگو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231299|Barbara Sage]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231302|Linda Clarke]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231306|Liz Shale]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231311|Mandy Siddorn]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231314|Glen Corbin]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231316|Thomas Harvey]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231319|Andrew Treble]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231321|Michael Allieu]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231325|Barbara Moore]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231330|Donna Campbell]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231333|Abdul Gellaledin]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوڊان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231338|Donald Suelto]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231341|Stephen Pearson]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231346|Linnette Cruz]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231351|Elvira Bucu]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231354|Amor Padilla Gatinao]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231356|Andy Howe]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231361|Ade Raymond]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231364|Leilani Medel]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231368|Pooja Sharma]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231371|Emily Rose Perugia]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231375|John Alagos]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231379|Jenelyn Carter]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231384|Joan Grimshaw]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231386|Amanda Forde]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231391|Elbert Rico]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231394|Oscar King Jr.]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231398|Gilbert Barnedo]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231399|Charles Kwame Tanor]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[گھانا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231403|Kevin Smith]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231406|Gladys Nyemba]]''
| 
| [[زمبابوي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231408|Amarante Dias]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231411|Lourdes Campbell]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231414|Barry England]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231416|Ruben Muñoz Jr.]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231420|Brian Mfula]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231424|Simon Guest]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231426|Brian Darlington]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231430|Rajesh Kalraiya]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231432|Wilma Banaag]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231435|Nick Joseph]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91231774|Jayne Harvey]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91245547|Martin Loveday]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[زمبابوي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91250620|Guri Melleby]]''
| 
| [[ناروي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Guri Melleby - Skytterprinsesse (1967) (14495766559).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91252955|Manjeet Singh Riyat]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91262852|José Marroquín Yerovi]]''
| 
| [[ايڪواڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91290519|Mahen Ramloll]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91308531|Skylar Herbert]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91332046|André Charon]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91332579|Pierre Gilet]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91333378|Jean Pouaha]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91333451|Ali Djemoui]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91334108|Sami Reda]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91336641|Gerallt Davies]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91381549|Saburō Matsushita]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91383699|Philippe Lerche]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91384778|Kabkéo Souvanlasy]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91388450|Guy Pfister]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91389053|Serge Bokobza]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91428965|Benjamin Levin]]''
| 
| [[لٿوينيا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91437271|Beryl Bernay]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91449519|Rino Clerici]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91461341|Alain Le Garrec]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91503406|Ella King Russell Torrey]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91584337|Sudhir Sharma]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91595066|Keith MacVicar]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91595238|Jean MacVicar]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91621670|Belco Bah]]''
| 
| [[مالي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91655944|Shahin Shahablou]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91665169|Joel Rogosin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91669146|Khalif Mumin Tohow]]''
| 
| [[صوماليا|سوماليا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91670963|Jérôme Valette]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91672058|James Hakim]]''
| 
| [[زمبابوي]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڏکڻ سوڊان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91672124|Patrick Delalaing]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91672457|Mohammad Hassen Hossenbux]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91686786|Sékou Kourouma]]''
| 
| [[گني|گائينا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91693470|Donald Reed Herring]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91707058|Danny Delaney]]''
| 
| [[جمھوريا آئرلينڊ|ريپبلڪ آف آئرلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91717351|Éric Loupiac]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91719339|Ton van den Heuvel]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91756690|Fred the Godson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Fred the Godson, late 2016.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91756983|Jean-Paul Michel]]''
| 
| [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91767492|Emeterio Gómez]]''
| 
| [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91769815|Shree Vishna Rasiah]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91776753|Tom Scully]]''
| 
| [[جمھوريا آئرلينڊ|ريپبلڪ آف آئرلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91783720|Annette Blier]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91789659|Hannes Schedel]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91824964|Anthony Tsai Brooks]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91840218|Ceybil Jefferies]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91861707|Julian Perry Robinson]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91892839|Melonie Mitchell]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91893996|Angie Cunningham]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91911557|Mario César Romero]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91962972|Burton Rose]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91964956|Carole Brookins]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91976803|Philip Kahn]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91976807|Bertha LaForest]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q91976809|Kenneth Saunders III]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92022576|Mark Appelbaum]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92037433|Ronald Newman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92041406|Marco DiFranco]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92045123|Clifford Martin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92054378|Noureddine Zidouni]]''
| 
| [[الجزائر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92059713|Gunnar Seijbold]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92079066|Valentina Blackhorse]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92104585|Joyce Pacubas-Le Blanc]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92106989|Thomas Wetzen]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92110448|Kenneth Roseman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92152403|Princy Xavier]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92157950|Milan Stevanovich]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q240592|Socialist Republic of Macedonia]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92158826|Robert Francisco]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92159374|Mohamed Ben Omar]]''
| 
| [[نائيجر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92168119|Martine Crefcoeur]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Martine Crefcoeur 1961.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92174131|Fernando Miteff]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92179738|Peter Gill]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92196478|Jonathan Coelho]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92197171|Jack Lotz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jack Lotz.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92199833|Sher Enriquez]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92202893|Nicholas Lee]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92203480|Leslie Pieroni]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92204901|Jeffrey Pendleton]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92205981|Katy Davis]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92205988|Emma Davis]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92206621|Zafar Rasheed Bhatti]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92208184|Édith Arnoult-Brill]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Édith Arnoult-Brill-FIG 2001.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92212507|Celia Yap-Banago]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92215337|Zoe Mungin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92216910|Jacques Fribourg]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92219835|Gonzalo Lopez]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92262595|Alicia Cruz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92264934|Celia Lardizabal Marco]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92279689|Richard Charles Canazzi]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92304326|Corliss Henry]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92307070|Francisco Méndez]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92310023|Janissa Delacruz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92359243|Claude Barouch]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92378558|Madhvi Aya]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92391135|Robert E. Proell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92394499|Joseph M. Assyd]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92409837|Syahrul]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Syahrul Wali Kota.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92419043|Wilford Kepler]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92419274|Mary Kepler]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92455638|Andrea Circle Bear]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92464475|Edgar Heidorn]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92472344|Conrad Buckley]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92474565|Barbara Gaines]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92476562|Wayne Haskell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92480593|Cherie La Pelusa]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92495796|Dieter Hofmann]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q16957|German Democratic Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92518002|Henry Miller]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92539116|Daniel S. Paletko]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92541835|Luis Modesto Páez]]''
| 
| [[ايڪواڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92542838|Deborah Gatewood]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92545047|Matthew Stehr]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92548855|Antonio Martinez]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92594539|Louise Coles]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92606215|Juan Martinez]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92611638|Louise Endel]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92620791|William Nguyen]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92624775|Pamela Orlando]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92635842|Jun Maeda]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92637621|Sławomir Sokół]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92649435|Gulshan Ewing]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92715252|T. Norman Van Cott]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92732453|Daniel Demetrius Newell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92750722|Mark Barisonek]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92751809|Francis Boccabella III]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92766758|Victor Chung]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92768859|Dian Phipps]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92768870|Alberto Camacho]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92768893|Ketty Herawati Sultana]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92771548|Joseph Feingold]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92774800|José Torres]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92774810|Orlando Moncada]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92776593|Idris Bey]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92777833|Matteo De Cosmo]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92780896|Brittany Bruner-Ringo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92790696|Bill Gladstone]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92791254|Sylvie Vincent]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92798976|Miguel Marte]]''
| 
| [[ڊومينيڪن ريپبلڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92800215|Alfonso Salazar]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92800742|B. Narayan. Rao]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92801627|Paul Cary]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92805303|Randall French]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92826239|Samuel Hargress II]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92843284|Yang Chongqi]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92849109|Ke Huibing]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92861205|Don DiPetrillo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92864552|Don Osceola]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92865607|Calvin Harrison]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92867489|David Goulette]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92878926|Madeline Kripke]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92891982|Ed Schilling]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92896391|Li Yangbo]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92901064|Allah Yar Ansari]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92920768|Boualem Benkhelouf]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92934641|Robert Suit]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92949314|David Beyl]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92957910|Josephine Seier]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92967426|Marie June Skender]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92968758|Annelda Holtkamp]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92972473|Bernadette Kelter]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92974044|Mary Francele Sherburne]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92974147|Mary Regine Collins]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92977116|David Berg]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92985221|Irvin Herman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q92987708|Dan Spano]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93075844|Rien Smits]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93076125|Rina Smits]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93088160|Kyle Brown]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93096025|Jim Kearnan]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93115047|Venko Kanev]]''
| 
| [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93120505|Cornelius Watkins]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93122022|Muhammad Ahmad Asha]]''
| 
| [[نائيجيريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93129383|Adamu Suleiman]]''
| 
| [[نائيجيريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93130940|Mary Hackett]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93130944|Jessie Ancona]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93142529|Lamoyne King]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93146061|Tadashi Tsufura]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93146187|Justa Barrios]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93160858|Sérgio Bueno de Camargo]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93169354|Altamiro Moyses Zimerfogel]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93171213|Philip Foglia]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93211513|Kareem Haji]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93222035|Daniel Thomas Carr]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93233292|Beppe Del Colle]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93242709|Nyla Moore]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93244599|Willem Balke]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93245406|Cosimo Semeraro]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93267085|Preston Olive]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93270562|Glenn Wefel]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93270951|Beverly Wefel]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93275468|Jesse Willard Hathorne]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93278657|Joan Cunnane]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93295914|Gary Washington]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93296429|Rafael Cargill]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93297721|Priscilla Carrow]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93298301|Edward Becote]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93299047|Wayne Edwards]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93300107|Derik Braswell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93303617|Anita Robinson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93309744|Mehmet Şah Demirhan]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93338240|Eduardo Robles-Holguin]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93340743|Leonard Auerbach]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93341845|Stephen Cino]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93345570|Rex Damon Begay]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93345895|Bradley James Ghilarducci]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93345899|Michael Fleming]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93351605|André Egri]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93377076|Suleiman Adamu]]''
| 
| [[نائيجيريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93377516|Rory Price]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93380491|Clifford Childs]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93394215|August Pauger]]''
| 
| [[آسٽريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93395406|Roman Stadelmann]]''
| 
| [[آسٽريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93421326|Jack Taylor]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93427505|Pedro Tenorio Matanzo]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Pedro Tenorio Matanzo 2017.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93431342|Antonio Rodríguez de las Heras]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:RH en Zafra.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93431362|Johnny Copeland]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93436209|Fryni Arvaniti]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93443209|Raquela Mesa-Acosta]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93449034|Barry Webber]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93453945|Conrad Razidlo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93473479|Carlos Ernesto Escobar Mejía]]''
| 
| [[ايل سيلويڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93488824|Gerald Glisson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93494556|Mohamed Hamud Omar]]''
| 
| [[صوماليا|سوماليا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93498853|Gerald Slater]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93506856|Gerson Peres]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Deputado Federal Gerson Peres.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93512574|Maureen Ciolek]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93512807|Aharon Walkin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93514005|Jorge Ortiz-Garay]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93521975|Anthony Szczygielski]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93525826|Helen Molina]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93530184|Eli Klausner]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93584226|Jimmy Glenn]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93587125|Maria Lopez]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93593932|Wendy Bishop]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93598095|William Dean Brame]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93607966|Raymond Scholwinski]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93614577|Yoshio]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93615558|Nancy Bisschop]]''
| 
| [[بيلجيم]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93630916|Kim Blanchar]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93633102|Willie Levi]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93636186|Raymond Mitchell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93641586|Eric Frazier]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93643731|Antonia Leon]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93683887|Tam Mai]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93698550|Abdelmajid Ben Aicha]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93705140|Jacques Reymond]]''
| 
| [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93707459|Paul Alloun]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93768263|Sushil Kumar]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93774007|Daniel Walters]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93776347|Raymond Geraci]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93784704|Murat Dilmener]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93838244|Vicente André Gomes]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93860270|Sue Gargett]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93868410|Jesus Chediak]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93875993|Sandy Pratt]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93876058|Johannes Beck]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93881569|Abdelfattah Abdrabbo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93898822|Unique Clay]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93903544|Guadalupe Ramos]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93929514|Noel Walsh]]''
| 
| [[جمھوريا آئرلينڊ|ريپبلڪ آف آئرلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93939001|Hari Vasudevan]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93943136|Michael Clegg]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93943796|Joan Neudecker]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93956977|Paul Vasquez]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Paul Bear Vasquez by Gage Skidmore.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93957499|Rose Liberto]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93962279|Celso Mendoza]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q93967506|Gérard Cocrelle]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94016601|James Andres]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94018988|Tiffany Mofield]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94019590|Tom Omaña Luna Jr.]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94043719|Anna Mohr]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94061081|Jack Berg]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94070745|Alan Ortiz]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94073090|Charles Roberts]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94087538|Belly Mujinga]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94096258|Dorothy Pearl Davis]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94128948|Motoko Fujishiro Huthwaite]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Monuments Men Honored - Heroes protected art work in WWII-(2015) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94217572|Magomed Aliomarov]]''
| 
| [[روس]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94249876|Shōbushi Kanji]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Shokiri-1.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94311480|Denith Deason]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94349561|Marion Goldetsky Klein]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94353812|Maurice Dotson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94365464|Clayton Snare]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94412286|Óscar López Acosta]]''
| 
| [[هونڊورس|هنڊوراس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94434142|Edward Crogan]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94440981|Munir Mangal]]''
| 
| [[افغانستان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Defense.gov News Photo 100707-F-7552L-006 - Commander of the International Security Assistance Force Gen. David H. Petraeus 3rd from left U.S. Army speaks with Afghan Minister of Security.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94477252|Marie Pino]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94477711|Abdikani Mohamed Wa’ays]]''
| 
| [[صوماليا|سوماليا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94511714|Richard Cramer]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94523479|John Paul Eberhard]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94524203|Marcus Pino]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94528806|Hellyn Moore Pawula]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94530576|Genyte Dirse]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94531325|Billy Farrell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94547938|Mary Santiago]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94550864|Nino Cassanello]]''
| 
| [[ايڪواڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94567016|Gloria Jameson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94572548|Alex Ruperto]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94573130|Bobby McCoskey]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94574829|Halil Karabulut]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94575477|Paul Odighizuwa]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[نائيجيريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94579153|Douglas Roberts]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Douglas Roberts - 1968.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94579402|Henry Camacho]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94579891|Ruth Median]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آسٽريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94580968|Tendol Gyalzur]]''
| 
| [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94583822|Hans Bär]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94613962|Jim Pruett]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94616677|Ernesto Guzman Lara]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94643983|unnamed medical worker]]''
| 
| [[مڊگاسڪر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94648405|Benjamin Smalls]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94657640|James Mahoney]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94690321|Mojibur Rahman Talukder]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94694236|Georgia Litwack]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94699977|Tin Aye]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94700336|Randy Narvaez]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94700689|Joseph Santaguida]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94709855|Berisford Anthony Morse]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94713622|Peggy Ndubisi]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[نائيجيريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94799520|Donnell Kirchner]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94864655|Joey Giambra]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94924250|Frankline Ndifor]]''
| 
| [[ڪيمرون]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94941476|Patricia Forster]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94944470|Esteban Yáñez Pazos]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94945959|Hatsy Yasukochi]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94966479|Lenora Garfinkel]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94972710|Wilson Roosevelt Jerman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Wilson Roosevelt Jerman (crop).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94973282|William Crain]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94981721|Vanessa Mackey]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94987056|Mark Hall]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94994278|Miquéias Fernandes]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94994310|João Kabeção]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94994337|Lourdes Catão]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Foto de Lourdes..png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94994347|Mário Chermont]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94994352|Rafael Fragoso]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94994691|Joshua Yasuo Suzuki]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[جاپان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94995489|Rommel Bernarte]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94995575|Ralphy Campos]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94997568|Rachel Verbaan]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94997852|Hernán Alemán]]''
| 
| [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94997878|Alberto Tejedor]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q94998033|Reber Zandi]]''
| 
| [[سويڊن]]&lt;br/&gt;[[عراق]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95128547|Ken Nightingall]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95147136|Alyce Chenault Gullattee]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95151336|Petr Šmaha]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Petr-Šmaha.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95152882|Trevor Belle]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95153930|Keith Wade]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95155945|Jaromír Joo]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95175836|Vladimír Řehořek]]''
| 
| [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95176753|Jiřina Kumstátová]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95190573|Carlos Arturo Garcia]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95207707|Charlie Burrell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95216366|Sorin Iftimi]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95232940|Eugene J. Sayfie]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95250542|Donna M. Morrissey]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95345195|Emilio DiPalma]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95377523|Daniel Kopál]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95381440|Libuše Holečková]]''
| 
| [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95381819|Miroslav Jirounek]]''
| 
| [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95390382|Sally Rowley]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sally Rowley - freedom rider arrest 1961 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95391797|Lydia Baštecká]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95393540|Marie Mudrová]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95399285|Edith Irvine]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95416463|Hussain Ahmad Kanjo]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95423359|Kamrun Nahar Putul]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95434619|Wegene Debele]]''
| 
| [[ايٿوپيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95446434|Stephen P. A. Brown]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95491073|Fred Westbrook]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95502391|Santiago Baten-Oxlaj]]''
| 
| [[گواتيمالا|گوئٽي مالا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95507915|Jose Ayala]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95573131|Judith Bemis]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95577004|Wang Bing]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95577281|Feng Xiaolin]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95577358|Zhang Kangmei]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95578805|Douglas Linn Hickok]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95579452|Elizabeth Fulop]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95613600|Salvatore Pica]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95629701|Pepe Tapia]]''
| 
| [[چلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95638573|Jeffrey Ronald Henry Muzljakovich]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95645973|James Leach Miller]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95650616|Samuel Joseph Lococo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95660168|Paul McCurrie]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95670840|Hugo Ryckeboer]]''
| 
| [[بيلجيم]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95676290|Fakhruddin Syed]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95692819|David Ford]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95694247|Yehudah Jacobs]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95701122|Brahm Kanchibhotla]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Brahm Kanchibhotla.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95702276|Zubair Ahmed]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95727053|Barbara Ossenkopp]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95737055|Mário Veríssimo]]''
| 
| [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95747603|Flossie Lee Bournes]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880217|Alan Michael Twofoot]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880218|Ronald R. Erdman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880219|Charles Robert Keal]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880220|Shirley Crute]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880221|Kenneth Richard Coombs]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880222|Bobby Joseph Hebert]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880229|Robert N. Winsor]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880231|Andrew Kowalczyk]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880233|David F. Savitt]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880234|Thomas William Campbell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880239|Lawrence Littig]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880243|Antoinette Tosco]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880244|Marvin L. Thomas]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Marvin Thomas - 1956.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880245|Dalma Holloway Torres]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880246|Ethel R. Fonti]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880247|Michael Giangrande Sr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880248|Philip Braverman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880255|Ralph Plaisance]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880258|Pierina D. Borsoi]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880259|Willard John Hoyt]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880260|Timothy J. Liszewski]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880265|Barbara J. Norris]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880269|Donald Raymond Haws]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880270|Mattie F. Adams]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880271|Ruth E. Shinn]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880272|Robert Dugal]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880274|Roberta Gulick]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880283|Carol Davis]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880284|Gomer Richards Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Gomer Richards Jr. - high school graduation 1954.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880285|Steven L. Freedman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880286|Vincie Teresa DeRose]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880292|Delia Regina DiTullio]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880295|Ken Caley]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880296|Jean-Claude Henrion]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880297|Grace Lee Hargrave Cradeur]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880298|Ronnie Estes]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880303|Mary Ellen Houle]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880307|Patrick C. Parks]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880308|Daniel S. Pincu]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880309|Norman Gulamerian]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880310|Patricia L. Henry]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880311|Angel Escamilla]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880317|Russell D. Green]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Russell Dale Green - 1945.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880325|Scott Douglas Woodard]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880337|Russell Arnold Nielsen]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880362|Helen Wall]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880375|Richard Edward Rutledge]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Richard Rutledge - 1950.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880383|Daniel Blume]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880778|Richard J. Conway III]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880779|Betty M. Bradshaw]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880780|John C. West Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880781|Dorothy Alma Ennis D'Ostilio]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880782|Karen Kay Bentley]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Karen Kugler - 1958.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880783|Thomas Kevin Milo Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880791|Donald Martin Puffer]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880792|Danny Ray Bierman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880793|Paul Francis Siefert Sr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Paul Seifert - 1961.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880794|Richard M. Glidden]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880800|Lela Reed]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880803|Ruth Skapinok]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880804|Conrad Ifill]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ٽرينيڊاڊ ۽ ٽوباگو|ٽرنيڊاڊ اينڊ ٽبيگو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880805|Betty Sue Harber Carney]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880807|Edward Ciocca]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880808|Pilar Molina Reyes Rodriques]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880811|Corinne Rhodes]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880817|Richard Kiddle]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880818|Frank Miszkiewicz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880819|John Joseph Crowe]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880820|Roger Liddell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880827|Michael Wrotniak Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880829|John Poleon]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880830|Joan M. Heaney]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880831|Stephen J. Clinton]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880833|Antoinette Marie Lutz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880834|Charles Jernigan]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880843|Jean M. Winterbottom]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880844|Juanita Sanchez-Valdez]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880845|Robert Bruce Harrell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880846|Paul Edward Herbst]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880847|John Francis McClintock]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880851|Robert C. Moen Sr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880862|Alice Glazer]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880874|Jean Marie Hazelwood]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880886|Alice Louise Trout]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Alice Lukens - 1957.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880897|Norton A. Kent]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880909|Paul Shelden]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880920|Jeanne Stone Rusnak]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880930|John Nakawatase]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880940|Huguette Dorsey]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880948|Harold Dixon]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880956|Carl Robert Bentley]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880957|Bette Jones]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bette Marie McTague - 1955.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880958|Alan A. Potanka]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880964|Robert P. Rust]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880969|Anthony J. Valdati Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880970|Hal Upjohn]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95880971|Samuel Kramer]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881335|Thomas I. Atwood]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881336|Vinton Timely Mason]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881337|Dorthe J. Flick]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881338|Arlene Chesley]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881339|Roger Lehne]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881340|George Freeman Winfield]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881345|Donald J. Horsfall]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881349|Barbara Stack]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881351|Thomas E. Anglin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881352|Rose Mary Infantino]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881359|Vince Woodward]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881360|Elaine Cupka]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881363|Doris Brown]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881364|Harley E. Acker]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881365|Veil David DeVillier]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881368|Joyce Posson Winston]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881373|Arnold Obey]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881375|Ethel Hamburger]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881376|Marjorie L. Goolsby]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881377|Luiza Ogorodnik]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881385|Pio Mactal Vilar Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881394|Richard C. Schug]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881405|Adelfo Ruiz Calvo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881413|Stanley Moser]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881425|Joseph J. Ingram Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881435|Morris Loeb]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881452|Carl J. Hebert Sr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Carl John Hebert - 1963.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881461|Larry Rathgeb]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881468|John McKeon]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881479|Douglas Hanby]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881485|Teresa A. Olbrich]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881486|John F. Cannon]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881487|William U. Roulette III]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881488|Dawn M. Peryer]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881489|Elaine Jeannette Beaulieu]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881497|Ronald Boccacio]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881499|Peter Crisanti]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881500|Ellen Elizabeth Fabry]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881501|Clarence Robert Ellis]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Robert Ellis - 1944.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881504|Celestino Padilla Sr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881510|Mary A. Cole]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881511|Earl Avers]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881512|Cindy Lou Mack]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881513|Julia Martinez]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881514|Frederick Anthony Palazzo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881522|Yvonne S. Orlando]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881523|Marie Virginia Leto]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881524|Evelyn Gertrude Brant-Graf]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Evelyn Russell - 1951.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881525|Patricia A. Carrigan]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881920|Audrey LeMaire Morvant]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881921|Michael I. Sumergrad]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881922|Sean Christian Keville]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881923|Carol A. Castle]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881926|Jean Munson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881932|Irene S. Allen]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881933|Carmen Rodriguez]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881934|Helen Sutton]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881935|Deloris C. Traver]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881939|Richard L. Houle]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881954|Thomas A. Adamavich]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881962|Gaetano Lombardo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881970|Kenneth L. Jewel]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881982|Gloria Zimmerman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881988|Robert Lee Amos]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95881998|John J. Valentine]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882005|Edward J. Deasy Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882017|Vera Flint]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882040|Clementine E. Jamgochian]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882045|Beverly J. Plessinger]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882046|Robert Michael Sedor]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882047|John Cassano]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882048|Jean Adele Walkins]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882049|Milton Sivels Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882055|Terrence George Driscoll]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882058|Janice Lin Bisley]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882059|Anna Sternik Warren]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882061|Melford Henson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882062|Gene Zahas]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882066|Krist Angielen Guzman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882071|Diana G. DeVito Swist]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Diana G. DeVito - 1958.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882072|Fred J. Felella Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882073|Mike Field]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882074|Anne Turner Gaillard]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Cornelia Annette Turner - 1962.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882075|Marlene B. Mandle]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882081|Constance M. O'Connor]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882084|Peter Bainum]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882085|Zoao Makumbi Sr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882087|Charlie Hopper]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882088|Bettie London Traxler]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882093|Herbert Nygren]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882097|Marsha Lee Holiday]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882098|Bruce W. Sowalski]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882099|Amelia Scott Dougherty]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Amelia Martha Scott - 1953.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882100|Janice Preschel]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Janice Preschel - 1977.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882104|Maxwell M. Mozell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882109|Joseph Migliucci]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882110|Philip A. Scardilli]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882111|Theodore Robert Zaterka]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882112|Barbara E. Woznicki]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882522|Torrin Jamal Howard]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882529|Robert Steven Seldin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882542|Rocco Anthony Ward Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882551|Lynne Sierra]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882559|William Brett Tracy]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882564|Marion Krueger]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882565|Kenneth R. Going]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882566|Robert C. Blades]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882567|Jolene Blackburn Robison Wahgren]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882576|Richard Daniel Harris]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882577|Russell Aucott]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882578|Kelly Doyle Oliver]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882579|Walter Everett Barton]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882580|Joyce Roberts]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882581|Adrienne Eugina Doolin Howard]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882584|John Robert Oglesbee]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882590|Jean D. Tobin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jean Nilson - 1947.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882591|Howard J. Bender]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882592|Randolph Maitz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882593|Donald Geoffrey Helliwell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882601|Wilfred Jay Sikkema]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882602|Anna Elizabeth Pearson Lugg]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882603|Ronald Burdette Culp]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882604|Robert Charles Bazzell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882605|Jose Vitelio Gregorio]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[گواتيمالا|گوئٽي مالا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882607|Edward Russell Helfrich]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882615|Dorothy Spanos]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882616|Nancy A. Richard]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Nancy Nutter - 1952.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882617|Mary Ann Yazzie]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882618|Nancy Taylor]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882620|Mary Ann Scata]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882627|Virginia Bettencourt]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Virginia Navarra - 1945.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882628|Dolores A. Vail]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882629|Marguerite M. Horgus]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Marguerite Wolanski - 1950.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882630|Brenda Lee Orebaugh]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882631|Alice Fraher-Mason]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882639|Linda L. Orendorff]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882640|Nora Malis]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882641|Marie A. Detrick]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882642|Michael L. Trombley]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Michael Lee Trombley - 1958.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882643|Edith Costanzo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882645|Ronald Wilfred LePage]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882652|Edward A. Masterson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882653|Dante Dennis Flagello]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882654|Raymond W. Wilkinson Sr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882655|Stewart Markham Fish]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882660|Barry G. Fisher]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882664|Carl Gunther Reiss]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1206012|German Reich]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882665|Luke Workoff]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95882666|Janet M. Brown]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883101|Linda Nute]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883102|John E. Broadly]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883107|Florence Marks]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883111|Carmen Lydia Muniz Rodriguez]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883112|Calvin E. Messner]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883113|Charles Willis Alston]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883114|Thomas Neal Therrian]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883115|Steve Joltin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883116|Marie Caronia]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883124|Marion Klein]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883125|Liudas Karolis Mikalonis]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883126|Alice Coopersmith Furst]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883127|Stephen J. Chamberlin Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883132|Maclear Jacoby Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Maclear Jacoby Jr. - 1989.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883136|Barry Kaye]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883137|Joraine Sieber Groat]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883138|Douglas H. Diamond]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Douglas H. Diamond - 1955.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883139|Walter M. Eagles Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883143|James Ventrillo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883148|Melita Baker]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883149|Jim J. Wolf Sr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883150|Frances M. Pilot]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Frances Macho - 1956.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883151|Merlene Sue Hughes]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883152|Helen Silvia]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883156|James Lowell Miller Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883161|Joan Cecile Berngen]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883162|Laura Yopp]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883163|Carole Montalbano]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883164|Wesley Richard Fahrbach II]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883169|Craig Franken]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883173|Anthony V. Racka]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883174|Stanley Marvin Grossman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883175|Francis A. Kennedy]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Francis A. Kennedy - 1950s.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883176|Raymond Paul Janssen]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883185|Bob Barnum]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883186|Katherine Ann Birkmaier]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883187|Carol Freedman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883188|John B. Lynch]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883189|Richard Alexander Ross Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883193|John B. Ahrens]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883196|Leon Martin Beels]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883199|Tonna Lee Pratt]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883200|Martha Eddy O'Brien]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883202|Patricia Plante]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883206|Carl A. Philipp]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883213|Crystal LaBelle]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883222|Fred Walter Gray]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883231|Frederick Brown Starr]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883241|Dolores M. Madera]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883253|Michael Angelo Church]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Michael A. Church - 1968.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883651|Frank McClellan Worthington]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883659|James Ronald Conley]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ron Conley - 1969.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883660|Florence Ethel Buenzly]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883661|Sandra McCauley]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883662|Gertrude Clemmer]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883663|Beverly J. Collins]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883664|Ronald P. Clark]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883665|Paul Martinez]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883673|Cheryl E. Petty]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883674|Monica Maley]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883675|Carla Thompson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883676|Joan M. Cargill]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883682|Robert M. Shaw]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883685|Jeanne Madden Cibroski]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883686|Elizabeth Harris Tirrell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883687|Steven J. Huber]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883688|Billie Jean Michael Habermehl]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883689|Darla Eileen Brown]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883698|James W. Landis]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883699|Arthur Louis Thibault]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883700|Gary Tillery]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883701|Michael James Reagan]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883708|Tony Maldonado]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883710|Tracie L. Heverly]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883711|Roxana Griswold Foreman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883712|Peggy Rakestraw]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883713|Norman Leslie Jenkins]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883714|John Fusco]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883721|Harry P. Misthos]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883723|Allen Joseph Spinner]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883724|Salomon S. Podgursky]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883725|Ellen Marie Pauze]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883726|JoAnn Stokes-Smith]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883735|Joseph Colasurdo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883744|Carol Sue Rubin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883754|Irvin Alder]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883769|Denise Camille Buczek]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883780|Richard J. Rome]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883795|Eileen Marie Stanton]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883807|Susan McPherson Gottsegen]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883820|Londia Viola Mongold Deavers]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883829|Deyrold Arteaga]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[هيٽي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883834|Paul James Nagy]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883835|Joseph T. Cappello]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883836|Maria Tassiopoulos]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883837|Alberto Castro]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883838|Helen Boles Days]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883846|Carole Kaye]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883847|Richard Joseph Lenihan Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95883848|Luther Coleman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884214|JoAnne Katherine Walther]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884215|Durlene Clontz Shuffler]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884216|Jeanette Gilmour]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jeanette Gilmour - 1960.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884217|John Joseph Christiana Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884218|Fritz Wilhelm Reisgies]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884226|Ronald Jacobus]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ronald Jacobus - 1956.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884227|Bernard David Seckler]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884228|Clifford J. Williams]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884229|Bette Allred Weatherly]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884232|Robert Manley Argo Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884238|Phil Langley]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884239|Mary Frances Parsels Dennis]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884241|Mary M. Desole]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mary Margaret Thomas - 1943.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884242|John F. Von Sternberg Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884244|Thomas Tarbell Russell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884246|Myrtha Celifie]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[هيٽي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884254|Norma Hoza]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Norma Lenore Bratschi - 1937.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884256|Nita Pippins]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884259|Gloria Allen Moskowitz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884261|Edward J. Bridgeford Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884268|Billy Ostland]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884283|Rodrick Samuels]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884292|Rita Paas]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884301|Israel Sauz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884313|Paul R. McQuade]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884322|Robert L. Crahen]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884332|Daniel James Parr]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884351|Robert Grant Conner]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884362|Merrick Dowson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884373|Verla L. Courey]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884380|Patricia Gibbons]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884382|Thomas Allen Catron]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884384|Isaias Mendoza]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884385|Charles Donald Neal]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884387|Wanda Bailey]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884392|John Herman Clomax]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884400|Emmanuel Demetri]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884402|Bruce P. Biesenbach Sr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bruce P. Biesenbach, Sr.-(1945 - 2020).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884404|Artemis Nazarian]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[شام]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884407|Bill Mantell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884416|Merle C. Dry]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884418|Harold L. Hayes]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884420|Rosemarie Theresa Torrance]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884422|Rachel Walters]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884423|Carol Carey]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884426|Vincent G. Frainee]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884432|Lucille Marie Resto]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Lucille Marie Stavola - 1961.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884433|Mercedes Santiago]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884434|Gerald Cassidy]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884435|Lula Fitzpatrick]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884796|John Joseph Reed Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884797|Edgar Orlando De La Roca]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884799|Jimmy Walters]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884805|James O'Brien Johnson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884807|Mari Jo Davitto]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884808|Nancy Reid]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884809|Elaine Menchel Marcus]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Elaine Cheryl Menchel - 1962.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884810|Sean Boynes]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884811|Theodore Gaffney]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884824|Sharyn Lynn Vogel]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884835|Sidney Siegel]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884848|Larry Sylvester Hutchinson Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884861|Deane K. Felter]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884880|Joan M. Hackney]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884888|Landon Spradlin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884897|Rocco Patrick Ursino]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884910|Nola Kathleen LaBudde]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884918|Ellen Spencer]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884919|Paul Nathan Fontenot]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884920|Charles Goodstein]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Charles Goodstein - 1954.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884921|Roger Mckinney-Wagner]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884925|Henry Burk Sullivan]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Henry B. Sullivan - 1963.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884930|Duane G. Vock]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884931|Robert M. Sullivan]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884932|Dorothy Cembrano Jay]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884933|Arlene Muriel MacIntyre]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884940|Louvenia Henderson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884943|Chester Dwulet]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884944|Jorge F. Casals]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڪيوبا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884945|Mary Gilbert]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884946|Alan F. Krupp]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884950|Michael A. Hill]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884955|Robert Woodward]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884956|Mary Therese Loughery]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884957|Peter Sakas]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884958|Elsie Rossitto]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884959|Shirley S. D'Stefan]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884967|Jeanne Hammond Byrnes]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884968|Melvin Pumphrey]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884969|Anna M. Gayton]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884970|Owen Moreland Parks]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884971|Roy Northway Stephens]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884976|Jeanette Marie Baldwin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884980|John Pearson Brucher]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:John Brucher - 1957.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884981|Michael Lee Jordan]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884982|Timothy E. Murray]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Timothy E. Murray - high school graduation 1955.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884983|Joseph J. Deren Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95884987|Loida Cruz Arroyo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885433|Charles Miles]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885444|Cynthia Whiting]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885454|Arlene M. Horowitz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Arlene M. Fratkin - 1959.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885462|John Larry Sartain]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885472|James Kevin Malloy]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885483|Clara Louise Bennett]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885491|Patricia H. Thatcher]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885500|Peter J. Brancazio]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885510|Bobby Lee Barber]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885518|Joan A. Lenhart]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885519|Ruth Hunter]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885521|Estelle Kestenbaum]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Estelle B. Greenwald.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885528|Judith Lee Arkerson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885530|Tommie Brown]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885532|Irene Ann Allen]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885533|Kenneth A. Rago]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885535|Maria Gibbs]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885536|James C. Whittemore]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885546|Anna Marie Lopiccolo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885547|Allen Francis Tinkham]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885549|Charles Walter Calhoun]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885550|Guy A. LaVignera]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885551|Kenneth K. Skoog]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885560|James E. Mann Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885561|Paul Ronald Joseph]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885563|Louis B. Bernstein]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885564|Arthur Rogers]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885566|Randy Wichlacz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885575|Frankie L. Morris Sr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885576|José Díaz-Ayala]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885577|Paul A. Hamel]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885579|Cornelius Lawyer]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885581|Dorothy Murphy]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885582|Norman Walker Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885590|Florence Cahill Flaherty]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885592|Barbara Yazbeck Vethacke]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885594|Nikima Thompson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885595|Kerry Lehman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885597|Mary Minervini]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885605|Frances A. Orsini]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885606|Mae T. Roser]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885609|Regina D. Cullen]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885611|Elizabeth Tevenan]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885612|Dolores Marie DeLaurentis]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dolores Marie DeLaurentis - 1949.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885615|Jana Prince]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885622|Malcolm C. Shaw Jr]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885624|Sheena Renee Comfort Miles]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885625|Martha Leroy Wilson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885626|James David Gewirtzman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:James David Gewirtzman - 1966.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95885628|Regina Dix-Parsons]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886139|Henry N. Dubois]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886140|Robert H. Westphal]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886141|Audrey L. Ercha]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886142|Edward L. Ghidotti]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Edward Ghidotti - 1950.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886150|Edith Gallo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886151|Ron Frangipane]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886152|Ferdi German]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڊومينيڪن ريپبلڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886153|Richard M. Cieslak]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886155|Mildred W. Blough]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886163|Randy G. Addison]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886164|Rosalie J. Downes Emrich]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886165|John Bradford Hubert II]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886167|Robert R. Stout]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886174|Eva Charlotte Julewitz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886175|Dale E. Thurman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886176|Horace Saunders]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886178|Mary T. King]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[جمھوريا آئرلينڊ|ريپبلڪ آف آئرلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886179|Joseph Angeline]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886180|Muriel E. Lundgren]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886187|Barbara Ann Loreck]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886189|Kathleen Domenick]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886190|Muriel M. Going]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886191|Charles Dow Long]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886192|Dorothy V. Indeck]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886200|Ina Macko]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ina Place - 1941.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886201|Julia Maye Alexander]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886202|Virginia Alice Rauth]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886204|Cynthia Jean Falle]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886205|Johnnie D. Veasley]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886206|William Jonathan Glenney]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886213|Mary E. Mack]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886215|Calvin Richardson Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886216|Arthur Winthrop Barstow]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886217|Raymond Kenny]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886223|Susan Grey Hopp Crofoot]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886226|Robert F. Brady Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886227|Antoinette Meyer]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886229|Barbara Helen Richardson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886230|Michael Miller]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886232|Luis Juarez]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886240|Jeffrey Stanley Lin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886241|Stanley L. Morse]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886242|John A. Bailargeon]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886243|Steven P. St. Laurent]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886244|Lawrence W. Stedl]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Larry Stedl - 1969.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886252|John Timothy Barr]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886261|Patrick Conran]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886273|Leroy Perryman Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886282|Jonathan Adewumi]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[نائيجيريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886297|Elizabeth Batista]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886713|Peter S. Miguel Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886714|Betty Jo Barney]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886716|Nelson Perdomo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ايل سيلويڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886717|Randolph Warren Whipple]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886718|Jane Krumrine]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886724|Bennie Webb]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886727|Dean Leroy Drake]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886728|William E. Jackman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886729|John Schoffstall]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886730|Hilda R. Nagel]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886737|Manda Klancir]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886739|Margueritte Martha McCain]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886740|Edie Morello]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Edith Elizabeth Spanish - 1941.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886743|Lillian Kimura]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886744|Thomas A. Real]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886745|LaKisha Willis White]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886751|John P. Derrico]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886754|Lucy Yanushefski]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886755|Angeline Michalopulos]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886756|Jonathan Crachat Carreira Ferreira]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886758|Patricia Yanni]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886765|Elizabeth N. Updegrave]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886766|Clark Osojnicki]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886767|Linda Benedict]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886769|Rosemary Hoell Rushka]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886770|Paul Warech]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886771|Judy Therrian]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886781|Jermaine Ferro]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886783|Dennis Alan Bradt]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886786|Marcia Rushford]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886788|Andrea Ruth Ludgin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886791|Susan C. Menoche]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886801|Shirley Eileen Zimmerman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886813|Charles Constantino]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886822|Eric F. Anderson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Eric Anderson - 1957.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886831|Quentin Cormell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886852|Sandra Piotrowski]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886861|Betty Eleanor Fennelly]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bette Nelson - 1951.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886874|Ida Esposito]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886883|Kerri Ann Kennedy-Tompkins]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886891|Scott Melter]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886892|Barbara Mae Barham]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886893|Michael Albert Shubak]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886894|Davis Begaye]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886895|Suchendra Singh]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فجي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886904|Edna Saikkonen Alve]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886905|Stanley M. Cohen]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886906|Catherine Drouin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886907|William G. Bennett]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95886908|Justin Liuba]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887280|Ross L. Saddlemire]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887281|Grace Nutland]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887282|Timothy H. Gray]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887287|John Pope]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887291|Robert J. LeBlanc]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887292|Rosemary Ann Hughes]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887293|Ralph R. Loranger]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887294|Wee Chu Wong]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887295|Albert H. Irwin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887303|Laurie Appell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887305|Viraf Darukhanawalla]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887306|Jeannette M. Brown]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887307|David E. Carman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887308|Ina Shaw Mirviss]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887314|Margaret Busha]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887321|Jerry Alford]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887332|Marion Lucille Kujda]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887363|Kimarlee Nguyen]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887373|Ronaldo Ferrari]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887384|Sawarrelita Redmond]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887394|Loretta Mendoza Dionisio]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887405|Patricia Frieson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887417|Michael Mika]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887418|Alan Lund]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887419|John Cofrancesco]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887420|Carl Redd]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887421|Alvin Elton]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887428|Kevin Charles Patz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887431|Theresa Elloie]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887432|Joseph Graham]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887434|Robert Earl Schaefer]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887437|Gerald Anthony Morales]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887443|Frederick Carl Harris]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887445|Christine McLaurin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887446|Mary Virginia McKeon]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887447|Andreas Koutsoudakis]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887455|James Quigley]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887456|Sherman Pittman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887457|Harvey Bayard]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887459|Alice Chavdarian]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887460|Bassey Offiong]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887462|Jéssica Beatriz Cortez]]''
| 
| [[ايل سيلويڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887469|Cedric Dixon]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887470|Freda Ocran]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[گھانا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887471|Julian Anguiano-Maya]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887472|Minette Goff Cooper]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887473|Joseph Micajah Thomas II]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887837|Herman Boehm]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887838|Phillip Thomas]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887846|Robert M. Weintraub]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887854|Joseph Yaggi]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887862|David Reissig]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887872|Angelo Piro]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887883|Sandra Lee deBlecourt]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887892|Jose Vazquez]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887899|Clair Dunlap]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887926|Sandra Santos-Vizcaino]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڊومينيڪن ريپبلڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887935|Roger Eckart]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887945|Daniel Spector]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887947|Antonio Checo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887948|Albert Petrocelli]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887949|Florencio Almazo Morán]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887950|Jennifer Robin Arnold]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887951|Jesus Roman Melendez]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887955|Audrey Malone]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887960|Azade Kılıç]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887961|Nancy Ferguson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887962|Lucius Hall]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887963|Glenn Daniel Bellitto]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887970|Judith Plotkin-Goldberg]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887972|Coby Adolph]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887973|Don Whan]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887974|Albert K. Webster]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Albert K. Webster, Manager of Far East Tour of Harvard Glee Club (13563366944) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887975|Kevin J. Masterson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887983|Ronald Willenkamp]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887985|Lloyd Paul Leftwich]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887986|Ann Kolb]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887987|Helen Kafkis]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887988|Julie Butler]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887990|Antonio Nieves]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887996|Ann Youngerman Smoler]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887998|Thomas J. Waters]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95887999|Kyra Michelle Swartz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888000|Rhoda Hatch]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888001|Eugene Lamar Limbrick]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888009|June Beverly Hill]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888010|Kamal Ahmed]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888011|Raymond Copeland]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888012|Lester Eber]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888013|Leo Sreebny]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888015|Robert Barghaan]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888022|Howard Alexander Nelson Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Howard Nelson - 1952.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888023|Allan Joseph Dickson Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888024|Timothy Branscomb]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888025|Reuben Gutoff]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888026|Gerard Rosenberg]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888034|Marty Derer]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888463|Harold Reisner]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888464|Kevin John Cahill]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888465|Mario Araujo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888466|James V. Walsh]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888474|William D. Greeke]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888475|Beatrice Rubin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888476|Jack Butler]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888477|Hailey Herrera]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888478|Joseph F. Kelly]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888486|Perry Buchalter]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888487|Faralyn Havir]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888488|Marlon Alston]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888489|Joseph W. Hammond]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888490|Peter Kafkis]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888491|Tommie Adams]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888499|Myra Helen Robinson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888501|Conrad Duncker]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888502|Chianti Jackson Harpool]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888503|Ilona Murai Kerman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888511|Stuart Cohen]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888512|George J. Foerst Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888513|Mauricio Valdivia]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888514|Claudia Obermiller]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888515|Myles Coker]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888523|Marcus Edward Cooper Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888524|Rosemarie Amerosi]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888525|Marie Scanlan Walker]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888526|Parker Knoll]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888527|Rosemarie Franzese]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888528|Arlola Rawls]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888536|Adam Kovacs]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888537|Peter M. Brown]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888538|Irene Gasior]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888539|Margaret Laughlin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888540|Doris Mae Burkhart Kale]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888548|Ben Doherty]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888549|Josephine Posnanski]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888550|John Watson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888551|Maria Garcia-Rodelo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888552|Harold Davis Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888553|Timothy Ross]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888561|Sherrell Stokes]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888562|Larry Jones]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888563|Billy Ross]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888564|Edmon C. Carmichael]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888565|Tom Ferguson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888573|Gwendolyn A. Carmichael]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888574|Shidao Wang]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95888575|Levie Barkley]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889010|Saul Moreno]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889011|Philemon Najieb]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889012|Jerome Michael Zottolo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889014|Benjamin DiGiovanni]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889021|Nancy M. Allen]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889022|Onielo De Luzio]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889023|Lawrence Nokes]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889024|James Merle Weaver]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889025|Cathryn Wood]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889033|Moses Jones]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889034|Paul J. Foley Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889035|Joseph J. Angi Sr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889036|Ruthie Jacqueline Stephens Turner]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889037|Gerry Ellis]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Gerry Norris - 1946.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889043|Emma Seifrit Weigley]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Emma Seifrit - 1950.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889046|Yuet Ming Wong]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1054923|British Hong Kong]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889047|Josephine Tapiru]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889048|Norma Jean Knight]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889049|Patricia McGowan]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889055|David Toren]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889058|Joseph M. Kissane]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889059|Boro Lalich]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889060|Richard Emmett Powers]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889062|Ron Waxman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889069|Frederick Koerner]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889071|Herb Baum]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889072|Peter Laker]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889073|Suzanne Raynal Gijsbers]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889074|Willie Gene Whitaker]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889081|William F. Latimer]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889085|Peter P. DeLuise]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889086|Retha Elizabeth Contri Sharp]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889087|Robert Adam Burns]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889097|Alma M. Carney]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889098|Mark Schroeder]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889099|Lucille Dolores Romer]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889100|Gerald Ringdahl]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889106|Ed Smrekar]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889117|William Harrison Goldman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889127|Anibal Francisco de Brito]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڪيپ ورڊي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889138|Clyde Addison Reichelderfer]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889152|Betty Jean Ringle]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889166|Oluwayemisi Ogunnubi]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[نائيجيريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889178|Helen Demetoglous]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889186|Calvin Tompkins Lucy Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889195|Margaret Skaliotis]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889560|Latasha Andrews]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889561|Rona Iris Gertz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889562|Patricia Rowe]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889563|Terry G. Thompson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889564|Luis A. Frias]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889565|Edith Richemond]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889570|Raphael Kaminer]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889574|Eve Rudin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889575|Louise N. Walsh]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889576|Britta Lou Miller]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889581|Robert C. Samuels]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889585|Lillian Press]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889586|Kenneth James Godwin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kenneth James Godwin - 1943.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889587|Linda Joy Nassif]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889588|Emmy Falta]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889593|Wayne L. Wolford]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889598|Leslie Kalmus]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889602|Daniel James Callahan]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:James Callahan - 1946.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889607|Alexander Webster Cruden Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889613|Ann Bonville Trombly]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889617|Asela E. Gejo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889627|Georgianna Glose]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889638|Ijeoma Afuke]]''
| 
| [[نائيجيريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889653|Jerome Berrien]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889663|Floyd Bluntson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889676|Dorothy May Thompson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889688|Nicholas Modugno]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889697|Thomas Cotton]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889705|David Bernstein]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889706|Myra Janet Headley]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889707|Mary Elizabeth Parr]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mary Elizabeth Gribbin - 1958.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889708|Marjorie P. Tabechian]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889716|Robert William Dietz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889717|Arthur Charles Lindholm]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889718|Frank M. Goewey Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889719|Harrison Solliday]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889720|Michael Armstrong]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889722|Mary Doyle Hovanec]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889729|Rosa Luna]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889730|Geraldine Marie McGovern]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889731|Gerald Alton Cook]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jerry Cook - 1951.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889733|Wilma Ruth Montgomery]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889741|Thomas F. McDermott]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889743|Wayne Drye]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889744|Hildur T. Stanton]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889745|Jaimala Singh]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889746|Richard Lynn Heggen]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889747|Terri Lynn Clark]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95889754|Alexander Leon Lloyd]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95890143|Lloyd Cornelius Porter]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95890147|Wilman Sánchez Cabrera]]''
| 
| [[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95890156|Alexandra Louise Polansky]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95890167|Dale A. Boston]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95890176|Claude Reno Doucette]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95890187|Janice L. McNelly]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Janice L. Nelson 1958.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95890196|Nelson Henry]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95890206|P. Michael Baillargeon]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95890214|Margaret MacVeagh Schweers]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95890245|Raymond Gayle Burgett]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Raymond Burkett - 1952.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95890252|Michael J. Mchugh]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95890253|Mary Ann Bregar]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95890254|Marilyn Luella Tayse]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95890255|Roland Henry Lacasse]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95890256|Marguerite Peyser]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95890257|Thomas A. Williams]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95890264|Genowefa Kochanek]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95890267|Joel I. Sneider]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95890269|Cornelia Ann Hunt]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q95890270|William Hrabnicky]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96024601|Hu Weifeng]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96041028|Wajid Ali Khan]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96042027|Miss Biá]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96051461|Dominique Boutet]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96056565|Celine Fariala Mangaza]]''
| 
| [[عوامي جمهوريا ڪانگو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96067499|Rafael Leonardo Black]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96067751|Turhan Kaya]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96072211|Fabiana Anastácio]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96096540|Charles Hertel]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96098113|Paul Kuentzmann]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96099070|Luis Tapiru II]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96102105|Marcos Montero]]''
| 
| [[بوليويا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96102692|Ismail Gamadiid]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96130472|Malcolm Kela Smith]]''
| 
| [[پاپوا نيو گني]]&lt;br/&gt;[[گڏيل بادشاھت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آسٽريليا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Malcolm Smith-Kela (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96133142|Tom Mulholland]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96169315|Afwerki Abraha]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96172631|Ashok Gasti]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96175697|Laura Bernal]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96180005|Mary J. Wilson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96186936|Luis Repetto Málaga]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Los museos son espacios culturales que reafirman nuestra identidad.mp4 snapshot 05.16 (2020.08.04 11.49.56).png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96200463|Adriano Silva]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96209239|Christian Bousquet]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96215909|Eva Konrad Hawkins]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96241334|Juan Sanabria]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96252244|Ali Hadi]]''
| 
| [[عراق]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96274278|Aslam Baba]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96312941|Nasir Ajanah]]''
| 
| [[نائيجيريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96323819|Abdul Ghafar Atan]]''
| 
| [[ملائيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96324008|David Cohen]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96357188|Aurelio Desdentado Bonete]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96370232|Nur Omar Mohamed]]''
| 
| [[صوماليا|سوماليا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96391530|Mahmoud Hammoud]]''
| 
| [[لبنان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:2020-21 Chabab Ghazieh vs Shabab Sahel 02 (Mahmoud Hammoud).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96405149|Marie A. Turzo]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96405150|Nola Schwartz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96405152|Marilyn Alston]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96405153|Abraham Brown]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96405154|Richard Erlichman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96405155|Florencio Cruz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96405156|Barbara Thompson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96436881|Robert Washington]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96459616|Ross Mordecai]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96459620|Edward Magliocco]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96459622|Ying Kao Lee]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96459624|Larry Singer]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96459628|Lou Pompilio]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96459630|Michael McIntyre]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96459633|John Charles Diaz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96461719|Leonidas Pelekanakis]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96463203|John Treen]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96463631|José Ramón Ónega]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464297|Cathy Apothaker]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464298|Rosemary Thompson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464300|Kathleen Duffy]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464301|Sylvia Millrood]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464302|Rosemary W. Tucker]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464303|Lysa Dawn Robinson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464304|Ruth Rosenstock]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464305|Irene Loretta Cassady]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464306|Patti Kelly-Peightal]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464307|Mildred McLean-Terrell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464308|Paddy McNichol]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464309|Karen Kelly]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464310|Ramona Thomas]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464311|Peggy Crane]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464312|Sarah Nader]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464313|Rochelle King]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464314|Walter Bohn Sr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464315|Vito A. Cosmo Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464316|John F. Murray]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464318|Avraham MacConnell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464319|Craig TenBroeck]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464320|Luka A. Marano Sr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464322|Helen B. Days]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464323|Ronald Jamison]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464324|William Collins]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464325|Kevin Bundy Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464326|Robert Doubet]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:R. Doubet —1946.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464327|Francis Dufner]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464328|Joseph W. Murray]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464329|Barry Gelman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464330|Hal Stein]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464331|L. Theodore Lawrence Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464332|Joseph Zingaro]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464334|Charles Johnson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464335|Richard Coppola]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464337|Bob Griffith]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464338|Bernice Teller]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464339|Michael R. Walker]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464340|Jasper Daniels Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464341|Dennis Small Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464342|Joe Perrott]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464343|George Schneider]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464344|Edward Horowitz]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464345|Joe Tunney]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464346|Mary Schneider]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464430|June McIntyre]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464431|Lena Sims]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464432|Eric M. Gore]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464433|Brian Holcomb]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464435|Richard Aronson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464436|Mike Forrest]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464437|Theodore Nixon]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96464510|Eileen Atkins]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96470807|Lynika Strozier]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Lynika Strozier 2011.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96473280|Mary Wilson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96575383|Clarence Mini]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96587386|Mary Tiffen]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96606866|Jampel Lodoy]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96624229|Sergio Jacobo Gutiérrez]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96624928|Pablo Puente Aparicio]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96656030|Manaf Taleb]]''
| 
| [[عراق]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96678709|Marconi Alencar]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96695037|Md. Shahjahan Ali Talukder]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96710071|Haidari Wujodi]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| [[فائل:حیدری وجودی.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96756329|Anthony Obiagboso Enukeme]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96758970|Mohamed El Milahi]]''
| 
| [[مراڪش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96774796|Syed Aal E Imran]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96789500|Eurídice Moreira]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96979351|Yupadee Kobkulboonsiri]]''
| 
| [[ٿائيلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96987607|Soepriyatno]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Anggota DPR Soepriyatno.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96987964|Bambang Suryadi]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bambang Suryadi, Member of the People's Representative Council.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96988315|Jimmy Demianus Ijie]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jimmy Demianus Ijie.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96988673|Gatot Sudjito]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Gatot Sudjito.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96989495|Ali Taher]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ali Taher.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q96989513|John Siffy Mirin]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:John Siffy Mirin Family (cropped face).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97011238|Inuwa Abdulkadir]]''
| 
| [[نائيجيريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97011316|Mamadou Bamba Ndiaye]]''
| 
| [[سينيگال]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97012125|Mahendra Yadav]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97013763|Sylvio Capanema]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97013788|Aristoteles Atheniense]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Aristoteles Atheniense.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97015683|Julio Jimenez Llanque]]''
| 
| [[بوليويا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97016566|Howard Croft]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97016619|Godwin Achinge]]''
| 
| [[نائيجيريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97036815|Gordon Kegakilwe]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97045148|Charles Johnson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97101228|Richard di Liberto]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97105191|Reyna Marlene de los Ángeles Catzín Cih]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97119149|Noloyiso Sandile]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97119870|Liao Jianjun]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97129077|Ghaida Kambash]]''
| 
| [[عراق]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97129737|Ricardo Mthembu]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97137136|Faqir Nabi]]''
| 
| [[افغانستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97138189|Abdullah al Mohsin Chowdhury]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97143554|Mohamed Kouradji]]''
| 
| [[الجزائر]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97176731|Amadou Salif Kebe]]''
| 
| [[گني|گائينا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Me Amadou Salif Kébé en 2019.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97183473|Gopal Krishna Saxena]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97194729|Alireza Raheb]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97217254|Etibar Babayev]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97217357|Fərman Bağırov]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97220091|Sayyad Alizade]]''
| 
| [[آذربائيجان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97306828|Iwan Dwiprahasto]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97317138|Qainan Al-Zahrani]]''
| 
| [[سعودي عرب]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97321345|Alfred Mtsi]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97338873|Noh Gil-nam]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97342569|Mário Calixto Filho]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345163|Jose Alfredo Moron]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345165|Michael Aubrey Wiskur]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345166|Nellie B. Stokes]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345167|L. B. Perry]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345168|David Buffington Wham]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345169|Gloria Cervantes Zamudio]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345172|Walter J. Blase]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345174|Lisette Kohn Gale]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345175|Christopher L. Hammond]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345176|Mohammad Riad Hussain Ismat]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345177|Maria Rita Ripa]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345178|Diana T. Jun]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345179|Gregori V. Armstrong]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345180|Kai Wong Sam]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345181|Saul Ben-Zeev]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345182|Ramiro Barcena]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345183|Diane Ramonas]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345184|Dalis Ramonas]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345186|Gerald Boerman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345187|Bridget Bahal]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345188|Patricia Ciametti]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345189|Simon Zamudio]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345190|Julie Maldonado]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345191|Raymond Niwa]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345192|Gabrail Ismayl]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345194|Nicolasa Estrada]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345195|Phillip Cooper]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345196|Carol DeWitt]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345198|Edward Singleton]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345199|Albert Stokes]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345200|Robert Brieske]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345202|Willie Hall]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345204|Steve Hudson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345205|Mary McKeon]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345207|John LaPlante]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345208|Virginia Gray]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345212|Mary Christien]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345213|Luigi Pierpaoli]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345215|Hecky Powell]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345216|Richard Moenning]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345217|John Johnson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345218|Francisco Gomez]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345219|Maria Gomez]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345240|Saul Velazquez]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345241|Crystal Cantrell-Barbee]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345243|Charley Hill]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345245|Lambros Karkazis]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345247|Lillian Nakawatase]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345248|George Parrott]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345250|Esperanza Ugalde]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345252|Morris Loeb]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345330|Roselind Barsevick]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345333|Larry Harris]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345334|William Hollaar]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345336|Debbie Decker]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345340|Marvin Mazzucchelli]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345341|Albert Williams]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345343|Feliks Ogorodnik]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345345|Kathleen Takash]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345347|Jim Schwark]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345348|Safa Suleyman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345350|Elizabeth Cota]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345351|James Gettings]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345353|Bernadine Summers]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345354|Ronald Landsman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345355|James Bragiel]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345356|Martha Singleton]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345357|Elizabeth Henry]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345358|Moses Jones]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345359|John Mazzucchelli]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345361|Joseph Carnes]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345367|Elwyte Gardner]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345369|Tommie Adams]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345371|Brenda Bolden]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345372|Philman Williams]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345373|Nancy Halbauer]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345574|Mary Duggan Philbin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345575|William Griffin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345576|Roger Griggs]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97345577|Asberry Stoudemire]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97372585|Hanna Palska]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97388797|Mohamed Mounir]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مصر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97400267|Domingos Mãhörõ]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97440861|Irene Lalji]]''
| 
| [[سورينام]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Irene Lalji (cropped).png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97466640|Яўген Уладзіміравіч Мядзько]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97467461|Manoel da Lenha]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97495832|Angela von Nowakonski]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97500756|Norberto Padilla]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97578686|César Salinas]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97579656|Jorge Villavicencio]]''
| 
| [[گواتيمالا|گوئٽي مالا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ex ministro Villavicencio (Nómada) (cropped).png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97590799|Bahrum Daido]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bahrum Daido (2018) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97670845|Lloyd Cafe Cadena]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:GUILTY or NOT GUILTY! FT. LLOYD CADENA 5s.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97671575|Patrick Ellis]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97704644|Homayoun Reza Atardi]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97704692|James Rudd]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97750531|Steve dePyssler]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97774567|Pamela Rush]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97824637|Salko Bukvarević]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[بوسنيا ۽ ھرزگوينيا|بوسينيا ۽ ھرزگوينيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97930996|Katherine B. Hoffman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q97940401|Kōichi Yokono]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98036542|O'ktam Barnoyev]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ازبڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98041231|Bill Montgomery]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98065588|Alieu Mboge]]''
| 
| [[گيمبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98065792|Mohammad Barkatullah]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98072664|Satyanarayan Singh]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Satyanarayn Singh.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98083027|Masaru Ezaki]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98092502|Carlos Rosas]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98106246|Manabendra Bandyopadhyay]]''
| 
| [[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98108040|Arun Guhathakurta]]''
| 
| [[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98108920|Shyamal Chakraborty]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98145736|German (Chesnokov)]]''
| 
| [[روسي سوويت وفاقي سوشلسٽ جمهوريه]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98149217|Mohamed Adib Slaoui]]''
| 
| [[مراڪش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98240163|M. I. Sambou-Gassama]]''
| 
| [[گيمبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98247997|Pierre Boubarne]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98382520|Tjandermatie Soekhai]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98449532|Bernaldina José Pedro]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98457692|Jamyang Choegyal Kasho]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jamyang Choegyal Kasho.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98459576|Konstantin Markov]]''
| 
| [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Legendite 2016 06.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98514406|Raúl Rubio Burgos]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98514941|Theodore Corcoran]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98518138|Lungile Pepeta]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98527416|Jorge Flores Ochoa]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:JAFO.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98527646|Umesh Dastane]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98543285|Tariq Shafi]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98545382|Kesar Singh]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98561146|Ahmed Badouj]]''
| 
| [[مراڪش]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ahmed Badouj - Argan.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98596471|Nina Popova]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98600373|John Cooke]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98637362|Vergillio Rebin]]''
| 
| [[سورينام]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Vergillio Rebin.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98690717|Paddy Garritty]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آسٽريليا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98714288|Evelyn Nicol]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98761510|Harry Seager]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98844761|Cecilia Romo]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98889006|Ramón Silva Bahamondes]]''
| 
| [[چلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98908359|Ahmed Al-Qadri]]''
| 
| [[شام]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98914210|Vimala Sharma]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Vimala Sharma.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98918949|Johny Bakshi]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98924391|Kris Heggenhougen]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98924502|William Neikirk]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:WILLIAM R. NEIKIRK.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98931500|Raosaheb Antapurkar]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98971880|Karim Kamalov]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q98994281|KS Firoz]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q99052066|Luisa Revilla]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Luisa Revilla (cropped).png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q99198811|Yousef Abu-Safieh]]''
| 
| [[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q99244285|Kendal Royo]]''
| 
| [[پاناما]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q99300113|Rubén Corimayo]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q99306278|Juan Carlos Alcoba]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:JUAN CARLOS ALCOBA.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q99316693|Valery Semanzo]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q133356|Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q99409157|Miguel Acundo González]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q99421575|Eddie Mosley]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:EddieMosley.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q99432805|Margaret Waterchief]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q99438633|Andrés Abt]]''
| 
| [[يوراگوائي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Alcalde del Municipio CH Andres Abt - imf8381v1.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q99439541|Donald Keith Duncan]]''
| 
| [[جميڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q99454945|Florent Pereira]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q99485311|Adeline Fagan]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q99574699|Bernard Fils-Aimé]]''
| 
| [[هيٽي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:2009 Secretary of State's Award for Corporate Excellence (portrait crop).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q99756227|Tony Tenpenny]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q99767788|Brandi Christine Case-Wallace]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q99800397|Mirza Shahi]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q99845647|Datta Ekbote]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q99851329|Mncedisi Filtane]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q99857265|Andréia de Olicar]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q99911656|Ziad Al-Zaza]]''
| 
| [[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100146088|Barbara Ann Davis Prince]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100146338|Sandy Oldfield]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100146445|Chanesh Ram Rathiya]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100146617|Esther Morales]]''
| 
| [[بوليويا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Esther Morales.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100272881|Rick Todd]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100275270|Father Stanislaus Lourduswamy]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Stan Swamy (2010).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100339816|Yevhen Cherednichenko]]''
| 
| [[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Євген Чередніченко (2017).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100537333|Lambert Kreekels]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100548537|Ахметов, Рашит Ракипович]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Рашит Ракипович Ахметов (1954—2020), основатель и редактор газеты «Звезда Поволжья».JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100580192|Rabbi Osher Yaakov Westheim]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100591633|Piotr Francuz]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100591978|Wojciech Stachurski]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Wojciech Stachurski.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100627627|Ilana Rovina]]''
| 
| [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ilana Rovina (1963).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100716099|Gusztáv Adorján]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100742561|Ayachi Afilal]]''
| 
| [[مراڪش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100751723|Kayla Williams]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100783678|Jonathan Duck]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100784502|Christian Gatoux]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100795028|Joel Molina Ramírez]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100797042|Matt Gras]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100890925|Parrerito]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Parrerito.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100941027|Ted Vartelas]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100975270|Chad Dorrill]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q100995846|Abdul Ilah Nabhan]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q146885|Second Syrian Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[شام]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q101022194|Angeline Bernadel]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[هيٽي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q101054234|Pablo Lozano Martín]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q101069330|H. Tati Santiesteban]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q101080038|Pedro Mario Pereyra]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q101089316|Adi Darma]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Wali Kota Bontang Adi Darma.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q101116145|Dharsibhai Khanpura]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q101120800|David Andahl]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q101149176|Moncef Ouannes]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q2017684|French protectorate of Tunisia]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[تيونس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q101204200|Marc Frasez]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q101204530|Bernard Ducruet]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q101208374|Aniel Kienno]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q101229866|Anatoliy Fedorchuk]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q101245795|Mutodi Neshehe]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q101362178|Andrzej Prawda]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q101423791|Irving Pressley McPhail]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q101434569|Notis Lalaitis]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Notis1.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q101542315|Willie Salcedo]]''
| 
| [[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q101579664|Leandro Resurreccion III]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q101584214|Jacek Polak]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mr. Pollack.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q101711396|János Gróz]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q101818266|Géza Lajhó]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q101873866|Lynn Kellogg]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Lynn Kellogg &quot;The Jonathan Winters Show&quot; (1968 CBS press photo).JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102047464|Marek Umiński]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102047761|Óscar Akira Yasser Noriega]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102047806|Mewalal Chaudhary]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102076923|Anton Filipov]]''
| 
| [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102078444|Mariano Valdés Chávarri]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102097529|Mustafa Canlı]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102104819|Radamés Salazar Solorio]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Radamés Salazar Solorio.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102113504|Andrzej Bręczewski]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102122799|Raymond Taylor Hoobler]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102132780|Bruce Richard Buzby]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102146937|Khyson Swong]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102157745|Euda Edward Dean]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102158397|Romuald Koliński]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102164597|Barnett Weil Glickfield]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102164680|Charles J. Mode]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102166137|Joseph Bertorelli]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102189950|Alfonso Gracia-Saz]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102192043|Carl Hanson Fitzgerald]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102198254|Patrick Denis Barry]]''
| 
| [[جمھوريا آئرلينڊ|ريپبلڪ آف آئرلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102276262|Cordula Heß]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102305241|Lay Nam Chang]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102334622|Reinaldo Teles]]''
| 
| [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102343281|Rajendrasingh Baghel]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Rajendrasingh Baghel.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102357959|Hussein Al-Zuhairi]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102361877|Jose Luis Garayoa]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102378274|Honestie Hodges]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102391013|Jean Lau Chin]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dr Jean Lau Chin.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102416147|Bharat Bhalke]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102450473|Jan Krawiec]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102490912|David Maas]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q102859580|Eleanor Schano]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q103414626|Pavel Čech]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Pavel Čech, 2018.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q103512342|Hryhoriy Arshynov]]''
| 
| [[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q103574159|Hanna Stadnik]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Hanna Stadnik grób (cropped)1 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q103742338|Raja Mukhopadhyay]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q103766157|Adil Ismayilov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آذربائيجان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Adil Ismayilov in 2020 (cropped).png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q103815009|Fadma Abi]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q103820311|Jacek Włodyga]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q103828682|Rafael Pražák]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q103863018|Ramzi Najjar]]''
| 
| [[لبنان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q103928233|Luke Letlow]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104005260|Gastón Lemaitre]]''
| 
| [[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104028901|Leanid Zaika]]''
| 
| [[بيلاروس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104049729|Valery Vinakurov]]''
| 
| [[بيلاروس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104057606|Timoteo Ofrasio]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| [[فائل:OfrasioSJ.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104062635|Zbigniew Jurkiewicz]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104062775|Lise Funck-Brentano]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104094383|Donal Leace]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104123083|Pavel Hečko]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104126171|Jean Saliba]]''
| 
| [[لبنان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104128390|Divya Bhatnagar]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104128876|Judit Egerszegi]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104132756|Božidar Milenković]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104145641|Fazlul Haque Montu]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104147083|Omar Khashram]]''
| 
| [[اردن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104150437|Brittanya Karma]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104150471|Lillian Elena Blancas]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104150631|Damir Kukuruzović]]''
| 
| [[ڪروشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104155741|Dawn Lindberg]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104176273|Jerrold Post]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104178897|Lucio Moderato]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104192199|Jerzy Steckiewicz]]''
| 
| [[بيلاروس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104205652|D. Vijayamohan]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104244526|Bolivia Suárez]]''
| 
| [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104244720|Christina Rodrigues]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104253395|Aitor Etxarte]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Aitor Etxarte Berezibar.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104376876|Jan Błoński]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jan Kidawa-Błoński.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104389005|Delfino López Aparicio]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104398451|Jethro]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jethro october 2008.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104398468|Oleksandr Arkadin-Shkolʹnyk]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Александр Аркадин-Школьник.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104414777|Evelyn Alda Seckler]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104432992|Humberto Trujillo]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104438339|Anghel-Adrian Popa]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104439610|Kim Lee]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:02018 0146 KatowicePride-Parade, Kim Lee.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104439738|Ahmad Toyserkani Ravari]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| [[فائل:احمد تویسرکانی راوری.jpeg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104442727|Monzur-I-Mowla]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104450555|Dorothy Gill Barnes]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104464302|Nur Supriyanto]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Nur Suprianto.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104470971|Marcin Dramiński]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104518546|Loyiso Mpumlwana]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104522108|Thoriq Husler]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bupati Luwu Timur Muhammad Thorig Husler.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104522420|Muhammad Al-Saeedi Al-Jardi]]''
| 
| [[مراڪش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104525399|Ismail al-Shamali]]''
| 
| [[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104528006|Krzysztof Pajewski]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104528447|Susan Moore]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[جميڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104531513|Benedicto Bravo]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104532204|Carlos Levy]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Carlos Levy 2018.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104537223|Arnold D. Gruys]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104541175|Jean-Claude Bohain]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104556343|Dudu Duswara]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Dudu Duswara.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104557820|طلال باغر]]''
| 
| [[سعودي عرب]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104595284|Issaka Assane Karanta]]''
| 
| [[نائيجر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104621154|William T. Beaver]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104628566|Sead Gološ]]''
| 
| [[بوسنيا ۽ ھرزگوينيا|بوسينيا ۽ ھرزگوينيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104629341|Paul Etyang]]''
| 
| [[يوگنڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104637633|Veronica Oliver]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104640108|Aylin Özmenek]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104640624|Abdul Hakim Al-Taher]]''
| 
| [[سوڊان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104666469|Tawauna Averette]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104695839|Jarod Nandin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104701628|George Whitmore]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:George Whitmore Climber.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104717282|Julius Schachter]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104760616|Valentin Sushko]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104764484|Alan Cairns]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| [[فائل:AlanCairns2005.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104764596|Fabrizio Soccorsi]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104764599|Theodore Lumpkin Jr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Theodore Lumpkin - 1940s.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104771406|Pradip Ghosh]]''
| 
| [[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104772253|Abid Hussain]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104776005|Oleg Danilov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104787172|Iancu Țucărman]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104807971|John Condrone]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104812380|João Henrique de Souza]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104813246|Mizanur Rahman Khan]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104816462|Ali Saleh Mohammed Ali Jaber]]''
| 
| [[يمن]]&lt;br/&gt;[[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Syekh Ali Jaber, 00.02.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104833709|Jairo Castillo]]''
| 
| [[ڊومينيڪن ريپبلڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104843609|Hijn Bijnen]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104843792|Tapan Ghosh]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Tapan ghosh hs.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104848615|Alejandro Galvis Ramírez]]''
| 
| [[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104852520|Bheki Ntuli]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104856962|Martin Addison]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104864449|Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104866691|William Z. Good]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104870829|King Victor Thulare III]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104903655|Nombulelo Hermans]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104904509|Ivan Metelytsya]]''
| 
| [[يوڪرين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104905111|Barbara N. Benson]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104906836|Joe Guerra]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Joe Guerra - 1980.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104911977|Meghrig Parikian]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Meghrig-Parikian.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104949139|Krzysztof Łuszczewski]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q104989956|Calixto Avena]]''
| 
| [[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105027958|Stephen Lungu]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105037528|Raisuddin Ahmed]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105043758|Pavel Hanták]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105047205|Gordinho do Surdo]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105047246|Carlos Antunes]]''
| 
| [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105061229|Jaroslava Janderová]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Praha, Magistrát, Jaroslava Janderová (2).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105061721|Vitaly Maksimov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105063128|Bernard Papánek]]''
| 
| [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105069826|Kenneth Z. Altshuler]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105071466|Suhail Zaheer Lari]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105071475|Joel Matiza]]''
| 
| [[زمبابوي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105076376|Richard West]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105078440|Falah Mandkar]]''
| 
| [[ڪويت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105083943|Martha Madrigal]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105084390|Marius Swart]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Marius Swart.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105085298|Georgeta Luchian Tudor]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105085435|Sekou Smith]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105097673|Anita R. Schiller]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105098482|Paradzai Zimondi]]''
| 
| [[زمبابوي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105099966|Wahab Adegbenro]]''
| 
| [[نائيجيريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105100101|Muspandi]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105120942|Abbas Khan]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Nawab Ali Abbas khan (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105183759|Ray Rayburn]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105184059|Dennis Mileti]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105198678|Percy Tucker]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105208032|Julio Roberto Gómez]]''
| 
| [[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105222367|John Gibbons]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105223109|Kwasi Sainti Baffoe-Bonnie]]''
| 
| [[گھانا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105229566|Octavian Cojan]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105263600|Ismail Kijo]]''
| 
| [[ملائيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105295115|Vicent Raga]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:RAGA Vicent foto VW.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105297032|Maria Andrea Gaspar]]''
| 
| [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105319487|Mathoor Govindan Kutty]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105337022|Sylvia Lieber]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105346796|Zezinho Corrêa]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Zezinho Corrêa - 1.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105399622|Steve Turney]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105404824|László Huszár]]''
| 
| [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سلوواڪيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105414316|Robb Webb]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105421772|Patricia Healey]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105424134|Cynthia Turner]]''
| 
| [[مالٽا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105426998|Manuel Salinas]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:ManuelSalinas2.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105452340|Zoila Águila Almeida]]''
| 
| [[ڪيوبا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Zoila Águila Almeida.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105452765|Javier Neves]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105517287|Purificación Atrián Jordán]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105532898|Zaire Rezende]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105581015|Jaleel Smith-Riley]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105586692|James Medhurst]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105620263|Pastor Heydra]]''
| 
| [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105627376|Quoc Anh]]''
| 
| [[ويٽنام]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105637139|Consuelo Rodríguez]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105640581|Enrico Obletter]]''
| 
| [[آسٽريليا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105641786|Barbara Ann Rowan]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105646427|B. Raghavan]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105659455|Madeleine Humbertclaude]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105675497|Élida Rasino]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105679224|Sofia Zhukova]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105696486|Bob Pixel]]''
| 
| [[گھانا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105710323|José Manuel Cortizas]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105722839|Mike Bradner]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Mike Bradner.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105727602|Erica Watson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105729922|Jorge Marticorena Cuba]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105730949|Víctor Espinoza Peña]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105737171|Anna Majani]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105746143|Marta Martin Carrera-Ruiz]]''
| 
| [[ڪيوبا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105748342|Diego Gómez]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Diego Gómez Cabrera.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105753833|Kenneth Mthiyane]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105755145|Karima Brown]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105756142|Rachel Cathoud]]''
| 
| [[سوئيزرلينڊ|سوئيٽزرلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105782944|Osvaldo Mércuri]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105841567|Peter Matlare]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105871502|Daniel Voisin]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105943521|Jiří Engliš]]''
| 
| [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105954720|Algaci Tulio]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:ALGACIT2002.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105954938|Asongo Alalaparu]]''
| 
| [[سورينام]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Asongo Alalaparu (2020).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105969816|Malak Ismael]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q124943|Kingdom of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مصر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105977858|Esteban Gómez Rovira]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105978052|Marco Bogarelli]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q105987426|Jaroslav Střeštík]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106009569|František Prošek]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106009696|Edgar García]]''
| 
| [[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106009916|Jaromír Vytopil]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Jaromir Vytopil.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106011242|Miloslav Čechura]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106044069|Eyrolles Michel Mvunzi Meya]]''
| 
| [[عوامي جمهوريا ڪانگو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106084284|Katyayani Shankar Bajpai]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106099414|Edson Montenegro]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106109480|Wojciech Krawczyk]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106112793|Antonio Pérez González]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106122752|Natale Bozzo]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106163378|Hanna Lypkivska]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106175318|Toabur Rahim]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106194747|İmran Kılıç]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106204763|Abu Asif Barghouti]]''
| 
| [[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106218592|Rito Jiménez]]''
| 
| [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106218656|Theresa M. Korn]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106228708|Yousef Ozreil]]''
| 
| [[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106230021|Francis Pelekamoyo]]''
| 
| [[ملاوي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106241908|Kombo James Moyana]]''
| 
| [[زمبابوي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106269407|Ellen Gwaradzimba]]''
| 
| [[زمبابوي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106272177|Christian Ntshangase]]''
| 
| [[اسواتيني|سوازي لينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106297174|Karel Vávra]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106309840|Gurupada Mete]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106317446|Márton Brády]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106334361|Nemam Ghafouri]]''
| 
| [[عراق]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106366913|Yinka Odumakin]]''
| 
| [[نائيجيريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106423215|Jacquiline Chikuta]]''
| 
| [[ملاوي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106434042|Nestor Torre Jr.]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106463233|Füzuli Javadov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آذربائيجان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106466070|Hans Kristian Gaarder]]''
| 
| [[ناروي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106472216|François Matheron]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106473570|Babar Tadvi]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106473583|Dugyala Srinivas Rao]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106474359|Irondi Mantovani Pugliesi]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106477709|Hebert Axel González]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106484252|László Rákoskerti]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106508488|Aslam Qureshi]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106515434|Mao Ayuth]]''
| 
| [[ڪمبوڊيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106518107|Ludmila Guzun]]''
| 
| [[مالدووا|مولدووا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106519193|Lois Sasson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106519588|Mahmoud al-Khalidi]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q193714|Mandatory Palestine]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106533280|Dário de Castro]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106542493|Muṣṭafá Muslim]]''
| 
| [[شام]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106542784|Theodore Lambrinos]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Greek-American baritone Theodore Lambrinos, 1960s.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106572313|Ludovico Badoy]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Director Ludovico D. Badoy (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106585096|Pang Xiong Sirirathasuk Sikoun]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106587775|Teresa Majchrzak]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q211274|Polish People's Republic]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106588720|Àngel Pla]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106592192|Johny Lal]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106592198|Lea Dali Lion]]''
| 
| [[اسٽونيا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Lea Dali Lion 2014 (1).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106595478|Robin Fransman]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Robin Fransman-1.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106600819|Alípio Freire]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Alípio Freire.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106602162|Thakur Puran Singh]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106602515|Bhitali Das]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q2227470|Majgaon]]''
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Assamese singer Vitali Das.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106611255|Satwant Kaur Sandhu]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106611259|A Elumalai]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106611265|M. AS Subramanian]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106611278|Kailash Chandra Trivedi]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106611282|Sukhdarshan Singh Marar]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106611287|Bishnu Prasad Bhaiya]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106611773|Purnmasi Pankaj]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106611774|Kalawati Bhuria]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106611776|Ramesh Diwakar]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106613228|Vira Sathidar]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106613406|Diana S. Rabinovich]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106617169|Zoram Sangliana]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106618445|Kunti Devi]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106626688|Kishore Nandlaskar]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106629259|David Núñez]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106634443|Jaga Rout]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106637349|Somnath Juwarkar]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106648138|Amris]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Wakil Walikota Dumai Amris.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106648215|Celso Dayrit]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106650087|Chittabbai Kudupudi]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106651586|Kom Chuanchuen]]''
| 
| [[ٿائيلينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106652376|Vasyl Obleschuk]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106659864|Olena Lytovchenko]]''
| 
| [[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Письменниця Олена Литовченко з книжкою &quot;Пустоцвіт&quot;.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106675659|Jagdish Lad]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106675731|Kanupriya]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106687272|Williams Santamaría Valdera]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106687902|Seturam Gopalrao Neginhal]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Sethuram Gopalrao Neginhal.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106689691|Gilmar de Carvalho]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106689926|Boddu Bhaskara Ramarao]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106690199|Challa Rama Krishna Reddy]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106690208|Sudhakar Paricharak]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106690211|Dauji Gupta]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106691558|Ricardo Alberto Ramírez]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106702173|James Purify]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106707423|Fred Fitz-James]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106714989|Ajay Sharma]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106727289|Sriprada]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106730125|Baldur Beyer]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Baldur Beyer (2021).JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106734360|Rajendra Kapila]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106764462|Omar Hugo Gómez]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106768454|Javier Rondón]]''
| 
| [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106771906|James Williams]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106784040|Roy Ristie]]''
| 
| [[سورينام]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Roy Ristie 2017.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106784902|Fathul Allah Ahmad]]''
| 
| [[عراق]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106835512|Estefano Starepravo]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106837129|Tony Tolbert]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106869478|Rajendrasinh Jadeja]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106873455|Anjan Bandyopadhyay]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106885286|Saad Sharar]]''
| 
| [[ڪويت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106906609|Prashant Mohapatra]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106906993|Karen Brown]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q106947545|Qadir Haji Ali]]''
| 
| [[عراق]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q41470|Kurdistan]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107021764|Ryan Stephen]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107021889|Basant Das]]''
| 
| [[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107103451|Yann Gontard]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107119906|Kiyomoto Yoshijirō]]''
| 
| [[جاپان]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q188712|Empire of Japan]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107128059|Paul Freedman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107187433|Taha Karaan]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107192015|Lin Fang-I]]''
| 
| [[تائيوان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107207790|Aldo Moltifiori]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107249689|Maurice Tsalefac]]''
| 
| [[ڪيمرون]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107289272|Rehema Watongola]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107300156|Rodrigo Munilla]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107309769|Emin Saraç]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:صورة شخصية محمد أمين سراج.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107343331|Abd al-Nasir Najjar]]''
| 
| [[فلسطين جي رياست|فلسطين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107358646|Ahmed Bilal Shah]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Ahmed Bilal Shah VOA (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107359033|Hind Chelbi]]''
| 
| [[تيونس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107380310|Goolam Rajah]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107387549|Nomandla Yako]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107387562|Lungile Tom]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107387566|Henry Jansen]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107387578|Patrick Jaji]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107387591|Moonyeenn Lee]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107387600|Paul Dobson]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107387618|Sbusiso Mseleku]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107387717|Patrick Bayo Mkhize]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107387822|Mohammad Karaan]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107387850|Leslie Ponnusamy]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107398923|Robert P. Cohen]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107399015|Gianni Colajemma]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107399425|Charles Gregory Ross]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107399519|Tony Greer]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107399637|Wilmer Ato]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107399863|Edmundo Martinez Zaleta]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107399866|Eric Salas González]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107399870|Toshi Wungtung]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107400559|Reinaldo Ortega]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107400988|Steven Manios Sr.]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107401694|Josh Wallwork]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107401977|Shankanada Aravind]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107420703|Fridon Aslanyan]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q132856|Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[آرمينيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107420799|Abel Pienaar]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107423669|Fazl-e-Khuda]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107453228|Diratsagae Alfred Kganare]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107487454|Francisco Astorga]]''
| 
| [[چلي]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Francisco &quot;Pancho&quot; Astorga Foto- © Rodrigo Pardo .jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107488620|Eka Supria Atmaja]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Bupati Bekasi Eka Supria Atmaja.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107491716|Luke Masamvu]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107491736|Peter Haritatos]]''
| 
| [[زمبابوي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107524326|Ricardo Corrêa]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107528488|Machchindra More]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107528549|Alfredo Fraile]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107528659|Parvesh C. Mehta]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107528924|K Balu]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107529167|Sai Balaji]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107529220|Kumar Vatti]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107529305|Anil Suri]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107529386|Venugopal Kosuri]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107529447|Shyam Dehati]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107529490|Vamsi Rajesh Kondaveeti]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107539497|Zhypar Zheksheev]]''
| 
| [[ڪرغزستان|ڪِرگزِستانُ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107545906|José Maria Batalla]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107545938|Jeremy Silvester]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107550001|Kä Mana]]''
| 
| [[عوامي جمهوريا ڪانگو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107563913|Eliaser Yentji Sunur]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Eliaser Yentji Sunur.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107569124|John Mukasa]]''
| 
| [[يوگنڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107570435|Arun Chaudhary]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107581777|Enny Sri Hartati]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107583322|Arief Harsono]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Arief Harsono1.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107583643|Mohamad Assegaf]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107584187|Nurul Almy Hafild]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107600902|Audrey Marie Ellis]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107613304|Hamadi Ghawar]]''
| 
| [[تيونس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107613344|Michael Lejong]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107625371|Atful Hye Shibly]]''
| 
| [[بنگلاديش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107630308|Rodolfo Peña Flores]]''
| 
| [[ڪوسٽا ريڪا|ڪوسٽاريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Rodolfo-rodrigo-pea-flores 40240716480 o.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107645871|Hasip Kalimuddin Syam]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Wagub Jambi Hasip Kalimuddin Syam.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107672808|Ribeiro da Ciclo Ribeiro]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107785573|Jean-Claude Kazembe Musonda]]''
| 
| [[عوامي جمهوريا ڪانگو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107877832|María Teresa Marú Mejía]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q107921203|José Alberto Hermógenes]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:José Alberto Hermógenes.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108005947|Dick Farrel]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108017856|Saranya Sasi]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108043685|Luis Peláez Campomanes]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108076821|Issa Abdel Hafeez]]''
| 
| [[لبيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108083120|Alan Neville Clements]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108083418|Sheham Siddik]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108110670|Pamela Valenzuela]]''
| 
| [[بوليويا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Pamela Geraldine Valenzuela Rengel. Trans Volvimos a nacer 0-55 screenshot (cropped).png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108265582|Alexandre Pagès]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108282132|Aris Skiadopoulos]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108284809|Mohamed Saad]]''
| 
| [[مصر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108296947|Filippo Maria Gambàri]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108320943|Giraldo González]]''
| 
| [[ڪيوبا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108368015|Francisco Monterrosa]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108384012|Iván Colás Costa]]''
| 
| [[ڪيوبا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108405918|Enakshi Chattopadhyay]]''
| 
| [[برطانوي راڄ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108410750|Marc Bernier]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108434832|Dan Montsitsi]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108462281|Georgi Vanyan]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108529212|Bernardino Cano Radil]]''
| 
| [[پيراگوئي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108532938|Saviana Scalfi]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108535646|Michael Halkias]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108537193|Veronica Wolski]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108541641|Hai Shaulian]]''
| 
| [[اسرائيل|اسرائيل جي رياست]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108600909|Laura Hartman]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108664482|Anthony Zane]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108670697|Manuel Román Fernández]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108695225|Haru Rajwar]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108702519|Joachim Hellmich]]''
| 
| [[جرمني]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108709551|Francesco Mattesini]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108731108|Massimo Ampola]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108791869|Ramiro Larrea]]''
| 
| [[ايڪواڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108800539|Samantha Epasinghe]]''
| 
| [[سري لنڪا|سريلنڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108817495|Naomi Kori Pomat]]''
| 
| [[نيو گني]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108839344|Reggie Parks]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Reggie Parks 1982.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108860941|Dimo Stoyanov]]''
| 
| [[بلگاريا|بلغاريه]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108899282|Claude Mouton]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108900259|Muḥammad Aḥmad al-Dālī]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q146885|Second Syrian Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[شام]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108916068|Pablo Rodríguez]]''
| 
| [[ايڪواڊور]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108920565|Ugo Falesiedi]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q108940885|Elnur Ashrafoglu]]''
| 
| [[آذربائيجان]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109000898|Svetlana Căpățină]]''
| 
| [[مالدووا|مولدووا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109031824|Manuel de Jesus Tahay Gomes]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109218129|Jan Hilgen]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109258630|Abdul Jawad Dhanuun]]''
| 
| [[عراق]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:عبدالجواد ذنون.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109258978|Dzmitry Liebiadzievich]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[بيلاروس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109259050|Mbak You]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109270014|Adib al-Jarf]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q146885|Second Syrian Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[شام]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109280531|Vladimir Sytchanka]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[بيلاروس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109331719|Lenka Angelová]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109335700|Ḥusayn Asad]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q146885|Second Syrian Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[شام]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109385274|Orhan Çoban]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109398170|Ali Cem Köroğlu]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109423757|Roberto José Ábalos]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:José Roberto Ábalos.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109463224|Josip Uhlik]]''
| 
| [[ڪروشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109486992|Yuri Evtushenko]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109551692|Akbar Nikzad Afghani]]''
| 
| [[افغانستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109552845|Bijan Afshar]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109588694|Julie Le Galliard]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109623606|William Breisky]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109649898|Aziz El Fadili]]''
| 
| [[مراڪش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109655703|Wallker Wollber Bezerra de Medeiros]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109678716|Fetty Dzul]]''
| 
| [[ملائيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109678864|Ahmad Mohd Nor]]''
| 
| [[ملائيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109744750|Lars Egil Mogård]]''
| 
| [[ناروي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109805144|Steven Milligram]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109835297|Vince Lelkes]]''
| 
| [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سلوواڪيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109836022|Pius Mujuzi]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109852630|Parthena Koutmeridou]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109869417|Ludwig Ladstätter]]''
| 
| [[آسٽريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q109941647|Alberto Berardi]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110062761|Vangelis Vasileiadis]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110088289|Fernando Gutierres Reis]]''
| 
| [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110113207|Gramoz Abedinaj]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110125587|Josep Maria Castelló i Mateu]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:JM CASTELLO HOMENATGE CASTELL (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110150593|Alicja Tysiąc]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Alicja Tysiąc.JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110165407|Boris Zozulya]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110191163|Ashok Kumar Amrohi]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110215649|Tina Rinaldi]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110221514|Evgenia Hristopoulou]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110226536|Jenni Crain]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110246082|Adil Xasayev]]''
| 
| [[آذربائيجان]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110271712|Frédéric Sinistra]]''
| 
| [[بيلجيم]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Frédéric Sinistra dans un match le 24 mars 2012.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110275982|Roland Damu]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110286763|Christos Diamantis]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110400616|Jan Čermák]]''
| 
| [[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110401833|Kenny J]]''
| 
| [[ٽرينيڊاڊ ۽ ٽوباگو|ٽرنيڊاڊ اينڊ ٽبيگو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Kenny J at Dimanche Gras 1993.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110402492|Ibrahim Hegazy]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مصر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110409615|Baktash Abtin]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Baktash Abtin (3).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110422948|Joan Vinyals]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110451924|Stewart Gilray]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110496140|Umar Zahir]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Umar Zahir (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110540805|Andrzej Rusek]]''
| 
| [[پولينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110597021|Hana Horká]]''
| 
| [[چيڪ جمهوريا|جمهوريہ چيڪ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[چيڪوسلوواڪيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110646860|Ankica Lepej]]''
| 
| [[ڪروشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110778559|Mykola Malkov]]''
| 
| [[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110815959|Izidorio Oliveira]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110826613|Martin B. Moore]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110854189|Petipán]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Petipán en 1967.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110861744|Gareer Mansour]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q3087763|Republic of Egypt]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مصر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110883731|Roberto Scudero]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110901608|Edmur Mesquita]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110938790|Jorge Conti]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110955245|Hervé Mombo Kinga]]''
| 
| [[گيبون]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q110975000|Martin Tichý]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q111080749|Ananias Koustenis]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q111128104|Bessie Hendricks]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q111149838|Nurlan Agha]]''
| 
| [[آذربائيجان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q111288450|Oliver Crewe]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q111366741|Carlos Cano Vieira]]''
| 
| [[پورچوگال|پرتگال]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q111377122|Aleksandr Suvorov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q111448515|رشیدہ عیاں]]''
| 
| [[پاڪستان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q111449480|Ahmet Ceni]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q111513142|Manuel Machado Alvarez]]''
| 
| [[ڪيوبا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Manuel Alvarez CDCR (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q111763387|Jack Dowling]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q111913676|Yusuf Hussain]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q112036971|Ivan Gavrilov]]''
| 
| [[سوويت يونين]]&lt;br/&gt;[[يوڪرين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q112117043|Mohammed Makhlouf]]''
| 
| [[شام]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q112119460|Richárd Látó]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q112133146|Gideon Badagawa]]''
| 
| [[يوگنڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q112134792|David M. Robb]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q112136783|Gui.Giling]]''
| 
| [[تائيوان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q112378516|Moshe Augenstein]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q112506278|Juris G. Draguns]]''
| 
| [[ليٽويا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q112689682|Cecilia Wang]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q112742832|Nikolaos Vernezos]]''
| 
| [[يونان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q112800314|James Fisher]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q112972599|Adelmo Rivas]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q112972601|Juan José Martel]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q113027291|Ramón Ojeda Mestre]]''
| 
| [[ميڪسيڪو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q113273570|Nanda Kishore Patnaik]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q113323854|Fred Nijs]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q113411338|Sergey Borisovich Lebedev]]''
| 
| [[روس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q113443989|Albert Woodfox]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Angola Three event, Manchester Metropolitan University, November 2016 (07) (cropped).JPG|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q113481015|B. Sathyanarayana]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q113485982|Gautam Lal Meena]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q113501104|D.A. Sathya Prabha]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q113501384|Marco Brown]]''
| 
| [[جميڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q113501563|Gordon Arinda]]''
| 
| [[يوگنڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q113502533|Omar Garmil]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q113504240|Howard D. Weinbrot]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q113509778|Irengbam Ibohalbi Singh]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q113509780|Marie-Line Lesdéma]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q113553302|John M. Murrin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q113658209|Liu Shunsong]]''
| 
| [[تائيوان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q114051142|Abdulsamad al-Ghurairi]]''
| 
| [[عراق]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q114435943|Raja Madangopal Nayak]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q114435946|Govardhan Dangi]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q114435953|Jyoti Dutt]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q114554103|Ferdy Nico Yohannes Piay]]''
| 
| [[انڊونيشيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q135971389|Hasan Riyazi]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q135985383|Javier Ojalvo]]''
| 
| [[بوليويا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q136210886|Herman Bailey]]''
| 
| [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q136236318|زهرا استادزاده]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q136458233|דוד אלעווסקי]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q136465052|Eric Cohen]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q136471378|מאיר זעליג ריספלער]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q137204967|Alioune Badiane]]''
| 
| [[سينيگال]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q137290904|Віктор Талащук]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Талащук Віктор Флорович.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q137644949|Jimmy Gamonet]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q137784699|Elizabeth R. Duff]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q137828518|Robbert Keegel]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q29999|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q137942344|Mitchell Andrews]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q138341440|Abu Ubayda Ahmad al-Muhrizi]]''
| 
| [[مراڪش]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q138412915|Николай Матрачийски]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q139069633|Jānis Kaijaks]]''
| 
| [[ليٽويا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q140007277|Milen Belchev]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q140007287|Neven Belchev]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q114567435|Hari Narayan Choudhary]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q114776280|Noël Bélanger]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q114865038|Rohit Patel]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q114865049|Shakrajit Nayak]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q114876246|Madhava Chandra]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q115056055|Wangkheimayum Brajabidhu Singh]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q115056059|Bedri Çollaku]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q115091370|SRS Yadav]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q115091407|Jamuna Prasad Bose]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q115091447|Naseeb Pathan]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q115129602|Choudhary Fateh Muhammad]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q115129933|Chuni Lal]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q115322537|Marcus Birks]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q115367980|Lee Lung-chuan]]''
| 
| [[تائيوان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q115653493|Joseph M. Masling]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q115696126|Luis Hugo Apolo]]''
| 
| [[يوراگوائي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q115709280|Anja Kanninen]]''
| 
| [[فنلينڊ|فن لينڊ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q115712095|Edwin Bennett Shostak]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q115943625|Ruggero Boschi]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q116038073|Chu Lanlan]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q116038416|Hong Mu]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q116038464|Xu Lanlalan]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q116038510|Cheng Qingao]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q116038570|Yu Yuheng]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q116038606|Jiang Yingheng]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q116038836|Ni Hen]]''
| 
| [[چين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q116151283|Emilio Locurcio]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q116182265|Achille Mauri]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q172579|Kingdom of Italy]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q116452339|Katharine Clare Manning Loeb]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q116616040|Teoman Alili]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q116812358|James M. Polachek]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q116971082|Juan Chico]]''
| 
| [[ارجنٽائن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q116994772|Pamela Hibbs]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q117025085|Juan Astorga Junquera]]''
| 
| [[وينيزويلا|وينزويلا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ايڪواڊور]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:JuanAstorgaJunquera2.png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q117485502|Roberto Ambrosoli]]''
| 
| [[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q117845780|Muriel Brown]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q117846318|Behçet Güler]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q118120596|André Poulidor]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q118454861|Rekha Chattopadhyay]]''
| 
| [[برطانوي راڄ]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q118522965|Ainslie Leslie]]''
| 
| [[بيليز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q121571277|Guiller]]''
| 
| [[پيرو]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q121798149|Gary Friedkin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q122225804|Paul Coffin]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q122508425|József Sipos]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q122956959|Fereydoun Shayah]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]&lt;br/&gt;[[سويڊن]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q123562957|Bob Contant]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q123575621|Jaime Fernandes]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:74001.jpgmaior Jaime Fernandes.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q123745963|Neuza Freitas Dias]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q123987299|Luis de Blas]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q124031636|葉明水]]''
| 
| [[تائيوان]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q124254829|Valter Gjoni]]''
| 
| [[البانيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q124254912|Leah Bernstein]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q124290122|Tony Metoyer]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q124371974|James Geraty Harrison]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q124423502|Alice Mackler]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q124480612|Arnold Tenenbaum]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q124480763|Lorlee Tenenbaum]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q124517966|Ygona Moura]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q124799497|Ezekiel Koren]]''
| 
| [[گڏيل بادشاھت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q125117241|Laura Weinstein]]''
| 
| [[ڪولمبيا]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:La historia de Laura Weinstein para Sentiido 0-43 screenshot (cropped).png|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q125469336|Frank Olson]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q125473156|Martha Lillard]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Martha Lillard.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q125895230|Swami Omkarananda]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q126465852|Layla El-Iskandaraniyyah]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q170468|United Arab Republic]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[مصر]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q126712872|Anna Fehér]]''
| 
| [[هنگري|ھنگري]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Feher Anna nover 1984 fortepan 124217.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q127416432|Kenan Akın]]''
| 
| [[ترڪي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q127639331|Ronald K. O’Dor]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q128382746|Minoo B. Madon]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q129167054|Elena B. Muzrukova]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q129176723|ဝိသာရဒ မဟာထေရ်]]''
| 
| [[ميانمار]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Visarada.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q129693028|Vinesh Kumar Kalra]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:Shri Vinesh Kalra, Consul General, Mazar-e-Sharif.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q130480285|Bạch Mai]]''
| 
| [[ويٽنام]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q130718411|Deloris Dockrey]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q131323028|Giorgi Beridze]]''
| 
| [[جارجيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q131369881|Chilakam Ramachandra Reddy]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q131386787|Pavuluri Sivaramakrishna]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q131390242|Min Thein Swe]]''
| 
| [[ميانمار]]
| 
| 
| [[فائل:TheinSwe.jpg|center|128px]]
|-
| ''[[:d:Q131674590|Dana Konya-Petrișor]]''
| 
| [[رومانيا|رومانيہ]]&lt;br/&gt;[[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q131754455|Bernardo Saavedra Pita]]''
| 
| [[اسپين]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q131763189|احمد گل‌محمدی]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q131794484|ابومحمد عسگرخانی]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q132125661|Ginette Rivière Lubin]]''
| 
| [[هيٽي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q132398047|Anton Holič]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q132471275|Bhishma Guhathakurta]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1775277|Dominion of India]]''
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q132733138|Ngọc Đáng]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[ويٽنام]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q133457873|Bill Follis]]''
| 
| [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q133574003|پرویز اسکندرپور خرمی]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q133858013|Madhavi Gogate]]''
| 
| [[ڀارت]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q133879482|Bengt Sprinzl]]''
| 
| [[آسٽريا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q133884170|Yasinjan Ghopur]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q134002433|Chaim Mertz]]''
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q134276406|Jules Houllier]]''
| 
| [[فرانس]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q134283271|اشکان منصوری]]''
| 
| [[ايران]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q134634105|Laura Hermosa]]''
| 
| [[فلپائن|فلپائينز]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q135110412|Mikica Zdravković]]''
| 
| ''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[سربيا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q135152691|Falilou Kane]]''
| 
| [[سينيگال]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q135455342|Bruno Villata]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]&lt;br/&gt;[[اٽلي]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q135459263|Gérard Beaulieu]]''
| 
| [[ڪينيڊا|ڪئناڊا]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q135548080|Eurípedes Balsanulfo de Freitas e Abreu]]''
| 
| [[برازيل]]
| 
| 
| 
|-
| ''[[:d:Q135919372|Cosme Proenza]]''
| 
| [[ڪيوبا]]
| 
| 
| 
|}
{{Wikidata list end}}</text>
      <sha1>o5e4bgz4t3jyz7zfjaox5987wc0g962</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:بلوچستان، پاڪستان جون يونين ڪاؤنسلون</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>58456</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399186</id>
      <parentid>193511</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:25:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399186</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="58" sha1="t850czcw88oy51nrwcxnjfuvsq08rg1" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:پاڪستان جي سياسي جاگرافي]]</text>
      <sha1>t850czcw88oy51nrwcxnjfuvsq08rg1</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399187</id>
      <parentid>399186</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:28:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Ibne maryam صفحي [[زمرو:پاڪستان جون يونين ڪاؤنسلون]] کي [[زمرو:بلوچستان، پاڪستان جون يونين ڪاؤنسلون]] ڏانھن چوريو</comment>
      <origin>399186</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="58" sha1="t850czcw88oy51nrwcxnjfuvsq08rg1" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:پاڪستان جي سياسي جاگرافي]]</text>
      <sha1>t850czcw88oy51nrwcxnjfuvsq08rg1</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399189</id>
      <parentid>399187</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:29:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added [[Category:بلوچستان، پاڪستان جي سياسي جاگرافي]] [[وڪيپيڊيا:ھاٽ ڪيٽ|ھاٽ ڪيت]] جي مدد سان</comment>
      <origin>399189</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="136" sha1="5a2611lrz5mhhd0o3wefni61a07bdpg" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:پاڪستان جي سياسي جاگرافي]]
[[زمرو:بلوچستان، پاڪستان جي سياسي جاگرافي]]</text>
      <sha1>5a2611lrz5mhhd0o3wefni61a07bdpg</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399190</id>
      <parentid>399189</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:31:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed [[Category:پاڪستان جي سياسي جاگرافي]]; added [[Category:پاڪستان جون يونين ڪاؤنسلون]] [[وڪيپيڊيا:ھاٽ ڪيٽ|ھاٽ ڪيت]] جي مدد سان</comment>
      <origin>399190</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="140" sha1="dpfzc7c22u1ywn7icumbua9l4k2w6u3" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:پاڪستان جون يونين ڪاؤنسلون]]
[[زمرو:بلوچستان، پاڪستان جي سياسي جاگرافي]]</text>
      <sha1>dpfzc7c22u1ywn7icumbua9l4k2w6u3</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399191</id>
      <parentid>399190</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:31:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed [[Category:پاڪستان جون يونين ڪاؤنسلون]]; added [[Category:پاڪستان جون يونين ڪائونسلون]] [[وڪيپيڊيا:ھاٽ ڪيٽ|ھاٽ ڪيت]] جي مدد سان</comment>
      <origin>399191</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="142" sha1="66rv6vp1f82tuj3lfhp1hguyvgciun6" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:پاڪستان جون يونين ڪائونسلون]]
[[زمرو:بلوچستان، پاڪستان جي سياسي جاگرافي]]</text>
      <sha1>66rv6vp1f82tuj3lfhp1hguyvgciun6</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ڪنوار ٻوٽي</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>59375</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399336</id>
      <parentid>343678</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T22:11:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399336</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2310" sha1="iifs8jmih27mkfzs0n8th0bmajhdqqb" xml:space="preserve">'''ڪُنوار ٻُوٽِي''' ([[انگريزي ٻولي|انگريزي]]: Aloe vera) ھڪ قسم جو ٻُوٽو آهي جيڪو، [[سنڌ]]، [[پاڪستان]] توڙي سڄي دنيا ۾ ٿئي ٿو جنهن جي ڪٽنب ۾ ڪيترائي نمونا ٿين ٿا جن جا سائنسي نالا پڻ مختلف ٿين ٿا. هن ٻوٽي جا پن اڪثر سائي رنگ جا ٿيندا آهن پر ڪن ملڪن ۾ ڳاڙهي رنگ جا ٻہ ٿيندا آهن. هن جا پن ٻاهر بجاءِ اندر وڪوڙيل ٿيندا آهن جنهن ڪري شايد سنڌي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪنوار ٻوٽي سڏيو ويو آهي. هيءُ ٻوٽو اڪثر جبلن ۾ ٿئي ٿو پر هٿرادو طور بہ پوکيو ويندو آهي. هن ٻوٽي جي پنن ۾ کير نما رس ٿيندي آهي جيڪا دوا طور ڪم ايندي آهي. هن ٻوٽي کي [[اٺ]] ۽ [[ٻڪري]] شوق سان کائيندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://worldofsucculents.com/aloe-perfoliata-rubble-aloe-mitre-aloe/|title=Aloe perfoliata (Mitre Aloe)|date=2014-03-09|website=World of Succulents|language=en-US|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/Catalogue/History/Book21/Book_page6.html|title=Sindhi Adabi Board Online Library (History)|website=www.sindhiadabiboard.org|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Aloe Vera.jpg|thumb|ڪنوار ٻوٽي]]

ھن ٻوٽي کي '''ايريال''' بہ چوندا آھن جيڪو ھڪ جهنگلي ٻوٽو آھي، ان ۾ رڳو ڊگها پن وارا ڦڙها ٿين ٿا، پنن جا پاسا ڪنڊن وارا ٿين. طبي لحاظ کان ايريال ڪيترين بيمارين کي فائدو پھچائي ٿو. سخت سوڄ تي ايريال جا ڦڙها چيري، گرم ڪري، هئڊ مکي، ٻڌندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=ايريال : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt; |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |accessdate=2024-05-30 |archive-date=2024-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240531181831/https://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |dead-url=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}


[[زمرو:ٻوٽا]]</text>
      <sha1>iifs8jmih27mkfzs0n8th0bmajhdqqb</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399337</id>
      <parentid>399336</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T22:16:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399337</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="7932" sha1="qe5xlv6u18pq3ac0podi5o3s8vgpu52" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|ٻوٽي جي قسم}}


{{Speciesbox
| taxon = Aloe vera
| image = Aloe_vera_flower_inset.png
| image_upright = 1.2
| image_caption = ٻوٽو، گل جي ويجهي تصوير سان
| authority = ([[ڪارل لنيئس|L.]]) [[نيڪولاس لارنس برمن|Burm.f.]]
| synonyms =
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' &lt;small&gt;Mill.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;Haw.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe elongata'' &lt;small&gt;Murray&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe flava'' &lt;small&gt;Pers.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe indica'' &lt;small&gt;Royle&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Tod.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe maculata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe perfoliata'' var. ''vera'' &lt;small&gt;L.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe rubescens'' &lt;small&gt;DC.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe variegata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe vera'' &lt;small&gt;Mill. (غير جائز)&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) A. Berger&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''littoralis'' &lt;small&gt;J.Koenig ex Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vulgaris'' &lt;small&gt;Lam.&lt;/small&gt;
| synonyms_ref = &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/18403421?tab=synonyms Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.] Tropicos.org&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WFO&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=''Aloe vera'' L. Burm.f. Fl. Indica : 83 (1768) |url=http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000758976 |website=World Flora Online |date=2022 |publisher=World Flora Consortium |access-date=16 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

'''ڪنوار ٻوٽي: انگريزي ۾ ايلو ويرا '''  '''''Aloe vera''''''
جنهن کي سنڌيءَ ۾ '''پَٽِ ڪُنوار'''،  يا '''ايريال''' پڻ چيو وڃي ٿو، [[رسدار ٻوٽو|رسدار ٻوٽن]] جي [[قسم (حياتيات)|قسم]] مان آهي ۽ [[ايلو]] (''Aloe'') [[جنس (حياتيات)|جنس]] سان تعلق رکي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/4192 |title=Aloe vera (true aloe) |date=13 February 2019 |publisher=[[سينٽر فار ايگريڪلچر اينڊ بايو سائنس انٽرنيشنل]] |access-date=15 October 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي ٻوٽو دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي پکڙيل آهي، ۽ ڪيترن هنڌن تي ان کي [[دخل انداز قسم]] پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Aloe |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/aloe.html |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=8 June 2026 |date=19 November 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي هڪ [[سدابهار]] ۽ [[گهڻ سالي ٻوٽو]] آهي، جنهن جو اصل وطن [[جزيرو نما عربستان]] آهي، پر اهو دنيا جي ٻين گرم، نيم گرم ۽ خشڪ علائقن ۾ به جهنگلي حالت ۾ وڌندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt; ان جي تجارتي پوک پڻ ڪئي ويندي آهي، ۽ صدين کان ان کي چمڙي تي لڳائڻ واري [[مقامي دوا]] طور استعمال ڪيو ويندو رهيو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt; هي ٻوٽو سينگار لاءِ پڻ مشهور آهي ۽ گهڻو ڪري گهرن اندر [[گملي]] ۾ پوکيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://homeguides.sfgate.com/aloe-tropical-plant-67510.html |website=[[ايس ايف گيٽ]] |last=Perkins |first=Cyndi |title=Is Aloe a tropical plant? |date=13 March 2013 |access-date=13 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''Aloe vera'' جي پنن ۾ [[پوليسيڪرائڊ]] قسم جو جيل '''[[ايسيمينن]]''' (Acemannan) وڏي مقدار ۾ موجود هوندو آهي، جيڪو چمڙي تي لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Chang |last2=Cui |first2=Yan |last3=Pi |first3=Fuwei |last4=Cheng |first4=Yuliang |last5=Guo |first5=Yahui |last6=Qian |first6=He |date=2019-04-19 |title=Extraction, Purification, Structural Characteristics, Biological Activities and Pharmacological Applications of Acemannan, a Polysaccharide from Aloe vera: A Review |journal=Molecules |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=1554 |doi=10.3390/molecules24081554 |pmc=6515206 |pmid=31010204 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; پنن ۾ '''[[ايلوئن]]''' (Aloin) نالي هڪ زهريلو مرڪب پڻ موجود هوندو آهي. تجارتي ''Aloe vera'' جون گهڻيون شيون هن جيل مان تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن.

''Aloe vera'' مان حاصل ٿيندڙ ايسيمينن تي ٻڌل جيل چمڙي جي لوشنن، [[سينگار جو سامان|سينگار جي شين]]، مرهمن ۽ جيلن ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور تي معمولي سڙڻ، چمڙي جي هلڪي ڇلن، جيتن جي چڪ ۽ هوا سبب چمڙي جي جلن جي علاج لاءِ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Surjushe |first1=Amar |last2=Vasani |first2=Resham |last3=Saple |first3=D G |date=2008 |title=Aloe vera: A short review |journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=163–166 |doi=10.4103/0019-5154.44785 |pmc=2763764 |pmid=19882025 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''ايلو ويرا '' جي عرق کي وات ذريعي استعمال ڪرڻ سان تيز پيٽ جو سور، اينٺون ۽ ڊگهي عرصي تائين استعمال جي صورت ۾ [[هيپاٽائٽس]] ٿي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/aloe-vera |title=Aloe vera |publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health |date=1 February 2025 |access-date=8 June 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; حمل دوران ان جو استعمال نه ڪرڻ گهرجي. ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان [[الرجي]] پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;

ھي ٻُوٽو آهي جيڪو، [[سنڌ]]، [[پاڪستان]] توڙي سڄي دنيا ۾ ٿئي ٿو جنهن جي ڪٽنب ۾ ڪيترائي نمونا ٿين ٿا جن جا سائنسي نالا پڻ مختلف ٿين ٿا. هن ٻوٽي جا پن اڪثر سائي رنگ جا ٿيندا آهن پر ڪن ملڪن ۾ ڳاڙهي رنگ جا ٻہ ٿيندا آهن. هن جا پن ٻاهر بجاءِ اندر وڪوڙيل ٿيندا آهن جنهن ڪري شايد سنڌي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪنوار ٻوٽي سڏيو ويو آهي. هيءُ ٻوٽو اڪثر جبلن ۾ ٿئي ٿو پر هٿرادو طور بہ پوکيو ويندو آهي. هن ٻوٽي جي پنن ۾ کير نما رس ٿيندي آهي جيڪا دوا طور ڪم ايندي آهي. هن ٻوٽي کي [[اٺ]] ۽ [[ٻڪري]] شوق سان کائيندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://worldofsucculents.com/aloe-perfoliata-rubble-aloe-mitre-aloe/|title=Aloe perfoliata (Mitre Aloe)|date=2014-03-09|website=World of Succulents|language=en-US|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/Catalogue/History/Book21/Book_page6.html|title=Sindhi Adabi Board Online Library (History)|website=www.sindhiadabiboard.org|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Aloe Vera.jpg|thumb|ڪنوار ٻوٽي]]

ھي ھڪ جهنگلي ٻوٽو آھي، ان ۾ رڳو ڊگها پن وارا ڦڙها ٿين ٿا، پنن جا پاسا ڪنڊن وارا ٿين. طبي لحاظ کان ايريال يا  ڪنوار ٻوٽي ڪيترين بيمارين کي فائدو پھچائي ٿو. سخت سوڄ تي ايريال جا ڦڙها چيري، گرم ڪري، هئڊ مکي، ٻڌندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=ايريال : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt; |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |accessdate=2024-05-30 |archive-date=2024-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240531181831/https://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |dead-url=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}


[[زمرو:ٻوٽا]]</text>
      <sha1>qe5xlv6u18pq3ac0podi5o3s8vgpu52</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399338</id>
      <parentid>399337</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T22:30:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399338</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="15817" sha1="1mjc47680rxg83z855hkpfk54qx7k1i" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|ٻوٽي جي قسم}}


{{Speciesbox
| taxon = Aloe vera
| image = Aloe_vera_flower_inset.png
| image_upright = 1.2
| image_caption = ٻوٽو، گل جي ويجهي تصوير سان
| authority = ([[ڪارل لنيئس|L.]]) [[نيڪولاس لارنس برمن|Burm.f.]]
| synonyms =
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' &lt;small&gt;Mill.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;Haw.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe elongata'' &lt;small&gt;Murray&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe flava'' &lt;small&gt;Pers.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe indica'' &lt;small&gt;Royle&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Tod.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe maculata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe perfoliata'' var. ''vera'' &lt;small&gt;L.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe rubescens'' &lt;small&gt;DC.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe variegata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe vera'' &lt;small&gt;Mill. (غير جائز)&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) A. Berger&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''littoralis'' &lt;small&gt;J.Koenig ex Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vulgaris'' &lt;small&gt;Lam.&lt;/small&gt;
| synonyms_ref = &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/18403421?tab=synonyms Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.] Tropicos.org&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WFO&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=''Aloe vera'' L. Burm.f. Fl. Indica : 83 (1768) |url=http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000758976 |website=World Flora Online |date=2022 |publisher=World Flora Consortium |access-date=16 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

'''ڪنوار ٻوٽي: انگريزي ۾ ايلو ويرا '''  '''''Aloe vera''''''
جنهن کي سنڌيءَ ۾ '''پَٽِ ڪُنوار'''،  يا '''ايريال''' پڻ چيو وڃي ٿو، [[رسدار ٻوٽو|رسدار ٻوٽن]] جي [[قسم (حياتيات)|قسم]] مان آهي ۽ [[ايلو]] (''Aloe'') [[جنس (حياتيات)|جنس]] سان تعلق رکي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/4192 |title=Aloe vera (true aloe) |date=13 February 2019 |publisher=[[سينٽر فار ايگريڪلچر اينڊ بايو سائنس انٽرنيشنل]] |access-date=15 October 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي ٻوٽو دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي پکڙيل آهي، ۽ ڪيترن هنڌن تي ان کي [[دخل انداز قسم]] پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Aloe |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/aloe.html |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=8 June 2026 |date=19 November 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي هڪ [[سدابهار]] ۽ [[گهڻ سالي ٻوٽو]] آهي، جنهن جو اصل وطن [[جزيرو نما عربستان]] آهي، پر اهو دنيا جي ٻين گرم، نيم گرم ۽ خشڪ علائقن ۾ به جهنگلي حالت ۾ وڌندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt; ان جي تجارتي پوک پڻ ڪئي ويندي آهي، ۽ صدين کان ان کي چمڙي تي لڳائڻ واري [[مقامي دوا]] طور استعمال ڪيو ويندو رهيو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt; هي ٻوٽو سينگار لاءِ پڻ مشهور آهي ۽ گهڻو ڪري گهرن اندر [[گملي]] ۾ پوکيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://homeguides.sfgate.com/aloe-tropical-plant-67510.html |website=[[ايس ايف گيٽ]] |last=Perkins |first=Cyndi |title=Is Aloe a tropical plant? |date=13 March 2013 |access-date=13 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''Aloe vera'' جي پنن ۾ [[پوليسيڪرائڊ]] قسم جو جيل '''[[ايسيمينن]]''' (Acemannan) وڏي مقدار ۾ موجود هوندو آهي، جيڪو چمڙي تي لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Chang |last2=Cui |first2=Yan |last3=Pi |first3=Fuwei |last4=Cheng |first4=Yuliang |last5=Guo |first5=Yahui |last6=Qian |first6=He |date=2019-04-19 |title=Extraction, Purification, Structural Characteristics, Biological Activities and Pharmacological Applications of Acemannan, a Polysaccharide from Aloe vera: A Review |journal=Molecules |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=1554 |doi=10.3390/molecules24081554 |pmc=6515206 |pmid=31010204 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; پنن ۾ '''[[ايلوئن]]''' (Aloin) نالي هڪ زهريلو مرڪب پڻ موجود هوندو آهي. تجارتي ''Aloe vera'' جون گهڻيون شيون هن جيل مان تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن.

''Aloe vera'' مان حاصل ٿيندڙ ايسيمينن تي ٻڌل جيل چمڙي جي لوشنن، [[سينگار جو سامان|سينگار جي شين]]، مرهمن ۽ جيلن ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور تي معمولي سڙڻ، چمڙي جي هلڪي ڇلن، جيتن جي چڪ ۽ هوا سبب چمڙي جي جلن جي علاج لاءِ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Surjushe |first1=Amar |last2=Vasani |first2=Resham |last3=Saple |first3=D G |date=2008 |title=Aloe vera: A short review |journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=163–166 |doi=10.4103/0019-5154.44785 |pmc=2763764 |pmid=19882025 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''ايلو ويرا '' جي عرق کي وات ذريعي استعمال ڪرڻ سان تيز پيٽ جو سور، اينٺون ۽ ڊگهي عرصي تائين استعمال جي صورت ۾ [[هيپاٽائٽس]] ٿي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/aloe-vera |title=Aloe vera |publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health |date=1 February 2025 |access-date=8 June 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; حمل دوران ان جو استعمال نه ڪرڻ گهرجي. ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان [[الرجي]] پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;

ھي ٻُوٽو آهي جيڪو، [[سنڌ]]، [[پاڪستان]] توڙي سڄي دنيا ۾ ٿئي ٿو جنهن جي ڪٽنب ۾ ڪيترائي نمونا ٿين ٿا جن جا سائنسي نالا پڻ مختلف ٿين ٿا. هن ٻوٽي جا پن اڪثر سائي رنگ جا ٿيندا آهن پر ڪن ملڪن ۾ ڳاڙهي رنگ جا ٻہ ٿيندا آهن. هن جا پن ٻاهر بجاءِ اندر وڪوڙيل ٿيندا آهن جنهن ڪري شايد سنڌي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪنوار ٻوٽي سڏيو ويو آهي. هيءُ ٻوٽو اڪثر جبلن ۾ ٿئي ٿو پر هٿرادو طور بہ پوکيو ويندو آهي. هن ٻوٽي جي پنن ۾ کير نما رس ٿيندي آهي جيڪا دوا طور ڪم ايندي آهي. هن ٻوٽي کي [[اٺ]] ۽ [[ٻڪري]] شوق سان کائيندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://worldofsucculents.com/aloe-perfoliata-rubble-aloe-mitre-aloe/|title=Aloe perfoliata (Mitre Aloe)|date=2014-03-09|website=World of Succulents|language=en-US|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/Catalogue/History/Book21/Book_page6.html|title=Sindhi Adabi Board Online Library (History)|website=www.sindhiadabiboard.org|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Aloe Vera.jpg|thumb|ڪنوار ٻوٽي]]

ھي ھڪ جهنگلي ٻوٽو آھي، ان ۾ رڳو ڊگها پن وارا ڦڙها ٿين ٿا، پنن جا پاسا ڪنڊن وارا ٿين. طبي لحاظ کان ايريال يا  ڪنوار ٻوٽي ڪيترين بيمارين کي فائدو پھچائي ٿو. سخت سوڄ تي ايريال جا ڦڙها چيري، گرم ڪري، هئڊ مکي، ٻڌندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=ايريال : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt; |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |accessdate=2024-05-30 |archive-date=2024-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240531181831/https://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |dead-url=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== نالي جي بڻ ==
[[File:Aloe Vera houseplant.jpg|thumb|پنن جي ڪنارن تي ڏند جهڙا ڪنڊا]]

[[جنس (حياتيات)|جنس]] ''[[ايلو]]'' (''Aloe'') جو نالو [[عربي ٻولي|عربي]] لفظ ''الُوَّه'' (''alloeh'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي &quot;ڪڙو ۽ چمڪندڙ مادو&quot;، يا وري [[عبراني ٻولي|عبراني]] {{lang|he|אוהלים}} ''اھالم'' (واحد: {{lang|he|אוהל}} ''اھل'') مان ورتل آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;oed&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/aloe |title=Aloe |last1=Harper |first1=Douglas |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=1 July 2021 |date=2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;guo&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Xiaoqing |last2=Mei |first2=Nan |title=Aloe vera: A review of toxicity and adverse clinical effects |journal=J Environ Sci Health C Environ Carcinog Ecotoxicol Rev |date=2 April 2016 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=77–96 |doi=10.1080/10590501.2016.1166826 |pmid=26986231 |pmc=6349368 |bibcode=2016JESHC..34...77G}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.balashon.com/2008/03/aloe.html |title=Aloe |last1=Curwin |first1=David |date=16 March 2008 |website=Balashon - Hebrew Language Detective |access-date=16 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[نوعي لقب]] ''ويرا'' لاطيني لفظ ''ويرس'' مان ورتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي &quot;حقيقي&quot; يا &quot;اصلي&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;guo&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=verus |title=vērus |last1=Lewis |first1=Charlton T. |last2=Short |first2=Charles |dictionary=A Latin Dictionary |publisher=Perseus Digital Library |date=1879}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== عام نالا ===
هن ٻوٽي جا عام نالا گهڻو ڪري ان جي ورڇ يا علائقي جي نسبت سان رکيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ ''چيني ايلو''، ''ڪيپ ايلو'' ۽ ''[[بارباڊوس]] ايلو''.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Liao Z, Chen M, Tan F, Sun X, Tang K |year=2004 |title=Micropropagation of endangered Chinese aloe |journal=Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=83–86 |doi=10.1023/A:1025868515705 |s2cid=41623664}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;expert&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel |title=Final Report on the Safety Assessment of Aloe Andongensis Extract, Aloe Andongensis Leaf Juice, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Extract, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Juice, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Protoplasts, Aloe Barbadensis Flower Extract, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Extract, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Juice, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Polysaccharides, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Water, Aloe Ferox Leaf Extract, Aloe Ferox Leaf Juice, and Aloe Ferox Leaf Juice Extract |journal=International Journal of Toxicology |volume=26 |issue=Suppl 2 |pages=1–50 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/10915810701351186 |year=2007 |pmid=17613130 |doi=10.1080/10915810701351186 |s2cid=86018076}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== درجابندي ===
هن قسم جا ڪيترائي [[هم معنيٰ نالا (حياتياتي درجابندي)|هم معنيٰ سائنسي نالا]] آهن، جن ۾ ''ايلو بارباڊينس'' مل.، ''ايلو انڊيڪا'' رايل، ''ايلو پرفوليئاٽا'' var. ''ويرا'' ايل. ۽ ''ايلو ولگرس'' لام. شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;WFO&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AFPD&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa/details.php?langue=an&amp;id=155971 |title=''Aloe vera'', African flowering plants database |publisher=Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève |access-date=19 November 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Aloe%20vera |title=Taxon: Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. |publisher=Germplasm Resources Information Network, United States Department of Agriculture |access-date=16 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924131123/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Aloe%20vera |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪجهه علمي حوالن ۾ اڇن داغن واري صورت کي ''ايلو ويرا'' var. ''چائنينسس'' سڏيو ويو آهي،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Wang H, Li F, Wang T, Li J, Li J, Yang X, Li J |title=[Determination of aloin content in callus of Aloe vera var. chinensis] |language=zh |journal=Zhong Yao Cai |volume=27 |issue=9 |pages=627–628 |year=2004 |pmid=15704580}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Gao W, Xiao P |title=[Peroxidase and soluble protein in the leaves of Aloe vera L. var. chinensis (Haw.) Berger] |language=zh |journal=Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi |volume=22 |issue=11 |pages=653–654, 702 |year=1997 |pmid=11243179}}&lt;/ref&gt; جڏهن ته داغدار صورت کي ''اي. مساوانا'' سان هڪ ئي قسم سمجهيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;hb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://huntingtonbotanical.org/Desert/Cholla/feb06/feb06.htm |title=The Definitive ''Aloe vera'', vera? |author=Lyons G |publisher=Huntington Botanic Gardens |access-date=11 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725090154/http://www.huntingtonbotanical.org/Desert/Cholla/feb06/feb06.htm |archive-date=25 July 2008 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هن قسم کي پهريون ڀيرو [[ڪارل لنيئس]] 1753ع ۾ ''ايلو پرفوليئاٽا'' var. ''ويرا'' جي نالي سان بيان ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;لنيئيوس, ڪارل (1753). ''اسپيشيز plantarum''. Vol. 2.&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ 6 اپريل 1768ع تي [[نيڪولاس لارنس برمن]] پنهنجي ڪتاب ''فلورا انڊڪا'' ۾ ان کي ''ايلو ويرا'' نالو ڏنو، جڏهن ته لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه ڏينهن پوءِ [[فلپ ملر]] ان کي ''ايلو بارباڊينسس'' جي نالي سان بيان ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Newton LE |year=1979 |title=In defense of the name ''Aloe vera'' |journal=The Cactus and Succulent Journal of Great Britain |volume=41 |pages=29–30}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[ڊي اين اي]] جي ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو آهي ته ''ايلو ويرا'' جو ويجهو تعلق ''[[ايلو پيريائي ]]'' سان آهي، جيڪا [[يمن]] جي مقامي قسم آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Darokar MP, Rai R, Gupta AK, Shasany AK, Rajkumar S, Sunderasan V, Khanuja SP |year=2003 |title=Molecular assessment of germplasm diversity in ''Aloe'' spp. using RAPD and AFLP analysis |journal=J. Med. Arom. Plant Sci. |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=354–361}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪلوروپلاسٽ]] ڊي اين اي ۽ [[مائڪروسيٽلائيٽ]] جي تجزين مان اهو پڻ ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته هن جو ويجهو تعلق ''[[ايلو فوربيسي]]''، ''[[ايلو اِنرمِس]]''، ''[[ايلو اسڪوبينيفوليا]]''، ''[[ايلو سنڪاٽان]]'' ۽ ''[[ايلو اسٽرياٽا]]'' سان پڻ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Treutlein&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Treutlein J, Smith GF, van Wyk BE, Wink W |year=2003 |title=Phylogenetic relationships in Asphodelaceae (Alooideae) inferred from chloroplast DNA sequences (rbcL, matK) and from genomic fingerprinting (ISSR) |journal=Taxon |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=193–207 |doi=10.2307/3647389 |jstor=3647389}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''A. striata'' کان سواءِ اهي سڀئي قسم [[سقطرى]] (يمن)، صوماليا ۽ سوڊان جا مقامي ٻوٽا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Treutlein&quot;/&gt;

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪنوار ٻوٽي يا''ايلو ويرا'' جون قدرتي جهنگلي آباديون واضح طور سڃاتل نه آهن، تنهنڪري ڪجهه نباتات دانن جو خيال آهي ته هي قسم شايد [[هائبرڊ]] اصل رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;Jones WD, Sacamano C. (2000). ''Landscape Plants for Dry Regions''. California Bill's Automotive Publishers.&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}


[[زمرو:ٻوٽا]]</text>
      <sha1>1mjc47680rxg83z855hkpfk54qx7k1i</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399339</id>
      <parentid>399338</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T22:32:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399339</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="19474" sha1="4u8p7pvmap92x7npt7jf1vn6cqhcyey" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|ٻوٽي جي قسم}}


{{Speciesbox
| taxon = Aloe vera
| image = Aloe_vera_flower_inset.png
| image_upright = 1.2
| image_caption = ٻوٽو، گل جي ويجهي تصوير سان
| authority = ([[ڪارل لنيئس|L.]]) [[نيڪولاس لارنس برمن|Burm.f.]]
| synonyms =
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' &lt;small&gt;Mill.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;Haw.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe elongata'' &lt;small&gt;Murray&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe flava'' &lt;small&gt;Pers.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe indica'' &lt;small&gt;Royle&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Tod.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe maculata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe perfoliata'' var. ''vera'' &lt;small&gt;L.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe rubescens'' &lt;small&gt;DC.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe variegata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe vera'' &lt;small&gt;Mill. (غير جائز)&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) A. Berger&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''littoralis'' &lt;small&gt;J.Koenig ex Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vulgaris'' &lt;small&gt;Lam.&lt;/small&gt;
| synonyms_ref = &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/18403421?tab=synonyms Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.] Tropicos.org&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WFO&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=''Aloe vera'' L. Burm.f. Fl. Indica : 83 (1768) |url=http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000758976 |website=World Flora Online |date=2022 |publisher=World Flora Consortium |access-date=16 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

'''ڪنوار ٻوٽي: انگريزي ۾ ايلو ويرا '''  '''''Aloe vera''''''
جنهن کي سنڌيءَ ۾ '''پَٽِ ڪُنوار'''،  يا '''ايريال''' پڻ چيو وڃي ٿو، [[رسدار ٻوٽو|رسدار ٻوٽن]] جي [[قسم (حياتيات)|قسم]] مان آهي ۽ [[ايلو]] (''Aloe'') [[جنس (حياتيات)|جنس]] سان تعلق رکي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/4192 |title=Aloe vera (true aloe) |date=13 February 2019 |publisher=[[سينٽر فار ايگريڪلچر اينڊ بايو سائنس انٽرنيشنل]] |access-date=15 October 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي ٻوٽو دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي پکڙيل آهي، ۽ ڪيترن هنڌن تي ان کي [[دخل انداز قسم]] پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Aloe |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/aloe.html |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=8 June 2026 |date=19 November 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي هڪ [[سدابهار]] ۽ [[گهڻ سالي ٻوٽو]] آهي، جنهن جو اصل وطن [[جزيرو نما عربستان]] آهي، پر اهو دنيا جي ٻين گرم، نيم گرم ۽ خشڪ علائقن ۾ به جهنگلي حالت ۾ وڌندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt; ان جي تجارتي پوک پڻ ڪئي ويندي آهي، ۽ صدين کان ان کي چمڙي تي لڳائڻ واري [[مقامي دوا]] طور استعمال ڪيو ويندو رهيو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt; هي ٻوٽو سينگار لاءِ پڻ مشهور آهي ۽ گهڻو ڪري گهرن اندر [[گملي]] ۾ پوکيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://homeguides.sfgate.com/aloe-tropical-plant-67510.html |website=[[ايس ايف گيٽ]] |last=Perkins |first=Cyndi |title=Is Aloe a tropical plant? |date=13 March 2013 |access-date=13 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''Aloe vera'' جي پنن ۾ [[پوليسيڪرائڊ]] قسم جو جيل '''[[ايسيمينن]]''' (Acemannan) وڏي مقدار ۾ موجود هوندو آهي، جيڪو چمڙي تي لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Chang |last2=Cui |first2=Yan |last3=Pi |first3=Fuwei |last4=Cheng |first4=Yuliang |last5=Guo |first5=Yahui |last6=Qian |first6=He |date=2019-04-19 |title=Extraction, Purification, Structural Characteristics, Biological Activities and Pharmacological Applications of Acemannan, a Polysaccharide from Aloe vera: A Review |journal=Molecules |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=1554 |doi=10.3390/molecules24081554 |pmc=6515206 |pmid=31010204 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; پنن ۾ '''[[ايلوئن]]''' (Aloin) نالي هڪ زهريلو مرڪب پڻ موجود هوندو آهي. تجارتي ''Aloe vera'' جون گهڻيون شيون هن جيل مان تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن.

''Aloe vera'' مان حاصل ٿيندڙ ايسيمينن تي ٻڌل جيل چمڙي جي لوشنن، [[سينگار جو سامان|سينگار جي شين]]، مرهمن ۽ جيلن ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور تي معمولي سڙڻ، چمڙي جي هلڪي ڇلن، جيتن جي چڪ ۽ هوا سبب چمڙي جي جلن جي علاج لاءِ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Surjushe |first1=Amar |last2=Vasani |first2=Resham |last3=Saple |first3=D G |date=2008 |title=Aloe vera: A short review |journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=163–166 |doi=10.4103/0019-5154.44785 |pmc=2763764 |pmid=19882025 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''ايلو ويرا '' جي عرق کي وات ذريعي استعمال ڪرڻ سان تيز پيٽ جو سور، اينٺون ۽ ڊگهي عرصي تائين استعمال جي صورت ۾ [[هيپاٽائٽس]] ٿي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/aloe-vera |title=Aloe vera |publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health |date=1 February 2025 |access-date=8 June 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; حمل دوران ان جو استعمال نه ڪرڻ گهرجي. ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان [[الرجي]] پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;

ھي ٻُوٽو آهي جيڪو، [[سنڌ]]، [[پاڪستان]] توڙي سڄي دنيا ۾ ٿئي ٿو جنهن جي ڪٽنب ۾ ڪيترائي نمونا ٿين ٿا جن جا سائنسي نالا پڻ مختلف ٿين ٿا. هن ٻوٽي جا پن اڪثر سائي رنگ جا ٿيندا آهن پر ڪن ملڪن ۾ ڳاڙهي رنگ جا ٻہ ٿيندا آهن. هن جا پن ٻاهر بجاءِ اندر وڪوڙيل ٿيندا آهن جنهن ڪري شايد سنڌي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪنوار ٻوٽي سڏيو ويو آهي. هيءُ ٻوٽو اڪثر جبلن ۾ ٿئي ٿو پر هٿرادو طور بہ پوکيو ويندو آهي. هن ٻوٽي جي پنن ۾ کير نما رس ٿيندي آهي جيڪا دوا طور ڪم ايندي آهي. هن ٻوٽي کي [[اٺ]] ۽ [[ٻڪري]] شوق سان کائيندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://worldofsucculents.com/aloe-perfoliata-rubble-aloe-mitre-aloe/|title=Aloe perfoliata (Mitre Aloe)|date=2014-03-09|website=World of Succulents|language=en-US|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/Catalogue/History/Book21/Book_page6.html|title=Sindhi Adabi Board Online Library (History)|website=www.sindhiadabiboard.org|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Aloe Vera.jpg|thumb|ڪنوار ٻوٽي]]

ھي ھڪ جهنگلي ٻوٽو آھي، ان ۾ رڳو ڊگها پن وارا ڦڙها ٿين ٿا، پنن جا پاسا ڪنڊن وارا ٿين. طبي لحاظ کان ايريال يا  ڪنوار ٻوٽي ڪيترين بيمارين کي فائدو پھچائي ٿو. سخت سوڄ تي ايريال جا ڦڙها چيري، گرم ڪري، هئڊ مکي، ٻڌندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=ايريال : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt; |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |accessdate=2024-05-30 |archive-date=2024-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240531181831/https://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |dead-url=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== نالي جي بڻ ==
[[File:Aloe Vera houseplant.jpg|thumb|پنن جي ڪنارن تي ڏند جهڙا ڪنڊا]]

[[جنس (حياتيات)|جنس]] ''[[ايلو]]'' (''Aloe'') جو نالو [[عربي ٻولي|عربي]] لفظ ''الُوَّه'' (''alloeh'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي &quot;ڪڙو ۽ چمڪندڙ مادو&quot;، يا وري [[عبراني ٻولي|عبراني]] {{lang|he|אוהלים}} ''اھالم'' (واحد: {{lang|he|אוהל}} ''اھل'') مان ورتل آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;oed&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/aloe |title=Aloe |last1=Harper |first1=Douglas |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=1 July 2021 |date=2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;guo&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Xiaoqing |last2=Mei |first2=Nan |title=Aloe vera: A review of toxicity and adverse clinical effects |journal=J Environ Sci Health C Environ Carcinog Ecotoxicol Rev |date=2 April 2016 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=77–96 |doi=10.1080/10590501.2016.1166826 |pmid=26986231 |pmc=6349368 |bibcode=2016JESHC..34...77G}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.balashon.com/2008/03/aloe.html |title=Aloe |last1=Curwin |first1=David |date=16 March 2008 |website=Balashon - Hebrew Language Detective |access-date=16 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[نوعي لقب]] ''ويرا'' لاطيني لفظ ''ويرس'' مان ورتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي &quot;حقيقي&quot; يا &quot;اصلي&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;guo&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=verus |title=vērus |last1=Lewis |first1=Charlton T. |last2=Short |first2=Charles |dictionary=A Latin Dictionary |publisher=Perseus Digital Library |date=1879}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== عام نالا ===
هن ٻوٽي جا عام نالا گهڻو ڪري ان جي ورڇ يا علائقي جي نسبت سان رکيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ ''چيني ايلو''، ''ڪيپ ايلو'' ۽ ''[[بارباڊوس]] ايلو''.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Liao Z, Chen M, Tan F, Sun X, Tang K |year=2004 |title=Micropropagation of endangered Chinese aloe |journal=Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=83–86 |doi=10.1023/A:1025868515705 |s2cid=41623664}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;expert&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel |title=Final Report on the Safety Assessment of Aloe Andongensis Extract, Aloe Andongensis Leaf Juice, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Extract, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Juice, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Protoplasts, Aloe Barbadensis Flower Extract, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Extract, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Juice, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Polysaccharides, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Water, Aloe Ferox Leaf Extract, Aloe Ferox Leaf Juice, and Aloe Ferox Leaf Juice Extract |journal=International Journal of Toxicology |volume=26 |issue=Suppl 2 |pages=1–50 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/10915810701351186 |year=2007 |pmid=17613130 |doi=10.1080/10915810701351186 |s2cid=86018076}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== درجابندي ===
هن قسم جا ڪيترائي [[هم معنيٰ نالا (حياتياتي درجابندي)|هم معنيٰ سائنسي نالا]] آهن، جن ۾ ''ايلو بارباڊينس'' مل.، ''ايلو انڊيڪا'' رايل، ''ايلو پرفوليئاٽا'' var. ''ويرا'' ايل. ۽ ''ايلو ولگرس'' لام. شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;WFO&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AFPD&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa/details.php?langue=an&amp;id=155971 |title=''Aloe vera'', African flowering plants database |publisher=Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève |access-date=19 November 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Aloe%20vera |title=Taxon: Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. |publisher=Germplasm Resources Information Network, United States Department of Agriculture |access-date=16 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924131123/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Aloe%20vera |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪجهه علمي حوالن ۾ اڇن داغن واري صورت کي ''ايلو ويرا'' var. ''چائنينسس'' سڏيو ويو آهي،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Wang H, Li F, Wang T, Li J, Li J, Yang X, Li J |title=[Determination of aloin content in callus of Aloe vera var. chinensis] |language=zh |journal=Zhong Yao Cai |volume=27 |issue=9 |pages=627–628 |year=2004 |pmid=15704580}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Gao W, Xiao P |title=[Peroxidase and soluble protein in the leaves of Aloe vera L. var. chinensis (Haw.) Berger] |language=zh |journal=Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi |volume=22 |issue=11 |pages=653–654, 702 |year=1997 |pmid=11243179}}&lt;/ref&gt; جڏهن ته داغدار صورت کي ''اي. مساوانا'' سان هڪ ئي قسم سمجهيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;hb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://huntingtonbotanical.org/Desert/Cholla/feb06/feb06.htm |title=The Definitive ''Aloe vera'', vera? |author=Lyons G |publisher=Huntington Botanic Gardens |access-date=11 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725090154/http://www.huntingtonbotanical.org/Desert/Cholla/feb06/feb06.htm |archive-date=25 July 2008 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هن قسم کي پهريون ڀيرو [[ڪارل لنيئس]] 1753ع ۾ ''ايلو پرفوليئاٽا'' var. ''ويرا'' جي نالي سان بيان ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;لنيئيوس, ڪارل (1753). ''اسپيشيز plantarum''. Vol. 2.&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ 6 اپريل 1768ع تي [[نيڪولاس لارنس برمن]] پنهنجي ڪتاب ''فلورا انڊڪا'' ۾ ان کي ''ايلو ويرا'' نالو ڏنو، جڏهن ته لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه ڏينهن پوءِ [[فلپ ملر]] ان کي ''ايلو بارباڊينسس'' جي نالي سان بيان ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Newton LE |year=1979 |title=In defense of the name ''Aloe vera'' |journal=The Cactus and Succulent Journal of Great Britain |volume=41 |pages=29–30}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[ڊي اين اي]] جي ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو آهي ته ''ايلو ويرا'' جو ويجهو تعلق ''[[ايلو پيريائي ]]'' سان آهي، جيڪا [[يمن]] جي مقامي قسم آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Darokar MP, Rai R, Gupta AK, Shasany AK, Rajkumar S, Sunderasan V, Khanuja SP |year=2003 |title=Molecular assessment of germplasm diversity in ''Aloe'' spp. using RAPD and AFLP analysis |journal=J. Med. Arom. Plant Sci. |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=354–361}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪلوروپلاسٽ]] ڊي اين اي ۽ [[مائڪروسيٽلائيٽ]] جي تجزين مان اهو پڻ ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته هن جو ويجهو تعلق ''[[ايلو فوربيسي]]''، ''[[ايلو اِنرمِس]]''، ''[[ايلو اسڪوبينيفوليا]]''، ''[[ايلو سنڪاٽان]]'' ۽ ''[[ايلو اسٽرياٽا]]'' سان پڻ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Treutlein&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Treutlein J, Smith GF, van Wyk BE, Wink W |year=2003 |title=Phylogenetic relationships in Asphodelaceae (Alooideae) inferred from chloroplast DNA sequences (rbcL, matK) and from genomic fingerprinting (ISSR) |journal=Taxon |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=193–207 |doi=10.2307/3647389 |jstor=3647389}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''A. striata'' کان سواءِ اهي سڀئي قسم [[سقطرى]] (يمن)، صوماليا ۽ سوڊان جا مقامي ٻوٽا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Treutlein&quot;/&gt;

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪنوار ٻوٽي يا''ايلو ويرا'' جون قدرتي جهنگلي آباديون واضح طور سڃاتل نه آهن، تنهنڪري ڪجهه نباتات دانن جو خيال آهي ته هي قسم شايد [[هائبرڊ]] اصل رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;Jones WD, Sacamano C. (2000). ''Landscape Plants for Dry Regions''. California Bill's Automotive Publishers.&lt;/ref&gt;

== وضاحت ==
[[File:Aloe Vera.jpg|thumb|right|اڇن داغن واري صورت، جنهن کي ''Aloe vera'' var. ''chinensis'' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي]]
[[File:Acta Eruditorum - IV botanica, 1688 – BEIC 13396043.jpg|thumb|1688ع ۾ [[ايڪٽا ايروڊيٽورم]] ۾ شايع ٿيل تاريخي تصوير]]

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' هڪ بي ٿڙ يا تمام ننڍي ٿڙ وارو ٻوٽو آهي، جيڪو عام طور تي {{convert|60-100|cm|in|abbr=off}} اوچو ٿيندو آهي ۽ [[آفسيٽ (نباتيات)|آفسيٽن]] (پاڙ وٽان نڪرندڙ ننڍن ٻوٽن) ذريعي پکڙجندو آهي.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;

=== پن ===
هن جا پن ٿلها، گوشتائتا، سائي کان سرمائي-سائي رنگ جا هوندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪجهه قسمن جي پنن جي مٿئين ۽ هيٺئين سطح تي اڇا داغ به هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;&gt;Yates A. (2002) ''Yates Garden Guide''. Harper Collins Australia&lt;/ref&gt; پنن جا ڪنارا [[پنن جا ڪنارا|ڏنديدار]] هوندا آهن ۽ انهن تي ننڍڙا اڇا ڪنڊا موجود هوندا آهن.

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جي پنن ۾ ڪيترائي [[فائٽوڪيميڪل]] مرڪب موجود هوندا آهن، جن تي ممڪن حياتياتي اثرن بابت تحقيق جاري آهي. انهن ۾ [[لگنن]]، [[فائٽواسٽرول]]، [[پولي فينول]]، ايسيٽائيليٽيڊ [[مينن]]، پولي مينن، [[اينٿراڪينون]]، سي-[[گلائيڪوسائيڊ]]، [[اينٿرون]]، ۽ ٻيا اينٿراڪينون جهڙوڪ [[ايموڊن]]، گڏوگڏ مختلف [[ليڪٽن]] شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;King&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=King GK, Yates KM, Greenlee PG, Pierce KR, Ford CR, McAnalley BH, Tizard IR |title=The effect of Acemannan Immunostimulant in combination with surgery and radiation therapy on spontaneous canine and feline fibrosarcomas |journal=J Am Anim Hosp Assoc |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=439–447 |year=1995 |pmid=8542364 |doi=10.5326/15473317-31-5-439}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Eshun&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Eshun K, He Q |title=Aloe vera: a valuable ingredient for the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries—a review |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=91–96 |year=2004 |pmid=15116756 |doi=10.1080/10408690490424694 |s2cid=21241302}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گل ===
هن ٻوٽي جا گل اونهاري جي موسم ۾ لڳندا آهن. گلن جو خوشو {{convert|90|cm|in|abbr=on}} تائين اوچو ٿي سگهي ٿو. هر گل هيٺ لڙڪندڙ هوندو آهي ۽ ان جي [[گل ڇلر]] (Corolla) نلي نما، پيلي رنگ جي ۽ {{convert|2-3|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} ڊگهي هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;&gt;{{cite book |date=2001 |title=Botanica's Pocket Gardening Encyclopedia for Australian Gardeners |publisher=Random House Publishers |isbn=9781740514347}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== پاڙون ===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' ٻين ''ايلو'' قسمن وانگر [[آربسڪيولر مائيڪورائزا]] ٺاهي ٿو، جيڪا پاڙن ۽ [[فنگس]] جي وچ ۾ هڪ [[هم زيستي]] تعلق آهي. ان جي ذريعي ٻوٽي کي مٽي مان معدني غذائي جزا وڌيڪ مؤثر نموني حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ مدد ملي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Gong M. |author2=Wang F. |author3=Chen Y |title=[Study on application of arbuscular-mycorrhizas in growing seedlings of Aloe vera] |language=zh |journal=Zhong Yao Cai |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=1–3 |year=2002 |pmid=12583231}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}


[[زمرو:ٻوٽا]]</text>
      <sha1>4u8p7pvmap92x7npt7jf1vn6cqhcyey</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399340</id>
      <parentid>399339</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T22:33:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399340</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="22874" sha1="9e5dpt50jltfvpldcsg9cxj6f4qkb3a" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|ٻوٽي جي قسم}}


{{Speciesbox
| taxon = Aloe vera
| image = Aloe_vera_flower_inset.png
| image_upright = 1.2
| image_caption = ٻوٽو، گل جي ويجهي تصوير سان
| authority = ([[ڪارل لنيئس|L.]]) [[نيڪولاس لارنس برمن|Burm.f.]]
| synonyms =
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' &lt;small&gt;Mill.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;Haw.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe elongata'' &lt;small&gt;Murray&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe flava'' &lt;small&gt;Pers.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe indica'' &lt;small&gt;Royle&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Tod.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe maculata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe perfoliata'' var. ''vera'' &lt;small&gt;L.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe rubescens'' &lt;small&gt;DC.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe variegata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe vera'' &lt;small&gt;Mill. (غير جائز)&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) A. Berger&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''littoralis'' &lt;small&gt;J.Koenig ex Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vulgaris'' &lt;small&gt;Lam.&lt;/small&gt;
| synonyms_ref = &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/18403421?tab=synonyms Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.] Tropicos.org&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WFO&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=''Aloe vera'' L. Burm.f. Fl. Indica : 83 (1768) |url=http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000758976 |website=World Flora Online |date=2022 |publisher=World Flora Consortium |access-date=16 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

'''ڪنوار ٻوٽي: انگريزي ۾ ايلو ويرا '''  '''''Aloe vera''''''
جنهن کي سنڌيءَ ۾ '''پَٽِ ڪُنوار'''،  يا '''ايريال''' پڻ چيو وڃي ٿو، [[رسدار ٻوٽو|رسدار ٻوٽن]] جي [[قسم (حياتيات)|قسم]] مان آهي ۽ [[ايلو]] (''Aloe'') [[جنس (حياتيات)|جنس]] سان تعلق رکي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/4192 |title=Aloe vera (true aloe) |date=13 February 2019 |publisher=[[سينٽر فار ايگريڪلچر اينڊ بايو سائنس انٽرنيشنل]] |access-date=15 October 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي ٻوٽو دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي پکڙيل آهي، ۽ ڪيترن هنڌن تي ان کي [[دخل انداز قسم]] پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Aloe |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/aloe.html |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=8 June 2026 |date=19 November 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي هڪ [[سدابهار]] ۽ [[گهڻ سالي ٻوٽو]] آهي، جنهن جو اصل وطن [[جزيرو نما عربستان]] آهي، پر اهو دنيا جي ٻين گرم، نيم گرم ۽ خشڪ علائقن ۾ به جهنگلي حالت ۾ وڌندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt; ان جي تجارتي پوک پڻ ڪئي ويندي آهي، ۽ صدين کان ان کي چمڙي تي لڳائڻ واري [[مقامي دوا]] طور استعمال ڪيو ويندو رهيو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt; هي ٻوٽو سينگار لاءِ پڻ مشهور آهي ۽ گهڻو ڪري گهرن اندر [[گملي]] ۾ پوکيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://homeguides.sfgate.com/aloe-tropical-plant-67510.html |website=[[ايس ايف گيٽ]] |last=Perkins |first=Cyndi |title=Is Aloe a tropical plant? |date=13 March 2013 |access-date=13 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''Aloe vera'' جي پنن ۾ [[پوليسيڪرائڊ]] قسم جو جيل '''[[ايسيمينن]]''' (Acemannan) وڏي مقدار ۾ موجود هوندو آهي، جيڪو چمڙي تي لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Chang |last2=Cui |first2=Yan |last3=Pi |first3=Fuwei |last4=Cheng |first4=Yuliang |last5=Guo |first5=Yahui |last6=Qian |first6=He |date=2019-04-19 |title=Extraction, Purification, Structural Characteristics, Biological Activities and Pharmacological Applications of Acemannan, a Polysaccharide from Aloe vera: A Review |journal=Molecules |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=1554 |doi=10.3390/molecules24081554 |pmc=6515206 |pmid=31010204 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; پنن ۾ '''[[ايلوئن]]''' (Aloin) نالي هڪ زهريلو مرڪب پڻ موجود هوندو آهي. تجارتي ''Aloe vera'' جون گهڻيون شيون هن جيل مان تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن.

''Aloe vera'' مان حاصل ٿيندڙ ايسيمينن تي ٻڌل جيل چمڙي جي لوشنن، [[سينگار جو سامان|سينگار جي شين]]، مرهمن ۽ جيلن ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور تي معمولي سڙڻ، چمڙي جي هلڪي ڇلن، جيتن جي چڪ ۽ هوا سبب چمڙي جي جلن جي علاج لاءِ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Surjushe |first1=Amar |last2=Vasani |first2=Resham |last3=Saple |first3=D G |date=2008 |title=Aloe vera: A short review |journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=163–166 |doi=10.4103/0019-5154.44785 |pmc=2763764 |pmid=19882025 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''ايلو ويرا '' جي عرق کي وات ذريعي استعمال ڪرڻ سان تيز پيٽ جو سور، اينٺون ۽ ڊگهي عرصي تائين استعمال جي صورت ۾ [[هيپاٽائٽس]] ٿي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/aloe-vera |title=Aloe vera |publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health |date=1 February 2025 |access-date=8 June 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; حمل دوران ان جو استعمال نه ڪرڻ گهرجي. ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان [[الرجي]] پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;

ھي ٻُوٽو آهي جيڪو، [[سنڌ]]، [[پاڪستان]] توڙي سڄي دنيا ۾ ٿئي ٿو جنهن جي ڪٽنب ۾ ڪيترائي نمونا ٿين ٿا جن جا سائنسي نالا پڻ مختلف ٿين ٿا. هن ٻوٽي جا پن اڪثر سائي رنگ جا ٿيندا آهن پر ڪن ملڪن ۾ ڳاڙهي رنگ جا ٻہ ٿيندا آهن. هن جا پن ٻاهر بجاءِ اندر وڪوڙيل ٿيندا آهن جنهن ڪري شايد سنڌي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪنوار ٻوٽي سڏيو ويو آهي. هيءُ ٻوٽو اڪثر جبلن ۾ ٿئي ٿو پر هٿرادو طور بہ پوکيو ويندو آهي. هن ٻوٽي جي پنن ۾ کير نما رس ٿيندي آهي جيڪا دوا طور ڪم ايندي آهي. هن ٻوٽي کي [[اٺ]] ۽ [[ٻڪري]] شوق سان کائيندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://worldofsucculents.com/aloe-perfoliata-rubble-aloe-mitre-aloe/|title=Aloe perfoliata (Mitre Aloe)|date=2014-03-09|website=World of Succulents|language=en-US|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/Catalogue/History/Book21/Book_page6.html|title=Sindhi Adabi Board Online Library (History)|website=www.sindhiadabiboard.org|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Aloe Vera.jpg|thumb|ڪنوار ٻوٽي]]

ھي ھڪ جهنگلي ٻوٽو آھي، ان ۾ رڳو ڊگها پن وارا ڦڙها ٿين ٿا، پنن جا پاسا ڪنڊن وارا ٿين. طبي لحاظ کان ايريال يا  ڪنوار ٻوٽي ڪيترين بيمارين کي فائدو پھچائي ٿو. سخت سوڄ تي ايريال جا ڦڙها چيري، گرم ڪري، هئڊ مکي، ٻڌندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=ايريال : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt; |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |accessdate=2024-05-30 |archive-date=2024-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240531181831/https://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |dead-url=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== نالي جي بڻ ==
[[File:Aloe Vera houseplant.jpg|thumb|پنن جي ڪنارن تي ڏند جهڙا ڪنڊا]]

[[جنس (حياتيات)|جنس]] ''[[ايلو]]'' (''Aloe'') جو نالو [[عربي ٻولي|عربي]] لفظ ''الُوَّه'' (''alloeh'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي &quot;ڪڙو ۽ چمڪندڙ مادو&quot;، يا وري [[عبراني ٻولي|عبراني]] {{lang|he|אוהלים}} ''اھالم'' (واحد: {{lang|he|אוהל}} ''اھل'') مان ورتل آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;oed&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/aloe |title=Aloe |last1=Harper |first1=Douglas |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=1 July 2021 |date=2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;guo&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Xiaoqing |last2=Mei |first2=Nan |title=Aloe vera: A review of toxicity and adverse clinical effects |journal=J Environ Sci Health C Environ Carcinog Ecotoxicol Rev |date=2 April 2016 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=77–96 |doi=10.1080/10590501.2016.1166826 |pmid=26986231 |pmc=6349368 |bibcode=2016JESHC..34...77G}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.balashon.com/2008/03/aloe.html |title=Aloe |last1=Curwin |first1=David |date=16 March 2008 |website=Balashon - Hebrew Language Detective |access-date=16 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[نوعي لقب]] ''ويرا'' لاطيني لفظ ''ويرس'' مان ورتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي &quot;حقيقي&quot; يا &quot;اصلي&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;guo&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=verus |title=vērus |last1=Lewis |first1=Charlton T. |last2=Short |first2=Charles |dictionary=A Latin Dictionary |publisher=Perseus Digital Library |date=1879}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== عام نالا ===
هن ٻوٽي جا عام نالا گهڻو ڪري ان جي ورڇ يا علائقي جي نسبت سان رکيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ ''چيني ايلو''، ''ڪيپ ايلو'' ۽ ''[[بارباڊوس]] ايلو''.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Liao Z, Chen M, Tan F, Sun X, Tang K |year=2004 |title=Micropropagation of endangered Chinese aloe |journal=Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=83–86 |doi=10.1023/A:1025868515705 |s2cid=41623664}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;expert&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel |title=Final Report on the Safety Assessment of Aloe Andongensis Extract, Aloe Andongensis Leaf Juice, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Extract, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Juice, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Protoplasts, Aloe Barbadensis Flower Extract, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Extract, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Juice, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Polysaccharides, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Water, Aloe Ferox Leaf Extract, Aloe Ferox Leaf Juice, and Aloe Ferox Leaf Juice Extract |journal=International Journal of Toxicology |volume=26 |issue=Suppl 2 |pages=1–50 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/10915810701351186 |year=2007 |pmid=17613130 |doi=10.1080/10915810701351186 |s2cid=86018076}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== درجابندي ===
هن قسم جا ڪيترائي [[هم معنيٰ نالا (حياتياتي درجابندي)|هم معنيٰ سائنسي نالا]] آهن، جن ۾ ''ايلو بارباڊينس'' مل.، ''ايلو انڊيڪا'' رايل، ''ايلو پرفوليئاٽا'' var. ''ويرا'' ايل. ۽ ''ايلو ولگرس'' لام. شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;WFO&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AFPD&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa/details.php?langue=an&amp;id=155971 |title=''Aloe vera'', African flowering plants database |publisher=Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève |access-date=19 November 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Aloe%20vera |title=Taxon: Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. |publisher=Germplasm Resources Information Network, United States Department of Agriculture |access-date=16 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924131123/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Aloe%20vera |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪجهه علمي حوالن ۾ اڇن داغن واري صورت کي ''ايلو ويرا'' var. ''چائنينسس'' سڏيو ويو آهي،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Wang H, Li F, Wang T, Li J, Li J, Yang X, Li J |title=[Determination of aloin content in callus of Aloe vera var. chinensis] |language=zh |journal=Zhong Yao Cai |volume=27 |issue=9 |pages=627–628 |year=2004 |pmid=15704580}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Gao W, Xiao P |title=[Peroxidase and soluble protein in the leaves of Aloe vera L. var. chinensis (Haw.) Berger] |language=zh |journal=Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi |volume=22 |issue=11 |pages=653–654, 702 |year=1997 |pmid=11243179}}&lt;/ref&gt; جڏهن ته داغدار صورت کي ''اي. مساوانا'' سان هڪ ئي قسم سمجهيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;hb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://huntingtonbotanical.org/Desert/Cholla/feb06/feb06.htm |title=The Definitive ''Aloe vera'', vera? |author=Lyons G |publisher=Huntington Botanic Gardens |access-date=11 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725090154/http://www.huntingtonbotanical.org/Desert/Cholla/feb06/feb06.htm |archive-date=25 July 2008 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هن قسم کي پهريون ڀيرو [[ڪارل لنيئس]] 1753ع ۾ ''ايلو پرفوليئاٽا'' var. ''ويرا'' جي نالي سان بيان ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;لنيئيوس, ڪارل (1753). ''اسپيشيز plantarum''. Vol. 2.&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ 6 اپريل 1768ع تي [[نيڪولاس لارنس برمن]] پنهنجي ڪتاب ''فلورا انڊڪا'' ۾ ان کي ''ايلو ويرا'' نالو ڏنو، جڏهن ته لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه ڏينهن پوءِ [[فلپ ملر]] ان کي ''ايلو بارباڊينسس'' جي نالي سان بيان ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Newton LE |year=1979 |title=In defense of the name ''Aloe vera'' |journal=The Cactus and Succulent Journal of Great Britain |volume=41 |pages=29–30}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[ڊي اين اي]] جي ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو آهي ته ''ايلو ويرا'' جو ويجهو تعلق ''[[ايلو پيريائي ]]'' سان آهي، جيڪا [[يمن]] جي مقامي قسم آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Darokar MP, Rai R, Gupta AK, Shasany AK, Rajkumar S, Sunderasan V, Khanuja SP |year=2003 |title=Molecular assessment of germplasm diversity in ''Aloe'' spp. using RAPD and AFLP analysis |journal=J. Med. Arom. Plant Sci. |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=354–361}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪلوروپلاسٽ]] ڊي اين اي ۽ [[مائڪروسيٽلائيٽ]] جي تجزين مان اهو پڻ ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته هن جو ويجهو تعلق ''[[ايلو فوربيسي]]''، ''[[ايلو اِنرمِس]]''، ''[[ايلو اسڪوبينيفوليا]]''، ''[[ايلو سنڪاٽان]]'' ۽ ''[[ايلو اسٽرياٽا]]'' سان پڻ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Treutlein&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Treutlein J, Smith GF, van Wyk BE, Wink W |year=2003 |title=Phylogenetic relationships in Asphodelaceae (Alooideae) inferred from chloroplast DNA sequences (rbcL, matK) and from genomic fingerprinting (ISSR) |journal=Taxon |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=193–207 |doi=10.2307/3647389 |jstor=3647389}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''A. striata'' کان سواءِ اهي سڀئي قسم [[سقطرى]] (يمن)، صوماليا ۽ سوڊان جا مقامي ٻوٽا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Treutlein&quot;/&gt;

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪنوار ٻوٽي يا''ايلو ويرا'' جون قدرتي جهنگلي آباديون واضح طور سڃاتل نه آهن، تنهنڪري ڪجهه نباتات دانن جو خيال آهي ته هي قسم شايد [[هائبرڊ]] اصل رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;Jones WD, Sacamano C. (2000). ''Landscape Plants for Dry Regions''. California Bill's Automotive Publishers.&lt;/ref&gt;

== وضاحت ==
[[File:Aloe Vera.jpg|thumb|right|اڇن داغن واري صورت، جنهن کي ''Aloe vera'' var. ''chinensis'' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي]]
[[File:Acta Eruditorum - IV botanica, 1688 – BEIC 13396043.jpg|thumb|1688ع ۾ [[ايڪٽا ايروڊيٽورم]] ۾ شايع ٿيل تاريخي تصوير]]

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' هڪ بي ٿڙ يا تمام ننڍي ٿڙ وارو ٻوٽو آهي، جيڪو عام طور تي {{convert|60-100|cm|in|abbr=off}} اوچو ٿيندو آهي ۽ [[آفسيٽ (نباتيات)|آفسيٽن]] (پاڙ وٽان نڪرندڙ ننڍن ٻوٽن) ذريعي پکڙجندو آهي.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;

=== پن ===
هن جا پن ٿلها، گوشتائتا، سائي کان سرمائي-سائي رنگ جا هوندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪجهه قسمن جي پنن جي مٿئين ۽ هيٺئين سطح تي اڇا داغ به هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;&gt;Yates A. (2002) ''Yates Garden Guide''. Harper Collins Australia&lt;/ref&gt; پنن جا ڪنارا [[پنن جا ڪنارا|ڏنديدار]] هوندا آهن ۽ انهن تي ننڍڙا اڇا ڪنڊا موجود هوندا آهن.

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جي پنن ۾ ڪيترائي [[فائٽوڪيميڪل]] مرڪب موجود هوندا آهن، جن تي ممڪن حياتياتي اثرن بابت تحقيق جاري آهي. انهن ۾ [[لگنن]]، [[فائٽواسٽرول]]، [[پولي فينول]]، ايسيٽائيليٽيڊ [[مينن]]، پولي مينن، [[اينٿراڪينون]]، سي-[[گلائيڪوسائيڊ]]، [[اينٿرون]]، ۽ ٻيا اينٿراڪينون جهڙوڪ [[ايموڊن]]، گڏوگڏ مختلف [[ليڪٽن]] شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;King&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=King GK, Yates KM, Greenlee PG, Pierce KR, Ford CR, McAnalley BH, Tizard IR |title=The effect of Acemannan Immunostimulant in combination with surgery and radiation therapy on spontaneous canine and feline fibrosarcomas |journal=J Am Anim Hosp Assoc |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=439–447 |year=1995 |pmid=8542364 |doi=10.5326/15473317-31-5-439}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Eshun&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Eshun K, He Q |title=Aloe vera: a valuable ingredient for the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries—a review |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=91–96 |year=2004 |pmid=15116756 |doi=10.1080/10408690490424694 |s2cid=21241302}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گل ===
هن ٻوٽي جا گل اونهاري جي موسم ۾ لڳندا آهن. گلن جو خوشو {{convert|90|cm|in|abbr=on}} تائين اوچو ٿي سگهي ٿو. هر گل هيٺ لڙڪندڙ هوندو آهي ۽ ان جي [[گل ڇلر]] (Corolla) نلي نما، پيلي رنگ جي ۽ {{convert|2-3|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} ڊگهي هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;&gt;{{cite book |date=2001 |title=Botanica's Pocket Gardening Encyclopedia for Australian Gardeners |publisher=Random House Publishers |isbn=9781740514347}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== پاڙون ===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' ٻين ''ايلو'' قسمن وانگر [[آربسڪيولر مائيڪورائزا]] ٺاهي ٿو، جيڪا پاڙن ۽ [[فنگس]] جي وچ ۾ هڪ [[هم زيستي]] تعلق آهي. ان جي ذريعي ٻوٽي کي مٽي مان معدني غذائي جزا وڌيڪ مؤثر نموني حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ مدد ملي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Gong M. |author2=Wang F. |author3=Chen Y |title=[Study on application of arbuscular-mycorrhizas in growing seedlings of Aloe vera] |language=zh |journal=Zhong Yao Cai |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=1–3 |year=2002 |pmid=12583231}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ورڇ ==
''ايلو ويرا'' کي اصل ڏکڻ-اوڀر [[عربستاني اپٻيٽ]] جي اتر-اوڀر [[عمان]] ۾ واقع [[حجر جبلن]] ۽ [[گڏيل عرب امارات]] جي اوڀرئين حصي جو مقامي ٻوٽو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=http://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |access-date=2020-12-07 |website=wcsp.science.kew.org |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101093147/https://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WCSP_298116&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=''Aloe vera'' |work=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=http://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |access-date=19 November 2017 |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101093147/https://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

بهرحال، هن ٻوٽي جي دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي پوک ڪئي وئي آهي، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ اهو [[اتر آفريڪا]]، [[سوڊان]] ۽ ان جي پاڙيسري ملڪن، [[ڪينري ٻيٽ]]، [[ڪيپ ورڊي]] ۽ [[مڊيرا ٻيٽ]] ۾ قدرتي طور به وڌڻ لڳو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;AFPD&quot;/&gt; هي [[پورچوگال]] جي [[الگاروي]] علائقي ۾ پڻ قدرتي طور پکڙجي ويو آهي،&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/38807075.pdf |title=Exotic naturalized flora of continental Portugal – A reassessment |date=2006 |access-date=16 July 2020 |author= Domingues de Almeida, J &amp; Freitas |publisher=core.ac.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |journal=Bradleya |title=Aloe arborescens Mill. and Aloe Vera spreading in Portugal |date=2009 |author= Gideon F Smith, Estrela Figueiredo |publisher=bioone |doi=10.25223/brad.n27.2009.a4 |hdl=2263/14380 |s2cid=82872880 |hdl-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اسپين]] جي جهنگلي علائقن، خاص طور تي [[مرثيا]] واري علائقي ۾ به ملي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://caermurcia.com/jornada-tecnica-de-cultivo-ecologico-de-aloe-vera-en-murcia/ |title=Aloe Vera Cultivation in Murcia |date=9 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي نسل سترهين صديءَ دوران [[چين]] ۽ ڏکڻ [[يورپ]] جي مختلف حصن ۾ متعارف ڪرايو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;Farooqi, A. A. and Sreeramu, B. S. (2001) ''Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops''. Orient Longman, India. {{ISBN|8173712514}}. p. 25.&lt;/ref&gt; اڄڪلهه هي دنيا جي ٻين ڪيترن ئي خشڪ، نيم گرم ۽ گرم آبهوا وارن علائقن ۾ قدرتي طور ملي ٿو.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;&lt;ref name=WCSP_298116/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;kew&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:530017-1 |title=Aloe vera |date=2016 |access-date=10 August 2016 |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ٻوٽي جي موجوده عالمي ورڇ گهڻي ڀاڱي انساني پوک ۽ منتقلي جو نتيجو سمجهي وڃي ٿي.&lt;ref name=hb/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&amp;taxon_id=200027555 &quot;Aloe vera (Linnaeus) Burman f., Fl. Indica. 83. 1768.&quot;] in ''Flora of North America'' Vol. 26, p. 411&lt;/ref&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}


[[زمرو:ٻوٽا]]</text>
      <sha1>9e5dpt50jltfvpldcsg9cxj6f4qkb3a</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399341</id>
      <parentid>399340</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T22:36:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399341</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="30622" sha1="su7072rpvcq7a43mx1j2u8kz2hxtdsy" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|ٻوٽي جي قسم}}


{{Speciesbox
| taxon = Aloe vera
| image = Aloe_vera_flower_inset.png
| image_upright = 1.2
| image_caption = ٻوٽو، گل جي ويجهي تصوير سان
| authority = ([[ڪارل لنيئس|L.]]) [[نيڪولاس لارنس برمن|Burm.f.]]
| synonyms =
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' &lt;small&gt;Mill.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;Haw.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe elongata'' &lt;small&gt;Murray&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe flava'' &lt;small&gt;Pers.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe indica'' &lt;small&gt;Royle&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Tod.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe maculata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe perfoliata'' var. ''vera'' &lt;small&gt;L.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe rubescens'' &lt;small&gt;DC.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe variegata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe vera'' &lt;small&gt;Mill. (غير جائز)&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) A. Berger&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''littoralis'' &lt;small&gt;J.Koenig ex Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vulgaris'' &lt;small&gt;Lam.&lt;/small&gt;
| synonyms_ref = &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/18403421?tab=synonyms Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.] Tropicos.org&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WFO&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=''Aloe vera'' L. Burm.f. Fl. Indica : 83 (1768) |url=http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000758976 |website=World Flora Online |date=2022 |publisher=World Flora Consortium |access-date=16 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

'''ڪنوار ٻوٽي: انگريزي ۾ ايلو ويرا '''  '''''Aloe vera''''''
جنهن کي سنڌيءَ ۾ '''پَٽِ ڪُنوار'''،  يا '''ايريال''' پڻ چيو وڃي ٿو، [[رسدار ٻوٽو|رسدار ٻوٽن]] جي [[قسم (حياتيات)|قسم]] مان آهي ۽ [[ايلو]] (''Aloe'') [[جنس (حياتيات)|جنس]] سان تعلق رکي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/4192 |title=Aloe vera (true aloe) |date=13 February 2019 |publisher=[[سينٽر فار ايگريڪلچر اينڊ بايو سائنس انٽرنيشنل]] |access-date=15 October 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي ٻوٽو دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي پکڙيل آهي، ۽ ڪيترن هنڌن تي ان کي [[دخل انداز قسم]] پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Aloe |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/aloe.html |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=8 June 2026 |date=19 November 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي هڪ [[سدابهار]] ۽ [[گهڻ سالي ٻوٽو]] آهي، جنهن جو اصل وطن [[جزيرو نما عربستان]] آهي، پر اهو دنيا جي ٻين گرم، نيم گرم ۽ خشڪ علائقن ۾ به جهنگلي حالت ۾ وڌندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt; ان جي تجارتي پوک پڻ ڪئي ويندي آهي، ۽ صدين کان ان کي چمڙي تي لڳائڻ واري [[مقامي دوا]] طور استعمال ڪيو ويندو رهيو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt; هي ٻوٽو سينگار لاءِ پڻ مشهور آهي ۽ گهڻو ڪري گهرن اندر [[گملي]] ۾ پوکيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://homeguides.sfgate.com/aloe-tropical-plant-67510.html |website=[[ايس ايف گيٽ]] |last=Perkins |first=Cyndi |title=Is Aloe a tropical plant? |date=13 March 2013 |access-date=13 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''Aloe vera'' جي پنن ۾ [[پوليسيڪرائڊ]] قسم جو جيل '''[[ايسيمينن]]''' (Acemannan) وڏي مقدار ۾ موجود هوندو آهي، جيڪو چمڙي تي لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Chang |last2=Cui |first2=Yan |last3=Pi |first3=Fuwei |last4=Cheng |first4=Yuliang |last5=Guo |first5=Yahui |last6=Qian |first6=He |date=2019-04-19 |title=Extraction, Purification, Structural Characteristics, Biological Activities and Pharmacological Applications of Acemannan, a Polysaccharide from Aloe vera: A Review |journal=Molecules |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=1554 |doi=10.3390/molecules24081554 |pmc=6515206 |pmid=31010204 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; پنن ۾ '''[[ايلوئن]]''' (Aloin) نالي هڪ زهريلو مرڪب پڻ موجود هوندو آهي. تجارتي ''Aloe vera'' جون گهڻيون شيون هن جيل مان تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن.

''Aloe vera'' مان حاصل ٿيندڙ ايسيمينن تي ٻڌل جيل چمڙي جي لوشنن، [[سينگار جو سامان|سينگار جي شين]]، مرهمن ۽ جيلن ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور تي معمولي سڙڻ، چمڙي جي هلڪي ڇلن، جيتن جي چڪ ۽ هوا سبب چمڙي جي جلن جي علاج لاءِ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Surjushe |first1=Amar |last2=Vasani |first2=Resham |last3=Saple |first3=D G |date=2008 |title=Aloe vera: A short review |journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=163–166 |doi=10.4103/0019-5154.44785 |pmc=2763764 |pmid=19882025 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''ايلو ويرا '' جي عرق کي وات ذريعي استعمال ڪرڻ سان تيز پيٽ جو سور، اينٺون ۽ ڊگهي عرصي تائين استعمال جي صورت ۾ [[هيپاٽائٽس]] ٿي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/aloe-vera |title=Aloe vera |publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health |date=1 February 2025 |access-date=8 June 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; حمل دوران ان جو استعمال نه ڪرڻ گهرجي. ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان [[الرجي]] پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;

ھي ٻُوٽو آهي جيڪو، [[سنڌ]]، [[پاڪستان]] توڙي سڄي دنيا ۾ ٿئي ٿو جنهن جي ڪٽنب ۾ ڪيترائي نمونا ٿين ٿا جن جا سائنسي نالا پڻ مختلف ٿين ٿا. هن ٻوٽي جا پن اڪثر سائي رنگ جا ٿيندا آهن پر ڪن ملڪن ۾ ڳاڙهي رنگ جا ٻہ ٿيندا آهن. هن جا پن ٻاهر بجاءِ اندر وڪوڙيل ٿيندا آهن جنهن ڪري شايد سنڌي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪنوار ٻوٽي سڏيو ويو آهي. هيءُ ٻوٽو اڪثر جبلن ۾ ٿئي ٿو پر هٿرادو طور بہ پوکيو ويندو آهي. هن ٻوٽي جي پنن ۾ کير نما رس ٿيندي آهي جيڪا دوا طور ڪم ايندي آهي. هن ٻوٽي کي [[اٺ]] ۽ [[ٻڪري]] شوق سان کائيندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://worldofsucculents.com/aloe-perfoliata-rubble-aloe-mitre-aloe/|title=Aloe perfoliata (Mitre Aloe)|date=2014-03-09|website=World of Succulents|language=en-US|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/Catalogue/History/Book21/Book_page6.html|title=Sindhi Adabi Board Online Library (History)|website=www.sindhiadabiboard.org|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Aloe Vera.jpg|thumb|ڪنوار ٻوٽي]]

ھي ھڪ جهنگلي ٻوٽو آھي، ان ۾ رڳو ڊگها پن وارا ڦڙها ٿين ٿا، پنن جا پاسا ڪنڊن وارا ٿين. طبي لحاظ کان ايريال يا  ڪنوار ٻوٽي ڪيترين بيمارين کي فائدو پھچائي ٿو. سخت سوڄ تي ايريال جا ڦڙها چيري، گرم ڪري، هئڊ مکي، ٻڌندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=ايريال : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt; |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |accessdate=2024-05-30 |archive-date=2024-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240531181831/https://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |dead-url=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== نالي جي بڻ ==
[[File:Aloe Vera houseplant.jpg|thumb|پنن جي ڪنارن تي ڏند جهڙا ڪنڊا]]

[[جنس (حياتيات)|جنس]] ''[[ايلو]]'' (''Aloe'') جو نالو [[عربي ٻولي|عربي]] لفظ ''الُوَّه'' (''alloeh'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي &quot;ڪڙو ۽ چمڪندڙ مادو&quot;، يا وري [[عبراني ٻولي|عبراني]] {{lang|he|אוהלים}} ''اھالم'' (واحد: {{lang|he|אוהל}} ''اھل'') مان ورتل آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;oed&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/aloe |title=Aloe |last1=Harper |first1=Douglas |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=1 July 2021 |date=2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;guo&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Xiaoqing |last2=Mei |first2=Nan |title=Aloe vera: A review of toxicity and adverse clinical effects |journal=J Environ Sci Health C Environ Carcinog Ecotoxicol Rev |date=2 April 2016 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=77–96 |doi=10.1080/10590501.2016.1166826 |pmid=26986231 |pmc=6349368 |bibcode=2016JESHC..34...77G}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.balashon.com/2008/03/aloe.html |title=Aloe |last1=Curwin |first1=David |date=16 March 2008 |website=Balashon - Hebrew Language Detective |access-date=16 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[نوعي لقب]] ''ويرا'' لاطيني لفظ ''ويرس'' مان ورتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي &quot;حقيقي&quot; يا &quot;اصلي&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;guo&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=verus |title=vērus |last1=Lewis |first1=Charlton T. |last2=Short |first2=Charles |dictionary=A Latin Dictionary |publisher=Perseus Digital Library |date=1879}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== عام نالا ===
هن ٻوٽي جا عام نالا گهڻو ڪري ان جي ورڇ يا علائقي جي نسبت سان رکيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ ''چيني ايلو''، ''ڪيپ ايلو'' ۽ ''[[بارباڊوس]] ايلو''.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Liao Z, Chen M, Tan F, Sun X, Tang K |year=2004 |title=Micropropagation of endangered Chinese aloe |journal=Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=83–86 |doi=10.1023/A:1025868515705 |s2cid=41623664}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;expert&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel |title=Final Report on the Safety Assessment of Aloe Andongensis Extract, Aloe Andongensis Leaf Juice, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Extract, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Juice, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Protoplasts, Aloe Barbadensis Flower Extract, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Extract, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Juice, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Polysaccharides, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Water, Aloe Ferox Leaf Extract, Aloe Ferox Leaf Juice, and Aloe Ferox Leaf Juice Extract |journal=International Journal of Toxicology |volume=26 |issue=Suppl 2 |pages=1–50 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/10915810701351186 |year=2007 |pmid=17613130 |doi=10.1080/10915810701351186 |s2cid=86018076}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== درجابندي ===
هن قسم جا ڪيترائي [[هم معنيٰ نالا (حياتياتي درجابندي)|هم معنيٰ سائنسي نالا]] آهن، جن ۾ ''ايلو بارباڊينس'' مل.، ''ايلو انڊيڪا'' رايل، ''ايلو پرفوليئاٽا'' var. ''ويرا'' ايل. ۽ ''ايلو ولگرس'' لام. شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;WFO&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AFPD&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa/details.php?langue=an&amp;id=155971 |title=''Aloe vera'', African flowering plants database |publisher=Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève |access-date=19 November 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Aloe%20vera |title=Taxon: Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. |publisher=Germplasm Resources Information Network, United States Department of Agriculture |access-date=16 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924131123/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Aloe%20vera |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪجهه علمي حوالن ۾ اڇن داغن واري صورت کي ''ايلو ويرا'' var. ''چائنينسس'' سڏيو ويو آهي،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Wang H, Li F, Wang T, Li J, Li J, Yang X, Li J |title=[Determination of aloin content in callus of Aloe vera var. chinensis] |language=zh |journal=Zhong Yao Cai |volume=27 |issue=9 |pages=627–628 |year=2004 |pmid=15704580}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Gao W, Xiao P |title=[Peroxidase and soluble protein in the leaves of Aloe vera L. var. chinensis (Haw.) Berger] |language=zh |journal=Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi |volume=22 |issue=11 |pages=653–654, 702 |year=1997 |pmid=11243179}}&lt;/ref&gt; جڏهن ته داغدار صورت کي ''اي. مساوانا'' سان هڪ ئي قسم سمجهيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;hb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://huntingtonbotanical.org/Desert/Cholla/feb06/feb06.htm |title=The Definitive ''Aloe vera'', vera? |author=Lyons G |publisher=Huntington Botanic Gardens |access-date=11 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725090154/http://www.huntingtonbotanical.org/Desert/Cholla/feb06/feb06.htm |archive-date=25 July 2008 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هن قسم کي پهريون ڀيرو [[ڪارل لنيئس]] 1753ع ۾ ''ايلو پرفوليئاٽا'' var. ''ويرا'' جي نالي سان بيان ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;لنيئيوس, ڪارل (1753). ''اسپيشيز plantarum''. Vol. 2.&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ 6 اپريل 1768ع تي [[نيڪولاس لارنس برمن]] پنهنجي ڪتاب ''فلورا انڊڪا'' ۾ ان کي ''ايلو ويرا'' نالو ڏنو، جڏهن ته لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه ڏينهن پوءِ [[فلپ ملر]] ان کي ''ايلو بارباڊينسس'' جي نالي سان بيان ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Newton LE |year=1979 |title=In defense of the name ''Aloe vera'' |journal=The Cactus and Succulent Journal of Great Britain |volume=41 |pages=29–30}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[ڊي اين اي]] جي ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو آهي ته ''ايلو ويرا'' جو ويجهو تعلق ''[[ايلو پيريائي ]]'' سان آهي، جيڪا [[يمن]] جي مقامي قسم آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Darokar MP, Rai R, Gupta AK, Shasany AK, Rajkumar S, Sunderasan V, Khanuja SP |year=2003 |title=Molecular assessment of germplasm diversity in ''Aloe'' spp. using RAPD and AFLP analysis |journal=J. Med. Arom. Plant Sci. |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=354–361}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪلوروپلاسٽ]] ڊي اين اي ۽ [[مائڪروسيٽلائيٽ]] جي تجزين مان اهو پڻ ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته هن جو ويجهو تعلق ''[[ايلو فوربيسي]]''، ''[[ايلو اِنرمِس]]''، ''[[ايلو اسڪوبينيفوليا]]''، ''[[ايلو سنڪاٽان]]'' ۽ ''[[ايلو اسٽرياٽا]]'' سان پڻ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Treutlein&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Treutlein J, Smith GF, van Wyk BE, Wink W |year=2003 |title=Phylogenetic relationships in Asphodelaceae (Alooideae) inferred from chloroplast DNA sequences (rbcL, matK) and from genomic fingerprinting (ISSR) |journal=Taxon |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=193–207 |doi=10.2307/3647389 |jstor=3647389}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''A. striata'' کان سواءِ اهي سڀئي قسم [[سقطرى]] (يمن)، صوماليا ۽ سوڊان جا مقامي ٻوٽا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Treutlein&quot;/&gt;

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪنوار ٻوٽي يا''ايلو ويرا'' جون قدرتي جهنگلي آباديون واضح طور سڃاتل نه آهن، تنهنڪري ڪجهه نباتات دانن جو خيال آهي ته هي قسم شايد [[هائبرڊ]] اصل رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;Jones WD, Sacamano C. (2000). ''Landscape Plants for Dry Regions''. California Bill's Automotive Publishers.&lt;/ref&gt;

== وضاحت ==
[[File:Aloe Vera.jpg|thumb|right|اڇن داغن واري صورت، جنهن کي ''Aloe vera'' var. ''chinensis'' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي]]
[[File:Acta Eruditorum - IV botanica, 1688 – BEIC 13396043.jpg|thumb|1688ع ۾ [[ايڪٽا ايروڊيٽورم]] ۾ شايع ٿيل تاريخي تصوير]]

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' هڪ بي ٿڙ يا تمام ننڍي ٿڙ وارو ٻوٽو آهي، جيڪو عام طور تي {{convert|60-100|cm|in|abbr=off}} اوچو ٿيندو آهي ۽ [[آفسيٽ (نباتيات)|آفسيٽن]] (پاڙ وٽان نڪرندڙ ننڍن ٻوٽن) ذريعي پکڙجندو آهي.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;

=== پن ===
هن جا پن ٿلها، گوشتائتا، سائي کان سرمائي-سائي رنگ جا هوندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪجهه قسمن جي پنن جي مٿئين ۽ هيٺئين سطح تي اڇا داغ به هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;&gt;Yates A. (2002) ''Yates Garden Guide''. Harper Collins Australia&lt;/ref&gt; پنن جا ڪنارا [[پنن جا ڪنارا|ڏنديدار]] هوندا آهن ۽ انهن تي ننڍڙا اڇا ڪنڊا موجود هوندا آهن.

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جي پنن ۾ ڪيترائي [[فائٽوڪيميڪل]] مرڪب موجود هوندا آهن، جن تي ممڪن حياتياتي اثرن بابت تحقيق جاري آهي. انهن ۾ [[لگنن]]، [[فائٽواسٽرول]]، [[پولي فينول]]، ايسيٽائيليٽيڊ [[مينن]]، پولي مينن، [[اينٿراڪينون]]، سي-[[گلائيڪوسائيڊ]]، [[اينٿرون]]، ۽ ٻيا اينٿراڪينون جهڙوڪ [[ايموڊن]]، گڏوگڏ مختلف [[ليڪٽن]] شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;King&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=King GK, Yates KM, Greenlee PG, Pierce KR, Ford CR, McAnalley BH, Tizard IR |title=The effect of Acemannan Immunostimulant in combination with surgery and radiation therapy on spontaneous canine and feline fibrosarcomas |journal=J Am Anim Hosp Assoc |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=439–447 |year=1995 |pmid=8542364 |doi=10.5326/15473317-31-5-439}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Eshun&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Eshun K, He Q |title=Aloe vera: a valuable ingredient for the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries—a review |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=91–96 |year=2004 |pmid=15116756 |doi=10.1080/10408690490424694 |s2cid=21241302}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گل ===
هن ٻوٽي جا گل اونهاري جي موسم ۾ لڳندا آهن. گلن جو خوشو {{convert|90|cm|in|abbr=on}} تائين اوچو ٿي سگهي ٿو. هر گل هيٺ لڙڪندڙ هوندو آهي ۽ ان جي [[گل ڇلر]] (Corolla) نلي نما، پيلي رنگ جي ۽ {{convert|2-3|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} ڊگهي هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;&gt;{{cite book |date=2001 |title=Botanica's Pocket Gardening Encyclopedia for Australian Gardeners |publisher=Random House Publishers |isbn=9781740514347}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== پاڙون ===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' ٻين ''ايلو'' قسمن وانگر [[آربسڪيولر مائيڪورائزا]] ٺاهي ٿو، جيڪا پاڙن ۽ [[فنگس]] جي وچ ۾ هڪ [[هم زيستي]] تعلق آهي. ان جي ذريعي ٻوٽي کي مٽي مان معدني غذائي جزا وڌيڪ مؤثر نموني حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ مدد ملي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Gong M. |author2=Wang F. |author3=Chen Y |title=[Study on application of arbuscular-mycorrhizas in growing seedlings of Aloe vera] |language=zh |journal=Zhong Yao Cai |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=1–3 |year=2002 |pmid=12583231}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ورڇ ==
''ايلو ويرا'' کي اصل ڏکڻ-اوڀر [[عربستاني اپٻيٽ]] جي اتر-اوڀر [[عمان]] ۾ واقع [[حجر جبلن]] ۽ [[گڏيل عرب امارات]] جي اوڀرئين حصي جو مقامي ٻوٽو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=http://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |access-date=2020-12-07 |website=wcsp.science.kew.org |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101093147/https://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WCSP_298116&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=''Aloe vera'' |work=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=http://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |access-date=19 November 2017 |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101093147/https://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

بهرحال، هن ٻوٽي جي دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي پوک ڪئي وئي آهي، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ اهو [[اتر آفريڪا]]، [[سوڊان]] ۽ ان جي پاڙيسري ملڪن، [[ڪينري ٻيٽ]]، [[ڪيپ ورڊي]] ۽ [[مڊيرا ٻيٽ]] ۾ قدرتي طور به وڌڻ لڳو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;AFPD&quot;/&gt; هي [[پورچوگال]] جي [[الگاروي]] علائقي ۾ پڻ قدرتي طور پکڙجي ويو آهي،&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/38807075.pdf |title=Exotic naturalized flora of continental Portugal – A reassessment |date=2006 |access-date=16 July 2020 |author= Domingues de Almeida, J &amp; Freitas |publisher=core.ac.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |journal=Bradleya |title=Aloe arborescens Mill. and Aloe Vera spreading in Portugal |date=2009 |author= Gideon F Smith, Estrela Figueiredo |publisher=bioone |doi=10.25223/brad.n27.2009.a4 |hdl=2263/14380 |s2cid=82872880 |hdl-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اسپين]] جي جهنگلي علائقن، خاص طور تي [[مرثيا]] واري علائقي ۾ به ملي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://caermurcia.com/jornada-tecnica-de-cultivo-ecologico-de-aloe-vera-en-murcia/ |title=Aloe Vera Cultivation in Murcia |date=9 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي نسل سترهين صديءَ دوران [[چين]] ۽ ڏکڻ [[يورپ]] جي مختلف حصن ۾ متعارف ڪرايو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;Farooqi, A. A. and Sreeramu, B. S. (2001) ''Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops''. Orient Longman, India. {{ISBN|8173712514}}. p. 25.&lt;/ref&gt; اڄڪلهه هي دنيا جي ٻين ڪيترن ئي خشڪ، نيم گرم ۽ گرم آبهوا وارن علائقن ۾ قدرتي طور ملي ٿو.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;&lt;ref name=WCSP_298116/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;kew&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:530017-1 |title=Aloe vera |date=2016 |access-date=10 August 2016 |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ٻوٽي جي موجوده عالمي ورڇ گهڻي ڀاڱي انساني پوک ۽ منتقلي جو نتيجو سمجهي وڃي ٿي.&lt;ref name=hb/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&amp;taxon_id=200027555 &quot;Aloe vera (Linnaeus) Burman f., Fl. Indica. 83. 1768.&quot;] in ''Flora of North America'' Vol. 26, p. 411&lt;/ref&gt;

== پوک ۽ سنڀال ==
[[File:Aloe vera A.jpg|thumb|right|آرائشي ٻوٽي طور]]
&lt;!-- تصوير ۾ اصل ۾ Aloe maculata ڏيکاريل آهي، نه Aloe vera
[[File:Aloevera-mite.jpg|thumb|right|جُوئن جي حملي سان متاثر ٿيل ايلو ويرا]]
--&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' کي سڄي دنيا ۾ وڏي پيماني تي آرائشي ٻوٽي طور پوکيو وڃي ٿو. هي ٻوٽو جديد باغباني ۾ پنهنجي دوائن واري استعمال،&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; خوبصورت گلن، منفرد بناوت ۽ رس ڀريل پنن سبب گهڻو پسند ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان جي رس ڀريل طبيعت (succulence) سبب هي گهٽ برسات وارن علائقن ۾ به آسانيءَ سان زنده رهي سگهي ٿو، تنهنڪري پٿرن وارن باغن ۽ گهٽ پاڻي گهرندڙ باغن لاءِ هڪ موزون ٻوٽو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;/&gt; هي نسل [[سختي جا علائقا|سختي جي علائقن]] 8 کان 11 تائين سٺي نموني وڌي سگهي ٿو، پر سخت پالي ۽ برف کي برداشت نٿو ڪري سگهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/gardening/plants/plant_finder/plant_pages/7686.shtml |title=BBC Gardening, ''Aloe vera'' |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=11 July 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي ٻوٽو گهڻن ئي جيت جڻين کان محفوظ رهندو آهي، پر [[مڪڙيءَ جي جُوءِ]]، [[ميلي بگ]]، [[اسڪيل جيت]] ۽ [[ماڪڙيون (ايفڊ)|ايفڊ]] جهڙا جيت ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جي واڌ ويجهه ۽ صحت کي متاثر ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/ento/a-myersi.html |title=Pest Alert: ''Aloe vera'' aphid ''Aloephagus myersi'' Essi. |publisher=Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services |access-date=11 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612155315/http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/ento/a-myersi.html |archive-date=12 June 2008 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mobot.org/gardeninghelp/PlantFinder/plant.asp?code=B628 |title=Kemper Center for Home Gardening: ''Aloe vera'' |publisher=Missouri Botanic Gardens |access-date=11 July 2008 |archive-date=27 May 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050527084103/http://www.mobot.org/gardeninghelp/PlantFinder/plant.asp?code=B628 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ٻوٽي کي [[رائل هارٽيڪلچرل سوسائٽي]] پاران [[گارڊن ميرٽ ايوارڊ]] پڻ ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/981/Aloe-vera/Details |title=RHS Plant Selector ''Aloe vera'' AGM / RHS Gardening |publisher=Apps.rhs.org.uk |access-date=9 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گملي ۾ پوکڻ وقت سٺي پاڻي نيڪال واري واريالي مٽي ۽ روشن، سج واري جڳهه ضروري آهي. گهڻي سڌي سج جي روشني سبب پن ڳاڙها ٿي سگهن ٿا، پر آهستي آهستي سج سان هم آهنگ ڪرڻ سان اهو مسئلو گهٽجي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Peerless |first1=Veronica |title=How Not to Kill Your Houseplant |date=2017 |publisher=DK Penguin Random House |pages=38–39}}&lt;/ref&gt; واپار ۾ ملندڙ ڪيڪٽس ۽ رس ڀرين ٻوٽن واري مٽي (''cacti and succulent mix'') هن ٻوٽي لاءِ مناسب هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها پاڻي جي نيڪال کي بهتر بڻائي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;GA&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/stories/s2280641.htm |title=Fact Sheet: ''Aloes'' |author=Coleby-Williams, J |date=21 June 2008 |publisher=Gardening Australia, Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=8 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706224700/http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/stories/s2280641.htm |archive-date=6 July 2008 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; مٽيءَ جا گملا وڌيڪ موزون سمجهيا وڃن ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي هوا ۽ نمي جي بهتر مٽاسٽا ڪن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;GA&quot;/&gt;

گملن ۾ پوکيل ٻوٽن کي ٻيهر پاڻي ڏيڻ کان اڳ مٽي مڪمل سڪي وڃڻ گهرجي. وقت سان گڏ ماءُ واري ٻوٽي جي چوڌاري ننڍا ٻوٽا (''پَپ'' يا شاخون) نڪرندا آهن. جيڪڏهن اهي گهڻا ٿي وڃن ته انهن کي ڌار ڪري نون گملن ۾ پوکي سگهجي ٿو، يا ماءُ واري ٻوٽي سان گڏ وڌڻ ڏنو وڃي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;/&gt; سياري ۾ ''ايلو ويرا'' اڪثر غيرفعال (Dormant) حالت ۾ هليو ويندو آهي، جنهن دوران ان کي تمام گهٽ پاڻي جي ضرورت هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;/&gt; جتي سخت پالو يا برفباري ٿيندي هجي، اتي هن ٻوٽي کي گهر اندر يا گرم شيشي جي گهر (گرين هائوس) ۾ رکڻ مناسب هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;/&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جي وڏي پيماني تي زرعي پوک [[آسٽريليا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2005/12/06/1524745.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120716111516/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2005/12/06/1524745.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 July 2012 |title=''Aloe vera'' producer signs $3m China deal |newspaper=ABC News |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |date=6 December 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪيوبا]]، [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريه]]، [[چين]]، [[ميڪسيڪو]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.dominicantoday.com/dr/economy/2006/7/7/15337/Korea-interested-in-Dominican-aloe-vera |title=Korea interested in Dominican 'aloe vera' |publisher=DominicanToday.com |date=7 July 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206062244/http://www.dominicantoday.com/dr/economy/2006/7/7/15337/Korea-interested-in-Dominican-aloe-vera |archive-date=6 December 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڀارت]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.wildsingapore.com/news/20051112/051211-1.htm |title=India experiments with farming medicinal plants |publisher=channelnewsasia.com |author=Varma, Vaibhav |date=11 December 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[جميڪا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20080117/eyes/eyes1.html |title=Harnessing the potential of our aloe |publisher=Jamaica Gleaner |access-date=19 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080324210301/http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20080117/eyes/eyes1.html |archive-date=24 March 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪينيا]]، [[تنزانيا]]، [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200708020872.html |title=Kenya: Imported Gel Hurts Aloe Vera Market |publisher=allafrica.com |author=Mburu, Solomon |date=2 August 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[اسپين]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=23 August 2015 |title=Córdoba is the Spanish province with more aloe vera crops (translated from Spanish) |url=http://sevilla.abc.es/andalucia/cordoba/20150824/sevi-aloe-vera-cordoba-201508232056.html |publisher=ABC-Córdoba}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون]] ۾ ڪئي وڃي ٿي،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.resourceinvestor.com/pebble.asp?relid=38588 |title=US Farms, Inc. – A Different Kind of Natural Resource Company |publisher=resourceinvestor.com |access-date=19 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917125506/http://www.resourceinvestor.com/pebble.asp?relid=38588 |archive-date=17 September 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ ان جي پيداوار جو وڏو حصو سينگار جي شين  جي صنعت ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}


[[زمرو:ٻوٽا]]</text>
      <sha1>su7072rpvcq7a43mx1j2u8kz2hxtdsy</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399342</id>
      <parentid>399341</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T22:40:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399342</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="38763" sha1="mum9fftj7wpnl40ljch1gndaw4p05nr" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|ٻوٽي جي قسم}}


{{Speciesbox
| taxon = Aloe vera
| image = Aloe_vera_flower_inset.png
| image_upright = 1.2
| image_caption = ٻوٽو، گل جي ويجهي تصوير سان
| authority = ([[ڪارل لنيئس|L.]]) [[نيڪولاس لارنس برمن|Burm.f.]]
| synonyms =
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' &lt;small&gt;Mill.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;Haw.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe elongata'' &lt;small&gt;Murray&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe flava'' &lt;small&gt;Pers.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe indica'' &lt;small&gt;Royle&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Tod.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe maculata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe perfoliata'' var. ''vera'' &lt;small&gt;L.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe rubescens'' &lt;small&gt;DC.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe variegata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe vera'' &lt;small&gt;Mill. (غير جائز)&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) A. Berger&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''littoralis'' &lt;small&gt;J.Koenig ex Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vulgaris'' &lt;small&gt;Lam.&lt;/small&gt;
| synonyms_ref = &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/18403421?tab=synonyms Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.] Tropicos.org&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WFO&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=''Aloe vera'' L. Burm.f. Fl. Indica : 83 (1768) |url=http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000758976 |website=World Flora Online |date=2022 |publisher=World Flora Consortium |access-date=16 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

'''ڪنوار ٻوٽي: انگريزي ۾ ايلو ويرا '''  '''''Aloe vera''''''
جنهن کي سنڌيءَ ۾ '''پَٽِ ڪُنوار'''،  يا '''ايريال''' پڻ چيو وڃي ٿو، [[رسدار ٻوٽو|رسدار ٻوٽن]] جي [[قسم (حياتيات)|قسم]] مان آهي ۽ [[ايلو]] (''Aloe'') [[جنس (حياتيات)|جنس]] سان تعلق رکي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/4192 |title=Aloe vera (true aloe) |date=13 February 2019 |publisher=[[سينٽر فار ايگريڪلچر اينڊ بايو سائنس انٽرنيشنل]] |access-date=15 October 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي ٻوٽو دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي پکڙيل آهي، ۽ ڪيترن هنڌن تي ان کي [[دخل انداز قسم]] پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Aloe |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/aloe.html |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=8 June 2026 |date=19 November 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي هڪ [[سدابهار]] ۽ [[گهڻ سالي ٻوٽو]] آهي، جنهن جو اصل وطن [[جزيرو نما عربستان]] آهي، پر اهو دنيا جي ٻين گرم، نيم گرم ۽ خشڪ علائقن ۾ به جهنگلي حالت ۾ وڌندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt; ان جي تجارتي پوک پڻ ڪئي ويندي آهي، ۽ صدين کان ان کي چمڙي تي لڳائڻ واري [[مقامي دوا]] طور استعمال ڪيو ويندو رهيو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt; هي ٻوٽو سينگار لاءِ پڻ مشهور آهي ۽ گهڻو ڪري گهرن اندر [[گملي]] ۾ پوکيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://homeguides.sfgate.com/aloe-tropical-plant-67510.html |website=[[ايس ايف گيٽ]] |last=Perkins |first=Cyndi |title=Is Aloe a tropical plant? |date=13 March 2013 |access-date=13 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''Aloe vera'' جي پنن ۾ [[پوليسيڪرائڊ]] قسم جو جيل '''[[ايسيمينن]]''' (Acemannan) وڏي مقدار ۾ موجود هوندو آهي، جيڪو چمڙي تي لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Chang |last2=Cui |first2=Yan |last3=Pi |first3=Fuwei |last4=Cheng |first4=Yuliang |last5=Guo |first5=Yahui |last6=Qian |first6=He |date=2019-04-19 |title=Extraction, Purification, Structural Characteristics, Biological Activities and Pharmacological Applications of Acemannan, a Polysaccharide from Aloe vera: A Review |journal=Molecules |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=1554 |doi=10.3390/molecules24081554 |pmc=6515206 |pmid=31010204 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; پنن ۾ '''[[ايلوئن]]''' (Aloin) نالي هڪ زهريلو مرڪب پڻ موجود هوندو آهي. تجارتي ''Aloe vera'' جون گهڻيون شيون هن جيل مان تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن.

''Aloe vera'' مان حاصل ٿيندڙ ايسيمينن تي ٻڌل جيل چمڙي جي لوشنن، [[سينگار جو سامان|سينگار جي شين]]، مرهمن ۽ جيلن ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور تي معمولي سڙڻ، چمڙي جي هلڪي ڇلن، جيتن جي چڪ ۽ هوا سبب چمڙي جي جلن جي علاج لاءِ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Surjushe |first1=Amar |last2=Vasani |first2=Resham |last3=Saple |first3=D G |date=2008 |title=Aloe vera: A short review |journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=163–166 |doi=10.4103/0019-5154.44785 |pmc=2763764 |pmid=19882025 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''ايلو ويرا '' جي عرق کي وات ذريعي استعمال ڪرڻ سان تيز پيٽ جو سور، اينٺون ۽ ڊگهي عرصي تائين استعمال جي صورت ۾ [[هيپاٽائٽس]] ٿي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/aloe-vera |title=Aloe vera |publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health |date=1 February 2025 |access-date=8 June 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; حمل دوران ان جو استعمال نه ڪرڻ گهرجي. ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان [[الرجي]] پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;

ھي ٻُوٽو آهي جيڪو، [[سنڌ]]، [[پاڪستان]] توڙي سڄي دنيا ۾ ٿئي ٿو جنهن جي ڪٽنب ۾ ڪيترائي نمونا ٿين ٿا جن جا سائنسي نالا پڻ مختلف ٿين ٿا. هن ٻوٽي جا پن اڪثر سائي رنگ جا ٿيندا آهن پر ڪن ملڪن ۾ ڳاڙهي رنگ جا ٻہ ٿيندا آهن. هن جا پن ٻاهر بجاءِ اندر وڪوڙيل ٿيندا آهن جنهن ڪري شايد سنڌي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪنوار ٻوٽي سڏيو ويو آهي. هيءُ ٻوٽو اڪثر جبلن ۾ ٿئي ٿو پر هٿرادو طور بہ پوکيو ويندو آهي. هن ٻوٽي جي پنن ۾ کير نما رس ٿيندي آهي جيڪا دوا طور ڪم ايندي آهي. هن ٻوٽي کي [[اٺ]] ۽ [[ٻڪري]] شوق سان کائيندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://worldofsucculents.com/aloe-perfoliata-rubble-aloe-mitre-aloe/|title=Aloe perfoliata (Mitre Aloe)|date=2014-03-09|website=World of Succulents|language=en-US|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/Catalogue/History/Book21/Book_page6.html|title=Sindhi Adabi Board Online Library (History)|website=www.sindhiadabiboard.org|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Aloe Vera.jpg|thumb|ڪنوار ٻوٽي]]

ھي ھڪ جهنگلي ٻوٽو آھي، ان ۾ رڳو ڊگها پن وارا ڦڙها ٿين ٿا، پنن جا پاسا ڪنڊن وارا ٿين. طبي لحاظ کان ايريال يا  ڪنوار ٻوٽي ڪيترين بيمارين کي فائدو پھچائي ٿو. سخت سوڄ تي ايريال جا ڦڙها چيري، گرم ڪري، هئڊ مکي، ٻڌندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=ايريال : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt; |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |accessdate=2024-05-30 |archive-date=2024-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240531181831/https://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |dead-url=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== نالي جي بڻ ==
[[File:Aloe Vera houseplant.jpg|thumb|پنن جي ڪنارن تي ڏند جهڙا ڪنڊا]]

[[جنس (حياتيات)|جنس]] ''[[ايلو]]'' (''Aloe'') جو نالو [[عربي ٻولي|عربي]] لفظ ''الُوَّه'' (''alloeh'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي &quot;ڪڙو ۽ چمڪندڙ مادو&quot;، يا وري [[عبراني ٻولي|عبراني]] {{lang|he|אוהלים}} ''اھالم'' (واحد: {{lang|he|אוהל}} ''اھل'') مان ورتل آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;oed&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/aloe |title=Aloe |last1=Harper |first1=Douglas |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=1 July 2021 |date=2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;guo&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Xiaoqing |last2=Mei |first2=Nan |title=Aloe vera: A review of toxicity and adverse clinical effects |journal=J Environ Sci Health C Environ Carcinog Ecotoxicol Rev |date=2 April 2016 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=77–96 |doi=10.1080/10590501.2016.1166826 |pmid=26986231 |pmc=6349368 |bibcode=2016JESHC..34...77G}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.balashon.com/2008/03/aloe.html |title=Aloe |last1=Curwin |first1=David |date=16 March 2008 |website=Balashon - Hebrew Language Detective |access-date=16 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[نوعي لقب]] ''ويرا'' لاطيني لفظ ''ويرس'' مان ورتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي &quot;حقيقي&quot; يا &quot;اصلي&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;guo&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=verus |title=vērus |last1=Lewis |first1=Charlton T. |last2=Short |first2=Charles |dictionary=A Latin Dictionary |publisher=Perseus Digital Library |date=1879}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== عام نالا ===
هن ٻوٽي جا عام نالا گهڻو ڪري ان جي ورڇ يا علائقي جي نسبت سان رکيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ ''چيني ايلو''، ''ڪيپ ايلو'' ۽ ''[[بارباڊوس]] ايلو''.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Liao Z, Chen M, Tan F, Sun X, Tang K |year=2004 |title=Micropropagation of endangered Chinese aloe |journal=Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=83–86 |doi=10.1023/A:1025868515705 |s2cid=41623664}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;expert&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel |title=Final Report on the Safety Assessment of Aloe Andongensis Extract, Aloe Andongensis Leaf Juice, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Extract, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Juice, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Protoplasts, Aloe Barbadensis Flower Extract, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Extract, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Juice, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Polysaccharides, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Water, Aloe Ferox Leaf Extract, Aloe Ferox Leaf Juice, and Aloe Ferox Leaf Juice Extract |journal=International Journal of Toxicology |volume=26 |issue=Suppl 2 |pages=1–50 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/10915810701351186 |year=2007 |pmid=17613130 |doi=10.1080/10915810701351186 |s2cid=86018076}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== درجابندي ===
هن قسم جا ڪيترائي [[هم معنيٰ نالا (حياتياتي درجابندي)|هم معنيٰ سائنسي نالا]] آهن، جن ۾ ''ايلو بارباڊينس'' مل.، ''ايلو انڊيڪا'' رايل، ''ايلو پرفوليئاٽا'' var. ''ويرا'' ايل. ۽ ''ايلو ولگرس'' لام. شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;WFO&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AFPD&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa/details.php?langue=an&amp;id=155971 |title=''Aloe vera'', African flowering plants database |publisher=Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève |access-date=19 November 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Aloe%20vera |title=Taxon: Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. |publisher=Germplasm Resources Information Network, United States Department of Agriculture |access-date=16 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924131123/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Aloe%20vera |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪجهه علمي حوالن ۾ اڇن داغن واري صورت کي ''ايلو ويرا'' var. ''چائنينسس'' سڏيو ويو آهي،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Wang H, Li F, Wang T, Li J, Li J, Yang X, Li J |title=[Determination of aloin content in callus of Aloe vera var. chinensis] |language=zh |journal=Zhong Yao Cai |volume=27 |issue=9 |pages=627–628 |year=2004 |pmid=15704580}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Gao W, Xiao P |title=[Peroxidase and soluble protein in the leaves of Aloe vera L. var. chinensis (Haw.) Berger] |language=zh |journal=Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi |volume=22 |issue=11 |pages=653–654, 702 |year=1997 |pmid=11243179}}&lt;/ref&gt; جڏهن ته داغدار صورت کي ''اي. مساوانا'' سان هڪ ئي قسم سمجهيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;hb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://huntingtonbotanical.org/Desert/Cholla/feb06/feb06.htm |title=The Definitive ''Aloe vera'', vera? |author=Lyons G |publisher=Huntington Botanic Gardens |access-date=11 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725090154/http://www.huntingtonbotanical.org/Desert/Cholla/feb06/feb06.htm |archive-date=25 July 2008 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هن قسم کي پهريون ڀيرو [[ڪارل لنيئس]] 1753ع ۾ ''ايلو پرفوليئاٽا'' var. ''ويرا'' جي نالي سان بيان ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;لنيئيوس, ڪارل (1753). ''اسپيشيز plantarum''. Vol. 2.&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ 6 اپريل 1768ع تي [[نيڪولاس لارنس برمن]] پنهنجي ڪتاب ''فلورا انڊڪا'' ۾ ان کي ''ايلو ويرا'' نالو ڏنو، جڏهن ته لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه ڏينهن پوءِ [[فلپ ملر]] ان کي ''ايلو بارباڊينسس'' جي نالي سان بيان ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Newton LE |year=1979 |title=In defense of the name ''Aloe vera'' |journal=The Cactus and Succulent Journal of Great Britain |volume=41 |pages=29–30}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[ڊي اين اي]] جي ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو آهي ته ''ايلو ويرا'' جو ويجهو تعلق ''[[ايلو پيريائي ]]'' سان آهي، جيڪا [[يمن]] جي مقامي قسم آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Darokar MP, Rai R, Gupta AK, Shasany AK, Rajkumar S, Sunderasan V, Khanuja SP |year=2003 |title=Molecular assessment of germplasm diversity in ''Aloe'' spp. using RAPD and AFLP analysis |journal=J. Med. Arom. Plant Sci. |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=354–361}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪلوروپلاسٽ]] ڊي اين اي ۽ [[مائڪروسيٽلائيٽ]] جي تجزين مان اهو پڻ ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته هن جو ويجهو تعلق ''[[ايلو فوربيسي]]''، ''[[ايلو اِنرمِس]]''، ''[[ايلو اسڪوبينيفوليا]]''، ''[[ايلو سنڪاٽان]]'' ۽ ''[[ايلو اسٽرياٽا]]'' سان پڻ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Treutlein&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Treutlein J, Smith GF, van Wyk BE, Wink W |year=2003 |title=Phylogenetic relationships in Asphodelaceae (Alooideae) inferred from chloroplast DNA sequences (rbcL, matK) and from genomic fingerprinting (ISSR) |journal=Taxon |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=193–207 |doi=10.2307/3647389 |jstor=3647389}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''A. striata'' کان سواءِ اهي سڀئي قسم [[سقطرى]] (يمن)، صوماليا ۽ سوڊان جا مقامي ٻوٽا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Treutlein&quot;/&gt;

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪنوار ٻوٽي يا''ايلو ويرا'' جون قدرتي جهنگلي آباديون واضح طور سڃاتل نه آهن، تنهنڪري ڪجهه نباتات دانن جو خيال آهي ته هي قسم شايد [[هائبرڊ]] اصل رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;Jones WD, Sacamano C. (2000). ''Landscape Plants for Dry Regions''. California Bill's Automotive Publishers.&lt;/ref&gt;

== وضاحت ==
[[File:Aloe Vera.jpg|thumb|right|اڇن داغن واري صورت، جنهن کي ''Aloe vera'' var. ''chinensis'' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي]]
[[File:Acta Eruditorum - IV botanica, 1688 – BEIC 13396043.jpg|thumb|1688ع ۾ [[ايڪٽا ايروڊيٽورم]] ۾ شايع ٿيل تاريخي تصوير]]

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' هڪ بي ٿڙ يا تمام ننڍي ٿڙ وارو ٻوٽو آهي، جيڪو عام طور تي {{convert|60-100|cm|in|abbr=off}} اوچو ٿيندو آهي ۽ [[آفسيٽ (نباتيات)|آفسيٽن]] (پاڙ وٽان نڪرندڙ ننڍن ٻوٽن) ذريعي پکڙجندو آهي.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;

=== پن ===
هن جا پن ٿلها، گوشتائتا، سائي کان سرمائي-سائي رنگ جا هوندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪجهه قسمن جي پنن جي مٿئين ۽ هيٺئين سطح تي اڇا داغ به هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;&gt;Yates A. (2002) ''Yates Garden Guide''. Harper Collins Australia&lt;/ref&gt; پنن جا ڪنارا [[پنن جا ڪنارا|ڏنديدار]] هوندا آهن ۽ انهن تي ننڍڙا اڇا ڪنڊا موجود هوندا آهن.

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جي پنن ۾ ڪيترائي [[فائٽوڪيميڪل]] مرڪب موجود هوندا آهن، جن تي ممڪن حياتياتي اثرن بابت تحقيق جاري آهي. انهن ۾ [[لگنن]]، [[فائٽواسٽرول]]، [[پولي فينول]]، ايسيٽائيليٽيڊ [[مينن]]، پولي مينن، [[اينٿراڪينون]]، سي-[[گلائيڪوسائيڊ]]، [[اينٿرون]]، ۽ ٻيا اينٿراڪينون جهڙوڪ [[ايموڊن]]، گڏوگڏ مختلف [[ليڪٽن]] شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;King&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=King GK, Yates KM, Greenlee PG, Pierce KR, Ford CR, McAnalley BH, Tizard IR |title=The effect of Acemannan Immunostimulant in combination with surgery and radiation therapy on spontaneous canine and feline fibrosarcomas |journal=J Am Anim Hosp Assoc |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=439–447 |year=1995 |pmid=8542364 |doi=10.5326/15473317-31-5-439}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Eshun&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Eshun K, He Q |title=Aloe vera: a valuable ingredient for the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries—a review |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=91–96 |year=2004 |pmid=15116756 |doi=10.1080/10408690490424694 |s2cid=21241302}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گل ===
هن ٻوٽي جا گل اونهاري جي موسم ۾ لڳندا آهن. گلن جو خوشو {{convert|90|cm|in|abbr=on}} تائين اوچو ٿي سگهي ٿو. هر گل هيٺ لڙڪندڙ هوندو آهي ۽ ان جي [[گل ڇلر]] (Corolla) نلي نما، پيلي رنگ جي ۽ {{convert|2-3|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} ڊگهي هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;&gt;{{cite book |date=2001 |title=Botanica's Pocket Gardening Encyclopedia for Australian Gardeners |publisher=Random House Publishers |isbn=9781740514347}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== پاڙون ===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' ٻين ''ايلو'' قسمن وانگر [[آربسڪيولر مائيڪورائزا]] ٺاهي ٿو، جيڪا پاڙن ۽ [[فنگس]] جي وچ ۾ هڪ [[هم زيستي]] تعلق آهي. ان جي ذريعي ٻوٽي کي مٽي مان معدني غذائي جزا وڌيڪ مؤثر نموني حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ مدد ملي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Gong M. |author2=Wang F. |author3=Chen Y |title=[Study on application of arbuscular-mycorrhizas in growing seedlings of Aloe vera] |language=zh |journal=Zhong Yao Cai |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=1–3 |year=2002 |pmid=12583231}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ورڇ ==
''ايلو ويرا'' کي اصل ڏکڻ-اوڀر [[عربستاني اپٻيٽ]] جي اتر-اوڀر [[عمان]] ۾ واقع [[حجر جبلن]] ۽ [[گڏيل عرب امارات]] جي اوڀرئين حصي جو مقامي ٻوٽو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=http://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |access-date=2020-12-07 |website=wcsp.science.kew.org |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101093147/https://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WCSP_298116&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=''Aloe vera'' |work=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=http://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |access-date=19 November 2017 |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101093147/https://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

بهرحال، هن ٻوٽي جي دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي پوک ڪئي وئي آهي، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ اهو [[اتر آفريڪا]]، [[سوڊان]] ۽ ان جي پاڙيسري ملڪن، [[ڪينري ٻيٽ]]، [[ڪيپ ورڊي]] ۽ [[مڊيرا ٻيٽ]] ۾ قدرتي طور به وڌڻ لڳو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;AFPD&quot;/&gt; هي [[پورچوگال]] جي [[الگاروي]] علائقي ۾ پڻ قدرتي طور پکڙجي ويو آهي،&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/38807075.pdf |title=Exotic naturalized flora of continental Portugal – A reassessment |date=2006 |access-date=16 July 2020 |author= Domingues de Almeida, J &amp; Freitas |publisher=core.ac.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |journal=Bradleya |title=Aloe arborescens Mill. and Aloe Vera spreading in Portugal |date=2009 |author= Gideon F Smith, Estrela Figueiredo |publisher=bioone |doi=10.25223/brad.n27.2009.a4 |hdl=2263/14380 |s2cid=82872880 |hdl-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اسپين]] جي جهنگلي علائقن، خاص طور تي [[مرثيا]] واري علائقي ۾ به ملي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://caermurcia.com/jornada-tecnica-de-cultivo-ecologico-de-aloe-vera-en-murcia/ |title=Aloe Vera Cultivation in Murcia |date=9 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي نسل سترهين صديءَ دوران [[چين]] ۽ ڏکڻ [[يورپ]] جي مختلف حصن ۾ متعارف ڪرايو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;Farooqi, A. A. and Sreeramu, B. S. (2001) ''Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops''. Orient Longman, India. {{ISBN|8173712514}}. p. 25.&lt;/ref&gt; اڄڪلهه هي دنيا جي ٻين ڪيترن ئي خشڪ، نيم گرم ۽ گرم آبهوا وارن علائقن ۾ قدرتي طور ملي ٿو.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;&lt;ref name=WCSP_298116/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;kew&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:530017-1 |title=Aloe vera |date=2016 |access-date=10 August 2016 |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ٻوٽي جي موجوده عالمي ورڇ گهڻي ڀاڱي انساني پوک ۽ منتقلي جو نتيجو سمجهي وڃي ٿي.&lt;ref name=hb/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&amp;taxon_id=200027555 &quot;Aloe vera (Linnaeus) Burman f., Fl. Indica. 83. 1768.&quot;] in ''Flora of North America'' Vol. 26, p. 411&lt;/ref&gt;

== پوک ۽ سنڀال ==
[[File:Aloe vera A.jpg|thumb|right|آرائشي ٻوٽي طور]]
&lt;!-- تصوير ۾ اصل ۾ Aloe maculata ڏيکاريل آهي، نه Aloe vera
[[File:Aloevera-mite.jpg|thumb|right|جُوئن جي حملي سان متاثر ٿيل ايلو ويرا]]
--&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' کي سڄي دنيا ۾ وڏي پيماني تي آرائشي ٻوٽي طور پوکيو وڃي ٿو. هي ٻوٽو جديد باغباني ۾ پنهنجي دوائن واري استعمال،&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; خوبصورت گلن، منفرد بناوت ۽ رس ڀريل پنن سبب گهڻو پسند ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان جي رس ڀريل طبيعت (succulence) سبب هي گهٽ برسات وارن علائقن ۾ به آسانيءَ سان زنده رهي سگهي ٿو، تنهنڪري پٿرن وارن باغن ۽ گهٽ پاڻي گهرندڙ باغن لاءِ هڪ موزون ٻوٽو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;/&gt; هي نسل [[سختي جا علائقا|سختي جي علائقن]] 8 کان 11 تائين سٺي نموني وڌي سگهي ٿو، پر سخت پالي ۽ برف کي برداشت نٿو ڪري سگهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/gardening/plants/plant_finder/plant_pages/7686.shtml |title=BBC Gardening, ''Aloe vera'' |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=11 July 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي ٻوٽو گهڻن ئي جيت جڻين کان محفوظ رهندو آهي، پر [[مڪڙيءَ جي جُوءِ]]، [[ميلي بگ]]، [[اسڪيل جيت]] ۽ [[ماڪڙيون (ايفڊ)|ايفڊ]] جهڙا جيت ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جي واڌ ويجهه ۽ صحت کي متاثر ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/ento/a-myersi.html |title=Pest Alert: ''Aloe vera'' aphid ''Aloephagus myersi'' Essi. |publisher=Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services |access-date=11 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612155315/http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/ento/a-myersi.html |archive-date=12 June 2008 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mobot.org/gardeninghelp/PlantFinder/plant.asp?code=B628 |title=Kemper Center for Home Gardening: ''Aloe vera'' |publisher=Missouri Botanic Gardens |access-date=11 July 2008 |archive-date=27 May 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050527084103/http://www.mobot.org/gardeninghelp/PlantFinder/plant.asp?code=B628 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ٻوٽي کي [[رائل هارٽيڪلچرل سوسائٽي]] پاران [[گارڊن ميرٽ ايوارڊ]] پڻ ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/981/Aloe-vera/Details |title=RHS Plant Selector ''Aloe vera'' AGM / RHS Gardening |publisher=Apps.rhs.org.uk |access-date=9 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گملي ۾ پوکڻ وقت سٺي پاڻي نيڪال واري واريالي مٽي ۽ روشن، سج واري جڳهه ضروري آهي. گهڻي سڌي سج جي روشني سبب پن ڳاڙها ٿي سگهن ٿا، پر آهستي آهستي سج سان هم آهنگ ڪرڻ سان اهو مسئلو گهٽجي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Peerless |first1=Veronica |title=How Not to Kill Your Houseplant |date=2017 |publisher=DK Penguin Random House |pages=38–39}}&lt;/ref&gt; واپار ۾ ملندڙ ڪيڪٽس ۽ رس ڀرين ٻوٽن واري مٽي (''cacti and succulent mix'') هن ٻوٽي لاءِ مناسب هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها پاڻي جي نيڪال کي بهتر بڻائي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;GA&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/stories/s2280641.htm |title=Fact Sheet: ''Aloes'' |author=Coleby-Williams, J |date=21 June 2008 |publisher=Gardening Australia, Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=8 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706224700/http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/stories/s2280641.htm |archive-date=6 July 2008 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; مٽيءَ جا گملا وڌيڪ موزون سمجهيا وڃن ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي هوا ۽ نمي جي بهتر مٽاسٽا ڪن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;GA&quot;/&gt;

گملن ۾ پوکيل ٻوٽن کي ٻيهر پاڻي ڏيڻ کان اڳ مٽي مڪمل سڪي وڃڻ گهرجي. وقت سان گڏ ماءُ واري ٻوٽي جي چوڌاري ننڍا ٻوٽا (''پَپ'' يا شاخون) نڪرندا آهن. جيڪڏهن اهي گهڻا ٿي وڃن ته انهن کي ڌار ڪري نون گملن ۾ پوکي سگهجي ٿو، يا ماءُ واري ٻوٽي سان گڏ وڌڻ ڏنو وڃي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;/&gt; سياري ۾ ''ايلو ويرا'' اڪثر غيرفعال (Dormant) حالت ۾ هليو ويندو آهي، جنهن دوران ان کي تمام گهٽ پاڻي جي ضرورت هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;/&gt; جتي سخت پالو يا برفباري ٿيندي هجي، اتي هن ٻوٽي کي گهر اندر يا گرم شيشي جي گهر (گرين هائوس) ۾ رکڻ مناسب هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;/&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جي وڏي پيماني تي زرعي پوک [[آسٽريليا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2005/12/06/1524745.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120716111516/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2005/12/06/1524745.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 July 2012 |title=''Aloe vera'' producer signs $3m China deal |newspaper=ABC News |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |date=6 December 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪيوبا]]، [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريه]]، [[چين]]، [[ميڪسيڪو]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.dominicantoday.com/dr/economy/2006/7/7/15337/Korea-interested-in-Dominican-aloe-vera |title=Korea interested in Dominican 'aloe vera' |publisher=DominicanToday.com |date=7 July 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206062244/http://www.dominicantoday.com/dr/economy/2006/7/7/15337/Korea-interested-in-Dominican-aloe-vera |archive-date=6 December 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڀارت]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.wildsingapore.com/news/20051112/051211-1.htm |title=India experiments with farming medicinal plants |publisher=channelnewsasia.com |author=Varma, Vaibhav |date=11 December 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[جميڪا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20080117/eyes/eyes1.html |title=Harnessing the potential of our aloe |publisher=Jamaica Gleaner |access-date=19 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080324210301/http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20080117/eyes/eyes1.html |archive-date=24 March 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪينيا]]، [[تنزانيا]]، [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200708020872.html |title=Kenya: Imported Gel Hurts Aloe Vera Market |publisher=allafrica.com |author=Mburu, Solomon |date=2 August 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[اسپين]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=23 August 2015 |title=Córdoba is the Spanish province with more aloe vera crops (translated from Spanish) |url=http://sevilla.abc.es/andalucia/cordoba/20150824/sevi-aloe-vera-cordoba-201508232056.html |publisher=ABC-Córdoba}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون]] ۾ ڪئي وڃي ٿي،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.resourceinvestor.com/pebble.asp?relid=38588 |title=US Farms, Inc. – A Different Kind of Natural Resource Company |publisher=resourceinvestor.com |access-date=19 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917125506/http://www.resourceinvestor.com/pebble.asp?relid=38588 |archive-date=17 September 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ ان جي پيداوار جو وڏو حصو سينگار جي شين  جي صنعت ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;

==استعمال==
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي '' مان ٻه بنيادي مادا حاصل ڪيا ويندا آهن: هڪ شفاف [[جيل]] ۽ ٻيو پيلو [[ليٽڪس]]. انهن ٻنهي مان مختلف تجارتي شيون تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; ايلو ويرا جو جيل عام طور چمڙي تي لڳائڻ وارين دوائن ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ساڙ، زخم، ٿڌ جي ڪري ٿيندڙ چمڙي جي نقصان، [[چمڙي جي ريش]]، [[سورائسس]]، [[لبن جو هرپس]] (ٿڌ جا ڦٽا) ۽ خشڪ چمڙي جي علاج لاءِ.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; ڪنوار ٻوٽي جو ليٽڪس الڳ يا ٻين جزن سان گڏ اهڙي شين ۾ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي [[قبض]] کان آرام لاءِ وات ذريعي استعمال ڪيون وڃن.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; ليٽڪس کي خشڪ ڪري ''رال'' يا ''خشڪ ايلو رس'' جي صورت ۾ پڻ تيار ڪيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;EMA-ar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/herbal-report/final-assessment-report-aloe-barbadensis-mill-aloe-various-species-mainly-aloe-ferox-mill-its_en.pdf |title=Assessment report on ''Aloe barbadensis'' Mill. and on Aloe (various species, mainly ''Aloe ferox'' Mill. and its hybrids), folii succus siccatus |publisher=European Medicines Agency|date=22 November 2016|access-date=29 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تحقيقي مطالعي مان اڃا تائين اهو واضح ثابت نه ٿي سگهيو آهي ته ''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' زخم يا ساڙ جي علاج ۾ يقيني طور اثرائتو آهي يا نه.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; بهرحال، چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ [[سورائسس]]، [[مهاندا]] يا چمڙي جي ريش جهڙين حالتن جون علامتون گهٽجي سگهن ٿيون،&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; جڏهن ته ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ ان سان [[الرجي]] به ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جو جيل واپاري طور [[ڏهي]]، مشروبات ۽ ڪجهه مٺاڻن ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Reynolds&quot;/&gt; پر ليٽڪس يا سڄي پن مان تيار ڪيل عرق کي وڏي مقدار ۾ يا گهڻي عرصي تائين استعمال ڪرڻ زهريلو ثابت ٿي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt; چمڙي تي ٿوري مقدار ۾ استعمال عام طور محفوظ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt;

===چمڙي تي استعمال ۽ ممڪن ضمني اثر===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' کي [[لوشن]]، [[جيل]]، صابڻ يا چمڙي جي سينگار وارين شين جي صورت ۾ تيار ڪري چمڙي تي لڳايو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt; ان جي جيل جو تيزابيت وارو درجو (pH) تقريباً 4.4 کان 4.7 هوندو آهي،&lt;ref name=guo/&gt; جيڪو ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان هلڪي ساڙ، جلن يا [[ريش]] جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;

جن ماڻهن کي ''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' سان [[الرجي]] هجي، انهن ۾ چمڙي جي سوزش، هلڪي ڳاڙهاڻ، خارش، ساهه کڻڻ ۾ تڪليف يا چهري، چپن، زبان يا ڳلي جي سُوجهه جهڙا ردِعمل ظاهر ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt;

===غذائي اضافو===
[[File:Aloin_structure.png|thumb|right|ايلوئن]]
[[ايلوئن]]، جيڪو ''ايلو'' جي ڪجهه نسلن جي نيم سيال ليٽڪس ۾ موجود هڪ تمام ڪڙو مرڪب آهي، 2002ع تائين آمريڪا ۾ بغير نسخي جي وڪرو ٿيندڙ قبض ختم ڪرڻ وارين دوائن ۾ عام جزو طور استعمال ٿيندو هو. بعد ۾ [[آمريڪي خوراڪ ۽ دوائن واري اداري]] (FDA) ان جي استعمال تي پابندي لڳائي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٺاهيندڙ ڪمپنيون ان جي حفاظت بابت گهربل سائنسي ثبوت مهيا نه ڪري سگهيون.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title = Status of certain additional over-the-counter drug category II and III active ingredients. Final rule |journal = Fed Regist |volume = 67 |issue = 90 |pages = 31125–7 |year = 2002 |pmid = 12001972 |last1 = Food Drug Administration |first1 = HHS|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2002-05-09/pdf/02-11510.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' ۽ ان جا الڪوحلي عرق ڪجهه مقدار کان وڌيڪ استعمال ڪرڻ سان زهريلا اثر پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا، جيڪي چمڙي تي لڳائڻ يا وات ذريعي استعمال ٻنهي صورتن ۾ ظاهر ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt; جيتوڻيڪ تياري دوران ايلوئن ڪڍي ڇڏڻ سان زهريت گهٽجي سگهي ٿي، پر وڏي مقدار ۾ استعمال ڪرڻ سان پيٽ جو سور، دست يا [[هيپاٽائٽس]] جهڙا اثر پيدا ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Bottenberg MM, Wall GC, Harvey RL, Habib S 2007 1740–3&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors = Bottenberg MM, Wall GC, Harvey RL, Habib S |title = Oral aloe vera-induced hepatitis |journal = Ann Pharmacother |volume = 41 |issue = 10 |pages = 1740–3 |year = 2007 |pmid = 17726067 |doi = 10.1345/aph.1K132 |s2cid = 25553593 }}&lt;/ref&gt; ڊگهي عرصي تائين روزانو لڳ ڀڳ هڪ گرام استعمال ڪرڻ سان پيشاب ۾ رت اچڻ، وزن گهٽجڻ، دل يا گردن جا مسئلا پيدا ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جو رس هاضمي جي صحت لاءِ فائديمند هجڻ جي دعويٰ سان وڪرو ڪيو ويندو آهي، پر هن دعويٰ جي حمايت ۾ نه ڪو مضبوط سائنسي ثبوت موجود آهي ۽ نه ئي ڪنهن ضابطي واري اداري ان جي منظوري ڏني آهي.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;mayo&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements-aloe/art-20362267 |title=''Aloe'' (''Aloe vera'') |publisher=Mayo Clinic |date=17 September 2017 |access-date=21 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===روايتي طب===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' روايتي طب ۾ چمڙي جي علاج لاءِ هزارين سالن کان استعمال ٿيندو رهيو آهي. ان جي استعمال جا قديم ترين لکيل حوالا چوٿين هزارين سال [[ق م]] تائين ملن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt; ان جو ذڪر 512ع ۾ لکيل ''[[جوليانا انيشيا ڪوڊيڪس]]'' ۾ پڻ موجود آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Reynolds&quot;&gt;Reynolds, Tom (Ed.) (2004) ''Aloes: The genus Aloe (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants - Industrial Profiles''. CRC Press. {{ISBN|978-0415306720}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|9}}

===تجارتي شيون===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' چهري صاف ڪرڻ وارين ٽشوز ۾ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي، جتي ان کي نمي برقرار رکڻ ۽ نڪ جي چمڙي جي خارش گهٽائڻ واري جزو طور پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي. سينگار جي شين ٺاهيندڙ ڪمپنيون ان جو رس يا ان جا ٻيا نڪتل جزا ميڪ اپ، ٽشوز، موئسچرائزر، صابڻ، سن اسڪرين، اگربتي، شيونگ ڪريم ۽ شيمپو جهڙين شين ۾ شامل ڪنديون آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Reynolds&quot;/&gt; علمي جائزي موجب، صفائي ۽ سينگار جي ڪيترين ئي شين ۾ ان جو استعمال بنيادي طور ان جي چمڙي کي نرم ۽ نمي فراهم ڪندڙ خاصيت سبب ڪيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eshun&quot;/&gt; سينگار جي صنعت ۾ ايلو جي عرق ۾ اينٿراڪينون جي مقدار وڌ ۾ وڌ 50 پي پي ايم تائين محدود رکڻ جي سفارش ڪئي ويندي آهي.&lt;ref name=expert/&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}


[[زمرو:ٻوٽا]]</text>
      <sha1>mum9fftj7wpnl40ljch1gndaw4p05nr</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399343</id>
      <parentid>399342</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T22:41:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399343</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="41487" sha1="tna66ztdy2peuw925l295cfjbj5klf6" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|ٻوٽي جي قسم}}


{{Speciesbox
| taxon = Aloe vera
| image = Aloe_vera_flower_inset.png
| image_upright = 1.2
| image_caption = ٻوٽو، گل جي ويجهي تصوير سان
| authority = ([[ڪارل لنيئس|L.]]) [[نيڪولاس لارنس برمن|Burm.f.]]
| synonyms =
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' &lt;small&gt;Mill.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;Haw.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe elongata'' &lt;small&gt;Murray&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe flava'' &lt;small&gt;Pers.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe indica'' &lt;small&gt;Royle&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Tod.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe maculata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe perfoliata'' var. ''vera'' &lt;small&gt;L.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe rubescens'' &lt;small&gt;DC.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe variegata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe vera'' &lt;small&gt;Mill. (غير جائز)&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) A. Berger&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''littoralis'' &lt;small&gt;J.Koenig ex Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vulgaris'' &lt;small&gt;Lam.&lt;/small&gt;
| synonyms_ref = &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/18403421?tab=synonyms Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.] Tropicos.org&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WFO&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=''Aloe vera'' L. Burm.f. Fl. Indica : 83 (1768) |url=http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000758976 |website=World Flora Online |date=2022 |publisher=World Flora Consortium |access-date=16 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

'''ڪنوار ٻوٽي: انگريزي ۾ ايلو ويرا '''  '''''Aloe vera''''''
جنهن کي سنڌيءَ ۾ '''پَٽِ ڪُنوار'''،  يا '''ايريال''' پڻ چيو وڃي ٿو، [[رسدار ٻوٽو|رسدار ٻوٽن]] جي [[قسم (حياتيات)|قسم]] مان آهي ۽ [[ايلو]] (''Aloe'') [[جنس (حياتيات)|جنس]] سان تعلق رکي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/4192 |title=Aloe vera (true aloe) |date=13 February 2019 |publisher=[[سينٽر فار ايگريڪلچر اينڊ بايو سائنس انٽرنيشنل]] |access-date=15 October 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي ٻوٽو دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي پکڙيل آهي، ۽ ڪيترن هنڌن تي ان کي [[دخل انداز قسم]] پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Aloe |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/aloe.html |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=8 June 2026 |date=19 November 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي هڪ [[سدابهار]] ۽ [[گهڻ سالي ٻوٽو]] آهي، جنهن جو اصل وطن [[جزيرو نما عربستان]] آهي، پر اهو دنيا جي ٻين گرم، نيم گرم ۽ خشڪ علائقن ۾ به جهنگلي حالت ۾ وڌندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt; ان جي تجارتي پوک پڻ ڪئي ويندي آهي، ۽ صدين کان ان کي چمڙي تي لڳائڻ واري [[مقامي دوا]] طور استعمال ڪيو ويندو رهيو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt; هي ٻوٽو سينگار لاءِ پڻ مشهور آهي ۽ گهڻو ڪري گهرن اندر [[گملي]] ۾ پوکيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://homeguides.sfgate.com/aloe-tropical-plant-67510.html |website=[[ايس ايف گيٽ]] |last=Perkins |first=Cyndi |title=Is Aloe a tropical plant? |date=13 March 2013 |access-date=13 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''Aloe vera'' جي پنن ۾ [[پوليسيڪرائڊ]] قسم جو جيل '''[[ايسيمينن]]''' (Acemannan) وڏي مقدار ۾ موجود هوندو آهي، جيڪو چمڙي تي لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Chang |last2=Cui |first2=Yan |last3=Pi |first3=Fuwei |last4=Cheng |first4=Yuliang |last5=Guo |first5=Yahui |last6=Qian |first6=He |date=2019-04-19 |title=Extraction, Purification, Structural Characteristics, Biological Activities and Pharmacological Applications of Acemannan, a Polysaccharide from Aloe vera: A Review |journal=Molecules |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=1554 |doi=10.3390/molecules24081554 |pmc=6515206 |pmid=31010204 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; پنن ۾ '''[[ايلوئن]]''' (Aloin) نالي هڪ زهريلو مرڪب پڻ موجود هوندو آهي. تجارتي ''Aloe vera'' جون گهڻيون شيون هن جيل مان تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن.

''Aloe vera'' مان حاصل ٿيندڙ ايسيمينن تي ٻڌل جيل چمڙي جي لوشنن، [[سينگار جو سامان|سينگار جي شين]]، مرهمن ۽ جيلن ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور تي معمولي سڙڻ، چمڙي جي هلڪي ڇلن، جيتن جي چڪ ۽ هوا سبب چمڙي جي جلن جي علاج لاءِ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Surjushe |first1=Amar |last2=Vasani |first2=Resham |last3=Saple |first3=D G |date=2008 |title=Aloe vera: A short review |journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=163–166 |doi=10.4103/0019-5154.44785 |pmc=2763764 |pmid=19882025 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''ايلو ويرا '' جي عرق کي وات ذريعي استعمال ڪرڻ سان تيز پيٽ جو سور، اينٺون ۽ ڊگهي عرصي تائين استعمال جي صورت ۾ [[هيپاٽائٽس]] ٿي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/aloe-vera |title=Aloe vera |publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health |date=1 February 2025 |access-date=8 June 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; حمل دوران ان جو استعمال نه ڪرڻ گهرجي. ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان [[الرجي]] پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;

ھي ٻُوٽو آهي جيڪو، [[سنڌ]]، [[پاڪستان]] توڙي سڄي دنيا ۾ ٿئي ٿو جنهن جي ڪٽنب ۾ ڪيترائي نمونا ٿين ٿا جن جا سائنسي نالا پڻ مختلف ٿين ٿا. هن ٻوٽي جا پن اڪثر سائي رنگ جا ٿيندا آهن پر ڪن ملڪن ۾ ڳاڙهي رنگ جا ٻہ ٿيندا آهن. هن جا پن ٻاهر بجاءِ اندر وڪوڙيل ٿيندا آهن جنهن ڪري شايد سنڌي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪنوار ٻوٽي سڏيو ويو آهي. هيءُ ٻوٽو اڪثر جبلن ۾ ٿئي ٿو پر هٿرادو طور بہ پوکيو ويندو آهي. هن ٻوٽي جي پنن ۾ کير نما رس ٿيندي آهي جيڪا دوا طور ڪم ايندي آهي. هن ٻوٽي کي [[اٺ]] ۽ [[ٻڪري]] شوق سان کائيندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://worldofsucculents.com/aloe-perfoliata-rubble-aloe-mitre-aloe/|title=Aloe perfoliata (Mitre Aloe)|date=2014-03-09|website=World of Succulents|language=en-US|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/Catalogue/History/Book21/Book_page6.html|title=Sindhi Adabi Board Online Library (History)|website=www.sindhiadabiboard.org|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Aloe Vera.jpg|thumb|ڪنوار ٻوٽي]]

ھي ھڪ جهنگلي ٻوٽو آھي، ان ۾ رڳو ڊگها پن وارا ڦڙها ٿين ٿا، پنن جا پاسا ڪنڊن وارا ٿين. طبي لحاظ کان ايريال يا  ڪنوار ٻوٽي ڪيترين بيمارين کي فائدو پھچائي ٿو. سخت سوڄ تي ايريال جا ڦڙها چيري، گرم ڪري، هئڊ مکي، ٻڌندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=ايريال : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt; |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |accessdate=2024-05-30 |archive-date=2024-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240531181831/https://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |dead-url=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== نالي جي بڻ ==
[[File:Aloe Vera houseplant.jpg|thumb|پنن جي ڪنارن تي ڏند جهڙا ڪنڊا]]

[[جنس (حياتيات)|جنس]] ''[[ايلو]]'' (''Aloe'') جو نالو [[عربي ٻولي|عربي]] لفظ ''الُوَّه'' (''alloeh'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي &quot;ڪڙو ۽ چمڪندڙ مادو&quot;، يا وري [[عبراني ٻولي|عبراني]] {{lang|he|אוהלים}} ''اھالم'' (واحد: {{lang|he|אוהל}} ''اھل'') مان ورتل آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;oed&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/aloe |title=Aloe |last1=Harper |first1=Douglas |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=1 July 2021 |date=2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;guo&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Xiaoqing |last2=Mei |first2=Nan |title=Aloe vera: A review of toxicity and adverse clinical effects |journal=J Environ Sci Health C Environ Carcinog Ecotoxicol Rev |date=2 April 2016 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=77–96 |doi=10.1080/10590501.2016.1166826 |pmid=26986231 |pmc=6349368 |bibcode=2016JESHC..34...77G}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.balashon.com/2008/03/aloe.html |title=Aloe |last1=Curwin |first1=David |date=16 March 2008 |website=Balashon - Hebrew Language Detective |access-date=16 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[نوعي لقب]] ''ويرا'' لاطيني لفظ ''ويرس'' مان ورتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي &quot;حقيقي&quot; يا &quot;اصلي&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;guo&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=verus |title=vērus |last1=Lewis |first1=Charlton T. |last2=Short |first2=Charles |dictionary=A Latin Dictionary |publisher=Perseus Digital Library |date=1879}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== عام نالا ===
هن ٻوٽي جا عام نالا گهڻو ڪري ان جي ورڇ يا علائقي جي نسبت سان رکيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ ''چيني ايلو''، ''ڪيپ ايلو'' ۽ ''[[بارباڊوس]] ايلو''.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Liao Z, Chen M, Tan F, Sun X, Tang K |year=2004 |title=Micropropagation of endangered Chinese aloe |journal=Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=83–86 |doi=10.1023/A:1025868515705 |s2cid=41623664}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;expert&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel |title=Final Report on the Safety Assessment of Aloe Andongensis Extract, Aloe Andongensis Leaf Juice, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Extract, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Juice, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Protoplasts, Aloe Barbadensis Flower Extract, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Extract, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Juice, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Polysaccharides, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Water, Aloe Ferox Leaf Extract, Aloe Ferox Leaf Juice, and Aloe Ferox Leaf Juice Extract |journal=International Journal of Toxicology |volume=26 |issue=Suppl 2 |pages=1–50 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/10915810701351186 |year=2007 |pmid=17613130 |doi=10.1080/10915810701351186 |s2cid=86018076}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== درجابندي ===
هن قسم جا ڪيترائي [[هم معنيٰ نالا (حياتياتي درجابندي)|هم معنيٰ سائنسي نالا]] آهن، جن ۾ ''ايلو بارباڊينس'' مل.، ''ايلو انڊيڪا'' رايل، ''ايلو پرفوليئاٽا'' var. ''ويرا'' ايل. ۽ ''ايلو ولگرس'' لام. شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;WFO&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AFPD&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa/details.php?langue=an&amp;id=155971 |title=''Aloe vera'', African flowering plants database |publisher=Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève |access-date=19 November 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Aloe%20vera |title=Taxon: Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. |publisher=Germplasm Resources Information Network, United States Department of Agriculture |access-date=16 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924131123/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Aloe%20vera |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪجهه علمي حوالن ۾ اڇن داغن واري صورت کي ''ايلو ويرا'' var. ''چائنينسس'' سڏيو ويو آهي،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Wang H, Li F, Wang T, Li J, Li J, Yang X, Li J |title=[Determination of aloin content in callus of Aloe vera var. chinensis] |language=zh |journal=Zhong Yao Cai |volume=27 |issue=9 |pages=627–628 |year=2004 |pmid=15704580}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Gao W, Xiao P |title=[Peroxidase and soluble protein in the leaves of Aloe vera L. var. chinensis (Haw.) Berger] |language=zh |journal=Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi |volume=22 |issue=11 |pages=653–654, 702 |year=1997 |pmid=11243179}}&lt;/ref&gt; جڏهن ته داغدار صورت کي ''اي. مساوانا'' سان هڪ ئي قسم سمجهيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;hb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://huntingtonbotanical.org/Desert/Cholla/feb06/feb06.htm |title=The Definitive ''Aloe vera'', vera? |author=Lyons G |publisher=Huntington Botanic Gardens |access-date=11 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725090154/http://www.huntingtonbotanical.org/Desert/Cholla/feb06/feb06.htm |archive-date=25 July 2008 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هن قسم کي پهريون ڀيرو [[ڪارل لنيئس]] 1753ع ۾ ''ايلو پرفوليئاٽا'' var. ''ويرا'' جي نالي سان بيان ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;لنيئيوس, ڪارل (1753). ''اسپيشيز plantarum''. Vol. 2.&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ 6 اپريل 1768ع تي [[نيڪولاس لارنس برمن]] پنهنجي ڪتاب ''فلورا انڊڪا'' ۾ ان کي ''ايلو ويرا'' نالو ڏنو، جڏهن ته لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه ڏينهن پوءِ [[فلپ ملر]] ان کي ''ايلو بارباڊينسس'' جي نالي سان بيان ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Newton LE |year=1979 |title=In defense of the name ''Aloe vera'' |journal=The Cactus and Succulent Journal of Great Britain |volume=41 |pages=29–30}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[ڊي اين اي]] جي ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو آهي ته ''ايلو ويرا'' جو ويجهو تعلق ''[[ايلو پيريائي ]]'' سان آهي، جيڪا [[يمن]] جي مقامي قسم آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Darokar MP, Rai R, Gupta AK, Shasany AK, Rajkumar S, Sunderasan V, Khanuja SP |year=2003 |title=Molecular assessment of germplasm diversity in ''Aloe'' spp. using RAPD and AFLP analysis |journal=J. Med. Arom. Plant Sci. |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=354–361}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪلوروپلاسٽ]] ڊي اين اي ۽ [[مائڪروسيٽلائيٽ]] جي تجزين مان اهو پڻ ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته هن جو ويجهو تعلق ''[[ايلو فوربيسي]]''، ''[[ايلو اِنرمِس]]''، ''[[ايلو اسڪوبينيفوليا]]''، ''[[ايلو سنڪاٽان]]'' ۽ ''[[ايلو اسٽرياٽا]]'' سان پڻ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Treutlein&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Treutlein J, Smith GF, van Wyk BE, Wink W |year=2003 |title=Phylogenetic relationships in Asphodelaceae (Alooideae) inferred from chloroplast DNA sequences (rbcL, matK) and from genomic fingerprinting (ISSR) |journal=Taxon |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=193–207 |doi=10.2307/3647389 |jstor=3647389}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''A. striata'' کان سواءِ اهي سڀئي قسم [[سقطرى]] (يمن)، صوماليا ۽ سوڊان جا مقامي ٻوٽا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Treutlein&quot;/&gt;

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪنوار ٻوٽي يا''ايلو ويرا'' جون قدرتي جهنگلي آباديون واضح طور سڃاتل نه آهن، تنهنڪري ڪجهه نباتات دانن جو خيال آهي ته هي قسم شايد [[هائبرڊ]] اصل رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;Jones WD, Sacamano C. (2000). ''Landscape Plants for Dry Regions''. California Bill's Automotive Publishers.&lt;/ref&gt;

== وضاحت ==
[[File:Aloe Vera.jpg|thumb|right|اڇن داغن واري صورت، جنهن کي ''Aloe vera'' var. ''chinensis'' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي]]
[[File:Acta Eruditorum - IV botanica, 1688 – BEIC 13396043.jpg|thumb|1688ع ۾ [[ايڪٽا ايروڊيٽورم]] ۾ شايع ٿيل تاريخي تصوير]]

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' هڪ بي ٿڙ يا تمام ننڍي ٿڙ وارو ٻوٽو آهي، جيڪو عام طور تي {{convert|60-100|cm|in|abbr=off}} اوچو ٿيندو آهي ۽ [[آفسيٽ (نباتيات)|آفسيٽن]] (پاڙ وٽان نڪرندڙ ننڍن ٻوٽن) ذريعي پکڙجندو آهي.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;

=== پن ===
هن جا پن ٿلها، گوشتائتا، سائي کان سرمائي-سائي رنگ جا هوندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪجهه قسمن جي پنن جي مٿئين ۽ هيٺئين سطح تي اڇا داغ به هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;&gt;Yates A. (2002) ''Yates Garden Guide''. Harper Collins Australia&lt;/ref&gt; پنن جا ڪنارا [[پنن جا ڪنارا|ڏنديدار]] هوندا آهن ۽ انهن تي ننڍڙا اڇا ڪنڊا موجود هوندا آهن.

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جي پنن ۾ ڪيترائي [[فائٽوڪيميڪل]] مرڪب موجود هوندا آهن، جن تي ممڪن حياتياتي اثرن بابت تحقيق جاري آهي. انهن ۾ [[لگنن]]، [[فائٽواسٽرول]]، [[پولي فينول]]، ايسيٽائيليٽيڊ [[مينن]]، پولي مينن، [[اينٿراڪينون]]، سي-[[گلائيڪوسائيڊ]]، [[اينٿرون]]، ۽ ٻيا اينٿراڪينون جهڙوڪ [[ايموڊن]]، گڏوگڏ مختلف [[ليڪٽن]] شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;King&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=King GK, Yates KM, Greenlee PG, Pierce KR, Ford CR, McAnalley BH, Tizard IR |title=The effect of Acemannan Immunostimulant in combination with surgery and radiation therapy on spontaneous canine and feline fibrosarcomas |journal=J Am Anim Hosp Assoc |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=439–447 |year=1995 |pmid=8542364 |doi=10.5326/15473317-31-5-439}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Eshun&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Eshun K, He Q |title=Aloe vera: a valuable ingredient for the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries—a review |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=91–96 |year=2004 |pmid=15116756 |doi=10.1080/10408690490424694 |s2cid=21241302}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گل ===
هن ٻوٽي جا گل اونهاري جي موسم ۾ لڳندا آهن. گلن جو خوشو {{convert|90|cm|in|abbr=on}} تائين اوچو ٿي سگهي ٿو. هر گل هيٺ لڙڪندڙ هوندو آهي ۽ ان جي [[گل ڇلر]] (Corolla) نلي نما، پيلي رنگ جي ۽ {{convert|2-3|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} ڊگهي هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;&gt;{{cite book |date=2001 |title=Botanica's Pocket Gardening Encyclopedia for Australian Gardeners |publisher=Random House Publishers |isbn=9781740514347}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== پاڙون ===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' ٻين ''ايلو'' قسمن وانگر [[آربسڪيولر مائيڪورائزا]] ٺاهي ٿو، جيڪا پاڙن ۽ [[فنگس]] جي وچ ۾ هڪ [[هم زيستي]] تعلق آهي. ان جي ذريعي ٻوٽي کي مٽي مان معدني غذائي جزا وڌيڪ مؤثر نموني حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ مدد ملي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Gong M. |author2=Wang F. |author3=Chen Y |title=[Study on application of arbuscular-mycorrhizas in growing seedlings of Aloe vera] |language=zh |journal=Zhong Yao Cai |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=1–3 |year=2002 |pmid=12583231}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ورڇ ==
''ايلو ويرا'' کي اصل ڏکڻ-اوڀر [[عربستاني اپٻيٽ]] جي اتر-اوڀر [[عمان]] ۾ واقع [[حجر جبلن]] ۽ [[گڏيل عرب امارات]] جي اوڀرئين حصي جو مقامي ٻوٽو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=http://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |access-date=2020-12-07 |website=wcsp.science.kew.org |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101093147/https://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WCSP_298116&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=''Aloe vera'' |work=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=http://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |access-date=19 November 2017 |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101093147/https://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

بهرحال، هن ٻوٽي جي دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي پوک ڪئي وئي آهي، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ اهو [[اتر آفريڪا]]، [[سوڊان]] ۽ ان جي پاڙيسري ملڪن، [[ڪينري ٻيٽ]]، [[ڪيپ ورڊي]] ۽ [[مڊيرا ٻيٽ]] ۾ قدرتي طور به وڌڻ لڳو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;AFPD&quot;/&gt; هي [[پورچوگال]] جي [[الگاروي]] علائقي ۾ پڻ قدرتي طور پکڙجي ويو آهي،&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/38807075.pdf |title=Exotic naturalized flora of continental Portugal – A reassessment |date=2006 |access-date=16 July 2020 |author= Domingues de Almeida, J &amp; Freitas |publisher=core.ac.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |journal=Bradleya |title=Aloe arborescens Mill. and Aloe Vera spreading in Portugal |date=2009 |author= Gideon F Smith, Estrela Figueiredo |publisher=bioone |doi=10.25223/brad.n27.2009.a4 |hdl=2263/14380 |s2cid=82872880 |hdl-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اسپين]] جي جهنگلي علائقن، خاص طور تي [[مرثيا]] واري علائقي ۾ به ملي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://caermurcia.com/jornada-tecnica-de-cultivo-ecologico-de-aloe-vera-en-murcia/ |title=Aloe Vera Cultivation in Murcia |date=9 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي نسل سترهين صديءَ دوران [[چين]] ۽ ڏکڻ [[يورپ]] جي مختلف حصن ۾ متعارف ڪرايو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;Farooqi, A. A. and Sreeramu, B. S. (2001) ''Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops''. Orient Longman, India. {{ISBN|8173712514}}. p. 25.&lt;/ref&gt; اڄڪلهه هي دنيا جي ٻين ڪيترن ئي خشڪ، نيم گرم ۽ گرم آبهوا وارن علائقن ۾ قدرتي طور ملي ٿو.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;&lt;ref name=WCSP_298116/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;kew&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:530017-1 |title=Aloe vera |date=2016 |access-date=10 August 2016 |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ٻوٽي جي موجوده عالمي ورڇ گهڻي ڀاڱي انساني پوک ۽ منتقلي جو نتيجو سمجهي وڃي ٿي.&lt;ref name=hb/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&amp;taxon_id=200027555 &quot;Aloe vera (Linnaeus) Burman f., Fl. Indica. 83. 1768.&quot;] in ''Flora of North America'' Vol. 26, p. 411&lt;/ref&gt;

== پوک ۽ سنڀال ==
[[File:Aloe vera A.jpg|thumb|right|آرائشي ٻوٽي طور]]
&lt;!-- تصوير ۾ اصل ۾ Aloe maculata ڏيکاريل آهي، نه Aloe vera
[[File:Aloevera-mite.jpg|thumb|right|جُوئن جي حملي سان متاثر ٿيل ايلو ويرا]]
--&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' کي سڄي دنيا ۾ وڏي پيماني تي آرائشي ٻوٽي طور پوکيو وڃي ٿو. هي ٻوٽو جديد باغباني ۾ پنهنجي دوائن واري استعمال،&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; خوبصورت گلن، منفرد بناوت ۽ رس ڀريل پنن سبب گهڻو پسند ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان جي رس ڀريل طبيعت (succulence) سبب هي گهٽ برسات وارن علائقن ۾ به آسانيءَ سان زنده رهي سگهي ٿو، تنهنڪري پٿرن وارن باغن ۽ گهٽ پاڻي گهرندڙ باغن لاءِ هڪ موزون ٻوٽو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;/&gt; هي نسل [[سختي جا علائقا|سختي جي علائقن]] 8 کان 11 تائين سٺي نموني وڌي سگهي ٿو، پر سخت پالي ۽ برف کي برداشت نٿو ڪري سگهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/gardening/plants/plant_finder/plant_pages/7686.shtml |title=BBC Gardening, ''Aloe vera'' |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=11 July 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي ٻوٽو گهڻن ئي جيت جڻين کان محفوظ رهندو آهي، پر [[مڪڙيءَ جي جُوءِ]]، [[ميلي بگ]]، [[اسڪيل جيت]] ۽ [[ماڪڙيون (ايفڊ)|ايفڊ]] جهڙا جيت ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جي واڌ ويجهه ۽ صحت کي متاثر ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/ento/a-myersi.html |title=Pest Alert: ''Aloe vera'' aphid ''Aloephagus myersi'' Essi. |publisher=Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services |access-date=11 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612155315/http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/ento/a-myersi.html |archive-date=12 June 2008 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mobot.org/gardeninghelp/PlantFinder/plant.asp?code=B628 |title=Kemper Center for Home Gardening: ''Aloe vera'' |publisher=Missouri Botanic Gardens |access-date=11 July 2008 |archive-date=27 May 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050527084103/http://www.mobot.org/gardeninghelp/PlantFinder/plant.asp?code=B628 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ٻوٽي کي [[رائل هارٽيڪلچرل سوسائٽي]] پاران [[گارڊن ميرٽ ايوارڊ]] پڻ ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/981/Aloe-vera/Details |title=RHS Plant Selector ''Aloe vera'' AGM / RHS Gardening |publisher=Apps.rhs.org.uk |access-date=9 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گملي ۾ پوکڻ وقت سٺي پاڻي نيڪال واري واريالي مٽي ۽ روشن، سج واري جڳهه ضروري آهي. گهڻي سڌي سج جي روشني سبب پن ڳاڙها ٿي سگهن ٿا، پر آهستي آهستي سج سان هم آهنگ ڪرڻ سان اهو مسئلو گهٽجي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Peerless |first1=Veronica |title=How Not to Kill Your Houseplant |date=2017 |publisher=DK Penguin Random House |pages=38–39}}&lt;/ref&gt; واپار ۾ ملندڙ ڪيڪٽس ۽ رس ڀرين ٻوٽن واري مٽي (''cacti and succulent mix'') هن ٻوٽي لاءِ مناسب هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها پاڻي جي نيڪال کي بهتر بڻائي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;GA&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/stories/s2280641.htm |title=Fact Sheet: ''Aloes'' |author=Coleby-Williams, J |date=21 June 2008 |publisher=Gardening Australia, Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=8 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706224700/http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/stories/s2280641.htm |archive-date=6 July 2008 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; مٽيءَ جا گملا وڌيڪ موزون سمجهيا وڃن ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي هوا ۽ نمي جي بهتر مٽاسٽا ڪن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;GA&quot;/&gt;

گملن ۾ پوکيل ٻوٽن کي ٻيهر پاڻي ڏيڻ کان اڳ مٽي مڪمل سڪي وڃڻ گهرجي. وقت سان گڏ ماءُ واري ٻوٽي جي چوڌاري ننڍا ٻوٽا (''پَپ'' يا شاخون) نڪرندا آهن. جيڪڏهن اهي گهڻا ٿي وڃن ته انهن کي ڌار ڪري نون گملن ۾ پوکي سگهجي ٿو، يا ماءُ واري ٻوٽي سان گڏ وڌڻ ڏنو وڃي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;/&gt; سياري ۾ ''ايلو ويرا'' اڪثر غيرفعال (Dormant) حالت ۾ هليو ويندو آهي، جنهن دوران ان کي تمام گهٽ پاڻي جي ضرورت هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;/&gt; جتي سخت پالو يا برفباري ٿيندي هجي، اتي هن ٻوٽي کي گهر اندر يا گرم شيشي جي گهر (گرين هائوس) ۾ رکڻ مناسب هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;/&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جي وڏي پيماني تي زرعي پوک [[آسٽريليا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2005/12/06/1524745.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120716111516/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2005/12/06/1524745.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 July 2012 |title=''Aloe vera'' producer signs $3m China deal |newspaper=ABC News |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |date=6 December 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪيوبا]]، [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريه]]، [[چين]]، [[ميڪسيڪو]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.dominicantoday.com/dr/economy/2006/7/7/15337/Korea-interested-in-Dominican-aloe-vera |title=Korea interested in Dominican 'aloe vera' |publisher=DominicanToday.com |date=7 July 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206062244/http://www.dominicantoday.com/dr/economy/2006/7/7/15337/Korea-interested-in-Dominican-aloe-vera |archive-date=6 December 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڀارت]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.wildsingapore.com/news/20051112/051211-1.htm |title=India experiments with farming medicinal plants |publisher=channelnewsasia.com |author=Varma, Vaibhav |date=11 December 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[جميڪا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20080117/eyes/eyes1.html |title=Harnessing the potential of our aloe |publisher=Jamaica Gleaner |access-date=19 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080324210301/http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20080117/eyes/eyes1.html |archive-date=24 March 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪينيا]]، [[تنزانيا]]، [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200708020872.html |title=Kenya: Imported Gel Hurts Aloe Vera Market |publisher=allafrica.com |author=Mburu, Solomon |date=2 August 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[اسپين]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=23 August 2015 |title=Córdoba is the Spanish province with more aloe vera crops (translated from Spanish) |url=http://sevilla.abc.es/andalucia/cordoba/20150824/sevi-aloe-vera-cordoba-201508232056.html |publisher=ABC-Córdoba}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون]] ۾ ڪئي وڃي ٿي،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.resourceinvestor.com/pebble.asp?relid=38588 |title=US Farms, Inc. – A Different Kind of Natural Resource Company |publisher=resourceinvestor.com |access-date=19 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917125506/http://www.resourceinvestor.com/pebble.asp?relid=38588 |archive-date=17 September 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ ان جي پيداوار جو وڏو حصو سينگار جي شين  جي صنعت ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;

==استعمال==
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي '' مان ٻه بنيادي مادا حاصل ڪيا ويندا آهن: هڪ شفاف [[جيل]] ۽ ٻيو پيلو [[ليٽڪس]]. انهن ٻنهي مان مختلف تجارتي شيون تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; ايلو ويرا جو جيل عام طور چمڙي تي لڳائڻ وارين دوائن ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ساڙ، زخم، ٿڌ جي ڪري ٿيندڙ چمڙي جي نقصان، [[چمڙي جي ريش]]، [[سورائسس]]، [[لبن جو هرپس]] (ٿڌ جا ڦٽا) ۽ خشڪ چمڙي جي علاج لاءِ.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; ڪنوار ٻوٽي جو ليٽڪس الڳ يا ٻين جزن سان گڏ اهڙي شين ۾ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي [[قبض]] کان آرام لاءِ وات ذريعي استعمال ڪيون وڃن.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; ليٽڪس کي خشڪ ڪري ''رال'' يا ''خشڪ ايلو رس'' جي صورت ۾ پڻ تيار ڪيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;EMA-ar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/herbal-report/final-assessment-report-aloe-barbadensis-mill-aloe-various-species-mainly-aloe-ferox-mill-its_en.pdf |title=Assessment report on ''Aloe barbadensis'' Mill. and on Aloe (various species, mainly ''Aloe ferox'' Mill. and its hybrids), folii succus siccatus |publisher=European Medicines Agency|date=22 November 2016|access-date=29 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تحقيقي مطالعي مان اڃا تائين اهو واضح ثابت نه ٿي سگهيو آهي ته ''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' زخم يا ساڙ جي علاج ۾ يقيني طور اثرائتو آهي يا نه.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; بهرحال، چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ [[سورائسس]]، [[مهاندا]] يا چمڙي جي ريش جهڙين حالتن جون علامتون گهٽجي سگهن ٿيون،&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; جڏهن ته ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ ان سان [[الرجي]] به ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جو جيل واپاري طور [[ڏهي]]، مشروبات ۽ ڪجهه مٺاڻن ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Reynolds&quot;/&gt; پر ليٽڪس يا سڄي پن مان تيار ڪيل عرق کي وڏي مقدار ۾ يا گهڻي عرصي تائين استعمال ڪرڻ زهريلو ثابت ٿي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt; چمڙي تي ٿوري مقدار ۾ استعمال عام طور محفوظ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt;

===چمڙي تي استعمال ۽ ممڪن ضمني اثر===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' کي [[لوشن]]، [[جيل]]، صابڻ يا چمڙي جي سينگار وارين شين جي صورت ۾ تيار ڪري چمڙي تي لڳايو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt; ان جي جيل جو تيزابيت وارو درجو (pH) تقريباً 4.4 کان 4.7 هوندو آهي،&lt;ref name=guo/&gt; جيڪو ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان هلڪي ساڙ، جلن يا [[ريش]] جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;

جن ماڻهن کي ''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' سان [[الرجي]] هجي، انهن ۾ چمڙي جي سوزش، هلڪي ڳاڙهاڻ، خارش، ساهه کڻڻ ۾ تڪليف يا چهري، چپن، زبان يا ڳلي جي سُوجهه جهڙا ردِعمل ظاهر ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt;

===غذائي اضافو===
[[File:Aloin_structure.png|thumb|right|ايلوئن]]
[[ايلوئن]]، جيڪو ''ايلو'' جي ڪجهه نسلن جي نيم سيال ليٽڪس ۾ موجود هڪ تمام ڪڙو مرڪب آهي، 2002ع تائين آمريڪا ۾ بغير نسخي جي وڪرو ٿيندڙ قبض ختم ڪرڻ وارين دوائن ۾ عام جزو طور استعمال ٿيندو هو. بعد ۾ [[آمريڪي خوراڪ ۽ دوائن واري اداري]] (FDA) ان جي استعمال تي پابندي لڳائي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٺاهيندڙ ڪمپنيون ان جي حفاظت بابت گهربل سائنسي ثبوت مهيا نه ڪري سگهيون.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title = Status of certain additional over-the-counter drug category II and III active ingredients. Final rule |journal = Fed Regist |volume = 67 |issue = 90 |pages = 31125–7 |year = 2002 |pmid = 12001972 |last1 = Food Drug Administration |first1 = HHS|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2002-05-09/pdf/02-11510.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' ۽ ان جا الڪوحلي عرق ڪجهه مقدار کان وڌيڪ استعمال ڪرڻ سان زهريلا اثر پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا، جيڪي چمڙي تي لڳائڻ يا وات ذريعي استعمال ٻنهي صورتن ۾ ظاهر ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt; جيتوڻيڪ تياري دوران ايلوئن ڪڍي ڇڏڻ سان زهريت گهٽجي سگهي ٿي، پر وڏي مقدار ۾ استعمال ڪرڻ سان پيٽ جو سور، دست يا [[هيپاٽائٽس]] جهڙا اثر پيدا ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Bottenberg MM, Wall GC, Harvey RL, Habib S 2007 1740–3&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors = Bottenberg MM, Wall GC, Harvey RL, Habib S |title = Oral aloe vera-induced hepatitis |journal = Ann Pharmacother |volume = 41 |issue = 10 |pages = 1740–3 |year = 2007 |pmid = 17726067 |doi = 10.1345/aph.1K132 |s2cid = 25553593 }}&lt;/ref&gt; ڊگهي عرصي تائين روزانو لڳ ڀڳ هڪ گرام استعمال ڪرڻ سان پيشاب ۾ رت اچڻ، وزن گهٽجڻ، دل يا گردن جا مسئلا پيدا ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جو رس هاضمي جي صحت لاءِ فائديمند هجڻ جي دعويٰ سان وڪرو ڪيو ويندو آهي، پر هن دعويٰ جي حمايت ۾ نه ڪو مضبوط سائنسي ثبوت موجود آهي ۽ نه ئي ڪنهن ضابطي واري اداري ان جي منظوري ڏني آهي.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;mayo&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements-aloe/art-20362267 |title=''Aloe'' (''Aloe vera'') |publisher=Mayo Clinic |date=17 September 2017 |access-date=21 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===روايتي طب===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' روايتي طب ۾ چمڙي جي علاج لاءِ هزارين سالن کان استعمال ٿيندو رهيو آهي. ان جي استعمال جا قديم ترين لکيل حوالا چوٿين هزارين سال [[ق م]] تائين ملن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt; ان جو ذڪر 512ع ۾ لکيل ''[[جوليانا انيشيا ڪوڊيڪس]]'' ۾ پڻ موجود آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Reynolds&quot;&gt;Reynolds, Tom (Ed.) (2004) ''Aloes: The genus Aloe (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants - Industrial Profiles''. CRC Press. {{ISBN|978-0415306720}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|9}}

===تجارتي شيون===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' چهري صاف ڪرڻ وارين ٽشوز ۾ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي، جتي ان کي نمي برقرار رکڻ ۽ نڪ جي چمڙي جي خارش گهٽائڻ واري جزو طور پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي. سينگار جي شين ٺاهيندڙ ڪمپنيون ان جو رس يا ان جا ٻيا نڪتل جزا ميڪ اپ، ٽشوز، موئسچرائزر، صابڻ، سن اسڪرين، اگربتي، شيونگ ڪريم ۽ شيمپو جهڙين شين ۾ شامل ڪنديون آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Reynolds&quot;/&gt; علمي جائزي موجب، صفائي ۽ سينگار جي ڪيترين ئي شين ۾ ان جو استعمال بنيادي طور ان جي چمڙي کي نرم ۽ نمي فراهم ڪندڙ خاصيت سبب ڪيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eshun&quot;/&gt; سينگار جي صنعت ۾ ايلو جي عرق ۾ اينٿراڪينون جي مقدار وڌ ۾ وڌ 50 پي پي ايم تائين محدود رکڻ جي سفارش ڪئي ويندي آهي.&lt;ref name=expert/&gt;

==زهريت==
وات ذريعي استعمال ڪيل ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جي اهڙي سڄي پن واري عرق کي، جنهن مان رنگ ختم نه ڪيو ويو هجي، [[ڪيليفورنيا آفيس آف انوائرنمينٽل هيلٿ هيزرڊ اسيسمينٽ]] انهن &quot;ڪيميائي مادن&quot; ۾ شامل ڪيو آهي جيڪي رياست موجب [[سرطان]] يا توليدي نظام لاءِ نقصانڪار ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.oehha.ca.gov/prop65/CRNR_notices/list_changes/120415listAloeGoldenseal.html |title=Chemicals Listed Effective December 4, 2015, as Known to the State of California to Cause Cancer: Aloe Vera, Non-Decolorized Whole Leaf Extract, and Goldenseal Root Powder |publisher=California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment |date=4 December 2015 |access-date=21 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهو خطرو غالباً ان ۾ موجود [[اينٿراڪينون]] مرڪبن جي ڪري هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;

2016ع کان وٺي، [[سرطان بابت تحقيق جي عالمي اداري]] (IARC) ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جي سڄي پن واري عرق کي انسانن لاءِ ''ممڪن سرطان پيدا ڪندڙ مادو'' (گروپ 2B) جي درجي ۾ شامل ڪيو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=IARC Monographs on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans |url=https://monographs.iarc.who.int/list-of-classifications/ |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=27 April 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

چمڙي تي ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جو استعمال عام طور تي ڪنهن اهم ضمني اثر سان لاڳاپيل نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt; پر وات ذريعي ان جو استعمال ممڪن طور زهريلو ٿي سگهي ٿو،&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt; ۽ ان سان [[پيٽ ۾ سور]]، [[پيٽ جا اينٺ]] ۽ [[دست]] ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪي وري ٻين دوائن جي جسم ۾ جذب ٿيڻ جي صلاحيت کي گهٽائي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;

===نسخي وارين دوائن سان تعامل===
وات ذريعي استعمال ٿيندڙ ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جون شيون ڪجهه نسخي وارين دوائن سان نقصانڪار [[دوائن جو تعامل|تعامل]] پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿيون، جهڙوڪ [[رت جا دڳ جمن]] جي علاج، [[شگر جي بيماري]]، [[دل جي بيماري]]، [[پوٽاشيم]] گهٽائيندڙ دوائون (مثال طور [[ڊيجوڪسن]]) ۽ [[پيشاب آور دوائون]] سميت ٻين دوائن سان.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}


[[زمرو:ٻوٽا]]</text>
      <sha1>tna66ztdy2peuw925l295cfjbj5klf6</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399344</id>
      <parentid>399343</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T22:43:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399344</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="42572" sha1="9sq4aw2s3a25n35g24ps55fibuioeba" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|ٻوٽي جي قسم}}


{{Speciesbox
| taxon = Aloe vera
| image = Aloe_vera_flower_inset.png
| image_upright = 1.2
| image_caption = ٻوٽو، گل جي ويجهي تصوير سان
| authority = ([[ڪارل لنيئس|L.]]) [[نيڪولاس لارنس برمن|Burm.f.]]
| synonyms =
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' &lt;small&gt;Mill.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;Haw.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe elongata'' &lt;small&gt;Murray&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe flava'' &lt;small&gt;Pers.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe indica'' &lt;small&gt;Royle&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Tod.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe maculata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe perfoliata'' var. ''vera'' &lt;small&gt;L.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe rubescens'' &lt;small&gt;DC.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe variegata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe vera'' &lt;small&gt;Mill. (غير جائز)&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) A. Berger&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''littoralis'' &lt;small&gt;J.Koenig ex Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vulgaris'' &lt;small&gt;Lam.&lt;/small&gt;
| synonyms_ref = &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/18403421?tab=synonyms Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.] Tropicos.org&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WFO&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=''Aloe vera'' L. Burm.f. Fl. Indica : 83 (1768) |url=http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000758976 |website=World Flora Online |date=2022 |publisher=World Flora Consortium |access-date=16 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

'''ڪنوار ٻوٽي: انگريزي ۾ ايلو ويرا '''  '''''Aloe vera''''''
جنهن کي سنڌيءَ ۾ '''پَٽِ ڪُنوار'''،  يا '''ايريال''' پڻ چيو وڃي ٿو، [[رسدار ٻوٽو|رسدار ٻوٽن]] جي [[قسم (حياتيات)|قسم]] مان آهي ۽ [[ايلو]] (''Aloe'') [[جنس (حياتيات)|جنس]] سان تعلق رکي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/4192 |title=Aloe vera (true aloe) |date=13 February 2019 |publisher=[[سينٽر فار ايگريڪلچر اينڊ بايو سائنس انٽرنيشنل]] |access-date=15 October 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي ٻوٽو دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي پکڙيل آهي، ۽ ڪيترن هنڌن تي ان کي [[دخل انداز قسم]] پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Aloe |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/aloe.html |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=8 June 2026 |date=19 November 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي هڪ [[سدابهار]] ۽ [[گهڻ سالي ٻوٽو]] آهي، جنهن جو اصل وطن [[جزيرو نما عربستان]] آهي، پر اهو دنيا جي ٻين گرم، نيم گرم ۽ خشڪ علائقن ۾ به جهنگلي حالت ۾ وڌندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt; ان جي تجارتي پوک پڻ ڪئي ويندي آهي، ۽ صدين کان ان کي چمڙي تي لڳائڻ واري [[مقامي دوا]] طور استعمال ڪيو ويندو رهيو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt; هي ٻوٽو سينگار لاءِ پڻ مشهور آهي ۽ گهڻو ڪري گهرن اندر [[گملي]] ۾ پوکيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://homeguides.sfgate.com/aloe-tropical-plant-67510.html |website=[[ايس ايف گيٽ]] |last=Perkins |first=Cyndi |title=Is Aloe a tropical plant? |date=13 March 2013 |access-date=13 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''Aloe vera'' جي پنن ۾ [[پوليسيڪرائڊ]] قسم جو جيل '''[[ايسيمينن]]''' (Acemannan) وڏي مقدار ۾ موجود هوندو آهي، جيڪو چمڙي تي لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Chang |last2=Cui |first2=Yan |last3=Pi |first3=Fuwei |last4=Cheng |first4=Yuliang |last5=Guo |first5=Yahui |last6=Qian |first6=He |date=2019-04-19 |title=Extraction, Purification, Structural Characteristics, Biological Activities and Pharmacological Applications of Acemannan, a Polysaccharide from Aloe vera: A Review |journal=Molecules |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=1554 |doi=10.3390/molecules24081554 |pmc=6515206 |pmid=31010204 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; پنن ۾ '''[[ايلوئن]]''' (Aloin) نالي هڪ زهريلو مرڪب پڻ موجود هوندو آهي. تجارتي ''Aloe vera'' جون گهڻيون شيون هن جيل مان تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن.

''Aloe vera'' مان حاصل ٿيندڙ ايسيمينن تي ٻڌل جيل چمڙي جي لوشنن، [[سينگار جو سامان|سينگار جي شين]]، مرهمن ۽ جيلن ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور تي معمولي سڙڻ، چمڙي جي هلڪي ڇلن، جيتن جي چڪ ۽ هوا سبب چمڙي جي جلن جي علاج لاءِ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Surjushe |first1=Amar |last2=Vasani |first2=Resham |last3=Saple |first3=D G |date=2008 |title=Aloe vera: A short review |journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=163–166 |doi=10.4103/0019-5154.44785 |pmc=2763764 |pmid=19882025 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''ايلو ويرا '' جي عرق کي وات ذريعي استعمال ڪرڻ سان تيز پيٽ جو سور، اينٺون ۽ ڊگهي عرصي تائين استعمال جي صورت ۾ [[هيپاٽائٽس]] ٿي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/aloe-vera |title=Aloe vera |publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health |date=1 February 2025 |access-date=8 June 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; حمل دوران ان جو استعمال نه ڪرڻ گهرجي. ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان [[الرجي]] پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;

ھي ٻُوٽو آهي جيڪو، [[سنڌ]]، [[پاڪستان]] توڙي سڄي دنيا ۾ ٿئي ٿو جنهن جي ڪٽنب ۾ ڪيترائي نمونا ٿين ٿا جن جا سائنسي نالا پڻ مختلف ٿين ٿا. هن ٻوٽي جا پن اڪثر سائي رنگ جا ٿيندا آهن پر ڪن ملڪن ۾ ڳاڙهي رنگ جا ٻہ ٿيندا آهن. هن جا پن ٻاهر بجاءِ اندر وڪوڙيل ٿيندا آهن جنهن ڪري شايد سنڌي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪنوار ٻوٽي سڏيو ويو آهي. هيءُ ٻوٽو اڪثر جبلن ۾ ٿئي ٿو پر هٿرادو طور بہ پوکيو ويندو آهي. هن ٻوٽي جي پنن ۾ کير نما رس ٿيندي آهي جيڪا دوا طور ڪم ايندي آهي. هن ٻوٽي کي [[اٺ]] ۽ [[ٻڪري]] شوق سان کائيندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://worldofsucculents.com/aloe-perfoliata-rubble-aloe-mitre-aloe/|title=Aloe perfoliata (Mitre Aloe)|date=2014-03-09|website=World of Succulents|language=en-US|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/Catalogue/History/Book21/Book_page6.html|title=Sindhi Adabi Board Online Library (History)|website=www.sindhiadabiboard.org|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Aloe Vera.jpg|thumb|ڪنوار ٻوٽي]]

ھي ھڪ جهنگلي ٻوٽو آھي، ان ۾ رڳو ڊگها پن وارا ڦڙها ٿين ٿا، پنن جا پاسا ڪنڊن وارا ٿين. طبي لحاظ کان ايريال يا  ڪنوار ٻوٽي ڪيترين بيمارين کي فائدو پھچائي ٿو. سخت سوڄ تي ايريال جا ڦڙها چيري، گرم ڪري، هئڊ مکي، ٻڌندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=ايريال : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt; |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |accessdate=2024-05-30 |archive-date=2024-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240531181831/https://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |dead-url=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== نالي جي بڻ ==
[[File:Aloe Vera houseplant.jpg|thumb|پنن جي ڪنارن تي ڏند جهڙا ڪنڊا]]

[[جنس (حياتيات)|جنس]] ''[[ايلو]]'' (''Aloe'') جو نالو [[عربي ٻولي|عربي]] لفظ ''الُوَّه'' (''alloeh'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي &quot;ڪڙو ۽ چمڪندڙ مادو&quot;، يا وري [[عبراني ٻولي|عبراني]] {{lang|he|אוהלים}} ''اھالم'' (واحد: {{lang|he|אוהל}} ''اھل'') مان ورتل آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;oed&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/aloe |title=Aloe |last1=Harper |first1=Douglas |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=1 July 2021 |date=2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;guo&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Xiaoqing |last2=Mei |first2=Nan |title=Aloe vera: A review of toxicity and adverse clinical effects |journal=J Environ Sci Health C Environ Carcinog Ecotoxicol Rev |date=2 April 2016 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=77–96 |doi=10.1080/10590501.2016.1166826 |pmid=26986231 |pmc=6349368 |bibcode=2016JESHC..34...77G}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.balashon.com/2008/03/aloe.html |title=Aloe |last1=Curwin |first1=David |date=16 March 2008 |website=Balashon - Hebrew Language Detective |access-date=16 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[نوعي لقب]] ''ويرا'' لاطيني لفظ ''ويرس'' مان ورتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي &quot;حقيقي&quot; يا &quot;اصلي&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;guo&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=verus |title=vērus |last1=Lewis |first1=Charlton T. |last2=Short |first2=Charles |dictionary=A Latin Dictionary |publisher=Perseus Digital Library |date=1879}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== عام نالا ===
هن ٻوٽي جا عام نالا گهڻو ڪري ان جي ورڇ يا علائقي جي نسبت سان رکيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ ''چيني ايلو''، ''ڪيپ ايلو'' ۽ ''[[بارباڊوس]] ايلو''.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Liao Z, Chen M, Tan F, Sun X, Tang K |year=2004 |title=Micropropagation of endangered Chinese aloe |journal=Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=83–86 |doi=10.1023/A:1025868515705 |s2cid=41623664}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;expert&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel |title=Final Report on the Safety Assessment of Aloe Andongensis Extract, Aloe Andongensis Leaf Juice, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Extract, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Juice, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Protoplasts, Aloe Barbadensis Flower Extract, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Extract, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Juice, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Polysaccharides, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Water, Aloe Ferox Leaf Extract, Aloe Ferox Leaf Juice, and Aloe Ferox Leaf Juice Extract |journal=International Journal of Toxicology |volume=26 |issue=Suppl 2 |pages=1–50 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/10915810701351186 |year=2007 |pmid=17613130 |doi=10.1080/10915810701351186 |s2cid=86018076}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== درجابندي ===
هن قسم جا ڪيترائي [[هم معنيٰ نالا (حياتياتي درجابندي)|هم معنيٰ سائنسي نالا]] آهن، جن ۾ ''ايلو بارباڊينس'' مل.، ''ايلو انڊيڪا'' رايل، ''ايلو پرفوليئاٽا'' var. ''ويرا'' ايل. ۽ ''ايلو ولگرس'' لام. شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;WFO&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AFPD&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa/details.php?langue=an&amp;id=155971 |title=''Aloe vera'', African flowering plants database |publisher=Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève |access-date=19 November 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Aloe%20vera |title=Taxon: Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. |publisher=Germplasm Resources Information Network, United States Department of Agriculture |access-date=16 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924131123/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Aloe%20vera |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪجهه علمي حوالن ۾ اڇن داغن واري صورت کي ''ايلو ويرا'' var. ''چائنينسس'' سڏيو ويو آهي،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Wang H, Li F, Wang T, Li J, Li J, Yang X, Li J |title=[Determination of aloin content in callus of Aloe vera var. chinensis] |language=zh |journal=Zhong Yao Cai |volume=27 |issue=9 |pages=627–628 |year=2004 |pmid=15704580}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Gao W, Xiao P |title=[Peroxidase and soluble protein in the leaves of Aloe vera L. var. chinensis (Haw.) Berger] |language=zh |journal=Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi |volume=22 |issue=11 |pages=653–654, 702 |year=1997 |pmid=11243179}}&lt;/ref&gt; جڏهن ته داغدار صورت کي ''اي. مساوانا'' سان هڪ ئي قسم سمجهيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;hb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://huntingtonbotanical.org/Desert/Cholla/feb06/feb06.htm |title=The Definitive ''Aloe vera'', vera? |author=Lyons G |publisher=Huntington Botanic Gardens |access-date=11 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725090154/http://www.huntingtonbotanical.org/Desert/Cholla/feb06/feb06.htm |archive-date=25 July 2008 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هن قسم کي پهريون ڀيرو [[ڪارل لنيئس]] 1753ع ۾ ''ايلو پرفوليئاٽا'' var. ''ويرا'' جي نالي سان بيان ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;لنيئيوس, ڪارل (1753). ''اسپيشيز plantarum''. Vol. 2.&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ 6 اپريل 1768ع تي [[نيڪولاس لارنس برمن]] پنهنجي ڪتاب ''فلورا انڊڪا'' ۾ ان کي ''ايلو ويرا'' نالو ڏنو، جڏهن ته لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه ڏينهن پوءِ [[فلپ ملر]] ان کي ''ايلو بارباڊينسس'' جي نالي سان بيان ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Newton LE |year=1979 |title=In defense of the name ''Aloe vera'' |journal=The Cactus and Succulent Journal of Great Britain |volume=41 |pages=29–30}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[ڊي اين اي]] جي ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو آهي ته ''ايلو ويرا'' جو ويجهو تعلق ''[[ايلو پيريائي ]]'' سان آهي، جيڪا [[يمن]] جي مقامي قسم آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Darokar MP, Rai R, Gupta AK, Shasany AK, Rajkumar S, Sunderasan V, Khanuja SP |year=2003 |title=Molecular assessment of germplasm diversity in ''Aloe'' spp. using RAPD and AFLP analysis |journal=J. Med. Arom. Plant Sci. |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=354–361}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪلوروپلاسٽ]] ڊي اين اي ۽ [[مائڪروسيٽلائيٽ]] جي تجزين مان اهو پڻ ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته هن جو ويجهو تعلق ''[[ايلو فوربيسي]]''، ''[[ايلو اِنرمِس]]''، ''[[ايلو اسڪوبينيفوليا]]''، ''[[ايلو سنڪاٽان]]'' ۽ ''[[ايلو اسٽرياٽا]]'' سان پڻ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Treutlein&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Treutlein J, Smith GF, van Wyk BE, Wink W |year=2003 |title=Phylogenetic relationships in Asphodelaceae (Alooideae) inferred from chloroplast DNA sequences (rbcL, matK) and from genomic fingerprinting (ISSR) |journal=Taxon |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=193–207 |doi=10.2307/3647389 |jstor=3647389}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''A. striata'' کان سواءِ اهي سڀئي قسم [[سقطرى]] (يمن)، صوماليا ۽ سوڊان جا مقامي ٻوٽا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Treutlein&quot;/&gt;

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪنوار ٻوٽي يا''ايلو ويرا'' جون قدرتي جهنگلي آباديون واضح طور سڃاتل نه آهن، تنهنڪري ڪجهه نباتات دانن جو خيال آهي ته هي قسم شايد [[هائبرڊ]] اصل رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;Jones WD, Sacamano C. (2000). ''Landscape Plants for Dry Regions''. California Bill's Automotive Publishers.&lt;/ref&gt;

== وضاحت ==
[[File:Aloe Vera.jpg|thumb|right|اڇن داغن واري صورت، جنهن کي ''Aloe vera'' var. ''chinensis'' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي]]
[[File:Acta Eruditorum - IV botanica, 1688 – BEIC 13396043.jpg|thumb|1688ع ۾ [[ايڪٽا ايروڊيٽورم]] ۾ شايع ٿيل تاريخي تصوير]]

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' هڪ بي ٿڙ يا تمام ننڍي ٿڙ وارو ٻوٽو آهي، جيڪو عام طور تي {{convert|60-100|cm|in|abbr=off}} اوچو ٿيندو آهي ۽ [[آفسيٽ (نباتيات)|آفسيٽن]] (پاڙ وٽان نڪرندڙ ننڍن ٻوٽن) ذريعي پکڙجندو آهي.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;

=== پن ===
هن جا پن ٿلها، گوشتائتا، سائي کان سرمائي-سائي رنگ جا هوندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪجهه قسمن جي پنن جي مٿئين ۽ هيٺئين سطح تي اڇا داغ به هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;&gt;Yates A. (2002) ''Yates Garden Guide''. Harper Collins Australia&lt;/ref&gt; پنن جا ڪنارا [[پنن جا ڪنارا|ڏنديدار]] هوندا آهن ۽ انهن تي ننڍڙا اڇا ڪنڊا موجود هوندا آهن.

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جي پنن ۾ ڪيترائي [[فائٽوڪيميڪل]] مرڪب موجود هوندا آهن، جن تي ممڪن حياتياتي اثرن بابت تحقيق جاري آهي. انهن ۾ [[لگنن]]، [[فائٽواسٽرول]]، [[پولي فينول]]، ايسيٽائيليٽيڊ [[مينن]]، پولي مينن، [[اينٿراڪينون]]، سي-[[گلائيڪوسائيڊ]]، [[اينٿرون]]، ۽ ٻيا اينٿراڪينون جهڙوڪ [[ايموڊن]]، گڏوگڏ مختلف [[ليڪٽن]] شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;King&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=King GK, Yates KM, Greenlee PG, Pierce KR, Ford CR, McAnalley BH, Tizard IR |title=The effect of Acemannan Immunostimulant in combination with surgery and radiation therapy on spontaneous canine and feline fibrosarcomas |journal=J Am Anim Hosp Assoc |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=439–447 |year=1995 |pmid=8542364 |doi=10.5326/15473317-31-5-439}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Eshun&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Eshun K, He Q |title=Aloe vera: a valuable ingredient for the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries—a review |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=91–96 |year=2004 |pmid=15116756 |doi=10.1080/10408690490424694 |s2cid=21241302}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گل ===
هن ٻوٽي جا گل اونهاري جي موسم ۾ لڳندا آهن. گلن جو خوشو {{convert|90|cm|in|abbr=on}} تائين اوچو ٿي سگهي ٿو. هر گل هيٺ لڙڪندڙ هوندو آهي ۽ ان جي [[گل ڇلر]] (Corolla) نلي نما، پيلي رنگ جي ۽ {{convert|2-3|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} ڊگهي هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;&gt;{{cite book |date=2001 |title=Botanica's Pocket Gardening Encyclopedia for Australian Gardeners |publisher=Random House Publishers |isbn=9781740514347}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== پاڙون ===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' ٻين ''ايلو'' قسمن وانگر [[آربسڪيولر مائيڪورائزا]] ٺاهي ٿو، جيڪا پاڙن ۽ [[فنگس]] جي وچ ۾ هڪ [[هم زيستي]] تعلق آهي. ان جي ذريعي ٻوٽي کي مٽي مان معدني غذائي جزا وڌيڪ مؤثر نموني حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ مدد ملي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Gong M. |author2=Wang F. |author3=Chen Y |title=[Study on application of arbuscular-mycorrhizas in growing seedlings of Aloe vera] |language=zh |journal=Zhong Yao Cai |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=1–3 |year=2002 |pmid=12583231}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ورڇ ==
''ايلو ويرا'' کي اصل ڏکڻ-اوڀر [[عربستاني اپٻيٽ]] جي اتر-اوڀر [[عمان]] ۾ واقع [[حجر جبلن]] ۽ [[گڏيل عرب امارات]] جي اوڀرئين حصي جو مقامي ٻوٽو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=http://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |access-date=2020-12-07 |website=wcsp.science.kew.org |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101093147/https://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WCSP_298116&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=''Aloe vera'' |work=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=http://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |access-date=19 November 2017 |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101093147/https://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

بهرحال، هن ٻوٽي جي دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي پوک ڪئي وئي آهي، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ اهو [[اتر آفريڪا]]، [[سوڊان]] ۽ ان جي پاڙيسري ملڪن، [[ڪينري ٻيٽ]]، [[ڪيپ ورڊي]] ۽ [[مڊيرا ٻيٽ]] ۾ قدرتي طور به وڌڻ لڳو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;AFPD&quot;/&gt; هي [[پورچوگال]] جي [[الگاروي]] علائقي ۾ پڻ قدرتي طور پکڙجي ويو آهي،&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/38807075.pdf |title=Exotic naturalized flora of continental Portugal – A reassessment |date=2006 |access-date=16 July 2020 |author= Domingues de Almeida, J &amp; Freitas |publisher=core.ac.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |journal=Bradleya |title=Aloe arborescens Mill. and Aloe Vera spreading in Portugal |date=2009 |author= Gideon F Smith, Estrela Figueiredo |publisher=bioone |doi=10.25223/brad.n27.2009.a4 |hdl=2263/14380 |s2cid=82872880 |hdl-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اسپين]] جي جهنگلي علائقن، خاص طور تي [[مرثيا]] واري علائقي ۾ به ملي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://caermurcia.com/jornada-tecnica-de-cultivo-ecologico-de-aloe-vera-en-murcia/ |title=Aloe Vera Cultivation in Murcia |date=9 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي نسل سترهين صديءَ دوران [[چين]] ۽ ڏکڻ [[يورپ]] جي مختلف حصن ۾ متعارف ڪرايو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;Farooqi, A. A. and Sreeramu, B. S. (2001) ''Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops''. Orient Longman, India. {{ISBN|8173712514}}. p. 25.&lt;/ref&gt; اڄڪلهه هي دنيا جي ٻين ڪيترن ئي خشڪ، نيم گرم ۽ گرم آبهوا وارن علائقن ۾ قدرتي طور ملي ٿو.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;&lt;ref name=WCSP_298116/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;kew&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:530017-1 |title=Aloe vera |date=2016 |access-date=10 August 2016 |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ٻوٽي جي موجوده عالمي ورڇ گهڻي ڀاڱي انساني پوک ۽ منتقلي جو نتيجو سمجهي وڃي ٿي.&lt;ref name=hb/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&amp;taxon_id=200027555 &quot;Aloe vera (Linnaeus) Burman f., Fl. Indica. 83. 1768.&quot;] in ''Flora of North America'' Vol. 26, p. 411&lt;/ref&gt;

== پوک ۽ سنڀال ==
[[File:Aloe vera A.jpg|thumb|right|آرائشي ٻوٽي طور]]
&lt;!-- تصوير ۾ اصل ۾ Aloe maculata ڏيکاريل آهي، نه Aloe vera
[[File:Aloevera-mite.jpg|thumb|right|جُوئن جي حملي سان متاثر ٿيل ايلو ويرا]]
--&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' کي سڄي دنيا ۾ وڏي پيماني تي آرائشي ٻوٽي طور پوکيو وڃي ٿو. هي ٻوٽو جديد باغباني ۾ پنهنجي دوائن واري استعمال،&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; خوبصورت گلن، منفرد بناوت ۽ رس ڀريل پنن سبب گهڻو پسند ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان جي رس ڀريل طبيعت (succulence) سبب هي گهٽ برسات وارن علائقن ۾ به آسانيءَ سان زنده رهي سگهي ٿو، تنهنڪري پٿرن وارن باغن ۽ گهٽ پاڻي گهرندڙ باغن لاءِ هڪ موزون ٻوٽو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;/&gt; هي نسل [[سختي جا علائقا|سختي جي علائقن]] 8 کان 11 تائين سٺي نموني وڌي سگهي ٿو، پر سخت پالي ۽ برف کي برداشت نٿو ڪري سگهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/gardening/plants/plant_finder/plant_pages/7686.shtml |title=BBC Gardening, ''Aloe vera'' |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=11 July 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي ٻوٽو گهڻن ئي جيت جڻين کان محفوظ رهندو آهي، پر [[مڪڙيءَ جي جُوءِ]]، [[ميلي بگ]]، [[اسڪيل جيت]] ۽ [[ماڪڙيون (ايفڊ)|ايفڊ]] جهڙا جيت ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جي واڌ ويجهه ۽ صحت کي متاثر ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/ento/a-myersi.html |title=Pest Alert: ''Aloe vera'' aphid ''Aloephagus myersi'' Essi. |publisher=Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services |access-date=11 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612155315/http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/ento/a-myersi.html |archive-date=12 June 2008 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mobot.org/gardeninghelp/PlantFinder/plant.asp?code=B628 |title=Kemper Center for Home Gardening: ''Aloe vera'' |publisher=Missouri Botanic Gardens |access-date=11 July 2008 |archive-date=27 May 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050527084103/http://www.mobot.org/gardeninghelp/PlantFinder/plant.asp?code=B628 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ٻوٽي کي [[رائل هارٽيڪلچرل سوسائٽي]] پاران [[گارڊن ميرٽ ايوارڊ]] پڻ ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/981/Aloe-vera/Details |title=RHS Plant Selector ''Aloe vera'' AGM / RHS Gardening |publisher=Apps.rhs.org.uk |access-date=9 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گملي ۾ پوکڻ وقت سٺي پاڻي نيڪال واري واريالي مٽي ۽ روشن، سج واري جڳهه ضروري آهي. گهڻي سڌي سج جي روشني سبب پن ڳاڙها ٿي سگهن ٿا، پر آهستي آهستي سج سان هم آهنگ ڪرڻ سان اهو مسئلو گهٽجي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Peerless |first1=Veronica |title=How Not to Kill Your Houseplant |date=2017 |publisher=DK Penguin Random House |pages=38–39}}&lt;/ref&gt; واپار ۾ ملندڙ ڪيڪٽس ۽ رس ڀرين ٻوٽن واري مٽي (''cacti and succulent mix'') هن ٻوٽي لاءِ مناسب هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها پاڻي جي نيڪال کي بهتر بڻائي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;GA&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/stories/s2280641.htm |title=Fact Sheet: ''Aloes'' |author=Coleby-Williams, J |date=21 June 2008 |publisher=Gardening Australia, Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=8 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706224700/http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/stories/s2280641.htm |archive-date=6 July 2008 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; مٽيءَ جا گملا وڌيڪ موزون سمجهيا وڃن ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي هوا ۽ نمي جي بهتر مٽاسٽا ڪن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;GA&quot;/&gt;

گملن ۾ پوکيل ٻوٽن کي ٻيهر پاڻي ڏيڻ کان اڳ مٽي مڪمل سڪي وڃڻ گهرجي. وقت سان گڏ ماءُ واري ٻوٽي جي چوڌاري ننڍا ٻوٽا (''پَپ'' يا شاخون) نڪرندا آهن. جيڪڏهن اهي گهڻا ٿي وڃن ته انهن کي ڌار ڪري نون گملن ۾ پوکي سگهجي ٿو، يا ماءُ واري ٻوٽي سان گڏ وڌڻ ڏنو وڃي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;/&gt; سياري ۾ ''ايلو ويرا'' اڪثر غيرفعال (Dormant) حالت ۾ هليو ويندو آهي، جنهن دوران ان کي تمام گهٽ پاڻي جي ضرورت هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;/&gt; جتي سخت پالو يا برفباري ٿيندي هجي، اتي هن ٻوٽي کي گهر اندر يا گرم شيشي جي گهر (گرين هائوس) ۾ رکڻ مناسب هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;/&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جي وڏي پيماني تي زرعي پوک [[آسٽريليا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2005/12/06/1524745.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120716111516/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2005/12/06/1524745.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 July 2012 |title=''Aloe vera'' producer signs $3m China deal |newspaper=ABC News |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |date=6 December 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪيوبا]]، [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريه]]، [[چين]]، [[ميڪسيڪو]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.dominicantoday.com/dr/economy/2006/7/7/15337/Korea-interested-in-Dominican-aloe-vera |title=Korea interested in Dominican 'aloe vera' |publisher=DominicanToday.com |date=7 July 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206062244/http://www.dominicantoday.com/dr/economy/2006/7/7/15337/Korea-interested-in-Dominican-aloe-vera |archive-date=6 December 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڀارت]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.wildsingapore.com/news/20051112/051211-1.htm |title=India experiments with farming medicinal plants |publisher=channelnewsasia.com |author=Varma, Vaibhav |date=11 December 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[جميڪا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20080117/eyes/eyes1.html |title=Harnessing the potential of our aloe |publisher=Jamaica Gleaner |access-date=19 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080324210301/http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20080117/eyes/eyes1.html |archive-date=24 March 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪينيا]]، [[تنزانيا]]، [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200708020872.html |title=Kenya: Imported Gel Hurts Aloe Vera Market |publisher=allafrica.com |author=Mburu, Solomon |date=2 August 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[اسپين]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=23 August 2015 |title=Córdoba is the Spanish province with more aloe vera crops (translated from Spanish) |url=http://sevilla.abc.es/andalucia/cordoba/20150824/sevi-aloe-vera-cordoba-201508232056.html |publisher=ABC-Córdoba}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون]] ۾ ڪئي وڃي ٿي،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.resourceinvestor.com/pebble.asp?relid=38588 |title=US Farms, Inc. – A Different Kind of Natural Resource Company |publisher=resourceinvestor.com |access-date=19 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917125506/http://www.resourceinvestor.com/pebble.asp?relid=38588 |archive-date=17 September 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ ان جي پيداوار جو وڏو حصو سينگار جي شين  جي صنعت ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;

==استعمال==
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي '' مان ٻه بنيادي مادا حاصل ڪيا ويندا آهن: هڪ شفاف [[جيل]] ۽ ٻيو پيلو [[ليٽڪس]]. انهن ٻنهي مان مختلف تجارتي شيون تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; ايلو ويرا جو جيل عام طور چمڙي تي لڳائڻ وارين دوائن ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ساڙ، زخم، ٿڌ جي ڪري ٿيندڙ چمڙي جي نقصان، [[چمڙي جي ريش]]، [[سورائسس]]، [[لبن جو هرپس]] (ٿڌ جا ڦٽا) ۽ خشڪ چمڙي جي علاج لاءِ.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; ڪنوار ٻوٽي جو ليٽڪس الڳ يا ٻين جزن سان گڏ اهڙي شين ۾ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي [[قبض]] کان آرام لاءِ وات ذريعي استعمال ڪيون وڃن.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; ليٽڪس کي خشڪ ڪري ''رال'' يا ''خشڪ ايلو رس'' جي صورت ۾ پڻ تيار ڪيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;EMA-ar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/herbal-report/final-assessment-report-aloe-barbadensis-mill-aloe-various-species-mainly-aloe-ferox-mill-its_en.pdf |title=Assessment report on ''Aloe barbadensis'' Mill. and on Aloe (various species, mainly ''Aloe ferox'' Mill. and its hybrids), folii succus siccatus |publisher=European Medicines Agency|date=22 November 2016|access-date=29 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تحقيقي مطالعي مان اڃا تائين اهو واضح ثابت نه ٿي سگهيو آهي ته ''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' زخم يا ساڙ جي علاج ۾ يقيني طور اثرائتو آهي يا نه.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; بهرحال، چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ [[سورائسس]]، [[مهاندا]] يا چمڙي جي ريش جهڙين حالتن جون علامتون گهٽجي سگهن ٿيون،&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; جڏهن ته ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ ان سان [[الرجي]] به ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جو جيل واپاري طور [[ڏهي]]، مشروبات ۽ ڪجهه مٺاڻن ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Reynolds&quot;/&gt; پر ليٽڪس يا سڄي پن مان تيار ڪيل عرق کي وڏي مقدار ۾ يا گهڻي عرصي تائين استعمال ڪرڻ زهريلو ثابت ٿي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt; چمڙي تي ٿوري مقدار ۾ استعمال عام طور محفوظ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt;

===چمڙي تي استعمال ۽ ممڪن ضمني اثر===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' کي [[لوشن]]، [[جيل]]، صابڻ يا چمڙي جي سينگار وارين شين جي صورت ۾ تيار ڪري چمڙي تي لڳايو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt; ان جي جيل جو تيزابيت وارو درجو (pH) تقريباً 4.4 کان 4.7 هوندو آهي،&lt;ref name=guo/&gt; جيڪو ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان هلڪي ساڙ، جلن يا [[ريش]] جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;

جن ماڻهن کي ''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' سان [[الرجي]] هجي، انهن ۾ چمڙي جي سوزش، هلڪي ڳاڙهاڻ، خارش، ساهه کڻڻ ۾ تڪليف يا چهري، چپن، زبان يا ڳلي جي سُوجهه جهڙا ردِعمل ظاهر ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt;

===غذائي اضافو===
[[File:Aloin_structure.png|thumb|right|ايلوئن]]
[[ايلوئن]]، جيڪو ''ايلو'' جي ڪجهه نسلن جي نيم سيال ليٽڪس ۾ موجود هڪ تمام ڪڙو مرڪب آهي، 2002ع تائين آمريڪا ۾ بغير نسخي جي وڪرو ٿيندڙ قبض ختم ڪرڻ وارين دوائن ۾ عام جزو طور استعمال ٿيندو هو. بعد ۾ [[آمريڪي خوراڪ ۽ دوائن واري اداري]] (FDA) ان جي استعمال تي پابندي لڳائي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٺاهيندڙ ڪمپنيون ان جي حفاظت بابت گهربل سائنسي ثبوت مهيا نه ڪري سگهيون.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title = Status of certain additional over-the-counter drug category II and III active ingredients. Final rule |journal = Fed Regist |volume = 67 |issue = 90 |pages = 31125–7 |year = 2002 |pmid = 12001972 |last1 = Food Drug Administration |first1 = HHS|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2002-05-09/pdf/02-11510.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' ۽ ان جا الڪوحلي عرق ڪجهه مقدار کان وڌيڪ استعمال ڪرڻ سان زهريلا اثر پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا، جيڪي چمڙي تي لڳائڻ يا وات ذريعي استعمال ٻنهي صورتن ۾ ظاهر ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt; جيتوڻيڪ تياري دوران ايلوئن ڪڍي ڇڏڻ سان زهريت گهٽجي سگهي ٿي، پر وڏي مقدار ۾ استعمال ڪرڻ سان پيٽ جو سور، دست يا [[هيپاٽائٽس]] جهڙا اثر پيدا ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Bottenberg MM, Wall GC, Harvey RL, Habib S 2007 1740–3&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors = Bottenberg MM, Wall GC, Harvey RL, Habib S |title = Oral aloe vera-induced hepatitis |journal = Ann Pharmacother |volume = 41 |issue = 10 |pages = 1740–3 |year = 2007 |pmid = 17726067 |doi = 10.1345/aph.1K132 |s2cid = 25553593 }}&lt;/ref&gt; ڊگهي عرصي تائين روزانو لڳ ڀڳ هڪ گرام استعمال ڪرڻ سان پيشاب ۾ رت اچڻ، وزن گهٽجڻ، دل يا گردن جا مسئلا پيدا ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جو رس هاضمي جي صحت لاءِ فائديمند هجڻ جي دعويٰ سان وڪرو ڪيو ويندو آهي، پر هن دعويٰ جي حمايت ۾ نه ڪو مضبوط سائنسي ثبوت موجود آهي ۽ نه ئي ڪنهن ضابطي واري اداري ان جي منظوري ڏني آهي.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;mayo&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements-aloe/art-20362267 |title=''Aloe'' (''Aloe vera'') |publisher=Mayo Clinic |date=17 September 2017 |access-date=21 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===روايتي طب===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' روايتي طب ۾ چمڙي جي علاج لاءِ هزارين سالن کان استعمال ٿيندو رهيو آهي. ان جي استعمال جا قديم ترين لکيل حوالا چوٿين هزارين سال [[ق م]] تائين ملن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt; ان جو ذڪر 512ع ۾ لکيل ''[[جوليانا انيشيا ڪوڊيڪس]]'' ۾ پڻ موجود آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Reynolds&quot;&gt;Reynolds, Tom (Ed.) (2004) ''Aloes: The genus Aloe (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants - Industrial Profiles''. CRC Press. {{ISBN|978-0415306720}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|9}}

===تجارتي شيون===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' چهري صاف ڪرڻ وارين ٽشوز ۾ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي، جتي ان کي نمي برقرار رکڻ ۽ نڪ جي چمڙي جي خارش گهٽائڻ واري جزو طور پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي. سينگار جي شين ٺاهيندڙ ڪمپنيون ان جو رس يا ان جا ٻيا نڪتل جزا ميڪ اپ، ٽشوز، موئسچرائزر، صابڻ، سن اسڪرين، اگربتي، شيونگ ڪريم ۽ شيمپو جهڙين شين ۾ شامل ڪنديون آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Reynolds&quot;/&gt; علمي جائزي موجب، صفائي ۽ سينگار جي ڪيترين ئي شين ۾ ان جو استعمال بنيادي طور ان جي چمڙي کي نرم ۽ نمي فراهم ڪندڙ خاصيت سبب ڪيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eshun&quot;/&gt; سينگار جي صنعت ۾ ايلو جي عرق ۾ اينٿراڪينون جي مقدار وڌ ۾ وڌ 50 پي پي ايم تائين محدود رکڻ جي سفارش ڪئي ويندي آهي.&lt;ref name=expert/&gt;

==زهريت==
وات ذريعي استعمال ڪيل ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جي اهڙي سڄي پن واري عرق کي، جنهن مان رنگ ختم نه ڪيو ويو هجي، [[ڪيليفورنيا آفيس آف انوائرنمينٽل هيلٿ هيزرڊ اسيسمينٽ]] انهن &quot;ڪيميائي مادن&quot; ۾ شامل ڪيو آهي جيڪي رياست موجب [[سرطان]] يا توليدي نظام لاءِ نقصانڪار ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.oehha.ca.gov/prop65/CRNR_notices/list_changes/120415listAloeGoldenseal.html |title=Chemicals Listed Effective December 4, 2015, as Known to the State of California to Cause Cancer: Aloe Vera, Non-Decolorized Whole Leaf Extract, and Goldenseal Root Powder |publisher=California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment |date=4 December 2015 |access-date=21 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهو خطرو غالباً ان ۾ موجود [[اينٿراڪينون]] مرڪبن جي ڪري هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;

2016ع کان وٺي، [[سرطان بابت تحقيق جي عالمي اداري]] (IARC) ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جي سڄي پن واري عرق کي انسانن لاءِ ''ممڪن سرطان پيدا ڪندڙ مادو'' (گروپ 2B) جي درجي ۾ شامل ڪيو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=IARC Monographs on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans |url=https://monographs.iarc.who.int/list-of-classifications/ |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=27 April 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

چمڙي تي ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جو استعمال عام طور تي ڪنهن اهم ضمني اثر سان لاڳاپيل نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt; پر وات ذريعي ان جو استعمال ممڪن طور زهريلو ٿي سگهي ٿو،&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt; ۽ ان سان [[پيٽ ۾ سور]]، [[پيٽ جا اينٺ]] ۽ [[دست]] ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪي وري ٻين دوائن جي جسم ۾ جذب ٿيڻ جي صلاحيت کي گهٽائي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;

===نسخي وارين دوائن سان تعامل===
وات ذريعي استعمال ٿيندڙ ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جون شيون ڪجهه نسخي وارين دوائن سان نقصانڪار [[دوائن جو تعامل|تعامل]] پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿيون، جهڙوڪ [[رت جا دڳ جمن]] جي علاج، [[شگر جي بيماري]]، [[دل جي بيماري]]، [[پوٽاشيم]] گهٽائيندڙ دوائون (مثال طور [[ڊيجوڪسن]]) ۽ [[پيشاب آور دوائون]] سميت ٻين دوائن سان.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt;

==تصويرون==
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;140px&quot;&gt;
File:Aloe vera leaf showing the gel (1).JPG|پن ۽ ان جي اندر موجود جيل
File:Aloe vera gel.jpg|[[مٺاڻ]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جو جيل
File:Es Lidah Buaya.JPG|''ايس لِداه بُوايا''، انڊونيشيا جو ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) سان تيار ڪيل ٿڌو مشروب
File:Gelaloevera.JPG|ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جو رس
File:Cut Aloe Vera Leaf.jpg|ڪٽيل پن
File:Aloe vera cut leaf drawing1.jpg|پن جو خاڪو: 1. ڪيوٽيڪل، 2. ڪلوروفل وارو پيرينڪائما، 3. اندريون بافتو، 4. نسن جا بنڊل
File:Aloe Vera Buds.jpg|گلن جون ڪليون
File:Aloe Vera flower.jpg|گلن جون ڪليون
File:Aloe vera flower 2.jpg|گل
File:AloeBluhendD2.JPG|مختلف ماپن جا ٻوٽا
File:A potted aloe vera plant.jpg|گملي ۾ پوکيل ايلو ويرا
File:Aloe plant bud.jpg|[[بنيادي شاخون (روٽ اسپرائوٽس)]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}


[[زمرو:ٻوٽا]]</text>
      <sha1>9sq4aw2s3a25n35g24ps55fibuioeba</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399345</id>
      <parentid>399344</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T22:44:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399345</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="43175" sha1="hf8u75ofjyr4r9m7o2lh4ap12zd8aa5" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|ٻوٽي جي قسم}}


{{Speciesbox
| taxon = Aloe vera
| image = Aloe_vera_flower_inset.png
| image_upright = 1.2
| image_caption = ٻوٽو، گل جي ويجهي تصوير سان
| authority = ([[ڪارل لنيئس|L.]]) [[نيڪولاس لارنس برمن|Burm.f.]]
| synonyms =
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' &lt;small&gt;Mill.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;Haw.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe elongata'' &lt;small&gt;Murray&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe flava'' &lt;small&gt;Pers.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe indica'' &lt;small&gt;Royle&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Tod.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe maculata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe perfoliata'' var. ''vera'' &lt;small&gt;L.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe rubescens'' &lt;small&gt;DC.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe variegata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe vera'' &lt;small&gt;Mill. (غير جائز)&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) A. Berger&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''littoralis'' &lt;small&gt;J.Koenig ex Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vulgaris'' &lt;small&gt;Lam.&lt;/small&gt;
| synonyms_ref = &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/18403421?tab=synonyms Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.] Tropicos.org&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WFO&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=''Aloe vera'' L. Burm.f. Fl. Indica : 83 (1768) |url=http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000758976 |website=World Flora Online |date=2022 |publisher=World Flora Consortium |access-date=16 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

'''ڪنوار ٻوٽي: انگريزي ۾ ايلو ويرا '''  '''''Aloe vera''''''
جنهن کي سنڌيءَ ۾ '''پَٽِ ڪُنوار'''،  يا '''ايريال''' پڻ چيو وڃي ٿو، [[رسدار ٻوٽو|رسدار ٻوٽن]] جي [[قسم (حياتيات)|قسم]] مان آهي ۽ [[ايلو]] (''Aloe'') [[جنس (حياتيات)|جنس]] سان تعلق رکي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/4192 |title=Aloe vera (true aloe) |date=13 February 2019 |publisher=[[سينٽر فار ايگريڪلچر اينڊ بايو سائنس انٽرنيشنل]] |access-date=15 October 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي ٻوٽو دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي پکڙيل آهي، ۽ ڪيترن هنڌن تي ان کي [[دخل انداز قسم]] پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Aloe |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/aloe.html |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=8 June 2026 |date=19 November 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي هڪ [[سدابهار]] ۽ [[گهڻ سالي ٻوٽو]] آهي، جنهن جو اصل وطن [[جزيرو نما عربستان]] آهي، پر اهو دنيا جي ٻين گرم، نيم گرم ۽ خشڪ علائقن ۾ به جهنگلي حالت ۾ وڌندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt; ان جي تجارتي پوک پڻ ڪئي ويندي آهي، ۽ صدين کان ان کي چمڙي تي لڳائڻ واري [[مقامي دوا]] طور استعمال ڪيو ويندو رهيو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt; هي ٻوٽو سينگار لاءِ پڻ مشهور آهي ۽ گهڻو ڪري گهرن اندر [[گملي]] ۾ پوکيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://homeguides.sfgate.com/aloe-tropical-plant-67510.html |website=[[ايس ايف گيٽ]] |last=Perkins |first=Cyndi |title=Is Aloe a tropical plant? |date=13 March 2013 |access-date=13 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''Aloe vera'' جي پنن ۾ [[پوليسيڪرائڊ]] قسم جو جيل '''[[ايسيمينن]]''' (Acemannan) وڏي مقدار ۾ موجود هوندو آهي، جيڪو چمڙي تي لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Chang |last2=Cui |first2=Yan |last3=Pi |first3=Fuwei |last4=Cheng |first4=Yuliang |last5=Guo |first5=Yahui |last6=Qian |first6=He |date=2019-04-19 |title=Extraction, Purification, Structural Characteristics, Biological Activities and Pharmacological Applications of Acemannan, a Polysaccharide from Aloe vera: A Review |journal=Molecules |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=1554 |doi=10.3390/molecules24081554 |pmc=6515206 |pmid=31010204 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; پنن ۾ '''[[ايلوئن]]''' (Aloin) نالي هڪ زهريلو مرڪب پڻ موجود هوندو آهي. تجارتي ''Aloe vera'' جون گهڻيون شيون هن جيل مان تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن.

''Aloe vera'' مان حاصل ٿيندڙ ايسيمينن تي ٻڌل جيل چمڙي جي لوشنن، [[سينگار جو سامان|سينگار جي شين]]، مرهمن ۽ جيلن ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور تي معمولي سڙڻ، چمڙي جي هلڪي ڇلن، جيتن جي چڪ ۽ هوا سبب چمڙي جي جلن جي علاج لاءِ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Surjushe |first1=Amar |last2=Vasani |first2=Resham |last3=Saple |first3=D G |date=2008 |title=Aloe vera: A short review |journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=163–166 |doi=10.4103/0019-5154.44785 |pmc=2763764 |pmid=19882025 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''ايلو ويرا '' جي عرق کي وات ذريعي استعمال ڪرڻ سان تيز پيٽ جو سور، اينٺون ۽ ڊگهي عرصي تائين استعمال جي صورت ۾ [[هيپاٽائٽس]] ٿي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/aloe-vera |title=Aloe vera |publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health |date=1 February 2025 |access-date=8 June 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; حمل دوران ان جو استعمال نه ڪرڻ گهرجي. ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان [[الرجي]] پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;

ھي ٻُوٽو آهي جيڪو، [[سنڌ]]، [[پاڪستان]] توڙي سڄي دنيا ۾ ٿئي ٿو جنهن جي ڪٽنب ۾ ڪيترائي نمونا ٿين ٿا جن جا سائنسي نالا پڻ مختلف ٿين ٿا. هن ٻوٽي جا پن اڪثر سائي رنگ جا ٿيندا آهن پر ڪن ملڪن ۾ ڳاڙهي رنگ جا ٻہ ٿيندا آهن. هن جا پن ٻاهر بجاءِ اندر وڪوڙيل ٿيندا آهن جنهن ڪري شايد سنڌي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪنوار ٻوٽي سڏيو ويو آهي. هيءُ ٻوٽو اڪثر جبلن ۾ ٿئي ٿو پر هٿرادو طور بہ پوکيو ويندو آهي. هن ٻوٽي جي پنن ۾ کير نما رس ٿيندي آهي جيڪا دوا طور ڪم ايندي آهي. هن ٻوٽي کي [[اٺ]] ۽ [[ٻڪري]] شوق سان کائيندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://worldofsucculents.com/aloe-perfoliata-rubble-aloe-mitre-aloe/|title=Aloe perfoliata (Mitre Aloe)|date=2014-03-09|website=World of Succulents|language=en-US|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/Catalogue/History/Book21/Book_page6.html|title=Sindhi Adabi Board Online Library (History)|website=www.sindhiadabiboard.org|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Aloe Vera.jpg|thumb|ڪنوار ٻوٽي]]

ھي ھڪ جهنگلي ٻوٽو آھي، ان ۾ رڳو ڊگها پن وارا ڦڙها ٿين ٿا، پنن جا پاسا ڪنڊن وارا ٿين. طبي لحاظ کان ايريال يا  ڪنوار ٻوٽي ڪيترين بيمارين کي فائدو پھچائي ٿو. سخت سوڄ تي ايريال جا ڦڙها چيري، گرم ڪري، هئڊ مکي، ٻڌندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=ايريال : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt; |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |accessdate=2024-05-30 |archive-date=2024-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240531181831/https://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |dead-url=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== نالي جي بڻ ==
[[File:Aloe Vera houseplant.jpg|thumb|پنن جي ڪنارن تي ڏند جهڙا ڪنڊا]]

[[جنس (حياتيات)|جنس]] ''[[ايلو]]'' (''Aloe'') جو نالو [[عربي ٻولي|عربي]] لفظ ''الُوَّه'' (''alloeh'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي &quot;ڪڙو ۽ چمڪندڙ مادو&quot;، يا وري [[عبراني ٻولي|عبراني]] {{lang|he|אוהלים}} ''اھالم'' (واحد: {{lang|he|אוהל}} ''اھل'') مان ورتل آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;oed&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/aloe |title=Aloe |last1=Harper |first1=Douglas |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=1 July 2021 |date=2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;guo&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Xiaoqing |last2=Mei |first2=Nan |title=Aloe vera: A review of toxicity and adverse clinical effects |journal=J Environ Sci Health C Environ Carcinog Ecotoxicol Rev |date=2 April 2016 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=77–96 |doi=10.1080/10590501.2016.1166826 |pmid=26986231 |pmc=6349368 |bibcode=2016JESHC..34...77G}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.balashon.com/2008/03/aloe.html |title=Aloe |last1=Curwin |first1=David |date=16 March 2008 |website=Balashon - Hebrew Language Detective |access-date=16 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[نوعي لقب]] ''ويرا'' لاطيني لفظ ''ويرس'' مان ورتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي &quot;حقيقي&quot; يا &quot;اصلي&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;guo&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=verus |title=vērus |last1=Lewis |first1=Charlton T. |last2=Short |first2=Charles |dictionary=A Latin Dictionary |publisher=Perseus Digital Library |date=1879}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== عام نالا ===
هن ٻوٽي جا عام نالا گهڻو ڪري ان جي ورڇ يا علائقي جي نسبت سان رکيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ ''چيني ايلو''، ''ڪيپ ايلو'' ۽ ''[[بارباڊوس]] ايلو''.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Liao Z, Chen M, Tan F, Sun X, Tang K |year=2004 |title=Micropropagation of endangered Chinese aloe |journal=Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=83–86 |doi=10.1023/A:1025868515705 |s2cid=41623664}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;expert&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel |title=Final Report on the Safety Assessment of Aloe Andongensis Extract, Aloe Andongensis Leaf Juice, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Extract, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Juice, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Protoplasts, Aloe Barbadensis Flower Extract, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Extract, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Juice, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Polysaccharides, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Water, Aloe Ferox Leaf Extract, Aloe Ferox Leaf Juice, and Aloe Ferox Leaf Juice Extract |journal=International Journal of Toxicology |volume=26 |issue=Suppl 2 |pages=1–50 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/10915810701351186 |year=2007 |pmid=17613130 |doi=10.1080/10915810701351186 |s2cid=86018076}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== درجابندي ===
هن قسم جا ڪيترائي [[هم معنيٰ نالا (حياتياتي درجابندي)|هم معنيٰ سائنسي نالا]] آهن، جن ۾ ''ايلو بارباڊينس'' مل.، ''ايلو انڊيڪا'' رايل، ''ايلو پرفوليئاٽا'' var. ''ويرا'' ايل. ۽ ''ايلو ولگرس'' لام. شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;WFO&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AFPD&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa/details.php?langue=an&amp;id=155971 |title=''Aloe vera'', African flowering plants database |publisher=Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève |access-date=19 November 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Aloe%20vera |title=Taxon: Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. |publisher=Germplasm Resources Information Network, United States Department of Agriculture |access-date=16 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924131123/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Aloe%20vera |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪجهه علمي حوالن ۾ اڇن داغن واري صورت کي ''ايلو ويرا'' var. ''چائنينسس'' سڏيو ويو آهي،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Wang H, Li F, Wang T, Li J, Li J, Yang X, Li J |title=[Determination of aloin content in callus of Aloe vera var. chinensis] |language=zh |journal=Zhong Yao Cai |volume=27 |issue=9 |pages=627–628 |year=2004 |pmid=15704580}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Gao W, Xiao P |title=[Peroxidase and soluble protein in the leaves of Aloe vera L. var. chinensis (Haw.) Berger] |language=zh |journal=Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi |volume=22 |issue=11 |pages=653–654, 702 |year=1997 |pmid=11243179}}&lt;/ref&gt; جڏهن ته داغدار صورت کي ''اي. مساوانا'' سان هڪ ئي قسم سمجهيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;hb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://huntingtonbotanical.org/Desert/Cholla/feb06/feb06.htm |title=The Definitive ''Aloe vera'', vera? |author=Lyons G |publisher=Huntington Botanic Gardens |access-date=11 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725090154/http://www.huntingtonbotanical.org/Desert/Cholla/feb06/feb06.htm |archive-date=25 July 2008 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هن قسم کي پهريون ڀيرو [[ڪارل لنيئس]] 1753ع ۾ ''ايلو پرفوليئاٽا'' var. ''ويرا'' جي نالي سان بيان ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;لنيئيوس, ڪارل (1753). ''اسپيشيز plantarum''. Vol. 2.&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ 6 اپريل 1768ع تي [[نيڪولاس لارنس برمن]] پنهنجي ڪتاب ''فلورا انڊڪا'' ۾ ان کي ''ايلو ويرا'' نالو ڏنو، جڏهن ته لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه ڏينهن پوءِ [[فلپ ملر]] ان کي ''ايلو بارباڊينسس'' جي نالي سان بيان ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Newton LE |year=1979 |title=In defense of the name ''Aloe vera'' |journal=The Cactus and Succulent Journal of Great Britain |volume=41 |pages=29–30}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[ڊي اين اي]] جي ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو آهي ته ''ايلو ويرا'' جو ويجهو تعلق ''[[ايلو پيريائي ]]'' سان آهي، جيڪا [[يمن]] جي مقامي قسم آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Darokar MP, Rai R, Gupta AK, Shasany AK, Rajkumar S, Sunderasan V, Khanuja SP |year=2003 |title=Molecular assessment of germplasm diversity in ''Aloe'' spp. using RAPD and AFLP analysis |journal=J. Med. Arom. Plant Sci. |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=354–361}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪلوروپلاسٽ]] ڊي اين اي ۽ [[مائڪروسيٽلائيٽ]] جي تجزين مان اهو پڻ ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته هن جو ويجهو تعلق ''[[ايلو فوربيسي]]''، ''[[ايلو اِنرمِس]]''، ''[[ايلو اسڪوبينيفوليا]]''، ''[[ايلو سنڪاٽان]]'' ۽ ''[[ايلو اسٽرياٽا]]'' سان پڻ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Treutlein&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Treutlein J, Smith GF, van Wyk BE, Wink W |year=2003 |title=Phylogenetic relationships in Asphodelaceae (Alooideae) inferred from chloroplast DNA sequences (rbcL, matK) and from genomic fingerprinting (ISSR) |journal=Taxon |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=193–207 |doi=10.2307/3647389 |jstor=3647389}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''A. striata'' کان سواءِ اهي سڀئي قسم [[سقطرى]] (يمن)، صوماليا ۽ سوڊان جا مقامي ٻوٽا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Treutlein&quot;/&gt;

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪنوار ٻوٽي يا''ايلو ويرا'' جون قدرتي جهنگلي آباديون واضح طور سڃاتل نه آهن، تنهنڪري ڪجهه نباتات دانن جو خيال آهي ته هي قسم شايد [[هائبرڊ]] اصل رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;Jones WD, Sacamano C. (2000). ''Landscape Plants for Dry Regions''. California Bill's Automotive Publishers.&lt;/ref&gt;

== وضاحت ==
[[File:Aloe Vera.jpg|thumb|right|اڇن داغن واري صورت، جنهن کي ''Aloe vera'' var. ''chinensis'' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي]]
[[File:Acta Eruditorum - IV botanica, 1688 – BEIC 13396043.jpg|thumb|1688ع ۾ [[ايڪٽا ايروڊيٽورم]] ۾ شايع ٿيل تاريخي تصوير]]

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' هڪ بي ٿڙ يا تمام ننڍي ٿڙ وارو ٻوٽو آهي، جيڪو عام طور تي {{convert|60-100|cm|in|abbr=off}} اوچو ٿيندو آهي ۽ [[آفسيٽ (نباتيات)|آفسيٽن]] (پاڙ وٽان نڪرندڙ ننڍن ٻوٽن) ذريعي پکڙجندو آهي.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;

=== پن ===
هن جا پن ٿلها، گوشتائتا، سائي کان سرمائي-سائي رنگ جا هوندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪجهه قسمن جي پنن جي مٿئين ۽ هيٺئين سطح تي اڇا داغ به هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;&gt;Yates A. (2002) ''Yates Garden Guide''. Harper Collins Australia&lt;/ref&gt; پنن جا ڪنارا [[پنن جا ڪنارا|ڏنديدار]] هوندا آهن ۽ انهن تي ننڍڙا اڇا ڪنڊا موجود هوندا آهن.

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جي پنن ۾ ڪيترائي [[فائٽوڪيميڪل]] مرڪب موجود هوندا آهن، جن تي ممڪن حياتياتي اثرن بابت تحقيق جاري آهي. انهن ۾ [[لگنن]]، [[فائٽواسٽرول]]، [[پولي فينول]]، ايسيٽائيليٽيڊ [[مينن]]، پولي مينن، [[اينٿراڪينون]]، سي-[[گلائيڪوسائيڊ]]، [[اينٿرون]]، ۽ ٻيا اينٿراڪينون جهڙوڪ [[ايموڊن]]، گڏوگڏ مختلف [[ليڪٽن]] شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;King&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=King GK, Yates KM, Greenlee PG, Pierce KR, Ford CR, McAnalley BH, Tizard IR |title=The effect of Acemannan Immunostimulant in combination with surgery and radiation therapy on spontaneous canine and feline fibrosarcomas |journal=J Am Anim Hosp Assoc |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=439–447 |year=1995 |pmid=8542364 |doi=10.5326/15473317-31-5-439}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Eshun&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Eshun K, He Q |title=Aloe vera: a valuable ingredient for the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries—a review |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=91–96 |year=2004 |pmid=15116756 |doi=10.1080/10408690490424694 |s2cid=21241302}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گل ===
هن ٻوٽي جا گل اونهاري جي موسم ۾ لڳندا آهن. گلن جو خوشو {{convert|90|cm|in|abbr=on}} تائين اوچو ٿي سگهي ٿو. هر گل هيٺ لڙڪندڙ هوندو آهي ۽ ان جي [[گل ڇلر]] (Corolla) نلي نما، پيلي رنگ جي ۽ {{convert|2-3|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} ڊگهي هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;&gt;{{cite book |date=2001 |title=Botanica's Pocket Gardening Encyclopedia for Australian Gardeners |publisher=Random House Publishers |isbn=9781740514347}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== پاڙون ===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' ٻين ''ايلو'' قسمن وانگر [[آربسڪيولر مائيڪورائزا]] ٺاهي ٿو، جيڪا پاڙن ۽ [[فنگس]] جي وچ ۾ هڪ [[هم زيستي]] تعلق آهي. ان جي ذريعي ٻوٽي کي مٽي مان معدني غذائي جزا وڌيڪ مؤثر نموني حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ مدد ملي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Gong M. |author2=Wang F. |author3=Chen Y |title=[Study on application of arbuscular-mycorrhizas in growing seedlings of Aloe vera] |language=zh |journal=Zhong Yao Cai |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=1–3 |year=2002 |pmid=12583231}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ورڇ ==
''ايلو ويرا'' کي اصل ڏکڻ-اوڀر [[عربستاني اپٻيٽ]] جي اتر-اوڀر [[عمان]] ۾ واقع [[حجر جبلن]] ۽ [[گڏيل عرب امارات]] جي اوڀرئين حصي جو مقامي ٻوٽو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=http://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |access-date=2020-12-07 |website=wcsp.science.kew.org |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101093147/https://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WCSP_298116&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=''Aloe vera'' |work=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=http://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |access-date=19 November 2017 |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101093147/https://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

بهرحال، هن ٻوٽي جي دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي پوک ڪئي وئي آهي، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ اهو [[اتر آفريڪا]]، [[سوڊان]] ۽ ان جي پاڙيسري ملڪن، [[ڪينري ٻيٽ]]، [[ڪيپ ورڊي]] ۽ [[مڊيرا ٻيٽ]] ۾ قدرتي طور به وڌڻ لڳو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;AFPD&quot;/&gt; هي [[پورچوگال]] جي [[الگاروي]] علائقي ۾ پڻ قدرتي طور پکڙجي ويو آهي،&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/38807075.pdf |title=Exotic naturalized flora of continental Portugal – A reassessment |date=2006 |access-date=16 July 2020 |author= Domingues de Almeida, J &amp; Freitas |publisher=core.ac.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |journal=Bradleya |title=Aloe arborescens Mill. and Aloe Vera spreading in Portugal |date=2009 |author= Gideon F Smith, Estrela Figueiredo |publisher=bioone |doi=10.25223/brad.n27.2009.a4 |hdl=2263/14380 |s2cid=82872880 |hdl-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اسپين]] جي جهنگلي علائقن، خاص طور تي [[مرثيا]] واري علائقي ۾ به ملي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://caermurcia.com/jornada-tecnica-de-cultivo-ecologico-de-aloe-vera-en-murcia/ |title=Aloe Vera Cultivation in Murcia |date=9 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي نسل سترهين صديءَ دوران [[چين]] ۽ ڏکڻ [[يورپ]] جي مختلف حصن ۾ متعارف ڪرايو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;Farooqi, A. A. and Sreeramu, B. S. (2001) ''Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops''. Orient Longman, India. {{ISBN|8173712514}}. p. 25.&lt;/ref&gt; اڄڪلهه هي دنيا جي ٻين ڪيترن ئي خشڪ، نيم گرم ۽ گرم آبهوا وارن علائقن ۾ قدرتي طور ملي ٿو.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;&lt;ref name=WCSP_298116/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;kew&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:530017-1 |title=Aloe vera |date=2016 |access-date=10 August 2016 |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ٻوٽي جي موجوده عالمي ورڇ گهڻي ڀاڱي انساني پوک ۽ منتقلي جو نتيجو سمجهي وڃي ٿي.&lt;ref name=hb/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&amp;taxon_id=200027555 &quot;Aloe vera (Linnaeus) Burman f., Fl. Indica. 83. 1768.&quot;] in ''Flora of North America'' Vol. 26, p. 411&lt;/ref&gt;

== پوک ۽ سنڀال ==
[[File:Aloe vera A.jpg|thumb|right|آرائشي ٻوٽي طور]]
&lt;!-- تصوير ۾ اصل ۾ Aloe maculata ڏيکاريل آهي، نه Aloe vera
[[File:Aloevera-mite.jpg|thumb|right|جُوئن جي حملي سان متاثر ٿيل ايلو ويرا]]
--&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' کي سڄي دنيا ۾ وڏي پيماني تي آرائشي ٻوٽي طور پوکيو وڃي ٿو. هي ٻوٽو جديد باغباني ۾ پنهنجي دوائن واري استعمال،&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; خوبصورت گلن، منفرد بناوت ۽ رس ڀريل پنن سبب گهڻو پسند ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان جي رس ڀريل طبيعت (succulence) سبب هي گهٽ برسات وارن علائقن ۾ به آسانيءَ سان زنده رهي سگهي ٿو، تنهنڪري پٿرن وارن باغن ۽ گهٽ پاڻي گهرندڙ باغن لاءِ هڪ موزون ٻوٽو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;/&gt; هي نسل [[سختي جا علائقا|سختي جي علائقن]] 8 کان 11 تائين سٺي نموني وڌي سگهي ٿو، پر سخت پالي ۽ برف کي برداشت نٿو ڪري سگهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/gardening/plants/plant_finder/plant_pages/7686.shtml |title=BBC Gardening, ''Aloe vera'' |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=11 July 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي ٻوٽو گهڻن ئي جيت جڻين کان محفوظ رهندو آهي، پر [[مڪڙيءَ جي جُوءِ]]، [[ميلي بگ]]، [[اسڪيل جيت]] ۽ [[ماڪڙيون (ايفڊ)|ايفڊ]] جهڙا جيت ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جي واڌ ويجهه ۽ صحت کي متاثر ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/ento/a-myersi.html |title=Pest Alert: ''Aloe vera'' aphid ''Aloephagus myersi'' Essi. |publisher=Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services |access-date=11 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612155315/http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/ento/a-myersi.html |archive-date=12 June 2008 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mobot.org/gardeninghelp/PlantFinder/plant.asp?code=B628 |title=Kemper Center for Home Gardening: ''Aloe vera'' |publisher=Missouri Botanic Gardens |access-date=11 July 2008 |archive-date=27 May 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050527084103/http://www.mobot.org/gardeninghelp/PlantFinder/plant.asp?code=B628 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ٻوٽي کي [[رائل هارٽيڪلچرل سوسائٽي]] پاران [[گارڊن ميرٽ ايوارڊ]] پڻ ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/981/Aloe-vera/Details |title=RHS Plant Selector ''Aloe vera'' AGM / RHS Gardening |publisher=Apps.rhs.org.uk |access-date=9 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گملي ۾ پوکڻ وقت سٺي پاڻي نيڪال واري واريالي مٽي ۽ روشن، سج واري جڳهه ضروري آهي. گهڻي سڌي سج جي روشني سبب پن ڳاڙها ٿي سگهن ٿا، پر آهستي آهستي سج سان هم آهنگ ڪرڻ سان اهو مسئلو گهٽجي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Peerless |first1=Veronica |title=How Not to Kill Your Houseplant |date=2017 |publisher=DK Penguin Random House |pages=38–39}}&lt;/ref&gt; واپار ۾ ملندڙ ڪيڪٽس ۽ رس ڀرين ٻوٽن واري مٽي (''cacti and succulent mix'') هن ٻوٽي لاءِ مناسب هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها پاڻي جي نيڪال کي بهتر بڻائي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;GA&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/stories/s2280641.htm |title=Fact Sheet: ''Aloes'' |author=Coleby-Williams, J |date=21 June 2008 |publisher=Gardening Australia, Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=8 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706224700/http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/stories/s2280641.htm |archive-date=6 July 2008 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; مٽيءَ جا گملا وڌيڪ موزون سمجهيا وڃن ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي هوا ۽ نمي جي بهتر مٽاسٽا ڪن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;GA&quot;/&gt;

گملن ۾ پوکيل ٻوٽن کي ٻيهر پاڻي ڏيڻ کان اڳ مٽي مڪمل سڪي وڃڻ گهرجي. وقت سان گڏ ماءُ واري ٻوٽي جي چوڌاري ننڍا ٻوٽا (''پَپ'' يا شاخون) نڪرندا آهن. جيڪڏهن اهي گهڻا ٿي وڃن ته انهن کي ڌار ڪري نون گملن ۾ پوکي سگهجي ٿو، يا ماءُ واري ٻوٽي سان گڏ وڌڻ ڏنو وڃي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;/&gt; سياري ۾ ''ايلو ويرا'' اڪثر غيرفعال (Dormant) حالت ۾ هليو ويندو آهي، جنهن دوران ان کي تمام گهٽ پاڻي جي ضرورت هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;/&gt; جتي سخت پالو يا برفباري ٿيندي هجي، اتي هن ٻوٽي کي گهر اندر يا گرم شيشي جي گهر (گرين هائوس) ۾ رکڻ مناسب هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;/&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جي وڏي پيماني تي زرعي پوک [[آسٽريليا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2005/12/06/1524745.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120716111516/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2005/12/06/1524745.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 July 2012 |title=''Aloe vera'' producer signs $3m China deal |newspaper=ABC News |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |date=6 December 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪيوبا]]، [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريه]]، [[چين]]، [[ميڪسيڪو]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.dominicantoday.com/dr/economy/2006/7/7/15337/Korea-interested-in-Dominican-aloe-vera |title=Korea interested in Dominican 'aloe vera' |publisher=DominicanToday.com |date=7 July 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206062244/http://www.dominicantoday.com/dr/economy/2006/7/7/15337/Korea-interested-in-Dominican-aloe-vera |archive-date=6 December 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڀارت]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.wildsingapore.com/news/20051112/051211-1.htm |title=India experiments with farming medicinal plants |publisher=channelnewsasia.com |author=Varma, Vaibhav |date=11 December 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[جميڪا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20080117/eyes/eyes1.html |title=Harnessing the potential of our aloe |publisher=Jamaica Gleaner |access-date=19 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080324210301/http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20080117/eyes/eyes1.html |archive-date=24 March 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪينيا]]، [[تنزانيا]]، [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200708020872.html |title=Kenya: Imported Gel Hurts Aloe Vera Market |publisher=allafrica.com |author=Mburu, Solomon |date=2 August 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[اسپين]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=23 August 2015 |title=Córdoba is the Spanish province with more aloe vera crops (translated from Spanish) |url=http://sevilla.abc.es/andalucia/cordoba/20150824/sevi-aloe-vera-cordoba-201508232056.html |publisher=ABC-Córdoba}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون]] ۾ ڪئي وڃي ٿي،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.resourceinvestor.com/pebble.asp?relid=38588 |title=US Farms, Inc. – A Different Kind of Natural Resource Company |publisher=resourceinvestor.com |access-date=19 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917125506/http://www.resourceinvestor.com/pebble.asp?relid=38588 |archive-date=17 September 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ ان جي پيداوار جو وڏو حصو سينگار جي شين  جي صنعت ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;

==استعمال==
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي '' مان ٻه بنيادي مادا حاصل ڪيا ويندا آهن: هڪ شفاف [[جيل]] ۽ ٻيو پيلو [[ليٽڪس]]. انهن ٻنهي مان مختلف تجارتي شيون تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; ايلو ويرا جو جيل عام طور چمڙي تي لڳائڻ وارين دوائن ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ساڙ، زخم، ٿڌ جي ڪري ٿيندڙ چمڙي جي نقصان، [[چمڙي جي ريش]]، [[سورائسس]]، [[لبن جو هرپس]] (ٿڌ جا ڦٽا) ۽ خشڪ چمڙي جي علاج لاءِ.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; ڪنوار ٻوٽي جو ليٽڪس الڳ يا ٻين جزن سان گڏ اهڙي شين ۾ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي [[قبض]] کان آرام لاءِ وات ذريعي استعمال ڪيون وڃن.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; ليٽڪس کي خشڪ ڪري ''رال'' يا ''خشڪ ايلو رس'' جي صورت ۾ پڻ تيار ڪيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;EMA-ar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/herbal-report/final-assessment-report-aloe-barbadensis-mill-aloe-various-species-mainly-aloe-ferox-mill-its_en.pdf |title=Assessment report on ''Aloe barbadensis'' Mill. and on Aloe (various species, mainly ''Aloe ferox'' Mill. and its hybrids), folii succus siccatus |publisher=European Medicines Agency|date=22 November 2016|access-date=29 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تحقيقي مطالعي مان اڃا تائين اهو واضح ثابت نه ٿي سگهيو آهي ته ''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' زخم يا ساڙ جي علاج ۾ يقيني طور اثرائتو آهي يا نه.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; بهرحال، چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ [[سورائسس]]، [[مهاندا]] يا چمڙي جي ريش جهڙين حالتن جون علامتون گهٽجي سگهن ٿيون،&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; جڏهن ته ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ ان سان [[الرجي]] به ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جو جيل واپاري طور [[ڏهي]]، مشروبات ۽ ڪجهه مٺاڻن ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Reynolds&quot;/&gt; پر ليٽڪس يا سڄي پن مان تيار ڪيل عرق کي وڏي مقدار ۾ يا گهڻي عرصي تائين استعمال ڪرڻ زهريلو ثابت ٿي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt; چمڙي تي ٿوري مقدار ۾ استعمال عام طور محفوظ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt;

===چمڙي تي استعمال ۽ ممڪن ضمني اثر===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' کي [[لوشن]]، [[جيل]]، صابڻ يا چمڙي جي سينگار وارين شين جي صورت ۾ تيار ڪري چمڙي تي لڳايو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt; ان جي جيل جو تيزابيت وارو درجو (pH) تقريباً 4.4 کان 4.7 هوندو آهي،&lt;ref name=guo/&gt; جيڪو ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان هلڪي ساڙ، جلن يا [[ريش]] جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;

جن ماڻهن کي ''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' سان [[الرجي]] هجي، انهن ۾ چمڙي جي سوزش، هلڪي ڳاڙهاڻ، خارش، ساهه کڻڻ ۾ تڪليف يا چهري، چپن، زبان يا ڳلي جي سُوجهه جهڙا ردِعمل ظاهر ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt;

===غذائي اضافو===
[[File:Aloin_structure.png|thumb|right|ايلوئن]]
[[ايلوئن]]، جيڪو ''ايلو'' جي ڪجهه نسلن جي نيم سيال ليٽڪس ۾ موجود هڪ تمام ڪڙو مرڪب آهي، 2002ع تائين آمريڪا ۾ بغير نسخي جي وڪرو ٿيندڙ قبض ختم ڪرڻ وارين دوائن ۾ عام جزو طور استعمال ٿيندو هو. بعد ۾ [[آمريڪي خوراڪ ۽ دوائن واري اداري]] (FDA) ان جي استعمال تي پابندي لڳائي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٺاهيندڙ ڪمپنيون ان جي حفاظت بابت گهربل سائنسي ثبوت مهيا نه ڪري سگهيون.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title = Status of certain additional over-the-counter drug category II and III active ingredients. Final rule |journal = Fed Regist |volume = 67 |issue = 90 |pages = 31125–7 |year = 2002 |pmid = 12001972 |last1 = Food Drug Administration |first1 = HHS|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2002-05-09/pdf/02-11510.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' ۽ ان جا الڪوحلي عرق ڪجهه مقدار کان وڌيڪ استعمال ڪرڻ سان زهريلا اثر پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا، جيڪي چمڙي تي لڳائڻ يا وات ذريعي استعمال ٻنهي صورتن ۾ ظاهر ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt; جيتوڻيڪ تياري دوران ايلوئن ڪڍي ڇڏڻ سان زهريت گهٽجي سگهي ٿي، پر وڏي مقدار ۾ استعمال ڪرڻ سان پيٽ جو سور، دست يا [[هيپاٽائٽس]] جهڙا اثر پيدا ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Bottenberg MM, Wall GC, Harvey RL, Habib S 2007 1740–3&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors = Bottenberg MM, Wall GC, Harvey RL, Habib S |title = Oral aloe vera-induced hepatitis |journal = Ann Pharmacother |volume = 41 |issue = 10 |pages = 1740–3 |year = 2007 |pmid = 17726067 |doi = 10.1345/aph.1K132 |s2cid = 25553593 }}&lt;/ref&gt; ڊگهي عرصي تائين روزانو لڳ ڀڳ هڪ گرام استعمال ڪرڻ سان پيشاب ۾ رت اچڻ، وزن گهٽجڻ، دل يا گردن جا مسئلا پيدا ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جو رس هاضمي جي صحت لاءِ فائديمند هجڻ جي دعويٰ سان وڪرو ڪيو ويندو آهي، پر هن دعويٰ جي حمايت ۾ نه ڪو مضبوط سائنسي ثبوت موجود آهي ۽ نه ئي ڪنهن ضابطي واري اداري ان جي منظوري ڏني آهي.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;mayo&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements-aloe/art-20362267 |title=''Aloe'' (''Aloe vera'') |publisher=Mayo Clinic |date=17 September 2017 |access-date=21 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===روايتي طب===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' روايتي طب ۾ چمڙي جي علاج لاءِ هزارين سالن کان استعمال ٿيندو رهيو آهي. ان جي استعمال جا قديم ترين لکيل حوالا چوٿين هزارين سال [[ق م]] تائين ملن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt; ان جو ذڪر 512ع ۾ لکيل ''[[جوليانا انيشيا ڪوڊيڪس]]'' ۾ پڻ موجود آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Reynolds&quot;&gt;Reynolds, Tom (Ed.) (2004) ''Aloes: The genus Aloe (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants - Industrial Profiles''. CRC Press. {{ISBN|978-0415306720}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|9}}

===تجارتي شيون===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' چهري صاف ڪرڻ وارين ٽشوز ۾ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي، جتي ان کي نمي برقرار رکڻ ۽ نڪ جي چمڙي جي خارش گهٽائڻ واري جزو طور پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي. سينگار جي شين ٺاهيندڙ ڪمپنيون ان جو رس يا ان جا ٻيا نڪتل جزا ميڪ اپ، ٽشوز، موئسچرائزر، صابڻ، سن اسڪرين، اگربتي، شيونگ ڪريم ۽ شيمپو جهڙين شين ۾ شامل ڪنديون آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Reynolds&quot;/&gt; علمي جائزي موجب، صفائي ۽ سينگار جي ڪيترين ئي شين ۾ ان جو استعمال بنيادي طور ان جي چمڙي کي نرم ۽ نمي فراهم ڪندڙ خاصيت سبب ڪيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eshun&quot;/&gt; سينگار جي صنعت ۾ ايلو جي عرق ۾ اينٿراڪينون جي مقدار وڌ ۾ وڌ 50 پي پي ايم تائين محدود رکڻ جي سفارش ڪئي ويندي آهي.&lt;ref name=expert/&gt;

==زهريت==
وات ذريعي استعمال ڪيل ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جي اهڙي سڄي پن واري عرق کي، جنهن مان رنگ ختم نه ڪيو ويو هجي، [[ڪيليفورنيا آفيس آف انوائرنمينٽل هيلٿ هيزرڊ اسيسمينٽ]] انهن &quot;ڪيميائي مادن&quot; ۾ شامل ڪيو آهي جيڪي رياست موجب [[سرطان]] يا توليدي نظام لاءِ نقصانڪار ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.oehha.ca.gov/prop65/CRNR_notices/list_changes/120415listAloeGoldenseal.html |title=Chemicals Listed Effective December 4, 2015, as Known to the State of California to Cause Cancer: Aloe Vera, Non-Decolorized Whole Leaf Extract, and Goldenseal Root Powder |publisher=California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment |date=4 December 2015 |access-date=21 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهو خطرو غالباً ان ۾ موجود [[اينٿراڪينون]] مرڪبن جي ڪري هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;

2016ع کان وٺي، [[سرطان بابت تحقيق جي عالمي اداري]] (IARC) ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جي سڄي پن واري عرق کي انسانن لاءِ ''ممڪن سرطان پيدا ڪندڙ مادو'' (گروپ 2B) جي درجي ۾ شامل ڪيو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=IARC Monographs on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans |url=https://monographs.iarc.who.int/list-of-classifications/ |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=27 April 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

چمڙي تي ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جو استعمال عام طور تي ڪنهن اهم ضمني اثر سان لاڳاپيل نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt; پر وات ذريعي ان جو استعمال ممڪن طور زهريلو ٿي سگهي ٿو،&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt; ۽ ان سان [[پيٽ ۾ سور]]، [[پيٽ جا اينٺ]] ۽ [[دست]] ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪي وري ٻين دوائن جي جسم ۾ جذب ٿيڻ جي صلاحيت کي گهٽائي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;

===نسخي وارين دوائن سان تعامل===
وات ذريعي استعمال ٿيندڙ ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جون شيون ڪجهه نسخي وارين دوائن سان نقصانڪار [[دوائن جو تعامل|تعامل]] پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿيون، جهڙوڪ [[رت جا دڳ جمن]] جي علاج، [[شگر جي بيماري]]، [[دل جي بيماري]]، [[پوٽاشيم]] گهٽائيندڙ دوائون (مثال طور [[ڊيجوڪسن]]) ۽ [[پيشاب آور دوائون]] سميت ٻين دوائن سان.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt;

==تصويرون==
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;140px&quot;&gt;
File:Aloe vera leaf showing the gel (1).JPG|پن ۽ ان جي اندر موجود جيل
File:Aloe vera gel.jpg|[[مٺاڻ]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جو جيل
File:Es Lidah Buaya.JPG|''ايس لِداه بُوايا''، انڊونيشيا جو ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) سان تيار ڪيل ٿڌو مشروب
File:Gelaloevera.JPG|ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جو رس
File:Cut Aloe Vera Leaf.jpg|ڪٽيل پن
File:Aloe vera cut leaf drawing1.jpg|پن جو خاڪو: 1. ڪيوٽيڪل، 2. ڪلوروفل وارو پيرينڪائما، 3. اندريون بافتو، 4. نسن جا بنڊل
File:Aloe Vera Buds.jpg|گلن جون ڪليون
File:Aloe Vera flower.jpg|گلن جون ڪليون
File:Aloe vera flower 2.jpg|گل
File:AloeBluhendD2.JPG|مختلف ماپن جا ٻوٽا
File:A potted aloe vera plant.jpg|گملي ۾ پوکيل ايلو ويرا
File:Aloe plant bud.jpg|[[بنيادي شاخون (روٽ اسپرائوٽس)]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}

==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Commons category|Aloe vera}}

* {{cite web
 |title=ٽيڪسون: ''Aloe vera'' (L.) Burm. f.
 |url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?id=311403
 |website=آمريڪا جو قومي ٻوٽن جي جينياتي وسيلن جو نظام
 |access-date=8 March 2020
}}

{{Medicinal herbs &amp; fungi}}
{{taxonbar|from=Q80079}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aloe vera}}

[[زمرو:ايلو]]
[[زمرو:خشڪي سَهندڙ ٻوٽا]]
[[زمرو:عربستاني اپٻيٽ جي نباتات]]
[[زمرو:آفريڪا جا باغيچا ٻوٽا]]

[[زمرو:ٻوٽا]]</text>
      <sha1>hf8u75ofjyr4r9m7o2lh4ap12zd8aa5</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399346</id>
      <parentid>399345</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T22:45:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399346</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="43158" sha1="t1qzzvjd5b5scwzh44huyin4liztck6" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|ٻوٽي جي قسم}}


{{Speciesbox
| taxon = Aloe vera
| image = Aloe_vera_flower_inset.png
| image_upright = 1.2
| image_caption = ٻوٽو، گل جي ويجهي تصوير سان
| authority = ([[ڪارل لنيئس|L.]]) [[نيڪولاس لارنس برمن|Burm.f.]]
| synonyms =
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' &lt;small&gt;Mill.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;Haw.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe elongata'' &lt;small&gt;Murray&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe flava'' &lt;small&gt;Pers.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe indica'' &lt;small&gt;Royle&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Tod.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe maculata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe perfoliata'' var. ''vera'' &lt;small&gt;L.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe rubescens'' &lt;small&gt;DC.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe variegata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe vera'' &lt;small&gt;Mill. (غير جائز)&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) A. Berger&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''littoralis'' &lt;small&gt;J.Koenig ex Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vulgaris'' &lt;small&gt;Lam.&lt;/small&gt;
| synonyms_ref = &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/18403421?tab=synonyms Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.] Tropicos.org&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WFO&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=''Aloe vera'' L. Burm.f. Fl. Indica : 83 (1768) |url=http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000758976 |website=World Flora Online |date=2022 |publisher=World Flora Consortium |access-date=16 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

'''ڪنوار ٻوٽي: انگريزي ۾ ايلو ويرا '''  '''''Aloe vera''''''
جنهن کي سنڌيءَ ۾ '''پَٽِ ڪُنوار'''،  يا '''ايريال''' پڻ چيو وڃي ٿو، [[رسدار ٻوٽو|رسدار ٻوٽن]] جي [[قسم (حياتيات)|قسم]] مان آهي ۽ [[ايلو]] (''Aloe'') [[جنس (حياتيات)|جنس]] سان تعلق رکي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/4192 |title=Aloe vera (true aloe) |date=13 February 2019 |publisher=[[سينٽر فار ايگريڪلچر اينڊ بايو سائنس انٽرنيشنل]] |access-date=15 October 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي ٻوٽو دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي پکڙيل آهي، ۽ ڪيترن هنڌن تي ان کي [[دخل انداز قسم]] پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Aloe |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/aloe.html |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=8 June 2026 |date=19 November 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي هڪ [[سدابهار]] ۽ [[گهڻ سالي ٻوٽو]] آهي، جنهن جو اصل وطن [[جزيرو نما عربستان]] آهي، پر اهو دنيا جي ٻين گرم، نيم گرم ۽ خشڪ علائقن ۾ به جهنگلي حالت ۾ وڌندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt; ان جي تجارتي پوک پڻ ڪئي ويندي آهي، ۽ صدين کان ان کي چمڙي تي لڳائڻ واري [[مقامي دوا]] طور استعمال ڪيو ويندو رهيو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt; هي ٻوٽو سينگار لاءِ پڻ مشهور آهي ۽ گهڻو ڪري گهرن اندر [[گملي]] ۾ پوکيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://homeguides.sfgate.com/aloe-tropical-plant-67510.html |website=[[ايس ايف گيٽ]] |last=Perkins |first=Cyndi |title=Is Aloe a tropical plant? |date=13 March 2013 |access-date=13 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''Aloe vera'' جي پنن ۾ [[پوليسيڪرائڊ]] قسم جو جيل '''[[ايسيمينن]]''' (Acemannan) وڏي مقدار ۾ موجود هوندو آهي، جيڪو چمڙي تي لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Chang |last2=Cui |first2=Yan |last3=Pi |first3=Fuwei |last4=Cheng |first4=Yuliang |last5=Guo |first5=Yahui |last6=Qian |first6=He |date=2019-04-19 |title=Extraction, Purification, Structural Characteristics, Biological Activities and Pharmacological Applications of Acemannan, a Polysaccharide from Aloe vera: A Review |journal=Molecules |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=1554 |doi=10.3390/molecules24081554 |pmc=6515206 |pmid=31010204 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; پنن ۾ '''[[ايلوئن]]''' (Aloin) نالي هڪ زهريلو مرڪب پڻ موجود هوندو آهي. تجارتي ''Aloe vera'' جون گهڻيون شيون هن جيل مان تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن.

''Aloe vera'' مان حاصل ٿيندڙ ايسيمينن تي ٻڌل جيل چمڙي جي لوشنن، [[سينگار جو سامان|سينگار جي شين]]، مرهمن ۽ جيلن ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور تي معمولي سڙڻ، چمڙي جي هلڪي ڇلن، جيتن جي چڪ ۽ هوا سبب چمڙي جي جلن جي علاج لاءِ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Surjushe |first1=Amar |last2=Vasani |first2=Resham |last3=Saple |first3=D G |date=2008 |title=Aloe vera: A short review |journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=163–166 |doi=10.4103/0019-5154.44785 |pmc=2763764 |pmid=19882025 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''ايلو ويرا '' جي عرق کي وات ذريعي استعمال ڪرڻ سان تيز پيٽ جو سور، اينٺون ۽ ڊگهي عرصي تائين استعمال جي صورت ۾ [[هيپاٽائٽس]] ٿي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/aloe-vera |title=Aloe vera |publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health |date=1 February 2025 |access-date=8 June 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; حمل دوران ان جو استعمال نه ڪرڻ گهرجي. ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان [[الرجي]] پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;

ھي ٻُوٽو آهي جيڪو، [[سنڌ]]، [[پاڪستان]] توڙي سڄي دنيا ۾ ٿئي ٿو جنهن جي ڪٽنب ۾ ڪيترائي نمونا ٿين ٿا جن جا سائنسي نالا پڻ مختلف ٿين ٿا. هن ٻوٽي جا پن اڪثر سائي رنگ جا ٿيندا آهن پر ڪن ملڪن ۾ ڳاڙهي رنگ جا ٻہ ٿيندا آهن. هن جا پن ٻاهر بجاءِ اندر وڪوڙيل ٿيندا آهن جنهن ڪري شايد سنڌي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪنوار ٻوٽي سڏيو ويو آهي. هيءُ ٻوٽو اڪثر جبلن ۾ ٿئي ٿو پر هٿرادو طور بہ پوکيو ويندو آهي. هن ٻوٽي جي پنن ۾ کير نما رس ٿيندي آهي جيڪا دوا طور ڪم ايندي آهي. هن ٻوٽي کي [[اٺ]] ۽ [[ٻڪري]] شوق سان کائيندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://worldofsucculents.com/aloe-perfoliata-rubble-aloe-mitre-aloe/|title=Aloe perfoliata (Mitre Aloe)|date=2014-03-09|website=World of Succulents|language=en-US|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/Catalogue/History/Book21/Book_page6.html|title=Sindhi Adabi Board Online Library (History)|website=www.sindhiadabiboard.org|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Aloe Vera.jpg|thumb|ڪنوار ٻوٽي]]

ھي ھڪ جهنگلي ٻوٽو آھي، ان ۾ رڳو ڊگها پن وارا ڦڙها ٿين ٿا، پنن جا پاسا ڪنڊن وارا ٿين. طبي لحاظ کان ايريال يا  ڪنوار ٻوٽي ڪيترين بيمارين کي فائدو پھچائي ٿو. سخت سوڄ تي ايريال جا ڦڙها چيري، گرم ڪري، هئڊ مکي، ٻڌندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=ايريال : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt; |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |accessdate=2024-05-30 |archive-date=2024-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240531181831/https://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |dead-url=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== نالي جي بڻ ==
[[File:Aloe Vera houseplant.jpg|thumb|پنن جي ڪنارن تي ڏند جهڙا ڪنڊا]]

[[جنس (حياتيات)|جنس]] ''[[ايلو]]'' (''Aloe'') جو نالو [[عربي ٻولي|عربي]] لفظ ''الُوَّه'' (''alloeh'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي &quot;ڪڙو ۽ چمڪندڙ مادو&quot;، يا وري [[عبراني ٻولي|عبراني]] {{lang|he|אוהלים}} ''اھالم'' (واحد: {{lang|he|אוהל}} ''اھل'') مان ورتل آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;oed&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/aloe |title=Aloe |last1=Harper |first1=Douglas |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=1 July 2021 |date=2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;guo&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Xiaoqing |last2=Mei |first2=Nan |title=Aloe vera: A review of toxicity and adverse clinical effects |journal=J Environ Sci Health C Environ Carcinog Ecotoxicol Rev |date=2 April 2016 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=77–96 |doi=10.1080/10590501.2016.1166826 |pmid=26986231 |pmc=6349368 |bibcode=2016JESHC..34...77G}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.balashon.com/2008/03/aloe.html |title=Aloe |last1=Curwin |first1=David |date=16 March 2008 |website=Balashon - Hebrew Language Detective |access-date=16 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[نوعي لقب]] ''ويرا'' لاطيني لفظ ''ويرس'' مان ورتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي &quot;حقيقي&quot; يا &quot;اصلي&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;guo&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=verus |title=vērus |last1=Lewis |first1=Charlton T. |last2=Short |first2=Charles |dictionary=A Latin Dictionary |publisher=Perseus Digital Library |date=1879}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== عام نالا ===
هن ٻوٽي جا عام نالا گهڻو ڪري ان جي ورڇ يا علائقي جي نسبت سان رکيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ ''چيني ايلو''، ''ڪيپ ايلو'' ۽ ''[[بارباڊوس]] ايلو''.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Liao Z, Chen M, Tan F, Sun X, Tang K |year=2004 |title=Micropropagation of endangered Chinese aloe |journal=Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=83–86 |doi=10.1023/A:1025868515705 |s2cid=41623664}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;expert&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel |title=Final Report on the Safety Assessment of Aloe Andongensis Extract, Aloe Andongensis Leaf Juice, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Extract, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Juice, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Protoplasts, Aloe Barbadensis Flower Extract, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Extract, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Juice, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Polysaccharides, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Water, Aloe Ferox Leaf Extract, Aloe Ferox Leaf Juice, and Aloe Ferox Leaf Juice Extract |journal=International Journal of Toxicology |volume=26 |issue=Suppl 2 |pages=1–50 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/10915810701351186 |year=2007 |pmid=17613130 |doi=10.1080/10915810701351186 |s2cid=86018076}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== درجابندي ===
هن قسم جا ڪيترائي [[هم معنيٰ نالا (حياتياتي درجابندي)|هم معنيٰ سائنسي نالا]] آهن، جن ۾ ''ايلو بارباڊينس'' مل.، ''ايلو انڊيڪا'' رايل، ''ايلو پرفوليئاٽا'' var. ''ويرا'' ايل. ۽ ''ايلو ولگرس'' لام. شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;AFPD&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa/details.php?langue=an&amp;id=155971 |title=''Aloe vera'', African flowering plants database |publisher=Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève |access-date=19 November 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Aloe%20vera |title=Taxon: Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. |publisher=Germplasm Resources Information Network, United States Department of Agriculture |access-date=16 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924131123/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Aloe%20vera |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪجهه علمي حوالن ۾ اڇن داغن واري صورت کي ''ايلو ويرا'' var. ''چائنينسس'' سڏيو ويو آهي،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Wang H, Li F, Wang T, Li J, Li J, Yang X, Li J |title=[Determination of aloin content in callus of Aloe vera var. chinensis] |language=zh |journal=Zhong Yao Cai |volume=27 |issue=9 |pages=627–628 |year=2004 |pmid=15704580}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Gao W, Xiao P |title=[Peroxidase and soluble protein in the leaves of Aloe vera L. var. chinensis (Haw.) Berger] |language=zh |journal=Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi |volume=22 |issue=11 |pages=653–654, 702 |year=1997 |pmid=11243179}}&lt;/ref&gt; جڏهن ته داغدار صورت کي ''اي. مساوانا'' سان هڪ ئي قسم سمجهيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;hb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://huntingtonbotanical.org/Desert/Cholla/feb06/feb06.htm |title=The Definitive ''Aloe vera'', vera? |author=Lyons G |publisher=Huntington Botanic Gardens |access-date=11 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725090154/http://www.huntingtonbotanical.org/Desert/Cholla/feb06/feb06.htm |archive-date=25 July 2008 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هن قسم کي پهريون ڀيرو [[ڪارل لنيئس]] 1753ع ۾ ''ايلو پرفوليئاٽا'' var. ''ويرا'' جي نالي سان بيان ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;لنيئيوس, ڪارل (1753). ''اسپيشيز plantarum''. Vol. 2.&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ 6 اپريل 1768ع تي [[نيڪولاس لارنس برمن]] پنهنجي ڪتاب ''فلورا انڊڪا'' ۾ ان کي ''ايلو ويرا'' نالو ڏنو، جڏهن ته لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه ڏينهن پوءِ [[فلپ ملر]] ان کي ''ايلو بارباڊينسس'' جي نالي سان بيان ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Newton LE |year=1979 |title=In defense of the name ''Aloe vera'' |journal=The Cactus and Succulent Journal of Great Britain |volume=41 |pages=29–30}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[ڊي اين اي]] جي ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو آهي ته ''ايلو ويرا'' جو ويجهو تعلق ''[[ايلو پيريائي ]]'' سان آهي، جيڪا [[يمن]] جي مقامي قسم آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Darokar MP, Rai R, Gupta AK, Shasany AK, Rajkumar S, Sunderasan V, Khanuja SP |year=2003 |title=Molecular assessment of germplasm diversity in ''Aloe'' spp. using RAPD and AFLP analysis |journal=J. Med. Arom. Plant Sci. |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=354–361}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪلوروپلاسٽ]] ڊي اين اي ۽ [[مائڪروسيٽلائيٽ]] جي تجزين مان اهو پڻ ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته هن جو ويجهو تعلق ''[[ايلو فوربيسي]]''، ''[[ايلو اِنرمِس]]''، ''[[ايلو اسڪوبينيفوليا]]''، ''[[ايلو سنڪاٽان]]'' ۽ ''[[ايلو اسٽرياٽا]]'' سان پڻ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Treutlein&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Treutlein J, Smith GF, van Wyk BE, Wink W |year=2003 |title=Phylogenetic relationships in Asphodelaceae (Alooideae) inferred from chloroplast DNA sequences (rbcL, matK) and from genomic fingerprinting (ISSR) |journal=Taxon |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=193–207 |doi=10.2307/3647389 |jstor=3647389}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''A. striata'' کان سواءِ اهي سڀئي قسم [[سقطرى]] (يمن)، صوماليا ۽ سوڊان جا مقامي ٻوٽا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Treutlein&quot;/&gt;

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪنوار ٻوٽي يا''ايلو ويرا'' جون قدرتي جهنگلي آباديون واضح طور سڃاتل نه آهن، تنهنڪري ڪجهه نباتات دانن جو خيال آهي ته هي قسم شايد [[هائبرڊ]] اصل رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;Jones WD, Sacamano C. (2000). ''Landscape Plants for Dry Regions''. California Bill's Automotive Publishers.&lt;/ref&gt;

== وضاحت ==
[[File:Aloe Vera.jpg|thumb|right|اڇن داغن واري صورت، جنهن کي ''Aloe vera'' var. ''chinensis'' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي]]
[[File:Acta Eruditorum - IV botanica, 1688 – BEIC 13396043.jpg|thumb|1688ع ۾ [[ايڪٽا ايروڊيٽورم]] ۾ شايع ٿيل تاريخي تصوير]]

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' هڪ بي ٿڙ يا تمام ننڍي ٿڙ وارو ٻوٽو آهي، جيڪو عام طور تي {{convert|60-100|cm|in|abbr=off}} اوچو ٿيندو آهي ۽ [[آفسيٽ (نباتيات)|آفسيٽن]] (پاڙ وٽان نڪرندڙ ننڍن ٻوٽن) ذريعي پکڙجندو آهي.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;

=== پن ===
هن جا پن ٿلها، گوشتائتا، سائي کان سرمائي-سائي رنگ جا هوندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪجهه قسمن جي پنن جي مٿئين ۽ هيٺئين سطح تي اڇا داغ به هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;&gt;Yates A. (2002) ''Yates Garden Guide''. Harper Collins Australia&lt;/ref&gt; پنن جا ڪنارا [[پنن جا ڪنارا|ڏنديدار]] هوندا آهن ۽ انهن تي ننڍڙا اڇا ڪنڊا موجود هوندا آهن.

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جي پنن ۾ ڪيترائي [[فائٽوڪيميڪل]] مرڪب موجود هوندا آهن، جن تي ممڪن حياتياتي اثرن بابت تحقيق جاري آهي. انهن ۾ [[لگنن]]، [[فائٽواسٽرول]]، [[پولي فينول]]، ايسيٽائيليٽيڊ [[مينن]]، پولي مينن، [[اينٿراڪينون]]، سي-[[گلائيڪوسائيڊ]]، [[اينٿرون]]، ۽ ٻيا اينٿراڪينون جهڙوڪ [[ايموڊن]]، گڏوگڏ مختلف [[ليڪٽن]] شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;King&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=King GK, Yates KM, Greenlee PG, Pierce KR, Ford CR, McAnalley BH, Tizard IR |title=The effect of Acemannan Immunostimulant in combination with surgery and radiation therapy on spontaneous canine and feline fibrosarcomas |journal=J Am Anim Hosp Assoc |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=439–447 |year=1995 |pmid=8542364 |doi=10.5326/15473317-31-5-439}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Eshun&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Eshun K, He Q |title=Aloe vera: a valuable ingredient for the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries—a review |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=91–96 |year=2004 |pmid=15116756 |doi=10.1080/10408690490424694 |s2cid=21241302}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گل ===
هن ٻوٽي جا گل اونهاري جي موسم ۾ لڳندا آهن. گلن جو خوشو {{convert|90|cm|in|abbr=on}} تائين اوچو ٿي سگهي ٿو. هر گل هيٺ لڙڪندڙ هوندو آهي ۽ ان جي [[گل ڇلر]] (Corolla) نلي نما، پيلي رنگ جي ۽ {{convert|2-3|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} ڊگهي هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;&gt;{{cite book |date=2001 |title=Botanica's Pocket Gardening Encyclopedia for Australian Gardeners |publisher=Random House Publishers |isbn=9781740514347}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== پاڙون ===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' ٻين ''ايلو'' قسمن وانگر [[آربسڪيولر مائيڪورائزا]] ٺاهي ٿو، جيڪا پاڙن ۽ [[فنگس]] جي وچ ۾ هڪ [[هم زيستي]] تعلق آهي. ان جي ذريعي ٻوٽي کي مٽي مان معدني غذائي جزا وڌيڪ مؤثر نموني حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ مدد ملي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Gong M. |author2=Wang F. |author3=Chen Y |title=[Study on application of arbuscular-mycorrhizas in growing seedlings of Aloe vera] |language=zh |journal=Zhong Yao Cai |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=1–3 |year=2002 |pmid=12583231}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ورڇ ==
''ايلو ويرا'' کي اصل ڏکڻ-اوڀر [[عربستاني اپٻيٽ]] جي اتر-اوڀر [[عمان]] ۾ واقع [[حجر جبلن]] ۽ [[گڏيل عرب امارات]] جي اوڀرئين حصي جو مقامي ٻوٽو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=http://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |access-date=2020-12-07 |website=wcsp.science.kew.org |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101093147/https://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WCSP_298116&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=''Aloe vera'' |work=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=http://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |access-date=19 November 2017 |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101093147/https://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

بهرحال، هن ٻوٽي جي دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي پوک ڪئي وئي آهي، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ اهو [[اتر آفريڪا]]، [[سوڊان]] ۽ ان جي پاڙيسري ملڪن، [[ڪينري ٻيٽ]]، [[ڪيپ ورڊي]] ۽ [[مڊيرا ٻيٽ]] ۾ قدرتي طور به وڌڻ لڳو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;AFPD&quot;/&gt; هي [[پورچوگال]] جي [[الگاروي]] علائقي ۾ پڻ قدرتي طور پکڙجي ويو آهي،&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/38807075.pdf |title=Exotic naturalized flora of continental Portugal – A reassessment |date=2006 |access-date=16 July 2020 |author= Domingues de Almeida, J &amp; Freitas |publisher=core.ac.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |journal=Bradleya |title=Aloe arborescens Mill. and Aloe Vera spreading in Portugal |date=2009 |author= Gideon F Smith, Estrela Figueiredo |publisher=bioone |doi=10.25223/brad.n27.2009.a4 |hdl=2263/14380 |s2cid=82872880 |hdl-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اسپين]] جي جهنگلي علائقن، خاص طور تي [[مرثيا]] واري علائقي ۾ به ملي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://caermurcia.com/jornada-tecnica-de-cultivo-ecologico-de-aloe-vera-en-murcia/ |title=Aloe Vera Cultivation in Murcia |date=9 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي نسل سترهين صديءَ دوران [[چين]] ۽ ڏکڻ [[يورپ]] جي مختلف حصن ۾ متعارف ڪرايو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;Farooqi, A. A. and Sreeramu, B. S. (2001) ''Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops''. Orient Longman, India. {{ISBN|8173712514}}. p. 25.&lt;/ref&gt; اڄڪلهه هي دنيا جي ٻين ڪيترن ئي خشڪ، نيم گرم ۽ گرم آبهوا وارن علائقن ۾ قدرتي طور ملي ٿو.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;&lt;ref name=WCSP_298116/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;kew&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:530017-1 |title=Aloe vera |date=2016 |access-date=10 August 2016 |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ٻوٽي جي موجوده عالمي ورڇ گهڻي ڀاڱي انساني پوک ۽ منتقلي جو نتيجو سمجهي وڃي ٿي.&lt;ref name=hb/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&amp;taxon_id=200027555 &quot;Aloe vera (Linnaeus) Burman f., Fl. Indica. 83. 1768.&quot;] in ''Flora of North America'' Vol. 26, p. 411&lt;/ref&gt;

== پوک ۽ سنڀال ==
[[File:Aloe vera A.jpg|thumb|right|آرائشي ٻوٽي طور]]
&lt;!-- تصوير ۾ اصل ۾ Aloe maculata ڏيکاريل آهي، نه Aloe vera
[[File:Aloevera-mite.jpg|thumb|right|جُوئن جي حملي سان متاثر ٿيل ايلو ويرا]]
--&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' کي سڄي دنيا ۾ وڏي پيماني تي آرائشي ٻوٽي طور پوکيو وڃي ٿو. هي ٻوٽو جديد باغباني ۾ پنهنجي دوائن واري استعمال،&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; خوبصورت گلن، منفرد بناوت ۽ رس ڀريل پنن سبب گهڻو پسند ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان جي رس ڀريل طبيعت (succulence) سبب هي گهٽ برسات وارن علائقن ۾ به آسانيءَ سان زنده رهي سگهي ٿو، تنهنڪري پٿرن وارن باغن ۽ گهٽ پاڻي گهرندڙ باغن لاءِ هڪ موزون ٻوٽو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;/&gt; هي نسل [[سختي جا علائقا|سختي جي علائقن]] 8 کان 11 تائين سٺي نموني وڌي سگهي ٿو، پر سخت پالي ۽ برف کي برداشت نٿو ڪري سگهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/gardening/plants/plant_finder/plant_pages/7686.shtml |title=BBC Gardening, ''Aloe vera'' |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=11 July 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي ٻوٽو گهڻن ئي جيت جڻين کان محفوظ رهندو آهي، پر [[مڪڙيءَ جي جُوءِ]]، [[ميلي بگ]]، [[اسڪيل جيت]] ۽ [[ماڪڙيون (ايفڊ)|ايفڊ]] جهڙا جيت ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جي واڌ ويجهه ۽ صحت کي متاثر ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/ento/a-myersi.html |title=Pest Alert: ''Aloe vera'' aphid ''Aloephagus myersi'' Essi. |publisher=Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services |access-date=11 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612155315/http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/ento/a-myersi.html |archive-date=12 June 2008 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mobot.org/gardeninghelp/PlantFinder/plant.asp?code=B628 |title=Kemper Center for Home Gardening: ''Aloe vera'' |publisher=Missouri Botanic Gardens |access-date=11 July 2008 |archive-date=27 May 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050527084103/http://www.mobot.org/gardeninghelp/PlantFinder/plant.asp?code=B628 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ٻوٽي کي [[رائل هارٽيڪلچرل سوسائٽي]] پاران [[گارڊن ميرٽ ايوارڊ]] پڻ ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/981/Aloe-vera/Details |title=RHS Plant Selector ''Aloe vera'' AGM / RHS Gardening |publisher=Apps.rhs.org.uk |access-date=9 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گملي ۾ پوکڻ وقت سٺي پاڻي نيڪال واري واريالي مٽي ۽ روشن، سج واري جڳهه ضروري آهي. گهڻي سڌي سج جي روشني سبب پن ڳاڙها ٿي سگهن ٿا، پر آهستي آهستي سج سان هم آهنگ ڪرڻ سان اهو مسئلو گهٽجي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Peerless |first1=Veronica |title=How Not to Kill Your Houseplant |date=2017 |publisher=DK Penguin Random House |pages=38–39}}&lt;/ref&gt; واپار ۾ ملندڙ ڪيڪٽس ۽ رس ڀرين ٻوٽن واري مٽي (''cacti and succulent mix'') هن ٻوٽي لاءِ مناسب هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها پاڻي جي نيڪال کي بهتر بڻائي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;GA&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/stories/s2280641.htm |title=Fact Sheet: ''Aloes'' |author=Coleby-Williams, J |date=21 June 2008 |publisher=Gardening Australia, Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=8 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706224700/http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/stories/s2280641.htm |archive-date=6 July 2008 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; مٽيءَ جا گملا وڌيڪ موزون سمجهيا وڃن ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي هوا ۽ نمي جي بهتر مٽاسٽا ڪن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;GA&quot;/&gt;

گملن ۾ پوکيل ٻوٽن کي ٻيهر پاڻي ڏيڻ کان اڳ مٽي مڪمل سڪي وڃڻ گهرجي. وقت سان گڏ ماءُ واري ٻوٽي جي چوڌاري ننڍا ٻوٽا (''پَپ'' يا شاخون) نڪرندا آهن. جيڪڏهن اهي گهڻا ٿي وڃن ته انهن کي ڌار ڪري نون گملن ۾ پوکي سگهجي ٿو، يا ماءُ واري ٻوٽي سان گڏ وڌڻ ڏنو وڃي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;/&gt; سياري ۾ ''ايلو ويرا'' اڪثر غيرفعال (Dormant) حالت ۾ هليو ويندو آهي، جنهن دوران ان کي تمام گهٽ پاڻي جي ضرورت هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;/&gt; جتي سخت پالو يا برفباري ٿيندي هجي، اتي هن ٻوٽي کي گهر اندر يا گرم شيشي جي گهر (گرين هائوس) ۾ رکڻ مناسب هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;/&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جي وڏي پيماني تي زرعي پوک [[آسٽريليا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2005/12/06/1524745.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120716111516/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2005/12/06/1524745.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 July 2012 |title=''Aloe vera'' producer signs $3m China deal |newspaper=ABC News |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |date=6 December 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪيوبا]]، [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريه]]، [[چين]]، [[ميڪسيڪو]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.dominicantoday.com/dr/economy/2006/7/7/15337/Korea-interested-in-Dominican-aloe-vera |title=Korea interested in Dominican 'aloe vera' |publisher=DominicanToday.com |date=7 July 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206062244/http://www.dominicantoday.com/dr/economy/2006/7/7/15337/Korea-interested-in-Dominican-aloe-vera |archive-date=6 December 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڀارت]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.wildsingapore.com/news/20051112/051211-1.htm |title=India experiments with farming medicinal plants |publisher=channelnewsasia.com |author=Varma, Vaibhav |date=11 December 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[جميڪا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20080117/eyes/eyes1.html |title=Harnessing the potential of our aloe |publisher=Jamaica Gleaner |access-date=19 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080324210301/http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20080117/eyes/eyes1.html |archive-date=24 March 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪينيا]]، [[تنزانيا]]، [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200708020872.html |title=Kenya: Imported Gel Hurts Aloe Vera Market |publisher=allafrica.com |author=Mburu, Solomon |date=2 August 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[اسپين]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=23 August 2015 |title=Córdoba is the Spanish province with more aloe vera crops (translated from Spanish) |url=http://sevilla.abc.es/andalucia/cordoba/20150824/sevi-aloe-vera-cordoba-201508232056.html |publisher=ABC-Córdoba}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون]] ۾ ڪئي وڃي ٿي،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.resourceinvestor.com/pebble.asp?relid=38588 |title=US Farms, Inc. – A Different Kind of Natural Resource Company |publisher=resourceinvestor.com |access-date=19 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917125506/http://www.resourceinvestor.com/pebble.asp?relid=38588 |archive-date=17 September 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ ان جي پيداوار جو وڏو حصو سينگار جي شين  جي صنعت ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;

==استعمال==
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي '' مان ٻه بنيادي مادا حاصل ڪيا ويندا آهن: هڪ شفاف [[جيل]] ۽ ٻيو پيلو [[ليٽڪس]]. انهن ٻنهي مان مختلف تجارتي شيون تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; ايلو ويرا جو جيل عام طور چمڙي تي لڳائڻ وارين دوائن ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ساڙ، زخم، ٿڌ جي ڪري ٿيندڙ چمڙي جي نقصان، [[چمڙي جي ريش]]، [[سورائسس]]، [[لبن جو هرپس]] (ٿڌ جا ڦٽا) ۽ خشڪ چمڙي جي علاج لاءِ.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; ڪنوار ٻوٽي جو ليٽڪس الڳ يا ٻين جزن سان گڏ اهڙي شين ۾ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي [[قبض]] کان آرام لاءِ وات ذريعي استعمال ڪيون وڃن.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; ليٽڪس کي خشڪ ڪري ''رال'' يا ''خشڪ ايلو رس'' جي صورت ۾ پڻ تيار ڪيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;EMA-ar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/herbal-report/final-assessment-report-aloe-barbadensis-mill-aloe-various-species-mainly-aloe-ferox-mill-its_en.pdf |title=Assessment report on ''Aloe barbadensis'' Mill. and on Aloe (various species, mainly ''Aloe ferox'' Mill. and its hybrids), folii succus siccatus |publisher=European Medicines Agency|date=22 November 2016|access-date=29 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تحقيقي مطالعي مان اڃا تائين اهو واضح ثابت نه ٿي سگهيو آهي ته ''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' زخم يا ساڙ جي علاج ۾ يقيني طور اثرائتو آهي يا نه.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; بهرحال، چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ [[سورائسس]]، [[مهاندا]] يا چمڙي جي ريش جهڙين حالتن جون علامتون گهٽجي سگهن ٿيون،&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; جڏهن ته ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ ان سان [[الرجي]] به ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جو جيل واپاري طور [[ڏهي]]، مشروبات ۽ ڪجهه مٺاڻن ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Reynolds&quot;/&gt; پر ليٽڪس يا سڄي پن مان تيار ڪيل عرق کي وڏي مقدار ۾ يا گهڻي عرصي تائين استعمال ڪرڻ زهريلو ثابت ٿي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt; چمڙي تي ٿوري مقدار ۾ استعمال عام طور محفوظ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt;

===چمڙي تي استعمال ۽ ممڪن ضمني اثر===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' کي [[لوشن]]، [[جيل]]، صابڻ يا چمڙي جي سينگار وارين شين جي صورت ۾ تيار ڪري چمڙي تي لڳايو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt; ان جي جيل جو تيزابيت وارو درجو (pH) تقريباً 4.4 کان 4.7 هوندو آهي،&lt;ref name=guo/&gt; جيڪو ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان هلڪي ساڙ، جلن يا [[ريش]] جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;

جن ماڻهن کي ''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' سان [[الرجي]] هجي، انهن ۾ چمڙي جي سوزش، هلڪي ڳاڙهاڻ، خارش، ساهه کڻڻ ۾ تڪليف يا چهري، چپن، زبان يا ڳلي جي سُوجهه جهڙا ردِعمل ظاهر ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt;

===غذائي اضافو===
[[File:Aloin_structure.png|thumb|right|ايلوئن]]
[[ايلوئن]]، جيڪو ''ايلو'' جي ڪجهه نسلن جي نيم سيال ليٽڪس ۾ موجود هڪ تمام ڪڙو مرڪب آهي، 2002ع تائين آمريڪا ۾ بغير نسخي جي وڪرو ٿيندڙ قبض ختم ڪرڻ وارين دوائن ۾ عام جزو طور استعمال ٿيندو هو. بعد ۾ [[آمريڪي خوراڪ ۽ دوائن واري اداري]] (FDA) ان جي استعمال تي پابندي لڳائي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٺاهيندڙ ڪمپنيون ان جي حفاظت بابت گهربل سائنسي ثبوت مهيا نه ڪري سگهيون.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title = Status of certain additional over-the-counter drug category II and III active ingredients. Final rule |journal = Fed Regist |volume = 67 |issue = 90 |pages = 31125–7 |year = 2002 |pmid = 12001972 |last1 = Food Drug Administration |first1 = HHS|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2002-05-09/pdf/02-11510.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' ۽ ان جا الڪوحلي عرق ڪجهه مقدار کان وڌيڪ استعمال ڪرڻ سان زهريلا اثر پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا، جيڪي چمڙي تي لڳائڻ يا وات ذريعي استعمال ٻنهي صورتن ۾ ظاهر ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt; جيتوڻيڪ تياري دوران ايلوئن ڪڍي ڇڏڻ سان زهريت گهٽجي سگهي ٿي، پر وڏي مقدار ۾ استعمال ڪرڻ سان پيٽ جو سور، دست يا [[هيپاٽائٽس]] جهڙا اثر پيدا ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Bottenberg MM, Wall GC, Harvey RL, Habib S 2007 1740–3&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors = Bottenberg MM, Wall GC, Harvey RL, Habib S |title = Oral aloe vera-induced hepatitis |journal = Ann Pharmacother |volume = 41 |issue = 10 |pages = 1740–3 |year = 2007 |pmid = 17726067 |doi = 10.1345/aph.1K132 |s2cid = 25553593 }}&lt;/ref&gt; ڊگهي عرصي تائين روزانو لڳ ڀڳ هڪ گرام استعمال ڪرڻ سان پيشاب ۾ رت اچڻ، وزن گهٽجڻ، دل يا گردن جا مسئلا پيدا ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جو رس هاضمي جي صحت لاءِ فائديمند هجڻ جي دعويٰ سان وڪرو ڪيو ويندو آهي، پر هن دعويٰ جي حمايت ۾ نه ڪو مضبوط سائنسي ثبوت موجود آهي ۽ نه ئي ڪنهن ضابطي واري اداري ان جي منظوري ڏني آهي.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;mayo&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements-aloe/art-20362267 |title=''Aloe'' (''Aloe vera'') |publisher=Mayo Clinic |date=17 September 2017 |access-date=21 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===روايتي طب===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' روايتي طب ۾ چمڙي جي علاج لاءِ هزارين سالن کان استعمال ٿيندو رهيو آهي. ان جي استعمال جا قديم ترين لکيل حوالا چوٿين هزارين سال [[ق م]] تائين ملن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt; ان جو ذڪر 512ع ۾ لکيل ''[[جوليانا انيشيا ڪوڊيڪس]]'' ۾ پڻ موجود آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Reynolds&quot;&gt;Reynolds, Tom (Ed.) (2004) ''Aloes: The genus Aloe (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants - Industrial Profiles''. CRC Press. {{ISBN|978-0415306720}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|9}}

===تجارتي شيون===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' چهري صاف ڪرڻ وارين ٽشوز ۾ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي، جتي ان کي نمي برقرار رکڻ ۽ نڪ جي چمڙي جي خارش گهٽائڻ واري جزو طور پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي. سينگار جي شين ٺاهيندڙ ڪمپنيون ان جو رس يا ان جا ٻيا نڪتل جزا ميڪ اپ، ٽشوز، موئسچرائزر، صابڻ، سن اسڪرين، اگربتي، شيونگ ڪريم ۽ شيمپو جهڙين شين ۾ شامل ڪنديون آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Reynolds&quot;/&gt; علمي جائزي موجب، صفائي ۽ سينگار جي ڪيترين ئي شين ۾ ان جو استعمال بنيادي طور ان جي چمڙي کي نرم ۽ نمي فراهم ڪندڙ خاصيت سبب ڪيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eshun&quot;/&gt; سينگار جي صنعت ۾ ايلو جي عرق ۾ اينٿراڪينون جي مقدار وڌ ۾ وڌ 50 پي پي ايم تائين محدود رکڻ جي سفارش ڪئي ويندي آهي.&lt;ref name=expert/&gt;

==زهريت==
وات ذريعي استعمال ڪيل ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جي اهڙي سڄي پن واري عرق کي، جنهن مان رنگ ختم نه ڪيو ويو هجي، [[ڪيليفورنيا آفيس آف انوائرنمينٽل هيلٿ هيزرڊ اسيسمينٽ]] انهن &quot;ڪيميائي مادن&quot; ۾ شامل ڪيو آهي جيڪي رياست موجب [[سرطان]] يا توليدي نظام لاءِ نقصانڪار ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.oehha.ca.gov/prop65/CRNR_notices/list_changes/120415listAloeGoldenseal.html |title=Chemicals Listed Effective December 4, 2015, as Known to the State of California to Cause Cancer: Aloe Vera, Non-Decolorized Whole Leaf Extract, and Goldenseal Root Powder |publisher=California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment |date=4 December 2015 |access-date=21 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهو خطرو غالباً ان ۾ موجود [[اينٿراڪينون]] مرڪبن جي ڪري هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;

2016ع کان وٺي، [[سرطان بابت تحقيق جي عالمي اداري]] (IARC) ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جي سڄي پن واري عرق کي انسانن لاءِ ''ممڪن سرطان پيدا ڪندڙ مادو'' (گروپ 2B) جي درجي ۾ شامل ڪيو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=IARC Monographs on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans |url=https://monographs.iarc.who.int/list-of-classifications/ |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=27 April 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

چمڙي تي ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جو استعمال عام طور تي ڪنهن اهم ضمني اثر سان لاڳاپيل نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt; پر وات ذريعي ان جو استعمال ممڪن طور زهريلو ٿي سگهي ٿو،&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt; ۽ ان سان [[پيٽ ۾ سور]]، [[پيٽ جا اينٺ]] ۽ [[دست]] ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪي وري ٻين دوائن جي جسم ۾ جذب ٿيڻ جي صلاحيت کي گهٽائي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;

===نسخي وارين دوائن سان تعامل===
وات ذريعي استعمال ٿيندڙ ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جون شيون ڪجهه نسخي وارين دوائن سان نقصانڪار [[دوائن جو تعامل|تعامل]] پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿيون، جهڙوڪ [[رت جا دڳ جمن]] جي علاج، [[شگر جي بيماري]]، [[دل جي بيماري]]، [[پوٽاشيم]] گهٽائيندڙ دوائون (مثال طور [[ڊيجوڪسن]]) ۽ [[پيشاب آور دوائون]] سميت ٻين دوائن سان.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt;

==تصويرون==
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;140px&quot;&gt;
File:Aloe vera leaf showing the gel (1).JPG|پن ۽ ان جي اندر موجود جيل
File:Aloe vera gel.jpg|[[مٺاڻ]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جو جيل
File:Es Lidah Buaya.JPG|''ايس لِداه بُوايا''، انڊونيشيا جو ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) سان تيار ڪيل ٿڌو مشروب
File:Gelaloevera.JPG|ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جو رس
File:Cut Aloe Vera Leaf.jpg|ڪٽيل پن
File:Aloe vera cut leaf drawing1.jpg|پن جو خاڪو: 1. ڪيوٽيڪل، 2. ڪلوروفل وارو پيرينڪائما، 3. اندريون بافتو، 4. نسن جا بنڊل
File:Aloe Vera Buds.jpg|گلن جون ڪليون
File:Aloe Vera flower.jpg|گلن جون ڪليون
File:Aloe vera flower 2.jpg|گل
File:AloeBluhendD2.JPG|مختلف ماپن جا ٻوٽا
File:A potted aloe vera plant.jpg|گملي ۾ پوکيل ايلو ويرا
File:Aloe plant bud.jpg|[[بنيادي شاخون (روٽ اسپرائوٽس)]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}

==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Commons category|Aloe vera}}

* {{cite web
 |title=ٽيڪسون: ''Aloe vera'' (L.) Burm. f.
 |url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?id=311403
 |website=آمريڪا جو قومي ٻوٽن جي جينياتي وسيلن جو نظام
 |access-date=8 March 2020
}}

{{Medicinal herbs &amp; fungi}}
{{taxonbar|from=Q80079}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aloe vera}}

[[زمرو:ايلو]]
[[زمرو:خشڪي سَهندڙ ٻوٽا]]
[[زمرو:عربستاني اپٻيٽ جي نباتات]]
[[زمرو:آفريڪا جا باغيچا ٻوٽا]]

[[زمرو:ٻوٽا]]</text>
      <sha1>t1qzzvjd5b5scwzh44huyin4liztck6</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399347</id>
      <parentid>399346</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T22:48:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399347</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="43270" sha1="kydapzeqg2oi12byefk7spcx347q7ql" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|ٻوٽي جي قسم}}


{{Speciesbox
| taxon = Aloe vera
| image = Aloe_vera_flower_inset.png
| image_upright = 1.2
| image_caption = ٻوٽو، گل جي ويجهي تصوير سان
| authority = ([[ڪارل لنيئس|L.]]) [[نيڪولاس لارنس برمن|Burm.f.]]
| synonyms =
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' &lt;small&gt;Mill.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;Haw.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe elongata'' &lt;small&gt;Murray&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe flava'' &lt;small&gt;Pers.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe indica'' &lt;small&gt;Royle&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Tod.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe maculata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe perfoliata'' var. ''vera'' &lt;small&gt;L.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe rubescens'' &lt;small&gt;DC.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe variegata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe vera'' &lt;small&gt;Mill. (غير جائز)&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) A. Berger&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''littoralis'' &lt;small&gt;J.Koenig ex Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vulgaris'' &lt;small&gt;Lam.&lt;/small&gt;
| synonyms_ref = &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/18403421?tab=synonyms Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.] Tropicos.org&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WFO&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=''Aloe vera'' L. Burm.f. Fl. Indica : 83 (1768) |url=http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000758976 |website=World Flora Online |date=2022 |publisher=World Flora Consortium |access-date=16 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

'''ڪنوار ٻوٽي: انگريزي ۾ ايلو ويرا '''  '''''Aloe vera''''''
جنهن کي سنڌيءَ ۾ '''پَٽِ ڪُنوار'''،  يا '''ايريال''' پڻ چيو وڃي ٿو، [[رسدار ٻوٽو|رسدار ٻوٽن]] جي [[قسم (حياتيات)|قسم]] مان آهي ۽ [[ايلو]] (''Aloe'') [[جنس (حياتيات)|جنس]] سان تعلق رکي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/4192 |title=Aloe vera (true aloe) |date=13 February 2019 |publisher=[[سينٽر فار ايگريڪلچر اينڊ بايو سائنس انٽرنيشنل]] |access-date=15 October 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي ٻوٽو دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي پکڙيل آهي، ۽ ڪيترن هنڌن تي ان کي [[دخل انداز قسم]] پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Aloe |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/aloe.html |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=8 June 2026 |date=19 November 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي هڪ [[سدابهار]] ۽ [[گهڻ سالي ٻوٽو]] آهي، جنهن جو اصل وطن [[جزيرو نما عربستان]] آهي، پر اهو دنيا جي ٻين گرم، نيم گرم ۽ خشڪ علائقن ۾ به جهنگلي حالت ۾ وڌندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt; ان جي تجارتي پوک پڻ ڪئي ويندي آهي، ۽ صدين کان ان کي چمڙي تي لڳائڻ واري [[مقامي دوا]] طور استعمال ڪيو ويندو رهيو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt; هي ٻوٽو سينگار لاءِ پڻ مشهور آهي ۽ گهڻو ڪري گهرن اندر [[گملي]] ۾ پوکيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://homeguides.sfgate.com/aloe-tropical-plant-67510.html |website=[[ايس ايف گيٽ]] |last=Perkins |first=Cyndi |title=Is Aloe a tropical plant? |date=13 March 2013 |access-date=13 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا)'' جي پنن ۾ [[پوليسيڪرائڊ]] قسم جو جيل '''[[ايسيمينن]]''' (Acemannan) وڏي مقدار ۾ موجود هوندو آهي، جيڪو چمڙي تي لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Chang |last2=Cui |first2=Yan |last3=Pi |first3=Fuwei |last4=Cheng |first4=Yuliang |last5=Guo |first5=Yahui |last6=Qian |first6=He |date=2019-04-19 |title=Extraction, Purification, Structural Characteristics, Biological Activities and Pharmacological Applications of Acemannan, a Polysaccharide from Aloe vera: A Review |journal=Molecules |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=1554 |doi=10.3390/molecules24081554 |pmc=6515206 |pmid=31010204 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; پنن ۾ '''[[ايلوئن]]''' (Aloin) نالي هڪ زهريلو مرڪب پڻ موجود هوندو آهي. تجارتي ''ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا)'' جون گهڻيون شيون هن جيل مان تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن.

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا)'' مان حاصل ٿيندڙ ايسيمينن تي ٻڌل جيل چمڙي جي لوشنن، [[سينگار جو سامان|سينگار جي شين]]، مرهمن ۽ جيلن ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور تي معمولي سڙڻ، چمڙي جي هلڪي ڇلن، جيتن جي چڪ ۽ هوا سبب چمڙي جي جلن جي علاج لاءِ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Surjushe |first1=Amar |last2=Vasani |first2=Resham |last3=Saple |first3=D G |date=2008 |title=Aloe vera: A short review |journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=163–166 |doi=10.4103/0019-5154.44785 |pmc=2763764 |pmid=19882025 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) '' جي عرق کي وات ذريعي استعمال ڪرڻ سان تيز پيٽ جو سور، اينٺون ۽ ڊگهي عرصي تائين استعمال جي صورت ۾ [[هيپاٽائٽس]] ٿي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/aloe-vera |title=Aloe vera |publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health |date=1 February 2025 |access-date=8 June 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; حمل دوران ان جو استعمال نه ڪرڻ گهرجي. ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان [[الرجي]] پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;

ھي ٻُوٽو آهي جيڪو، [[سنڌ]]، [[پاڪستان]] توڙي سڄي دنيا ۾ ٿئي ٿو جنهن جي ڪٽنب ۾ ڪيترائي نمونا ٿين ٿا جن جا سائنسي نالا پڻ مختلف ٿين ٿا. هن ٻوٽي جا پن اڪثر سائي رنگ جا ٿيندا آهن پر ڪن ملڪن ۾ ڳاڙهي رنگ جا ٻہ ٿيندا آهن. هن جا پن ٻاهر بجاءِ اندر وڪوڙيل ٿيندا آهن جنهن ڪري شايد سنڌي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪنوار ٻوٽي سڏيو ويو آهي. هيءُ ٻوٽو اڪثر جبلن ۾ ٿئي ٿو پر هٿرادو طور بہ پوکيو ويندو آهي. هن ٻوٽي جي پنن ۾ کير نما رس ٿيندي آهي جيڪا دوا طور ڪم ايندي آهي. هن ٻوٽي کي [[اٺ]] ۽ [[ٻڪري]] شوق سان کائيندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://worldofsucculents.com/aloe-perfoliata-rubble-aloe-mitre-aloe/|title=Aloe perfoliata (Mitre Aloe)|date=2014-03-09|website=World of Succulents|language=en-US|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/Catalogue/History/Book21/Book_page6.html|title=Sindhi Adabi Board Online Library (History)|website=www.sindhiadabiboard.org|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Aloe Vera.jpg|thumb|ڪنوار ٻوٽي]]

ھي ھڪ جهنگلي ٻوٽو آھي، ان ۾ رڳو ڊگها پن وارا ڦڙها ٿين ٿا، پنن جا پاسا ڪنڊن وارا ٿين. طبي لحاظ کان ايريال يا  ڪنوار ٻوٽي ڪيترين بيمارين کي فائدو پھچائي ٿو. سخت سوڄ تي ايريال جا ڦڙها چيري، گرم ڪري، هئڊ مکي، ٻڌندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=ايريال : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt; |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |accessdate=2024-05-30 |archive-date=2024-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240531181831/https://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |dead-url=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== نالي جي بڻ ==
[[File:Aloe Vera houseplant.jpg|thumb|پنن جي ڪنارن تي ڏند جهڙا ڪنڊا]]

[[جنس (حياتيات)|جنس]] ''[[ايلو]]'' (''Aloe'') جو نالو [[عربي ٻولي|عربي]] لفظ ''الُوَّه'' (''alloeh'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي &quot;ڪڙو ۽ چمڪندڙ مادو&quot;، يا وري [[عبراني ٻولي|عبراني]] {{lang|he|אוהלים}} ''اھالم'' (واحد: {{lang|he|אוהל}} ''اھل'') مان ورتل آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;oed&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/aloe |title=Aloe |last1=Harper |first1=Douglas |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=1 July 2021 |date=2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;guo&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Xiaoqing |last2=Mei |first2=Nan |title=Aloe vera: A review of toxicity and adverse clinical effects |journal=J Environ Sci Health C Environ Carcinog Ecotoxicol Rev |date=2 April 2016 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=77–96 |doi=10.1080/10590501.2016.1166826 |pmid=26986231 |pmc=6349368 |bibcode=2016JESHC..34...77G}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.balashon.com/2008/03/aloe.html |title=Aloe |last1=Curwin |first1=David |date=16 March 2008 |website=Balashon - Hebrew Language Detective |access-date=16 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[نوعي لقب]] ''ويرا'' لاطيني لفظ ''ويرس'' مان ورتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي &quot;حقيقي&quot; يا &quot;اصلي&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;guo&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=verus |title=vērus |last1=Lewis |first1=Charlton T. |last2=Short |first2=Charles |dictionary=A Latin Dictionary |publisher=Perseus Digital Library |date=1879}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== عام نالا ===
هن ٻوٽي جا عام نالا گهڻو ڪري ان جي ورڇ يا علائقي جي نسبت سان رکيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ ''چيني ايلو''، ''ڪيپ ايلو'' ۽ ''[[بارباڊوس]] ايلو''.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Liao Z, Chen M, Tan F, Sun X, Tang K |year=2004 |title=Micropropagation of endangered Chinese aloe |journal=Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=83–86 |doi=10.1023/A:1025868515705 |s2cid=41623664}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;expert&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel |title=Final Report on the Safety Assessment of Aloe Andongensis Extract, Aloe Andongensis Leaf Juice, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Extract, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Juice, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Protoplasts, Aloe Barbadensis Flower Extract, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Extract, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Juice, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Polysaccharides, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Water, Aloe Ferox Leaf Extract, Aloe Ferox Leaf Juice, and Aloe Ferox Leaf Juice Extract |journal=International Journal of Toxicology |volume=26 |issue=Suppl 2 |pages=1–50 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/10915810701351186 |year=2007 |pmid=17613130 |doi=10.1080/10915810701351186 |s2cid=86018076}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== درجابندي ===
هن قسم جا ڪيترائي [[هم معنيٰ نالا (حياتياتي درجابندي)|هم معنيٰ سائنسي نالا]] آهن، جن ۾ ''ايلو بارباڊينس'' مل.، ''ايلو انڊيڪا'' رايل، ''ايلو پرفوليئاٽا'' var. ''ويرا'' ايل. ۽ ''ايلو ولگرس'' لام. شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;AFPD&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa/details.php?langue=an&amp;id=155971 |title=''Aloe vera'', African flowering plants database |publisher=Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève |access-date=19 November 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Aloe%20vera |title=Taxon: Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. |publisher=Germplasm Resources Information Network, United States Department of Agriculture |access-date=16 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924131123/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Aloe%20vera |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪجهه علمي حوالن ۾ اڇن داغن واري صورت کي ''ايلو ويرا'' var. ''چائنينسس'' سڏيو ويو آهي،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Wang H, Li F, Wang T, Li J, Li J, Yang X, Li J |title=[Determination of aloin content in callus of Aloe vera var. chinensis] |language=zh |journal=Zhong Yao Cai |volume=27 |issue=9 |pages=627–628 |year=2004 |pmid=15704580}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Gao W, Xiao P |title=[Peroxidase and soluble protein in the leaves of Aloe vera L. var. chinensis (Haw.) Berger] |language=zh |journal=Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi |volume=22 |issue=11 |pages=653–654, 702 |year=1997 |pmid=11243179}}&lt;/ref&gt; جڏهن ته داغدار صورت کي ''اي. مساوانا'' سان هڪ ئي قسم سمجهيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;hb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://huntingtonbotanical.org/Desert/Cholla/feb06/feb06.htm |title=The Definitive ''Aloe vera'', vera? |author=Lyons G |publisher=Huntington Botanic Gardens |access-date=11 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725090154/http://www.huntingtonbotanical.org/Desert/Cholla/feb06/feb06.htm |archive-date=25 July 2008 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هن قسم کي پهريون ڀيرو [[ڪارل لنيئس]] 1753ع ۾ ''ايلو پرفوليئاٽا'' var. ''ويرا'' جي نالي سان بيان ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;لنيئيوس, ڪارل (1753). ''اسپيشيز plantarum''. Vol. 2.&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ 6 اپريل 1768ع تي [[نيڪولاس لارنس برمن]] پنهنجي ڪتاب ''فلورا انڊڪا'' ۾ ان کي ''ايلو ويرا'' نالو ڏنو، جڏهن ته لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه ڏينهن پوءِ [[فلپ ملر]] ان کي ''ايلو بارباڊينسس'' جي نالي سان بيان ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Newton LE |year=1979 |title=In defense of the name ''Aloe vera'' |journal=The Cactus and Succulent Journal of Great Britain |volume=41 |pages=29–30}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[ڊي اين اي]] جي ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو آهي ته ''ايلو ويرا'' جو ويجهو تعلق ''[[ايلو پيريائي ]]'' سان آهي، جيڪا [[يمن]] جي مقامي قسم آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Darokar MP, Rai R, Gupta AK, Shasany AK, Rajkumar S, Sunderasan V, Khanuja SP |year=2003 |title=Molecular assessment of germplasm diversity in ''Aloe'' spp. using RAPD and AFLP analysis |journal=J. Med. Arom. Plant Sci. |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=354–361}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪلوروپلاسٽ]] ڊي اين اي ۽ [[مائڪروسيٽلائيٽ]] جي تجزين مان اهو پڻ ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته هن جو ويجهو تعلق ''[[ايلو فوربيسي]]''، ''[[ايلو اِنرمِس]]''، ''[[ايلو اسڪوبينيفوليا]]''، ''[[ايلو سنڪاٽان]]'' ۽ ''[[ايلو اسٽرياٽا]]'' سان پڻ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Treutlein&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Treutlein J, Smith GF, van Wyk BE, Wink W |year=2003 |title=Phylogenetic relationships in Asphodelaceae (Alooideae) inferred from chloroplast DNA sequences (rbcL, matK) and from genomic fingerprinting (ISSR) |journal=Taxon |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=193–207 |doi=10.2307/3647389 |jstor=3647389}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''A. striata'' کان سواءِ اهي سڀئي قسم [[سقطرى]] (يمن)، صوماليا ۽ سوڊان جا مقامي ٻوٽا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Treutlein&quot;/&gt;

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪنوار ٻوٽي يا''ايلو ويرا'' جون قدرتي جهنگلي آباديون واضح طور سڃاتل نه آهن، تنهنڪري ڪجهه نباتات دانن جو خيال آهي ته هي قسم شايد [[هائبرڊ]] اصل رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;Jones WD, Sacamano C. (2000). ''Landscape Plants for Dry Regions''. California Bill's Automotive Publishers.&lt;/ref&gt;

== وضاحت ==
[[File:Aloe Vera.jpg|thumb|right|اڇن داغن واري صورت، جنهن کي ''Aloe vera'' var. ''chinensis'' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي]]
[[File:Acta Eruditorum - IV botanica, 1688 – BEIC 13396043.jpg|thumb|1688ع ۾ [[ايڪٽا ايروڊيٽورم]] ۾ شايع ٿيل تاريخي تصوير]]

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' هڪ بي ٿڙ يا تمام ننڍي ٿڙ وارو ٻوٽو آهي، جيڪو عام طور تي {{convert|60-100|cm|in|abbr=off}} اوچو ٿيندو آهي ۽ [[آفسيٽ (نباتيات)|آفسيٽن]] (پاڙ وٽان نڪرندڙ ننڍن ٻوٽن) ذريعي پکڙجندو آهي.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;

=== پن ===
هن جا پن ٿلها، گوشتائتا، سائي کان سرمائي-سائي رنگ جا هوندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪجهه قسمن جي پنن جي مٿئين ۽ هيٺئين سطح تي اڇا داغ به هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;&gt;Yates A. (2002) ''Yates Garden Guide''. Harper Collins Australia&lt;/ref&gt; پنن جا ڪنارا [[پنن جا ڪنارا|ڏنديدار]] هوندا آهن ۽ انهن تي ننڍڙا اڇا ڪنڊا موجود هوندا آهن.

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جي پنن ۾ ڪيترائي [[فائٽوڪيميڪل]] مرڪب موجود هوندا آهن، جن تي ممڪن حياتياتي اثرن بابت تحقيق جاري آهي. انهن ۾ [[لگنن]]، [[فائٽواسٽرول]]، [[پولي فينول]]، ايسيٽائيليٽيڊ [[مينن]]، پولي مينن، [[اينٿراڪينون]]، سي-[[گلائيڪوسائيڊ]]، [[اينٿرون]]، ۽ ٻيا اينٿراڪينون جهڙوڪ [[ايموڊن]]، گڏوگڏ مختلف [[ليڪٽن]] شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;King&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=King GK, Yates KM, Greenlee PG, Pierce KR, Ford CR, McAnalley BH, Tizard IR |title=The effect of Acemannan Immunostimulant in combination with surgery and radiation therapy on spontaneous canine and feline fibrosarcomas |journal=J Am Anim Hosp Assoc |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=439–447 |year=1995 |pmid=8542364 |doi=10.5326/15473317-31-5-439}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Eshun&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Eshun K, He Q |title=Aloe vera: a valuable ingredient for the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries—a review |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=91–96 |year=2004 |pmid=15116756 |doi=10.1080/10408690490424694 |s2cid=21241302}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گل ===
هن ٻوٽي جا گل اونهاري جي موسم ۾ لڳندا آهن. گلن جو خوشو {{convert|90|cm|in|abbr=on}} تائين اوچو ٿي سگهي ٿو. هر گل هيٺ لڙڪندڙ هوندو آهي ۽ ان جي [[گل ڇلر]] (Corolla) نلي نما، پيلي رنگ جي ۽ {{convert|2-3|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} ڊگهي هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;&gt;{{cite book |date=2001 |title=Botanica's Pocket Gardening Encyclopedia for Australian Gardeners |publisher=Random House Publishers |isbn=9781740514347}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== پاڙون ===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' ٻين ''ايلو'' قسمن وانگر [[آربسڪيولر مائيڪورائزا]] ٺاهي ٿو، جيڪا پاڙن ۽ [[فنگس]] جي وچ ۾ هڪ [[هم زيستي]] تعلق آهي. ان جي ذريعي ٻوٽي کي مٽي مان معدني غذائي جزا وڌيڪ مؤثر نموني حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ مدد ملي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Gong M. |author2=Wang F. |author3=Chen Y |title=[Study on application of arbuscular-mycorrhizas in growing seedlings of Aloe vera] |language=zh |journal=Zhong Yao Cai |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=1–3 |year=2002 |pmid=12583231}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ورڇ ==
''ايلو ويرا'' کي اصل ڏکڻ-اوڀر [[عربستاني اپٻيٽ]] جي اتر-اوڀر [[عمان]] ۾ واقع [[حجر جبلن]] ۽ [[گڏيل عرب امارات]] جي اوڀرئين حصي جو مقامي ٻوٽو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=http://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |access-date=2020-12-07 |website=wcsp.science.kew.org |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101093147/https://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WCSP_298116&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=''Aloe vera'' |work=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=http://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |access-date=19 November 2017 |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101093147/https://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

بهرحال، هن ٻوٽي جي دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي پوک ڪئي وئي آهي، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ اهو [[اتر آفريڪا]]، [[سوڊان]] ۽ ان جي پاڙيسري ملڪن، [[ڪينري ٻيٽ]]، [[ڪيپ ورڊي]] ۽ [[مڊيرا ٻيٽ]] ۾ قدرتي طور به وڌڻ لڳو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;AFPD&quot;/&gt; هي [[پورچوگال]] جي [[الگاروي]] علائقي ۾ پڻ قدرتي طور پکڙجي ويو آهي،&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/38807075.pdf |title=Exotic naturalized flora of continental Portugal – A reassessment |date=2006 |access-date=16 July 2020 |author= Domingues de Almeida, J &amp; Freitas |publisher=core.ac.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |journal=Bradleya |title=Aloe arborescens Mill. and Aloe Vera spreading in Portugal |date=2009 |author= Gideon F Smith, Estrela Figueiredo |publisher=bioone |doi=10.25223/brad.n27.2009.a4 |hdl=2263/14380 |s2cid=82872880 |hdl-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اسپين]] جي جهنگلي علائقن، خاص طور تي [[مرثيا]] واري علائقي ۾ به ملي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://caermurcia.com/jornada-tecnica-de-cultivo-ecologico-de-aloe-vera-en-murcia/ |title=Aloe Vera Cultivation in Murcia |date=9 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي نسل سترهين صديءَ دوران [[چين]] ۽ ڏکڻ [[يورپ]] جي مختلف حصن ۾ متعارف ڪرايو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;Farooqi, A. A. and Sreeramu, B. S. (2001) ''Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops''. Orient Longman, India. {{ISBN|8173712514}}. p. 25.&lt;/ref&gt; اڄڪلهه هي دنيا جي ٻين ڪيترن ئي خشڪ، نيم گرم ۽ گرم آبهوا وارن علائقن ۾ قدرتي طور ملي ٿو.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;&lt;ref name=WCSP_298116/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;kew&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:530017-1 |title=Aloe vera |date=2016 |access-date=10 August 2016 |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ٻوٽي جي موجوده عالمي ورڇ گهڻي ڀاڱي انساني پوک ۽ منتقلي جو نتيجو سمجهي وڃي ٿي.&lt;ref name=hb/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&amp;taxon_id=200027555 &quot;Aloe vera (Linnaeus) Burman f., Fl. Indica. 83. 1768.&quot;] in ''Flora of North America'' Vol. 26, p. 411&lt;/ref&gt;

== پوک ۽ سنڀال ==
[[File:Aloe vera A.jpg|thumb|right|آرائشي ٻوٽي طور]]
&lt;!-- تصوير ۾ اصل ۾ Aloe maculata ڏيکاريل آهي، نه Aloe vera
[[File:Aloevera-mite.jpg|thumb|right|جُوئن جي حملي سان متاثر ٿيل ايلو ويرا]]
--&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' کي سڄي دنيا ۾ وڏي پيماني تي آرائشي ٻوٽي طور پوکيو وڃي ٿو. هي ٻوٽو جديد باغباني ۾ پنهنجي دوائن واري استعمال،&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; خوبصورت گلن، منفرد بناوت ۽ رس ڀريل پنن سبب گهڻو پسند ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان جي رس ڀريل طبيعت (succulence) سبب هي گهٽ برسات وارن علائقن ۾ به آسانيءَ سان زنده رهي سگهي ٿو، تنهنڪري پٿرن وارن باغن ۽ گهٽ پاڻي گهرندڙ باغن لاءِ هڪ موزون ٻوٽو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;/&gt; هي نسل [[سختي جا علائقا|سختي جي علائقن]] 8 کان 11 تائين سٺي نموني وڌي سگهي ٿو، پر سخت پالي ۽ برف کي برداشت نٿو ڪري سگهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/gardening/plants/plant_finder/plant_pages/7686.shtml |title=BBC Gardening, ''Aloe vera'' |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=11 July 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي ٻوٽو گهڻن ئي جيت جڻين کان محفوظ رهندو آهي، پر [[مڪڙيءَ جي جُوءِ]]، [[ميلي بگ]]، [[اسڪيل جيت]] ۽ [[ماڪڙيون (ايفڊ)|ايفڊ]] جهڙا جيت ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جي واڌ ويجهه ۽ صحت کي متاثر ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/ento/a-myersi.html |title=Pest Alert: ''Aloe vera'' aphid ''Aloephagus myersi'' Essi. |publisher=Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services |access-date=11 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612155315/http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/ento/a-myersi.html |archive-date=12 June 2008 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mobot.org/gardeninghelp/PlantFinder/plant.asp?code=B628 |title=Kemper Center for Home Gardening: ''Aloe vera'' |publisher=Missouri Botanic Gardens |access-date=11 July 2008 |archive-date=27 May 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050527084103/http://www.mobot.org/gardeninghelp/PlantFinder/plant.asp?code=B628 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ٻوٽي کي [[رائل هارٽيڪلچرل سوسائٽي]] پاران [[گارڊن ميرٽ ايوارڊ]] پڻ ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/981/Aloe-vera/Details |title=RHS Plant Selector ''Aloe vera'' AGM / RHS Gardening |publisher=Apps.rhs.org.uk |access-date=9 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گملي ۾ پوکڻ وقت سٺي پاڻي نيڪال واري واريالي مٽي ۽ روشن، سج واري جڳهه ضروري آهي. گهڻي سڌي سج جي روشني سبب پن ڳاڙها ٿي سگهن ٿا، پر آهستي آهستي سج سان هم آهنگ ڪرڻ سان اهو مسئلو گهٽجي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Peerless |first1=Veronica |title=How Not to Kill Your Houseplant |date=2017 |publisher=DK Penguin Random House |pages=38–39}}&lt;/ref&gt; واپار ۾ ملندڙ ڪيڪٽس ۽ رس ڀرين ٻوٽن واري مٽي (''cacti and succulent mix'') هن ٻوٽي لاءِ مناسب هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها پاڻي جي نيڪال کي بهتر بڻائي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;GA&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/stories/s2280641.htm |title=Fact Sheet: ''Aloes'' |author=Coleby-Williams, J |date=21 June 2008 |publisher=Gardening Australia, Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=8 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706224700/http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/stories/s2280641.htm |archive-date=6 July 2008 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; مٽيءَ جا گملا وڌيڪ موزون سمجهيا وڃن ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي هوا ۽ نمي جي بهتر مٽاسٽا ڪن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;GA&quot;/&gt;

گملن ۾ پوکيل ٻوٽن کي ٻيهر پاڻي ڏيڻ کان اڳ مٽي مڪمل سڪي وڃڻ گهرجي. وقت سان گڏ ماءُ واري ٻوٽي جي چوڌاري ننڍا ٻوٽا (''پَپ'' يا شاخون) نڪرندا آهن. جيڪڏهن اهي گهڻا ٿي وڃن ته انهن کي ڌار ڪري نون گملن ۾ پوکي سگهجي ٿو، يا ماءُ واري ٻوٽي سان گڏ وڌڻ ڏنو وڃي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;/&gt; سياري ۾ ''ايلو ويرا'' اڪثر غيرفعال (Dormant) حالت ۾ هليو ويندو آهي، جنهن دوران ان کي تمام گهٽ پاڻي جي ضرورت هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;/&gt; جتي سخت پالو يا برفباري ٿيندي هجي، اتي هن ٻوٽي کي گهر اندر يا گرم شيشي جي گهر (گرين هائوس) ۾ رکڻ مناسب هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;/&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جي وڏي پيماني تي زرعي پوک [[آسٽريليا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2005/12/06/1524745.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120716111516/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2005/12/06/1524745.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 July 2012 |title=''Aloe vera'' producer signs $3m China deal |newspaper=ABC News |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |date=6 December 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪيوبا]]، [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريه]]، [[چين]]، [[ميڪسيڪو]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.dominicantoday.com/dr/economy/2006/7/7/15337/Korea-interested-in-Dominican-aloe-vera |title=Korea interested in Dominican 'aloe vera' |publisher=DominicanToday.com |date=7 July 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206062244/http://www.dominicantoday.com/dr/economy/2006/7/7/15337/Korea-interested-in-Dominican-aloe-vera |archive-date=6 December 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڀارت]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.wildsingapore.com/news/20051112/051211-1.htm |title=India experiments with farming medicinal plants |publisher=channelnewsasia.com |author=Varma, Vaibhav |date=11 December 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[جميڪا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20080117/eyes/eyes1.html |title=Harnessing the potential of our aloe |publisher=Jamaica Gleaner |access-date=19 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080324210301/http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20080117/eyes/eyes1.html |archive-date=24 March 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪينيا]]، [[تنزانيا]]، [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200708020872.html |title=Kenya: Imported Gel Hurts Aloe Vera Market |publisher=allafrica.com |author=Mburu, Solomon |date=2 August 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[اسپين]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=23 August 2015 |title=Córdoba is the Spanish province with more aloe vera crops (translated from Spanish) |url=http://sevilla.abc.es/andalucia/cordoba/20150824/sevi-aloe-vera-cordoba-201508232056.html |publisher=ABC-Córdoba}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون]] ۾ ڪئي وڃي ٿي،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.resourceinvestor.com/pebble.asp?relid=38588 |title=US Farms, Inc. – A Different Kind of Natural Resource Company |publisher=resourceinvestor.com |access-date=19 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917125506/http://www.resourceinvestor.com/pebble.asp?relid=38588 |archive-date=17 September 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ ان جي پيداوار جو وڏو حصو سينگار جي شين  جي صنعت ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;

==استعمال==
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي '' مان ٻه بنيادي مادا حاصل ڪيا ويندا آهن: هڪ شفاف [[جيل]] ۽ ٻيو پيلو [[ليٽڪس]]. انهن ٻنهي مان مختلف تجارتي شيون تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; ايلو ويرا جو جيل عام طور چمڙي تي لڳائڻ وارين دوائن ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ساڙ، زخم، ٿڌ جي ڪري ٿيندڙ چمڙي جي نقصان، [[چمڙي جي ريش]]، [[سورائسس]]، [[لبن جو هرپس]] (ٿڌ جا ڦٽا) ۽ خشڪ چمڙي جي علاج لاءِ.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; ڪنوار ٻوٽي جو ليٽڪس الڳ يا ٻين جزن سان گڏ اهڙي شين ۾ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي [[قبض]] کان آرام لاءِ وات ذريعي استعمال ڪيون وڃن.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; ليٽڪس کي خشڪ ڪري ''رال'' يا ''خشڪ ايلو رس'' جي صورت ۾ پڻ تيار ڪيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;EMA-ar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/herbal-report/final-assessment-report-aloe-barbadensis-mill-aloe-various-species-mainly-aloe-ferox-mill-its_en.pdf |title=Assessment report on ''Aloe barbadensis'' Mill. and on Aloe (various species, mainly ''Aloe ferox'' Mill. and its hybrids), folii succus siccatus |publisher=European Medicines Agency|date=22 November 2016|access-date=29 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تحقيقي مطالعي مان اڃا تائين اهو واضح ثابت نه ٿي سگهيو آهي ته ''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' زخم يا ساڙ جي علاج ۾ يقيني طور اثرائتو آهي يا نه.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; بهرحال، چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ [[سورائسس]]، [[مهاندا]] يا چمڙي جي ريش جهڙين حالتن جون علامتون گهٽجي سگهن ٿيون،&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; جڏهن ته ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ ان سان [[الرجي]] به ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جو جيل واپاري طور [[ڏهي]]، مشروبات ۽ ڪجهه مٺاڻن ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Reynolds&quot;/&gt; پر ليٽڪس يا سڄي پن مان تيار ڪيل عرق کي وڏي مقدار ۾ يا گهڻي عرصي تائين استعمال ڪرڻ زهريلو ثابت ٿي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt; چمڙي تي ٿوري مقدار ۾ استعمال عام طور محفوظ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt;

===چمڙي تي استعمال ۽ ممڪن ضمني اثر===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' کي [[لوشن]]، [[جيل]]، صابڻ يا چمڙي جي سينگار وارين شين جي صورت ۾ تيار ڪري چمڙي تي لڳايو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt; ان جي جيل جو تيزابيت وارو درجو (pH) تقريباً 4.4 کان 4.7 هوندو آهي،&lt;ref name=guo/&gt; جيڪو ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان هلڪي ساڙ، جلن يا [[ريش]] جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;

جن ماڻهن کي ''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' سان [[الرجي]] هجي، انهن ۾ چمڙي جي سوزش، هلڪي ڳاڙهاڻ، خارش، ساهه کڻڻ ۾ تڪليف يا چهري، چپن، زبان يا ڳلي جي سُوجهه جهڙا ردِعمل ظاهر ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt;

===غذائي اضافو===
[[File:Aloin_structure.png|thumb|right|ايلوئن]]
[[ايلوئن]]، جيڪو ''ايلو'' جي ڪجهه نسلن جي نيم سيال ليٽڪس ۾ موجود هڪ تمام ڪڙو مرڪب آهي، 2002ع تائين آمريڪا ۾ بغير نسخي جي وڪرو ٿيندڙ قبض ختم ڪرڻ وارين دوائن ۾ عام جزو طور استعمال ٿيندو هو. بعد ۾ [[آمريڪي خوراڪ ۽ دوائن واري اداري]] (FDA) ان جي استعمال تي پابندي لڳائي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٺاهيندڙ ڪمپنيون ان جي حفاظت بابت گهربل سائنسي ثبوت مهيا نه ڪري سگهيون.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title = Status of certain additional over-the-counter drug category II and III active ingredients. Final rule |journal = Fed Regist |volume = 67 |issue = 90 |pages = 31125–7 |year = 2002 |pmid = 12001972 |last1 = Food Drug Administration |first1 = HHS|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2002-05-09/pdf/02-11510.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' ۽ ان جا الڪوحلي عرق ڪجهه مقدار کان وڌيڪ استعمال ڪرڻ سان زهريلا اثر پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا، جيڪي چمڙي تي لڳائڻ يا وات ذريعي استعمال ٻنهي صورتن ۾ ظاهر ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt; جيتوڻيڪ تياري دوران ايلوئن ڪڍي ڇڏڻ سان زهريت گهٽجي سگهي ٿي، پر وڏي مقدار ۾ استعمال ڪرڻ سان پيٽ جو سور، دست يا [[هيپاٽائٽس]] جهڙا اثر پيدا ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Bottenberg MM, Wall GC, Harvey RL, Habib S 2007 1740–3&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors = Bottenberg MM, Wall GC, Harvey RL, Habib S |title = Oral aloe vera-induced hepatitis |journal = Ann Pharmacother |volume = 41 |issue = 10 |pages = 1740–3 |year = 2007 |pmid = 17726067 |doi = 10.1345/aph.1K132 |s2cid = 25553593 }}&lt;/ref&gt; ڊگهي عرصي تائين روزانو لڳ ڀڳ هڪ گرام استعمال ڪرڻ سان پيشاب ۾ رت اچڻ، وزن گهٽجڻ، دل يا گردن جا مسئلا پيدا ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جو رس هاضمي جي صحت لاءِ فائديمند هجڻ جي دعويٰ سان وڪرو ڪيو ويندو آهي، پر هن دعويٰ جي حمايت ۾ نه ڪو مضبوط سائنسي ثبوت موجود آهي ۽ نه ئي ڪنهن ضابطي واري اداري ان جي منظوري ڏني آهي.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;mayo&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements-aloe/art-20362267 |title=''Aloe'' (''Aloe vera'') |publisher=Mayo Clinic |date=17 September 2017 |access-date=21 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===روايتي طب===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' روايتي طب ۾ چمڙي جي علاج لاءِ هزارين سالن کان استعمال ٿيندو رهيو آهي. ان جي استعمال جا قديم ترين لکيل حوالا چوٿين هزارين سال [[ق م]] تائين ملن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt; ان جو ذڪر 512ع ۾ لکيل ''[[جوليانا انيشيا ڪوڊيڪس]]'' ۾ پڻ موجود آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Reynolds&quot;&gt;Reynolds, Tom (Ed.) (2004) ''Aloes: The genus Aloe (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants - Industrial Profiles''. CRC Press. {{ISBN|978-0415306720}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|9}}

===تجارتي شيون===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' چهري صاف ڪرڻ وارين ٽشوز ۾ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي، جتي ان کي نمي برقرار رکڻ ۽ نڪ جي چمڙي جي خارش گهٽائڻ واري جزو طور پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي. سينگار جي شين ٺاهيندڙ ڪمپنيون ان جو رس يا ان جا ٻيا نڪتل جزا ميڪ اپ، ٽشوز، موئسچرائزر، صابڻ، سن اسڪرين، اگربتي، شيونگ ڪريم ۽ شيمپو جهڙين شين ۾ شامل ڪنديون آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Reynolds&quot;/&gt; علمي جائزي موجب، صفائي ۽ سينگار جي ڪيترين ئي شين ۾ ان جو استعمال بنيادي طور ان جي چمڙي کي نرم ۽ نمي فراهم ڪندڙ خاصيت سبب ڪيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eshun&quot;/&gt; سينگار جي صنعت ۾ ايلو جي عرق ۾ اينٿراڪينون جي مقدار وڌ ۾ وڌ 50 پي پي ايم تائين محدود رکڻ جي سفارش ڪئي ويندي آهي.&lt;ref name=expert/&gt;

==زهريت==
وات ذريعي استعمال ڪيل ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جي اهڙي سڄي پن واري عرق کي، جنهن مان رنگ ختم نه ڪيو ويو هجي، [[ڪيليفورنيا آفيس آف انوائرنمينٽل هيلٿ هيزرڊ اسيسمينٽ]] انهن &quot;ڪيميائي مادن&quot; ۾ شامل ڪيو آهي جيڪي رياست موجب [[سرطان]] يا توليدي نظام لاءِ نقصانڪار ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.oehha.ca.gov/prop65/CRNR_notices/list_changes/120415listAloeGoldenseal.html |title=Chemicals Listed Effective December 4, 2015, as Known to the State of California to Cause Cancer: Aloe Vera, Non-Decolorized Whole Leaf Extract, and Goldenseal Root Powder |publisher=California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment |date=4 December 2015 |access-date=21 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهو خطرو غالباً ان ۾ موجود [[اينٿراڪينون]] مرڪبن جي ڪري هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;

2016ع کان وٺي، [[سرطان بابت تحقيق جي عالمي اداري]] (IARC) ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جي سڄي پن واري عرق کي انسانن لاءِ ''ممڪن سرطان پيدا ڪندڙ مادو'' (گروپ 2B) جي درجي ۾ شامل ڪيو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=IARC Monographs on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans |url=https://monographs.iarc.who.int/list-of-classifications/ |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=27 April 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

چمڙي تي ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جو استعمال عام طور تي ڪنهن اهم ضمني اثر سان لاڳاپيل نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt; پر وات ذريعي ان جو استعمال ممڪن طور زهريلو ٿي سگهي ٿو،&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt; ۽ ان سان [[پيٽ ۾ سور]]، [[پيٽ جا اينٺ]] ۽ [[دست]] ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪي وري ٻين دوائن جي جسم ۾ جذب ٿيڻ جي صلاحيت کي گهٽائي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;

===نسخي وارين دوائن سان تعامل===
وات ذريعي استعمال ٿيندڙ ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جون شيون ڪجهه نسخي وارين دوائن سان نقصانڪار [[دوائن جو تعامل|تعامل]] پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿيون، جهڙوڪ [[رت جا دڳ جمن]] جي علاج، [[شگر جي بيماري]]، [[دل جي بيماري]]، [[پوٽاشيم]] گهٽائيندڙ دوائون (مثال طور [[ڊيجوڪسن]]) ۽ [[پيشاب آور دوائون]] سميت ٻين دوائن سان.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt;

==تصويرون==
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;140px&quot;&gt;
File:Aloe vera leaf showing the gel (1).JPG|پن ۽ ان جي اندر موجود جيل
File:Aloe vera gel.jpg|[[مٺاڻ]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جو جيل
File:Es Lidah Buaya.JPG|''ايس لِداه بُوايا''، انڊونيشيا جو ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) سان تيار ڪيل ٿڌو مشروب
File:Gelaloevera.JPG|ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جو رس
File:Cut Aloe Vera Leaf.jpg|ڪٽيل پن
File:Aloe vera cut leaf drawing1.jpg|پن جو خاڪو: 1. ڪيوٽيڪل، 2. ڪلوروفل وارو پيرينڪائما، 3. اندريون بافتو، 4. نسن جا بنڊل
File:Aloe Vera Buds.jpg|گلن جون ڪليون
File:Aloe Vera flower.jpg|گلن جون ڪليون
File:Aloe vera flower 2.jpg|گل
File:AloeBluhendD2.JPG|مختلف ماپن جا ٻوٽا
File:A potted aloe vera plant.jpg|گملي ۾ پوکيل ايلو ويرا
File:Aloe plant bud.jpg|[[بنيادي شاخون (روٽ اسپرائوٽس)]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}

==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Commons category|Aloe vera}}

* {{cite web
 |title=ٽيڪسون: ''Aloe vera'' (L.) Burm. f.
 |url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?id=311403
 |website=آمريڪا جو قومي ٻوٽن جي جينياتي وسيلن جو نظام
 |access-date=8 March 2020
}}

{{Medicinal herbs &amp; fungi}}
{{taxonbar|from=Q80079}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aloe vera}}

[[زمرو:ايلو]]
[[زمرو:خشڪي سَهندڙ ٻوٽا]]
[[زمرو:عربستاني اپٻيٽ جي نباتات]]
[[زمرو:آفريڪا جا باغيچا ٻوٽا]]

[[زمرو:ٻوٽا]]</text>
      <sha1>kydapzeqg2oi12byefk7spcx347q7ql</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399348</id>
      <parentid>399347</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T22:48:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399348</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="43222" sha1="63rotcdjqxjoii87mi1gfg1fy3qnail" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|ٻوٽي جي قسم}}


{{Speciesbox
| taxon = Aloe vera
| image = Aloe_vera_flower_inset.png
| image_upright = 1.2
| image_caption = ٻوٽو، گل جي ويجهي تصوير سان
| authority = ([[ڪارل لنيئس|L.]]) [[نيڪولاس لارنس برمن|Burm.f.]]
| synonyms =
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' &lt;small&gt;Mill.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe barbadensis'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;Haw.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe elongata'' &lt;small&gt;Murray&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe flava'' &lt;small&gt;Pers.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe indica'' &lt;small&gt;Royle&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Tod.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe maculata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe perfoliata'' var. ''vera'' &lt;small&gt;L.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe rubescens'' &lt;small&gt;DC.&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe variegata'' &lt;small&gt;Forssk.&lt;/small&gt; (غير جائز)
* ''Aloe vera'' &lt;small&gt;Mill. (غير جائز)&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''chinensis'' &lt;small&gt;(Haw.) A. Berger&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''lanzae'' &lt;small&gt;Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vera'' var. ''littoralis'' &lt;small&gt;J.Koenig ex Baker&lt;/small&gt;
* ''Aloe vulgaris'' &lt;small&gt;Lam.&lt;/small&gt;
| synonyms_ref = &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/18403421?tab=synonyms Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.] Tropicos.org&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WFO&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=''Aloe vera'' L. Burm.f. Fl. Indica : 83 (1768) |url=http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000758976 |website=World Flora Online |date=2022 |publisher=World Flora Consortium |access-date=16 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

'''ڪنوار ٻوٽي: انگريزي ۾ ايلو ويرا '''  '''''Aloe vera''''''
جنهن کي سنڌيءَ ۾ '''پَٽِ ڪُنوار'''،  يا '''ايريال''' پڻ چيو وڃي ٿو، [[رسدار ٻوٽو|رسدار ٻوٽن]] جي [[قسم (حياتيات)|قسم]] مان آهي ۽ [[ايلو]] (''Aloe'') [[جنس (حياتيات)|جنس]] سان تعلق رکي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/4192 |title=Aloe vera (true aloe) |date=13 February 2019 |publisher=[[سينٽر فار ايگريڪلچر اينڊ بايو سائنس انٽرنيشنل]] |access-date=15 October 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي ٻوٽو دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي پکڙيل آهي، ۽ ڪيترن هنڌن تي ان کي [[دخل انداز قسم]] پڻ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Aloe |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/aloe.html |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=8 June 2026 |date=19 November 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي هڪ [[سدابهار]] ۽ [[گهڻ سالي ٻوٽو]] آهي، جنهن جو اصل وطن [[جزيرو نما عربستان]] آهي، پر اهو دنيا جي ٻين گرم، نيم گرم ۽ خشڪ علائقن ۾ به جهنگلي حالت ۾ وڌندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt; ان جي تجارتي پوک پڻ ڪئي ويندي آهي، ۽ صدين کان ان کي چمڙي تي لڳائڻ واري [[مقامي دوا]] طور استعمال ڪيو ويندو رهيو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cabi&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt; هي ٻوٽو سينگار لاءِ پڻ مشهور آهي ۽ گهڻو ڪري گهرن اندر [[گملي]] ۾ پوکيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://homeguides.sfgate.com/aloe-tropical-plant-67510.html |website=[[ايس ايف گيٽ]] |last=Perkins |first=Cyndi |title=Is Aloe a tropical plant? |date=13 March 2013 |access-date=13 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا)'' جي پنن ۾ [[پوليسيڪرائڊ]] قسم جو جيل '''[[ايسيمينن]]''' (Acemannan) وڏي مقدار ۾ موجود هوندو آهي، جيڪو چمڙي تي لڳائڻ لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Chang |last2=Cui |first2=Yan |last3=Pi |first3=Fuwei |last4=Cheng |first4=Yuliang |last5=Guo |first5=Yahui |last6=Qian |first6=He |date=2019-04-19 |title=Extraction, Purification, Structural Characteristics, Biological Activities and Pharmacological Applications of Acemannan, a Polysaccharide from Aloe vera: A Review |journal=Molecules |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=1554 |doi=10.3390/molecules24081554 |pmc=6515206 |pmid=31010204 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; پنن ۾ '''[[ايلوئن]]''' (Aloin) نالي هڪ زهريلو مرڪب پڻ موجود هوندو آهي. تجارتي ''ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا)'' جون گهڻيون شيون هن جيل مان تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن.

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا)'' مان حاصل ٿيندڙ ايسيمينن تي ٻڌل جيل چمڙي جي لوشنن، [[سينگار جو سامان|سينگار جي شين]]، مرهمن ۽ جيلن ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، خاص طور تي معمولي سڙڻ، چمڙي جي هلڪي ڇلن، جيتن جي چڪ ۽ هوا سبب چمڙي جي جلن جي علاج لاءِ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Surjushe |first1=Amar |last2=Vasani |first2=Resham |last3=Saple |first3=D G |date=2008 |title=Aloe vera: A short review |journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=163–166 |doi=10.4103/0019-5154.44785 |pmc=2763764 |pmid=19882025 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) '' جي عرق کي وات ذريعي استعمال ڪرڻ سان تيز پيٽ جو سور، اينٺون ۽ ڊگهي عرصي تائين استعمال جي صورت ۾ [[هيپاٽائٽس]] ٿي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/aloe-vera |title=Aloe vera |publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health |date=1 February 2025 |access-date=8 June 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; حمل دوران ان جو استعمال نه ڪرڻ گهرجي. ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان [[الرجي]] پڻ ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;

ھي ٻُوٽو آهي جيڪو، [[سنڌ]]، [[پاڪستان]] توڙي سڄي دنيا ۾ ٿئي ٿو جنهن جي ڪٽنب ۾ ڪيترائي نمونا ٿين ٿا جن جا سائنسي نالا پڻ مختلف ٿين ٿا. هن ٻوٽي جا پن اڪثر سائي رنگ جا ٿيندا آهن پر ڪن ملڪن ۾ ڳاڙهي رنگ جا ٻہ ٿيندا آهن. هن جا پن ٻاهر بجاءِ اندر وڪوڙيل ٿيندا آهن جنهن ڪري شايد سنڌي ٻوليءَ ۾ ڪنوار ٻوٽي سڏيو ويو آهي. هيءُ ٻوٽو اڪثر جبلن ۾ ٿئي ٿو پر هٿرادو طور بہ پوکيو ويندو آهي. هن ٻوٽي جي پنن ۾ کير نما رس ٿيندي آهي جيڪا دوا طور ڪم ايندي آهي. هن ٻوٽي کي [[اٺ]] ۽ [[ٻڪري]] شوق سان کائيندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://worldofsucculents.com/aloe-perfoliata-rubble-aloe-mitre-aloe/|title=Aloe perfoliata (Mitre Aloe)|date=2014-03-09|website=World of Succulents|language=en-US|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=http://www.sindhiadabiboard.org/Catalogue/History/Book21/Book_page6.html|title=Sindhi Adabi Board Online Library (History)|website=www.sindhiadabiboard.org|access-date=2020-07-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;


ھي ھڪ جهنگلي ٻوٽو آھي، ان ۾ رڳو ڊگها پن وارا ڦڙها ٿين ٿا، پنن جا پاسا ڪنڊن وارا ٿين. طبي لحاظ کان ايريال يا  ڪنوار ٻوٽي ڪيترين بيمارين کي فائدو پھچائي ٿو. سخت سوڄ تي ايريال جا ڦڙها چيري، گرم ڪري، هئڊ مکي، ٻڌندا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=ايريال : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt; |url=http://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |accessdate=2024-05-30 |archive-date=2024-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240531181831/https://encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84 |dead-url=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== نالي جي بڻ ==
[[File:Aloe Vera houseplant.jpg|thumb|پنن جي ڪنارن تي ڏند جهڙا ڪنڊا]]

[[جنس (حياتيات)|جنس]] ''[[ايلو]]'' (''Aloe'') جو نالو [[عربي ٻولي|عربي]] لفظ ''الُوَّه'' (''alloeh'') مان نڪتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي &quot;ڪڙو ۽ چمڪندڙ مادو&quot;، يا وري [[عبراني ٻولي|عبراني]] {{lang|he|אוהלים}} ''اھالم'' (واحد: {{lang|he|אוהל}} ''اھل'') مان ورتل آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;oed&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/aloe |title=Aloe |last1=Harper |first1=Douglas |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=1 July 2021 |date=2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;guo&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Xiaoqing |last2=Mei |first2=Nan |title=Aloe vera: A review of toxicity and adverse clinical effects |journal=J Environ Sci Health C Environ Carcinog Ecotoxicol Rev |date=2 April 2016 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=77–96 |doi=10.1080/10590501.2016.1166826 |pmid=26986231 |pmc=6349368 |bibcode=2016JESHC..34...77G}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.balashon.com/2008/03/aloe.html |title=Aloe |last1=Curwin |first1=David |date=16 March 2008 |website=Balashon - Hebrew Language Detective |access-date=16 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[نوعي لقب]] ''ويرا'' لاطيني لفظ ''ويرس'' مان ورتل آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي &quot;حقيقي&quot; يا &quot;اصلي&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;guo&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=verus |title=vērus |last1=Lewis |first1=Charlton T. |last2=Short |first2=Charles |dictionary=A Latin Dictionary |publisher=Perseus Digital Library |date=1879}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== عام نالا ===
هن ٻوٽي جا عام نالا گهڻو ڪري ان جي ورڇ يا علائقي جي نسبت سان رکيا ويا آهن، جهڙوڪ ''چيني ايلو''، ''ڪيپ ايلو'' ۽ ''[[بارباڊوس]] ايلو''.&lt;ref name=&quot;drugs&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Liao Z, Chen M, Tan F, Sun X, Tang K |year=2004 |title=Micropropagation of endangered Chinese aloe |journal=Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=83–86 |doi=10.1023/A:1025868515705 |s2cid=41623664}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;expert&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel |title=Final Report on the Safety Assessment of Aloe Andongensis Extract, Aloe Andongensis Leaf Juice, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Extract, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Juice, Aloe Arborescens Leaf Protoplasts, Aloe Barbadensis Flower Extract, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Extract, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Juice, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Polysaccharides, Aloe Barbadensis Leaf Water, Aloe Ferox Leaf Extract, Aloe Ferox Leaf Juice, and Aloe Ferox Leaf Juice Extract |journal=International Journal of Toxicology |volume=26 |issue=Suppl 2 |pages=1–50 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/10915810701351186 |year=2007 |pmid=17613130 |doi=10.1080/10915810701351186 |s2cid=86018076}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== درجابندي ===
هن قسم جا ڪيترائي [[هم معنيٰ نالا (حياتياتي درجابندي)|هم معنيٰ سائنسي نالا]] آهن، جن ۾ ''ايلو بارباڊينس'' مل.، ''ايلو انڊيڪا'' رايل، ''ايلو پرفوليئاٽا'' var. ''ويرا'' ايل. ۽ ''ايلو ولگرس'' لام. شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;AFPD&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa/details.php?langue=an&amp;id=155971 |title=''Aloe vera'', African flowering plants database |publisher=Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève |access-date=19 November 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Aloe%20vera |title=Taxon: Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. |publisher=Germplasm Resources Information Network, United States Department of Agriculture |access-date=16 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924131123/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Aloe%20vera |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪجهه علمي حوالن ۾ اڇن داغن واري صورت کي ''ايلو ويرا'' var. ''چائنينسس'' سڏيو ويو آهي،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Wang H, Li F, Wang T, Li J, Li J, Yang X, Li J |title=[Determination of aloin content in callus of Aloe vera var. chinensis] |language=zh |journal=Zhong Yao Cai |volume=27 |issue=9 |pages=627–628 |year=2004 |pmid=15704580}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Gao W, Xiao P |title=[Peroxidase and soluble protein in the leaves of Aloe vera L. var. chinensis (Haw.) Berger] |language=zh |journal=Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi |volume=22 |issue=11 |pages=653–654, 702 |year=1997 |pmid=11243179}}&lt;/ref&gt; جڏهن ته داغدار صورت کي ''اي. مساوانا'' سان هڪ ئي قسم سمجهيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;hb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://huntingtonbotanical.org/Desert/Cholla/feb06/feb06.htm |title=The Definitive ''Aloe vera'', vera? |author=Lyons G |publisher=Huntington Botanic Gardens |access-date=11 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725090154/http://www.huntingtonbotanical.org/Desert/Cholla/feb06/feb06.htm |archive-date=25 July 2008 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هن قسم کي پهريون ڀيرو [[ڪارل لنيئس]] 1753ع ۾ ''ايلو پرفوليئاٽا'' var. ''ويرا'' جي نالي سان بيان ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;لنيئيوس, ڪارل (1753). ''اسپيشيز plantarum''. Vol. 2.&lt;/ref&gt; بعد ۾ 6 اپريل 1768ع تي [[نيڪولاس لارنس برمن]] پنهنجي ڪتاب ''فلورا انڊڪا'' ۾ ان کي ''ايلو ويرا'' نالو ڏنو، جڏهن ته لڳ ڀڳ ڏهه ڏينهن پوءِ [[فلپ ملر]] ان کي ''ايلو بارباڊينسس'' جي نالي سان بيان ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Newton LE |year=1979 |title=In defense of the name ''Aloe vera'' |journal=The Cactus and Succulent Journal of Great Britain |volume=41 |pages=29–30}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[ڊي اين اي]] جي ڀيٽ تي ٻڌل تحقيق مان معلوم ٿيو آهي ته ''ايلو ويرا'' جو ويجهو تعلق ''[[ايلو پيريائي ]]'' سان آهي، جيڪا [[يمن]] جي مقامي قسم آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Darokar MP, Rai R, Gupta AK, Shasany AK, Rajkumar S, Sunderasan V, Khanuja SP |year=2003 |title=Molecular assessment of germplasm diversity in ''Aloe'' spp. using RAPD and AFLP analysis |journal=J. Med. Arom. Plant Sci. |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=354–361}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪلوروپلاسٽ]] ڊي اين اي ۽ [[مائڪروسيٽلائيٽ]] جي تجزين مان اهو پڻ ظاهر ٿيو آهي ته هن جو ويجهو تعلق ''[[ايلو فوربيسي]]''، ''[[ايلو اِنرمِس]]''، ''[[ايلو اسڪوبينيفوليا]]''، ''[[ايلو سنڪاٽان]]'' ۽ ''[[ايلو اسٽرياٽا]]'' سان پڻ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Treutlein&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Treutlein J, Smith GF, van Wyk BE, Wink W |year=2003 |title=Phylogenetic relationships in Asphodelaceae (Alooideae) inferred from chloroplast DNA sequences (rbcL, matK) and from genomic fingerprinting (ISSR) |journal=Taxon |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=193–207 |doi=10.2307/3647389 |jstor=3647389}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''A. striata'' کان سواءِ اهي سڀئي قسم [[سقطرى]] (يمن)، صوماليا ۽ سوڊان جا مقامي ٻوٽا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Treutlein&quot;/&gt;

ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ڪنوار ٻوٽي يا''ايلو ويرا'' جون قدرتي جهنگلي آباديون واضح طور سڃاتل نه آهن، تنهنڪري ڪجهه نباتات دانن جو خيال آهي ته هي قسم شايد [[هائبرڊ]] اصل رکي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;Jones WD, Sacamano C. (2000). ''Landscape Plants for Dry Regions''. California Bill's Automotive Publishers.&lt;/ref&gt;

== وضاحت ==
[[File:Aloe Vera.jpg|thumb|right|اڇن داغن واري صورت، جنهن کي ''Aloe vera'' var. ''chinensis'' پڻ چيو ويندو آهي]]
[[File:Acta Eruditorum - IV botanica, 1688 – BEIC 13396043.jpg|thumb|1688ع ۾ [[ايڪٽا ايروڊيٽورم]] ۾ شايع ٿيل تاريخي تصوير]]

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' هڪ بي ٿڙ يا تمام ننڍي ٿڙ وارو ٻوٽو آهي، جيڪو عام طور تي {{convert|60-100|cm|in|abbr=off}} اوچو ٿيندو آهي ۽ [[آفسيٽ (نباتيات)|آفسيٽن]] (پاڙ وٽان نڪرندڙ ننڍن ٻوٽن) ذريعي پکڙجندو آهي.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;

=== پن ===
هن جا پن ٿلها، گوشتائتا، سائي کان سرمائي-سائي رنگ جا هوندا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪجهه قسمن جي پنن جي مٿئين ۽ هيٺئين سطح تي اڇا داغ به هوندا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;&gt;Yates A. (2002) ''Yates Garden Guide''. Harper Collins Australia&lt;/ref&gt; پنن جا ڪنارا [[پنن جا ڪنارا|ڏنديدار]] هوندا آهن ۽ انهن تي ننڍڙا اڇا ڪنڊا موجود هوندا آهن.

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جي پنن ۾ ڪيترائي [[فائٽوڪيميڪل]] مرڪب موجود هوندا آهن، جن تي ممڪن حياتياتي اثرن بابت تحقيق جاري آهي. انهن ۾ [[لگنن]]، [[فائٽواسٽرول]]، [[پولي فينول]]، ايسيٽائيليٽيڊ [[مينن]]، پولي مينن، [[اينٿراڪينون]]، سي-[[گلائيڪوسائيڊ]]، [[اينٿرون]]، ۽ ٻيا اينٿراڪينون جهڙوڪ [[ايموڊن]]، گڏوگڏ مختلف [[ليڪٽن]] شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;King&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=King GK, Yates KM, Greenlee PG, Pierce KR, Ford CR, McAnalley BH, Tizard IR |title=The effect of Acemannan Immunostimulant in combination with surgery and radiation therapy on spontaneous canine and feline fibrosarcomas |journal=J Am Anim Hosp Assoc |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=439–447 |year=1995 |pmid=8542364 |doi=10.5326/15473317-31-5-439}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Eshun&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Eshun K, He Q |title=Aloe vera: a valuable ingredient for the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries—a review |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=91–96 |year=2004 |pmid=15116756 |doi=10.1080/10408690490424694 |s2cid=21241302}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== گل ===
هن ٻوٽي جا گل اونهاري جي موسم ۾ لڳندا آهن. گلن جو خوشو {{convert|90|cm|in|abbr=on}} تائين اوچو ٿي سگهي ٿو. هر گل هيٺ لڙڪندڙ هوندو آهي ۽ ان جي [[گل ڇلر]] (Corolla) نلي نما، پيلي رنگ جي ۽ {{convert|2-3|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} ڊگهي هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;&gt;{{cite book |date=2001 |title=Botanica's Pocket Gardening Encyclopedia for Australian Gardeners |publisher=Random House Publishers |isbn=9781740514347}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== پاڙون ===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' ٻين ''ايلو'' قسمن وانگر [[آربسڪيولر مائيڪورائزا]] ٺاهي ٿو، جيڪا پاڙن ۽ [[فنگس]] جي وچ ۾ هڪ [[هم زيستي]] تعلق آهي. ان جي ذريعي ٻوٽي کي مٽي مان معدني غذائي جزا وڌيڪ مؤثر نموني حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ مدد ملي ٿي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Gong M. |author2=Wang F. |author3=Chen Y |title=[Study on application of arbuscular-mycorrhizas in growing seedlings of Aloe vera] |language=zh |journal=Zhong Yao Cai |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=1–3 |year=2002 |pmid=12583231}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ورڇ ==
''ايلو ويرا'' کي اصل ڏکڻ-اوڀر [[عربستاني اپٻيٽ]] جي اتر-اوڀر [[عمان]] ۾ واقع [[حجر جبلن]] ۽ [[گڏيل عرب امارات]] جي اوڀرئين حصي جو مقامي ٻوٽو سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=http://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |access-date=2020-12-07 |website=wcsp.science.kew.org |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101093147/https://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WCSP_298116&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=''Aloe vera'' |work=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=http://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |access-date=19 November 2017 |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101093147/https://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=298116 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

بهرحال، هن ٻوٽي جي دنيا جي ڪيترن ئي علائقن ۾ وڏي پيماني تي پوک ڪئي وئي آهي، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ اهو [[اتر آفريڪا]]، [[سوڊان]] ۽ ان جي پاڙيسري ملڪن، [[ڪينري ٻيٽ]]، [[ڪيپ ورڊي]] ۽ [[مڊيرا ٻيٽ]] ۾ قدرتي طور به وڌڻ لڳو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;AFPD&quot;/&gt; هي [[پورچوگال]] جي [[الگاروي]] علائقي ۾ پڻ قدرتي طور پکڙجي ويو آهي،&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/38807075.pdf |title=Exotic naturalized flora of continental Portugal – A reassessment |date=2006 |access-date=16 July 2020 |author= Domingues de Almeida, J &amp; Freitas |publisher=core.ac.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |journal=Bradleya |title=Aloe arborescens Mill. and Aloe Vera spreading in Portugal |date=2009 |author= Gideon F Smith, Estrela Figueiredo |publisher=bioone |doi=10.25223/brad.n27.2009.a4 |hdl=2263/14380 |s2cid=82872880 |hdl-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[اسپين]] جي جهنگلي علائقن، خاص طور تي [[مرثيا]] واري علائقي ۾ به ملي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://caermurcia.com/jornada-tecnica-de-cultivo-ecologico-de-aloe-vera-en-murcia/ |title=Aloe Vera Cultivation in Murcia |date=9 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي نسل سترهين صديءَ دوران [[چين]] ۽ ڏکڻ [[يورپ]] جي مختلف حصن ۾ متعارف ڪرايو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;Farooqi, A. A. and Sreeramu, B. S. (2001) ''Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops''. Orient Longman, India. {{ISBN|8173712514}}. p. 25.&lt;/ref&gt; اڄڪلهه هي دنيا جي ٻين ڪيترن ئي خشڪ، نيم گرم ۽ گرم آبهوا وارن علائقن ۾ قدرتي طور ملي ٿو.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;&lt;ref name=WCSP_298116/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;kew&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:530017-1 |title=Aloe vera |date=2016 |access-date=10 August 2016 |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ٻوٽي جي موجوده عالمي ورڇ گهڻي ڀاڱي انساني پوک ۽ منتقلي جو نتيجو سمجهي وڃي ٿي.&lt;ref name=hb/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&amp;taxon_id=200027555 &quot;Aloe vera (Linnaeus) Burman f., Fl. Indica. 83. 1768.&quot;] in ''Flora of North America'' Vol. 26, p. 411&lt;/ref&gt;

== پوک ۽ سنڀال ==
[[File:Aloe vera A.jpg|thumb|right|آرائشي ٻوٽي طور]]
&lt;!-- تصوير ۾ اصل ۾ Aloe maculata ڏيکاريل آهي، نه Aloe vera
[[File:Aloevera-mite.jpg|thumb|right|جُوئن جي حملي سان متاثر ٿيل ايلو ويرا]]
--&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' کي سڄي دنيا ۾ وڏي پيماني تي آرائشي ٻوٽي طور پوکيو وڃي ٿو. هي ٻوٽو جديد باغباني ۾ پنهنجي دوائن واري استعمال،&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; خوبصورت گلن، منفرد بناوت ۽ رس ڀريل پنن سبب گهڻو پسند ڪيو وڃي ٿو. ان جي رس ڀريل طبيعت (succulence) سبب هي گهٽ برسات وارن علائقن ۾ به آسانيءَ سان زنده رهي سگهي ٿو، تنهنڪري پٿرن وارن باغن ۽ گهٽ پاڻي گهرندڙ باغن لاءِ هڪ موزون ٻوٽو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yates&quot;/&gt; هي نسل [[سختي جا علائقا|سختي جي علائقن]] 8 کان 11 تائين سٺي نموني وڌي سگهي ٿو، پر سخت پالي ۽ برف کي برداشت نٿو ڪري سگهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/gardening/plants/plant_finder/plant_pages/7686.shtml |title=BBC Gardening, ''Aloe vera'' |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=11 July 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

هي ٻوٽو گهڻن ئي جيت جڻين کان محفوظ رهندو آهي، پر [[مڪڙيءَ جي جُوءِ]]، [[ميلي بگ]]، [[اسڪيل جيت]] ۽ [[ماڪڙيون (ايفڊ)|ايفڊ]] جهڙا جيت ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ان جي واڌ ويجهه ۽ صحت کي متاثر ڪري سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/ento/a-myersi.html |title=Pest Alert: ''Aloe vera'' aphid ''Aloephagus myersi'' Essi. |publisher=Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services |access-date=11 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612155315/http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/ento/a-myersi.html |archive-date=12 June 2008 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mobot.org/gardeninghelp/PlantFinder/plant.asp?code=B628 |title=Kemper Center for Home Gardening: ''Aloe vera'' |publisher=Missouri Botanic Gardens |access-date=11 July 2008 |archive-date=27 May 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050527084103/http://www.mobot.org/gardeninghelp/PlantFinder/plant.asp?code=B628 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ٻوٽي کي [[رائل هارٽيڪلچرل سوسائٽي]] پاران [[گارڊن ميرٽ ايوارڊ]] پڻ ڏنو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/981/Aloe-vera/Details |title=RHS Plant Selector ''Aloe vera'' AGM / RHS Gardening |publisher=Apps.rhs.org.uk |access-date=9 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

گملي ۾ پوکڻ وقت سٺي پاڻي نيڪال واري واريالي مٽي ۽ روشن، سج واري جڳهه ضروري آهي. گهڻي سڌي سج جي روشني سبب پن ڳاڙها ٿي سگهن ٿا، پر آهستي آهستي سج سان هم آهنگ ڪرڻ سان اهو مسئلو گهٽجي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Peerless |first1=Veronica |title=How Not to Kill Your Houseplant |date=2017 |publisher=DK Penguin Random House |pages=38–39}}&lt;/ref&gt; واپار ۾ ملندڙ ڪيڪٽس ۽ رس ڀرين ٻوٽن واري مٽي (''cacti and succulent mix'') هن ٻوٽي لاءِ مناسب هوندي آهي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اها پاڻي جي نيڪال کي بهتر بڻائي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;GA&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/stories/s2280641.htm |title=Fact Sheet: ''Aloes'' |author=Coleby-Williams, J |date=21 June 2008 |publisher=Gardening Australia, Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=8 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706224700/http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/stories/s2280641.htm |archive-date=6 July 2008 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; مٽيءَ جا گملا وڌيڪ موزون سمجهيا وڃن ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ اهي هوا ۽ نمي جي بهتر مٽاسٽا ڪن ٿا.&lt;ref name=&quot;GA&quot;/&gt;

گملن ۾ پوکيل ٻوٽن کي ٻيهر پاڻي ڏيڻ کان اڳ مٽي مڪمل سڪي وڃڻ گهرجي. وقت سان گڏ ماءُ واري ٻوٽي جي چوڌاري ننڍا ٻوٽا (''پَپ'' يا شاخون) نڪرندا آهن. جيڪڏهن اهي گهڻا ٿي وڃن ته انهن کي ڌار ڪري نون گملن ۾ پوکي سگهجي ٿو، يا ماءُ واري ٻوٽي سان گڏ وڌڻ ڏنو وڃي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;/&gt; سياري ۾ ''ايلو ويرا'' اڪثر غيرفعال (Dormant) حالت ۾ هليو ويندو آهي، جنهن دوران ان کي تمام گهٽ پاڻي جي ضرورت هوندي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peerless&quot;/&gt; جتي سخت پالو يا برفباري ٿيندي هجي، اتي هن ٻوٽي کي گهر اندر يا گرم شيشي جي گهر (گرين هائوس) ۾ رکڻ مناسب هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;BPGE&quot;/&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جي وڏي پيماني تي زرعي پوک [[آسٽريليا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2005/12/06/1524745.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120716111516/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2005/12/06/1524745.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 July 2012 |title=''Aloe vera'' producer signs $3m China deal |newspaper=ABC News |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |date=6 December 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪيوبا]]، [[ڊومينيڪن جمهوريه]]، [[چين]]، [[ميڪسيڪو]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.dominicantoday.com/dr/economy/2006/7/7/15337/Korea-interested-in-Dominican-aloe-vera |title=Korea interested in Dominican 'aloe vera' |publisher=DominicanToday.com |date=7 July 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206062244/http://www.dominicantoday.com/dr/economy/2006/7/7/15337/Korea-interested-in-Dominican-aloe-vera |archive-date=6 December 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڀارت]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.wildsingapore.com/news/20051112/051211-1.htm |title=India experiments with farming medicinal plants |publisher=channelnewsasia.com |author=Varma, Vaibhav |date=11 December 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[جميڪا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20080117/eyes/eyes1.html |title=Harnessing the potential of our aloe |publisher=Jamaica Gleaner |access-date=19 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080324210301/http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20080117/eyes/eyes1.html |archive-date=24 March 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪينيا]]، [[تنزانيا]]، [[ڏکڻ آفريڪا]]،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200708020872.html |title=Kenya: Imported Gel Hurts Aloe Vera Market |publisher=allafrica.com |author=Mburu, Solomon |date=2 August 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[اسپين]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=23 August 2015 |title=Córdoba is the Spanish province with more aloe vera crops (translated from Spanish) |url=http://sevilla.abc.es/andalucia/cordoba/20150824/sevi-aloe-vera-cordoba-201508232056.html |publisher=ABC-Córdoba}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون]] ۾ ڪئي وڃي ٿي،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.resourceinvestor.com/pebble.asp?relid=38588 |title=US Farms, Inc. – A Different Kind of Natural Resource Company |publisher=resourceinvestor.com |access-date=19 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917125506/http://www.resourceinvestor.com/pebble.asp?relid=38588 |archive-date=17 September 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ ان جي پيداوار جو وڏو حصو سينگار جي شين  جي صنعت ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=cabi/&gt;

==استعمال==
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي '' مان ٻه بنيادي مادا حاصل ڪيا ويندا آهن: هڪ شفاف [[جيل]] ۽ ٻيو پيلو [[ليٽڪس]]. انهن ٻنهي مان مختلف تجارتي شيون تيار ڪيون وينديون آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; ايلو ويرا جو جيل عام طور چمڙي تي لڳائڻ وارين دوائن ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي، جهڙوڪ ساڙ، زخم، ٿڌ جي ڪري ٿيندڙ چمڙي جي نقصان، [[چمڙي جي ريش]]، [[سورائسس]]، [[لبن جو هرپس]] (ٿڌ جا ڦٽا) ۽ خشڪ چمڙي جي علاج لاءِ.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; ڪنوار ٻوٽي جو ليٽڪس الڳ يا ٻين جزن سان گڏ اهڙي شين ۾ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي، جيڪي [[قبض]] کان آرام لاءِ وات ذريعي استعمال ڪيون وڃن.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; ليٽڪس کي خشڪ ڪري ''رال'' يا ''خشڪ ايلو رس'' جي صورت ۾ پڻ تيار ڪيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;EMA-ar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/herbal-report/final-assessment-report-aloe-barbadensis-mill-aloe-various-species-mainly-aloe-ferox-mill-its_en.pdf |title=Assessment report on ''Aloe barbadensis'' Mill. and on Aloe (various species, mainly ''Aloe ferox'' Mill. and its hybrids), folii succus siccatus |publisher=European Medicines Agency|date=22 November 2016|access-date=29 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

تحقيقي مطالعي مان اڃا تائين اهو واضح ثابت نه ٿي سگهيو آهي ته ''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' زخم يا ساڙ جي علاج ۾ يقيني طور اثرائتو آهي يا نه.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; بهرحال، چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ [[سورائسس]]، [[مهاندا]] يا چمڙي جي ريش جهڙين حالتن جون علامتون گهٽجي سگهن ٿيون،&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt; جڏهن ته ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ ان سان [[الرجي]] به ٿي سگهي ٿي.&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جو جيل واپاري طور [[ڏهي]]، مشروبات ۽ ڪجهه مٺاڻن ۾ پڻ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Reynolds&quot;/&gt; پر ليٽڪس يا سڄي پن مان تيار ڪيل عرق کي وڏي مقدار ۾ يا گهڻي عرصي تائين استعمال ڪرڻ زهريلو ثابت ٿي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt; چمڙي تي ٿوري مقدار ۾ استعمال عام طور محفوظ سمجهيو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;nih&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt;

===چمڙي تي استعمال ۽ ممڪن ضمني اثر===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' کي [[لوشن]]، [[جيل]]، صابڻ يا چمڙي جي سينگار وارين شين جي صورت ۾ تيار ڪري چمڙي تي لڳايو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt; ان جي جيل جو تيزابيت وارو درجو (pH) تقريباً 4.4 کان 4.7 هوندو آهي،&lt;ref name=guo/&gt; جيڪو ڪجهه ماڻهن ۾ چمڙي تي لڳائڻ سان هلڪي ساڙ، جلن يا [[ريش]] جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿو.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;

جن ماڻهن کي ''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' سان [[الرجي]] هجي، انهن ۾ چمڙي جي سوزش، هلڪي ڳاڙهاڻ، خارش، ساهه کڻڻ ۾ تڪليف يا چهري، چپن، زبان يا ڳلي جي سُوجهه جهڙا ردِعمل ظاهر ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt;

===غذائي اضافو===
[[File:Aloin_structure.png|thumb|right|ايلوئن]]
[[ايلوئن]]، جيڪو ''ايلو'' جي ڪجهه نسلن جي نيم سيال ليٽڪس ۾ موجود هڪ تمام ڪڙو مرڪب آهي، 2002ع تائين آمريڪا ۾ بغير نسخي جي وڪرو ٿيندڙ قبض ختم ڪرڻ وارين دوائن ۾ عام جزو طور استعمال ٿيندو هو. بعد ۾ [[آمريڪي خوراڪ ۽ دوائن واري اداري]] (FDA) ان جي استعمال تي پابندي لڳائي، ڇاڪاڻ⁠تہ ٺاهيندڙ ڪمپنيون ان جي حفاظت بابت گهربل سائنسي ثبوت مهيا نه ڪري سگهيون.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title = Status of certain additional over-the-counter drug category II and III active ingredients. Final rule |journal = Fed Regist |volume = 67 |issue = 90 |pages = 31125–7 |year = 2002 |pmid = 12001972 |last1 = Food Drug Administration |first1 = HHS|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2002-05-09/pdf/02-11510.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' ۽ ان جا الڪوحلي عرق ڪجهه مقدار کان وڌيڪ استعمال ڪرڻ سان زهريلا اثر پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿا، جيڪي چمڙي تي لڳائڻ يا وات ذريعي استعمال ٻنهي صورتن ۾ ظاهر ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=expert/&gt; جيتوڻيڪ تياري دوران ايلوئن ڪڍي ڇڏڻ سان زهريت گهٽجي سگهي ٿي، پر وڏي مقدار ۾ استعمال ڪرڻ سان پيٽ جو سور، دست يا [[هيپاٽائٽس]] جهڙا اثر پيدا ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Bottenberg MM, Wall GC, Harvey RL, Habib S 2007 1740–3&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors = Bottenberg MM, Wall GC, Harvey RL, Habib S |title = Oral aloe vera-induced hepatitis |journal = Ann Pharmacother |volume = 41 |issue = 10 |pages = 1740–3 |year = 2007 |pmid = 17726067 |doi = 10.1345/aph.1K132 |s2cid = 25553593 }}&lt;/ref&gt; ڊگهي عرصي تائين روزانو لڳ ڀڳ هڪ گرام استعمال ڪرڻ سان پيشاب ۾ رت اچڻ، وزن گهٽجڻ، دل يا گردن جا مسئلا پيدا ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;

''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' جو رس هاضمي جي صحت لاءِ فائديمند هجڻ جي دعويٰ سان وڪرو ڪيو ويندو آهي، پر هن دعويٰ جي حمايت ۾ نه ڪو مضبوط سائنسي ثبوت موجود آهي ۽ نه ئي ڪنهن ضابطي واري اداري ان جي منظوري ڏني آهي.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;mayo&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements-aloe/art-20362267 |title=''Aloe'' (''Aloe vera'') |publisher=Mayo Clinic |date=17 September 2017 |access-date=21 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===روايتي طب===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' روايتي طب ۾ چمڙي جي علاج لاءِ هزارين سالن کان استعمال ٿيندو رهيو آهي. ان جي استعمال جا قديم ترين لکيل حوالا چوٿين هزارين سال [[ق م]] تائين ملن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt; ان جو ذڪر 512ع ۾ لکيل ''[[جوليانا انيشيا ڪوڊيڪس]]'' ۾ پڻ موجود آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Reynolds&quot;&gt;Reynolds, Tom (Ed.) (2004) ''Aloes: The genus Aloe (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants - Industrial Profiles''. CRC Press. {{ISBN|978-0415306720}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|9}}

===تجارتي شيون===
''ڪنوار ٻوٽي'' چهري صاف ڪرڻ وارين ٽشوز ۾ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي، جتي ان کي نمي برقرار رکڻ ۽ نڪ جي چمڙي جي خارش گهٽائڻ واري جزو طور پيش ڪيو ويندو آهي. سينگار جي شين ٺاهيندڙ ڪمپنيون ان جو رس يا ان جا ٻيا نڪتل جزا ميڪ اپ، ٽشوز، موئسچرائزر، صابڻ، سن اسڪرين، اگربتي، شيونگ ڪريم ۽ شيمپو جهڙين شين ۾ شامل ڪنديون آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Reynolds&quot;/&gt; علمي جائزي موجب، صفائي ۽ سينگار جي ڪيترين ئي شين ۾ ان جو استعمال بنيادي طور ان جي چمڙي کي نرم ۽ نمي فراهم ڪندڙ خاصيت سبب ڪيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eshun&quot;/&gt; سينگار جي صنعت ۾ ايلو جي عرق ۾ اينٿراڪينون جي مقدار وڌ ۾ وڌ 50 پي پي ايم تائين محدود رکڻ جي سفارش ڪئي ويندي آهي.&lt;ref name=expert/&gt;

==زهريت==
وات ذريعي استعمال ڪيل ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جي اهڙي سڄي پن واري عرق کي، جنهن مان رنگ ختم نه ڪيو ويو هجي، [[ڪيليفورنيا آفيس آف انوائرنمينٽل هيلٿ هيزرڊ اسيسمينٽ]] انهن &quot;ڪيميائي مادن&quot; ۾ شامل ڪيو آهي جيڪي رياست موجب [[سرطان]] يا توليدي نظام لاءِ نقصانڪار ٿي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.oehha.ca.gov/prop65/CRNR_notices/list_changes/120415listAloeGoldenseal.html |title=Chemicals Listed Effective December 4, 2015, as Known to the State of California to Cause Cancer: Aloe Vera, Non-Decolorized Whole Leaf Extract, and Goldenseal Root Powder |publisher=California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment |date=4 December 2015 |access-date=21 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهو خطرو غالباً ان ۾ موجود [[اينٿراڪينون]] مرڪبن جي ڪري هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=guo/&gt;

2016ع کان وٺي، [[سرطان بابت تحقيق جي عالمي اداري]] (IARC) ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جي سڄي پن واري عرق کي انسانن لاءِ ''ممڪن سرطان پيدا ڪندڙ مادو'' (گروپ 2B) جي درجي ۾ شامل ڪيو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=IARC Monographs on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans |url=https://monographs.iarc.who.int/list-of-classifications/ |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=27 April 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

چمڙي تي ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جو استعمال عام طور تي ڪنهن اهم ضمني اثر سان لاڳاپيل نه هوندو آهي.&lt;ref name=nih/&gt; پر وات ذريعي ان جو استعمال ممڪن طور زهريلو ٿي سگهي ٿو،&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=guo/&gt; ۽ ان سان [[پيٽ ۾ سور]]، [[پيٽ جا اينٺ]] ۽ [[دست]] ٿي سگهن ٿا، جيڪي وري ٻين دوائن جي جسم ۾ جذب ٿيڻ جي صلاحيت کي گهٽائي سگهن ٿا.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=nih/&gt;

===نسخي وارين دوائن سان تعامل===
وات ذريعي استعمال ٿيندڙ ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جون شيون ڪجهه نسخي وارين دوائن سان نقصانڪار [[دوائن جو تعامل|تعامل]] پيدا ڪري سگهن ٿيون، جهڙوڪ [[رت جا دڳ جمن]] جي علاج، [[شگر جي بيماري]]، [[دل جي بيماري]]، [[پوٽاشيم]] گهٽائيندڙ دوائون (مثال طور [[ڊيجوڪسن]]) ۽ [[پيشاب آور دوائون]] سميت ٻين دوائن سان.&lt;ref name=drugs/&gt;&lt;ref name=mayo/&gt;

==تصويرون==
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;140px&quot;&gt;
File:Aloe vera leaf showing the gel (1).JPG|پن ۽ ان جي اندر موجود جيل
File:Aloe vera gel.jpg|[[مٺاڻ]]ن ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جو جيل
File:Es Lidah Buaya.JPG|''ايس لِداه بُوايا''، انڊونيشيا جو ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) سان تيار ڪيل ٿڌو مشروب
File:Gelaloevera.JPG|ڪنوار ٻوٽي (ايلو ويرا) جو رس
File:Cut Aloe Vera Leaf.jpg|ڪٽيل پن
File:Aloe vera cut leaf drawing1.jpg|پن جو خاڪو: 1. ڪيوٽيڪل، 2. ڪلوروفل وارو پيرينڪائما، 3. اندريون بافتو، 4. نسن جا بنڊل
File:Aloe Vera Buds.jpg|گلن جون ڪليون
File:Aloe Vera flower.jpg|گلن جون ڪليون
File:Aloe vera flower 2.jpg|گل
File:AloeBluhendD2.JPG|مختلف ماپن جا ٻوٽا
File:A potted aloe vera plant.jpg|گملي ۾ پوکيل ايلو ويرا
File:Aloe plant bud.jpg|[[بنيادي شاخون (روٽ اسپرائوٽس)]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== حوالا ==
{{حوالا}}

==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Commons category|Aloe vera}}

* {{cite web
 |title=ٽيڪسون: ''Aloe vera'' (L.) Burm. f.
 |url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?id=311403
 |website=آمريڪا جو قومي ٻوٽن جي جينياتي وسيلن جو نظام
 |access-date=8 March 2020
}}

{{Medicinal herbs &amp; fungi}}
{{taxonbar|from=Q80079}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aloe vera}}

[[زمرو:ايلو]]
[[زمرو:خشڪي سَهندڙ ٻوٽا]]
[[زمرو:عربستاني اپٻيٽ جي نباتات]]
[[زمرو:آفريڪا جا باغيچا ٻوٽا]]

[[زمرو:ٻوٽا]]</text>
      <sha1>63rotcdjqxjoii87mi1gfg1fy3qnail</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>74999</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399177</id>
      <parentid>368695</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:11:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399177</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="170" sha1="cmzdshz1rthjkgy82fn6aizzztwdwqw" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:پاڪستان جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا جي انتظامي ورهاست]]</text>
      <sha1>cmzdshz1rthjkgy82fn6aizzztwdwqw</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399178</id>
      <parentid>399177</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:11:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399178</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="54" sha1="t4ziy5vuhtmcpbblcbo8rxo3twqtg0t" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>t4ziy5vuhtmcpbblcbo8rxo3twqtg0t</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>خيبرپختونخواه جي تعلقن جي فهرست</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>76307</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399200</id>
      <parentid>399150</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:46:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* حوالا */</comment>
      <origin>399200</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="21347" sha1="kfppw2ya5544rgtjvq0otlap5m3s6zp" xml:space="preserve">{{پاڪستان جي سياسيات}}[[پاڪستان]] ۾، هڪ [[تعلقو]] (Tehsil) [[پاڪستان جا ضلعا|ضلعي]] (District) جو هڪ انتظامي سب ڊويزن آهي. اهي [[پاڪستان جون يونين ڪائونسلون|يونين ڪائونسلن]] ۾ ورهايل آهن. هتي [[خيبر پختونخوا|خيبرپختونخوا]] جي سڀني تعلقن جي هڪ فهرست آهي.

==فهرست==
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable static-row-numbers static-row-header-hash&quot;
!تعلقو
&lt;nowiki&gt;*******************&lt;/nowiki&gt;
!پکيڙ (km²)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=TABLE 1 : AREA, POPULATION BY SEX, SEX RATIO, POPULATION DENSITY, URBAN POPULATION, HOUSEHOLD SIZE AND ANNUAL GROWTH RATE, CENSUS-2023, KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA |url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2023/tables/kp/dcr/table_1.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;
!آبادي (2023)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
!گھاٽائي (ppl/km²)
(2023)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
!خواندگي جي شرح 
(2023)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=TABLE 12 : LITERACY RATE AND OUT OF SCHOOL POPULATION AGE (5-16) BY SEX AND RURAL/URBAN, CENSUS-2023 |url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2023/tables/kp/dcr/table_12.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;
!ضلعو 
!ڊويزن 
|-
|[[بڪا خيل تعلقو]]
|367
|192,797
|107.84
|28.25%
| rowspan=&quot;6&quot; |[[بنون ضلعو]]
| rowspan=&quot;19&quot; |[[بنون ڊويزن]]
|-
|[[بنون تعلقو]]
|228
|644,909
|106.97
|49.46%
|-
|[[ڊوميل تعلقو]] 
|425
|224,428
|115.54
|41.38%
|-
|[[ڪڪي تعلقو]]
|66
|92,021
|109.01
|42.62%
|-
|[[مريان تعلقو]]
|141
|166,473
|1,180.66
|31.77%
|-
|[[وزير تعلقو]]
|745
|37,262
|50.02
|16.33%
|-
|[[بيٽني تعلقو]]
|132
|35,571
|269.48
|31.62%
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[لڪي مروت ضلعو]]
|-
|[[غزني خيل تعلقو]]
|1,153
|329,775
|286.01
|54.29%
|-
|[[لڪي مروت تعلقو]]
|1,388
|341,693
|246.18
|50.06%
|-
|[[سرائي نورنگ تعلقو]]
|623
|333,817
|535.82
|42.66%
|-
|[[دتا خيل تعلقو|دته خيل تعلقو]]
|1,807
|92,196
|100.53
|30.63%
| rowspan=&quot;9&quot; |[[اتر وزيرستان ضلعو]]
|-
|[[دوسالي تعلقو]]
|250
|50,524
|100.29
|33.02%
|-
|[[گهريوم تعلقو]]
|320
|18,931
|102.01
|17.74%
|-
|[[غلام خان تعلقو]]
|191
|31,015
|99.33
|8.44%
|-
|[[مير علي تعلقو]]
|605
|229,647
|107.7
|38.31%
|-
|[[ميرانشاهه تعلقو]]
|402
|123,317
|102.02
|36.53%
|-
|[[رزمڪ تعلقو]]
|191
|49,367
|134.63
|26.62%
|-
|[[شيوا تعلقو]]
|393
|44,126
|112.28
|38.36%
|-
|[[اسپن وام تعلقو]]
|548
|54,209
|99.82
|23.47%
|-
|[[درابن تعلقو]] 
|1,540
|149,447
|97.04
|26.89%
| rowspan=&quot;7&quot; |[[ڊيرا اسماعيل خان ضلعو]] 
| rowspan=&quot;20&quot; |[[ڊيرا اسماعيل خان ڊويزن]] 
|-
|[[درازنده تعلقو|درازندا تعلقو]]
|2,008
|82,386
|41.03
|28.67%
|-
|[[ڊيرا اسماعيل خان تعلقو]] 
|1,167
|767,979
|658.08
|56.97%
|-
|[[ڪولاچي تعلقو]]
|1,229
|102,595
|83.48
|30.29%
|-
|[[پهاڙ پور تعلقو]]
|1,657
|406,467
|245.3
|48.86%
|-
|[[پنياله تعلقو]]
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|[[پروآ تعلقو|پاروآ تعلقو]]
|1,733
|320,937
|185.19
|35.56%
|-
|[[برمل تعلقو]]
|923
|112,757
|122.16
|23.06%
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[هيٺيون ڏکڻ وزيرستان ضلعو|ھيٺيون ڏکڻ وزيرستان ضلعو]] 
|-
|[[شڪئي تعلقو]]
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|[[توئي کلان تعلقو]]
|567
|102,835
|181.37
|7.81%
|-
|[[وانا تعلقو]]
|2,315
|184,645
|79.76
|31.29%
|-
|[[لڌا تعلقو]]
|289
|108,344
|374.89
|47.95%
| rowspan=&quot;7&quot; |[[مٿيون ڏکڻ وزيرستان ضلعو]]
|-
|[[مڪين تعلقو]]
|404
|66,042
|163.47
|48.71%
|-
|[[سراروغه تعلقو]]
|813
|145,118
|178.5
|35.07%
|-
|[[سرواڪئي تعلقو]]
|398
|58,804
|147.75
|37.67%
|-
|[[شڪتوئي تعلقو]]
|177
|44,332
|250.46
|32.93%
|-
|[[شوال تعلقو]]
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|[[تيارزه تعلقو]]
|734
|65,798
|89.64
|27.31%
|-
|[[جنڊوله تعلقو]]
|1,221
|44,794
|36.69
|33.63%
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[ٽانڪ ضلعو]] 
|-
|[[ٽانڪ تعلقو]]
|1,679
|425,499
|253.42
|41.43%
|-
|[[ايبٽ آباد تعلقو]] 
|1,285
|1,003,339
|101.76
|78.39%
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[ايبٽ آباد ضلعو]] 
| rowspan=&quot;26&quot; |[[Hazara Division]]
|-
|[[حويليان تعلقو]]
|342
|256,754
|98.8
|76.08%
|-
|[[لورا تعلقو]] 
|187
|98,717
|97.22
|73.73%
|-
|[[لوئر تناول تعلقو]]
|153
|60,262
|98.88
|71.66%
|-
|[[الائي تعلقو]]
|804
|218,149
|271.33
|35.71%
|[[Allai District]]
|-
|[[بٽگرام تعلقو]] 
|497
|335,984
|676.02
|41.20%
|[[Batagram District]]
|-
|[[غازي تعلقو]]
|595
|151,839
|255.19
|69.69%
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[Haripur District]]
|-
|[[هري پور تعلقو]]
|834
|836,058
|1,002.47
|76.07%
|-
|خانپور تعلقو 
|296
|186,886
|631.37
|73.76%
|-
|باتائرا/ڪولائي تعلقو 
|170
|142,660
|839.18
|15.93%
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[Kolai-Palas District]]
|-
|[[پالاس تعلقو]]
|1,240
|137,502
|110.89
|23.08%
|-
|بانڪاڊ تعلقو 
|331
|205,851
|621.91
|20.14%
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[Lower Kohistan District]]
|-
|[[پٽن تعلقو]] 
|311
|134,166
|431.4
|24.61%
|-
|[[بفه پکل تعلقو]]
|640
|460,090
|718.89
|60.85%
| rowspan=&quot;6&quot; |[[Mansehra District]]
|-
|[[بالاڪوٽ تعلقو]] 
|2,376
|310,339
|130.61
|67.50%
|-
|دربند تعلقو 
|102
|51,702
|506.88
|50.47%
|-
|[[مانسهره تعلقو]]
|700
|723,325
|1,033.32
|68.70%
|-
|اوگي تعلقو 
|307
|251,721
|819.94
|52.85%
|-
|تناول تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|دور مائره تعلقو 
|86
|50,503
|587.24
|25.92%
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[Torghar District]]
|-
|جدبه تعلقو 
|63
|63,083
|1,001.32
|19.78%
|-
|خانڊير حسن زئي تعلقو 
|305
|86,859
|284.78
|38.66%
|-
|[[داسو تعلقو]]
|1,958
|148,914
|76.05
|15.11%
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[Upper Kohistan District]]
|-
|هاربان باشا تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|25.49%
|-
|ڪانڊيه تعلقو 
|1,926
|165,232
|85.79
|13.71%
|-
|سيو تعلقو 
|258
|59,557
|230.84
|38.19%
|-
|دوآبه تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|...
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[Hangu District, Pakistan|Hangu District]]
| rowspan=&quot;17&quot; |[[Kohat Division]]
|-
|[[هنگو تعلقو]]
|669
|280,883
|419.86
|48.63%
|-
|[[ٽل تعلقو]]
|428
|248,019
|579.48
|36.70%
|-
|بانڊه دائود شاهه تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|53.95%
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[Karak District]]
|-
|[[ڪرڪ تعلقو]]
|1,299
|339,983
|261.73
|67.76%
|-
|تخت نصرتي تعلقو 
|607
|298,151
|491.19
|69.55%
|-
|دره آدم خيل تعلقو 
|446
|139,839
|313.54
|58.90%
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[Kohat District]]
|-
|گمبات تعلقو 
|503
|124,530
|247.57
|54.55%
|-
|[[ڪوهاٽ تعلقو]]
|911
|817,610
|897.49
|58.19%
|-
|[[لاچي تعلقو]] 
|1,131
|152,682
|135
|63.39%
|-
|سينٽرل ڪرم تعلقو
|1,470
|358,670
|243.99
|20.97%
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[Kurram District]]
|-
|لوئر ڪرم تعلقو
|940
|150,945
|160.58
|38.15%
|-
|اپر ڪرم تعلقو
|970
|275,819
|284.35
|49.07%
|-
|سينٽرل اورڪزئي تعلقو 
|399
|92,819
|232.63
|34.79%
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[Orakzai District]]
|-
|[[اسماعيل زئي تعلقو]] 
|275
|39,328
|143.01
|34.20%
|-
|لوئر اورڪزئي تعلقو 
|565
|125,944
|222.91
|41.86%
|-
|اپر اورڪزئي تعلقو 
|299
|129,470
|433.01
|23.98%
|-
|بار چمرڪنڊ تعلقو 
|13
|3,574
|104.41
|23.81%
| rowspan=&quot;7&quot; |[[Bajaur District]]
| rowspan=&quot;53&quot; |[[Malakand Division]]
|-
|برانگ تعلقو 
|159
|90,082
|100.27
|23.39%
|-
|[[خار باجوڙ تعلقو]] 
|238
|301,778
|102.81
|33.28%
|-
|[[ماموند تعلقو]]
|250
|358,190
|103.29
|24.48%
|-
|[[نواگئي تعلقو|ناواگئي تعلقو]] 
|216
|93,850
|103.2
|27.39%
|-
|[[سالارزئي تعلقو]]
|220
|316,767
|101.01
|19.90%
|-
|[[اتمان خيل تعلقو]] 
|194
|123,719
|100.66
|31.50%
|-
|[[چغرزئي تعلقو]]
|218
|125,949
|577.75
|38.27%
| rowspan=&quot;6&quot; |[[Buner District]]
|-
|ڊگر تعلقو
|290
|192,776
|664.74
|47.57%
|-
|گاديزئي تعلقو
|472
|197,466
|418.36
|44.22%
|-
|گاگره تعلقو
|217
|179,087
|825.29
|46.22%
|-
|خدو خيل تعلقو 
|343
|136,560
|398.13
|45.10%
|-
|ماندانر تعلقو 
|325
|185,031
|569.33
|39.47%
|-
|[[چترال تعلقو]]
|6,127
|211,374
|34.5
|70.20%
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[Lower Chitral District]]
|-
|دروش تعلقو
|331
|109,033
|329.4
|57.38%
|-
|آدينزئي تعلقو 
|372
|378,915
|1,018.59
|62.19%
| rowspan=&quot;7&quot; |[[Lower Dir District]]
|-
|[[بلامبٽ تعلقو]]
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|خال تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|لال قلعه تعلقو
|216
|247,381
|1,145.28
|53.29%
|-
|منڊا تعلقو
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|[[ثمر باغ تعلقو]]
|419
|427,714
|1,020.80
|45.75%
|-
|[[تيمرگره تعلقو]]
|576
|596,173
|1,035.02
|64.06%
|-
|سام رانيزئي تعلقو 
|280
|353,291
|1,261.75
|59.13%
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[Malakand District]]
|-
|سوات رانيزئي تعلقو 
|672
|472,959
|703.81
|63.57%
|-
|ٿانه بازئي تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|اتمان خيل تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|31.50%
|-
|[[الپوري تعلقو]]
|582
|366,772
|630.19
|38.26%
| rowspan=&quot;7&quot; |[[Shangla District]]
|-
|[[بيشام تعلقو]]
|184
|121,279
|659.13
|34.77%
|-
|چڪيسر تعلقو 
|335
|128,238
|382.8
|26.08%
|-
|مارتونگ تعلقو 
|188
|103,205
|548.96
|24.01%
|-
|ماخوزئي تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|شاهپور تعلقو
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|پوران تعلقو 
|297
|171,758
|578.31
|35.11%
|-
|بابوزئي تعلقو 
|297
|696,697
|2,345.78
|56.06%
| rowspan=&quot;7&quot; |[[Swat District]]
|-
|[[بريڪوٽ تعلقو]]
|419
|220,148
|525.41
|50.87%
|-
|[[بحرين تعلقو]]
|2,899
|270,623
|93.35
|39.26%
|-
|[[چارباغ تعلقو]]
|161
|159,358
|989.8
|50.01%
|-
|[[ڪبل تعلقو]]
|485
|480,827
|991.4
|49.26%
|-
|[[خوازہ خيله تعلقو|خوازه خيلا تعلقو]] 
|392
|307,300
|783.93
|42.63%
|-
|[[مٽه تعلقو]]
|684
|552,431
|807.65
|42.54%
|-
|[[بوني تعلقو]]
|...
|...
|...
|...
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[Upper Chitral District]]
|-
|ملڪوهه تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|تورڪوهه تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|[[مستوج تعلقو]] 
|8,392
|195,528
|23.3
|73.83%
|-
|باراوال تعلقو
|...
|...
|...
|...
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[Upper Dir District]]
|-
|[[دير تعلقو]]
|1,012
|384,667
|380.11
|48.26%
|-
|[[ڪالڪوٽ تعلقو]]
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|[[شئرنگل تعلقو]] 
|1,140
|210,356
|184.52
|37.15%
|-
|[[لارجام تعلقو]]
|1,039
|119,396
|114.91
|52.59%
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; |[[Central Dir District]]
|-
|[[واري تعلقو]]
|508
|369,147
|726.67
|48.56%
|-
|اخاگرام تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|نيهاگ دره تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|صاحب آباد تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|[[ڳڙهي ڪپوره تعلقو]]
|143
|319,465
|2,234.02
|51.70%
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; |[[Mardan District]]
| rowspan=&quot;9&quot; |[[Mardan Division]]
|-
|[[ڪٽلانگ تعلقو]]
|422
|377,535
|894.63
|61.47%
|-
|[[مردان تعلقو]] 
|335
|1,040,893
|3,107.14
|56.41%
|-
|[[رستم تعلقو]]
|379
|279,527
|737.54
|49.98%
|-
|[[تخت ڀائي تعلقو]] 
|353
|727,478
|2,060.84
|56.02%
|-
|[[لاهور تعلقو]]
|318
|354,383
|1,114.41
|54.16%
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[Swabi District]]
|-
|[[رزڙ تعلقو]]
|418
|682,303
|1,632.30
|56.61%
|-
|[[صوابي تعلقو]] 
|389
|475,352
|1,221.98
|63.23%
|-
|[[ٽوپي تعلقو]] 
|418
|382,562
|915.22
|59.83%
|-
|[[چارسده تعلقو]] 
|445
|909,438
|2,043.68
|58.56%
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[Charsadda District, Pakistan|Charsadda District]]
| rowspan=&quot;28&quot; |[[Peshawar Division]]
|-
|[[شبقدر تعلقو]] 
|204
|440,524
|2,159.43
|49.65%
|-
|[[تنگي تعلقو]] 
|347
|485,542
|1,399.26
|48.85%
|-
|[[باغ ميدان تعلقو]]
|...
|...
|...
|...
| rowspan=&quot;8&quot; |[[Khyber District]]
|-
|[[باڙه تعلقو]] 
|1,430
|548,084
|383.28
|34.72%
|-
|[[بازار زخه خيل تعلقو]]
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|[[فورٽ سالوپ تعلقو]]
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|[[جمرود تعلقو]] 
|311
|243,290
|782.28
|46.18%
|-
|[[لنڊي ڪوتل تعلقو]] 
|679
|312,313
|459.96
|38.92%
|-
|[[ملا گوري تعلقو]]
|156
|42,580
|272.95
|38.36%
|-
|[[پائنده چينه تعلقو]]
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|[[امبر اتمان خيل تعلقو]]
|273
|79,455
|291.04
|21.71%
| rowspan=&quot;7&quot; |[[Mohmand District]]
|-
|[[حليم زئي تعلقو]]
|211
|89,149
|422.51
|45.18%
|-
|[[پنڊيالي تعلقو]]
|454
|112,247
|247.24
|29.11%
|-
|[[پران غر تعلقو]]
|257
|36,046
|140.26
|35.46%
|-
|[[صافي تعلقو]]
|322
|109,620
|340.43
|26.21%
|-
|[[اپر مهمند تعلقو]]
|513
|63,659
|124.09
|21.62%
|-
|[[يڪه غنڊ تعلقو]]
|266
|63,757
|239.69
|41.38%
|-
|[[جهانگيره تعلقو]] 
|718
|434,984
|100.72
|56.92%
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[Nowshera District]]
|-
|[[نوشهره تعلقو]] 
|679
|796,226
|106.39
|56.76%
|-
|[[پبي تعلقو]] 
|351
|509,495
|102.42
|56.70%
|-
|[[بڍبير تعلقو]]
|357
|439,912
|1,232.25
|38.66%
| rowspan=&quot;7&quot; |[[Peshawar District]]
|-
|[[چمڪنئي تعلقو]]
|226
|624,354
|2,762.63
|54.72%
|-
|[[حسن خيل تعلقو]]
|261
|72,557
|278
|55.34%
|-
|[[مٿرا تعلقو]]
|218
|495,059
|2,270.91
|45.79%
|-
|[[پشاور شهر تعلقو]]
|176
|2,113,596
|12,009.07
|60.88%
|-
|[[پشتاخره تعلقو]]
|135
|480,436
|3,558.79
|45.45%
|-
|[[شاهه عالم تعلق|شاهه عالم تعلقو]]
|145
|532,848
|3,674.81
|44.96%
|}

==ايراضي جي لحاظ کان فهرست==


==بنون ڊويزن== 
===بنون ضلعو=== 
• [[بکاخيل تعلقو]]
 
• [[بنون تعلقو]]
 
• [[ڊوميل تعلقو]]

• [[ڪڪي تعلقو]]
 
• [[ميران تعلقو]]
 
• [[وزير تعلقو]] 
===لڪي مروت ضلعو=== 
• [[بٽاڻي تعلقو]]
 
• [[غزني خيل تعلقو]]

• [[لڪي مروت تعلقو]] 

• [[سرائي نورنگ تعلقو]]
===اتر وزيرستان ضلعو=== 
• [[دتا خيل تعلقو]]

• [[دوسالي تعلقو]]
  
• [[غريوم تعلقو]]

• [[غلام خان تعلقو]]

• [[مير علي تعلقو]]

• [[ميران شاهه تعلقو]]
  
• [[رزمڪ تعلقو]]

• [[شيوا تعلقو]]

• [[اسپن وام تعلقو]]

==ڊيرا اسماعيل خان ڊويزن== 
===ڊيرا اسماعيل خان ضلعو=== 
• [[درابن تعلقو]]
 
• [[درازند تعلقو]]
 
• [[ڊيرا اسماعيل خان تعلقو]]
 
• [[ڪولاچي تعلقو]]

• [[پهاڙ پور تعلقو]]

• [[پنيالا تعلقو]]

• [[پارو تعلقو]]
===لوئر ڏکڻ وزيرستان ضلعو===
• [[برمل تعلقو]]

• [[شڪئي تعلقو]] 

• [[توئي خولا تعلقو]]

• [[وانا تعلقو]] 
===اپر ڏکڻ وزيرستان ضلعو=== 
• [[لڌا تعلقو]]

• [[مکين تعلقو]]

• [[سراروغہ تعلقو]]

• [[سروڪئي تعلقو]]  

• [[شڪتو تعلقو]]

• [[شوال تعلقو]] 

• [[ٽارزا تعلقو]]
===ٽانڪ ضلعو=== 
• [[جنڊولا تعلقو]]
 
• [[ٽانڪ تعلقو]]

==هزاره ڊويزن==

===ايبٽ آباد ضلعو=== 
• [[ايبٽ آباد تعلقو]]
 
• [[حويليان تعلقو]]

• [[لورا تعلقو]]

• [[لوئر تناول تعلقو]]
===بٽگرام ضلعو=== 
• [[الائي تعلقو]]

• [[بٽگرام تعلقو]]
===هريپور ضلعو=== 
• [[غازي تعلقو]]
 
• [[هري پور تعلقو]]

• [[خانپور تعلقو]] 
===ڪولئي۔پالس ضلعو=== 
• [[باتيرا]]/[[ڪولئي پالس تعلقو]] 
===لوئر ڪوهستان ضلعو=== 
• [[بانڪا تعلقو]]

• [[پتڻ تعلقو]] 
===مانسهره ضلعو=== 
• [[بفا پکل تعلقو]]

• [[بالاڪوٽ تعلقو]]
 
• [[دربند تعلقو]]

• [[مانسهره تعلقو]]
 
• [[اوگي تعلقو]]
 
• [[تناول تعلقو]]
===تورغر ضلعو===
• [[دڙي ميرا تعلقو]]

• [[جُدبا تعلقو]]

• [[کندر حسن زئي تعلقو]]
===اپر ڪوهستان ضلعو=== 
• [[داسو تعلقو]]

• [[هاربن ڀاشا تعلقو]] 
 
• [[ڪنڊا تعلقو]]

• [[سيو تعلقو]]
==ڪوهاٽ ڊويزن== 
===هنگو ضلعو===
• [[دوآبہ تعلقو]]

• [[هنگو تعلقو]]

• [[ٽل تعلقو]]
===ڪرڪ ضلعو=== 
• [[بانڊا دائود شاهه تعلقو]]
 
• [[ڪرڪ تعلقو]]

• [[تخت نصرتي تعلقو]] 
===ڪوهاٽ ضلعو=== 
• [[دره آدم خيل تعلقو]]

• [[گمباٽ تعلقو]]

• [[ڪوهاٽ تعلقو]]

• [[لاچي تعلقو]]
===ڪرم ضلعو=== 
• [[سينٽرل ڪرم تعلقو]]

• [[لوئر ڪرم تعلقو]] 

• [[اپر ڪرم تعلقو]] 
===اورڪزئي ضلعو===
• [[سينٽرل اورڪزئي تعلقو]] 

• [[اسماعيل زئي تعلقو]] 

• [[لوئر اورڪزئي تعلقو]]

• [[اپر اورڪزئي تعلقو]]

==مالاڪنڊ ڊويزن== 
===باجوڙ ضلعو=== 
• [[بار چمرڪند تعلقو]]

• [[بارنگ تعلقو]]

• [[خار باجوڙ تعلقو]]

• [[ماموند تعلقو]] 

• [[نواگئي تعلقو]]

• [[سالارزئي تعلقو]]

• [[اتمان خيل تعلقو]]

===بونير ضلعو=== 
• [[چغر زئي تعلقو]]

• [[ڏنگر تعلقو]] 

• [[گاديزئي تعلقو]] 

• [[گاگرا تعلقو]]

• [[خدو تعلقو]]

• [[مانڌر تعلقو]]
===لوئر چترال ضلعو===
• [[چترال تعلقو]]

• [[دروش تعلقو]] 
===لوئر دير ضلعو=== 
• [[آدینزئي تعلقو]] 

• [[بلامبٽ تعلقو]] 

• [[خال تعلقو]]

• [[لال قلعو تعلقو]] 

• [[منڊا تعلقو]]

• [[ثمر باغ تعلقو]]

• [[تئمرگرا تعلقو]] 
===مالاڪنڊ ضلعو=== 
• [[سام راڻيزئي تعلقو]]

• [[سوات راڻيزئي تعلقو]]

• [[ٿاڻي بائيزئي تعلقو]]

• [[اتمان خيل تعلقو]]

===شانگلا ضلعو=== 
• [[الپوري تعلقو]]

• [[بشام تعلقو]]

• [[چڪيسر تعلقو]] 
 
• [[مارتونگ تعلقو]] 

• [[مخوزئي تعلقو]]
 
• [[شاهپور تعلقو]]

• [[پاريان تعلقو]] 
===سوات ضلعو=== 
• [[بابوزئي تعلقو]]

• [[بريڪوٽ تعلقو]]

• [[بحرين تعلقو]]

• [[چارباغ تعلقو]]

• [[ڪبل تعلقو]] 

• [[خوازه خیلہ تعلقو]]

• [[مٽہ تعلقو]]
===اپر چترال ضلعو===
• [[مستوج تعلقو]]

• [[بوني تعلقو]]

• [[ملکو تعلقو]]

• [[تورخو تعلقو]]

===اپر دير ضلعو===
• [[بروال تعلقو]]
 
• [[دیر تعلقو]]

• [[ڪالڪوٽ تعلقو]] 

• [[لارڄام تعلقو]]

• [[شئرنگل تعلقو]]

• [[وار تعلقو]]

==مردان ڊويزن== 
===ضلع مردان===
• [[ڳڙهي ڪپوڙا تعلقو]]

• [[ڪتلانگ تعلقو]]

• [[مردان تعلقو]] 

• [[رستم تعلقو]]

• [[تخت ڀائي تعلقو]] 
===صوابي ضلعو=== 
• [[لاهور تعلقو]]

• [[راڳ تعلقو]] 

• [[صوابي تعلقو]]

• [[ٽوپي تعلقو]]

==پشاور ڊويزن==
===چارسده ضلعو===
• [[چارسده تعلقو]]

• [[شبقدر تعلقو]]

• [[تنگي تعلقو]]
===خيبر ضلعو===
• [[باغ ميدان تعلقو]] 

• [[باڙه تعلقو]] 

• [[بازار زخه خيل تعلقو]]

• [[قلعو سيلپ تعلقو]]

• [[جمرود تعلقو]]

• [[لنڊي ڪوتل تعلقو]]

• [[ملا گوري تعلقو]]

• [[پينڊا چينا تعلقو]]
===مهمند ضلعو=== 
• [[امبر اتمان خيل تعلقو]] 

• [[حليم زئي تعلقو]]

• [[پنڊيالي تعلقو]]

• [[پران غر تعلقو]] 

• [[صافي تعلقو]] 

• [[اپر مهمند تعلقو]] (بائيزئي)

• [[يڪہ غنڊ تعلقو]]
===نوشهره ضلعو=== 
# [[جهانگيره تعلقو|جهانگيرہ تعلقو]]
# [[نوشهره تعلقو]]
# [[پبي تعلقو]]

===پشاور ضلعو=== 
• [[بڈھ بیر تعلقو]]

• [[چمڪنئي تعلقو]]

• [[سرحدي علائقو پشاور|حسن خيل تعلقو]]

• [[ماٿرا تعلقو]]

• [[پشاور شهر تعلقو]] 

• [[پٺن تعلقو]]

• [[شاهه عالم تعلقو]]

==پڻ ڏسو==
• [[پاڪستان ۾ تعلقن جي فهرست]] 

• [[خيبرپختونخوا ۾ ضلعن جي فهرست]]

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:پاڪستان جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا]]
[[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا جي انتظامي ورهاست]]
[[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا جي جاگرافي]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>kfppw2ya5544rgtjvq0otlap5m3s6zp</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399286</id>
      <parentid>399200</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:10:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* فهرست */</comment>
      <origin>399286</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="21329" sha1="7gasih922lt3fja70vdzdjh849dwn9q" xml:space="preserve">{{پاڪستان جي سياسيات}}[[پاڪستان]] ۾، هڪ [[تعلقو]] (Tehsil) [[پاڪستان جا ضلعا|ضلعي]] (District) جو هڪ انتظامي سب ڊويزن آهي. اهي [[پاڪستان جون يونين ڪائونسلون|يونين ڪائونسلن]] ۾ ورهايل آهن. هتي [[خيبر پختونخوا|خيبرپختونخوا]] جي سڀني تعلقن جي هڪ فهرست آهي.

==فهرست==
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable static-row-numbers static-row-header-hash&quot;
!تعلقو
&lt;nowiki&gt;*******************&lt;/nowiki&gt;
!پکيڙ (km²)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=TABLE 1 : AREA, POPULATION BY SEX, SEX RATIO, POPULATION DENSITY, URBAN POPULATION, HOUSEHOLD SIZE AND ANNUAL GROWTH RATE, CENSUS-2023, KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA |url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2023/tables/kp/dcr/table_1.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;
!آبادي (2023)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
!گھاٽائي (ppl/km²)
(2023)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
!خواندگي جي شرح 
(2023)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=TABLE 12 : LITERACY RATE AND OUT OF SCHOOL POPULATION AGE (5-16) BY SEX AND RURAL/URBAN, CENSUS-2023 |url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2023/tables/kp/dcr/table_12.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;
!ضلعو 
!ڊويزن 
|-
|[[بڪا خيل تعلقو]]
|367
|192,797
|107.84
|28.25%
| rowspan=&quot;6&quot; |[[بنون ضلعو]]
| rowspan=&quot;19&quot; |[[بنون ڊويزن]]
|-
|[[بنون تعلقو]]
|228
|644,909
|106.97
|49.46%
|-
|[[ڊوميل تعلقو]] 
|425
|224,428
|115.54
|41.38%
|-
|[[ڪڪي تعلقو]]
|66
|92,021
|109.01
|42.62%
|-
|[[مريان تعلقو]]
|141
|166,473
|1,180.66
|31.77%
|-
|[[وزير تعلقو]]
|745
|37,262
|50.02
|16.33%
|-
|[[بيٽني تعلقو]]
|132
|35,571
|269.48
|31.62%
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[لڪي مروت ضلعو]]
|-
|[[غزني خيل تعلقو]]
|1,153
|329,775
|286.01
|54.29%
|-
|[[لڪي مروت تعلقو]]
|1,388
|341,693
|246.18
|50.06%
|-
|[[سرائي نورنگ تعلقو]]
|623
|333,817
|535.82
|42.66%
|-
|[[دتا خيل تعلقو|دته خيل تعلقو]]
|1,807
|92,196
|100.53
|30.63%
| rowspan=&quot;9&quot; |[[اتر وزيرستان ضلعو]]
|-
|[[دوسالي تعلقو]]
|250
|50,524
|100.29
|33.02%
|-
|[[گهريوم تعلقو]]
|320
|18,931
|102.01
|17.74%
|-
|[[غلام خان تعلقو]]
|191
|31,015
|99.33
|8.44%
|-
|[[مير علي تعلقو]]
|605
|229,647
|107.7
|38.31%
|-
|[[ميرانشاهه تعلقو]]
|402
|123,317
|102.02
|36.53%
|-
|[[رزمڪ تعلقو]]
|191
|49,367
|134.63
|26.62%
|-
|[[شيوا تعلقو]]
|393
|44,126
|112.28
|38.36%
|-
|[[اسپن وام تعلقو]]
|548
|54,209
|99.82
|23.47%
|-
|[[درابن تعلقو]] 
|1,540
|149,447
|97.04
|26.89%
| rowspan=&quot;7&quot; |[[ڊيرا اسماعيل خان ضلعو]] 
| rowspan=&quot;20&quot; |[[ڊيرا اسماعيل خان ڊويزن]] 
|-
|[[درازنده تعلقو|درازندا تعلقو]]
|2,008
|82,386
|41.03
|28.67%
|-
|[[ڊيرا اسماعيل خان تعلقو]] 
|1,167
|767,979
|658.08
|56.97%
|-
|[[ڪولاچي تعلقو]]
|1,229
|102,595
|83.48
|30.29%
|-
|[[پهاڙ پور تعلقو]]
|1,657
|406,467
|245.3
|48.86%
|-
|[[پنياله تعلقو]]
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|[[پروآ تعلقو|پاروآ تعلقو]]
|1,733
|320,937
|185.19
|35.56%
|-
|[[برمل تعلقو]]
|923
|112,757
|122.16
|23.06%
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[هيٺيون ڏکڻ وزيرستان ضلعو|ھيٺيون ڏکڻ وزيرستان ضلعو]] 
|-
|[[شڪئي تعلقو]]
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|[[توئي کلان تعلقو]]
|567
|102,835
|181.37
|7.81%
|-
|[[وانا تعلقو]]
|2,315
|184,645
|79.76
|31.29%
|-
|[[لڌا تعلقو]]
|289
|108,344
|374.89
|47.95%
| rowspan=&quot;7&quot; |[[مٿيون ڏکڻ وزيرستان ضلعو]]
|-
|[[مڪين تعلقو]]
|404
|66,042
|163.47
|48.71%
|-
|[[سراروغه تعلقو]]
|813
|145,118
|178.5
|35.07%
|-
|[[سرواڪئي تعلقو]]
|398
|58,804
|147.75
|37.67%
|-
|[[شڪتوئي تعلقو]]
|177
|44,332
|250.46
|32.93%
|-
|[[شوال تعلقو]]
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|[[تيارزه تعلقو]]
|734
|65,798
|89.64
|27.31%
|-
|[[جنڊوله تعلقو]]
|1,221
|44,794
|36.69
|33.63%
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[ٽانڪ ضلعو]] 
|-
|[[ٽانڪ تعلقو]]
|1,679
|425,499
|253.42
|41.43%
|-
|[[ايبٽ آباد تعلقو]] 
|1,285
|1,003,339
|101.76
|78.39%
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[ايبٽ آباد ضلعو]] 
| rowspan=&quot;26&quot; |[[Hazara Division]]
|-
|[[حويليان تعلقو]]
|342
|256,754
|98.8
|76.08%
|-
|[[لورا تعلقو]] 
|187
|98,717
|97.22
|73.73%
|-
|[[لوئر تناول تعلقو]]
|153
|60,262
|98.88
|71.66%
|-
|[[الائي تعلقو]]
|804
|218,149
|271.33
|35.71%
|[[Allai District]]
|-
|[[بٽگرام تعلقو]] 
|497
|335,984
|676.02
|41.20%
|[[Batagram District]]
|-
|[[غازي تعلقو]]
|595
|151,839
|255.19
|69.69%
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[Haripur District]]
|-
|[[هري پور تعلقو]]
|834
|836,058
|1,002.47
|76.07%
|-
|خانپور تعلقو 
|296
|186,886
|631.37
|73.76%
|-
|باتائرا/ڪولائي تعلقو 
|170
|142,660
|839.18
|15.93%
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[Kolai-Palas District]]
|-
|[[پالاس تعلقو]]
|1,240
|137,502
|110.89
|23.08%
|-
|بانڪاڊ تعلقو 
|331
|205,851
|621.91
|20.14%
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[Lower Kohistan District]]
|-
|[[پٽن تعلقو]] 
|311
|134,166
|431.4
|24.61%
|-
|[[بفه پکل تعلقو]]
|640
|460,090
|718.89
|60.85%
| rowspan=&quot;6&quot; |[[Mansehra District]]
|-
|[[بالاڪوٽ تعلقو]] 
|2,376
|310,339
|130.61
|67.50%
|-
|دربند تعلقو 
|102
|51,702
|506.88
|50.47%
|-
|[[مانسهره تعلقو]]
|700
|723,325
|1,033.32
|68.70%
|-
|اوگي تعلقو 
|307
|251,721
|819.94
|52.85%
|-
|تناول تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|دور مائره تعلقو 
|86
|50,503
|587.24
|25.92%
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[Torghar District]]
|-
|جدبه تعلقو 
|63
|63,083
|1,001.32
|19.78%
|-
|خانڊير حسن زئي تعلقو 
|305
|86,859
|284.78
|38.66%
|-
|[[داسو تعلقو]]
|1,958
|148,914
|76.05
|15.11%
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[Upper Kohistan District]]
|-
|هاربان باشا تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|25.49%
|-
|ڪانڊيه تعلقو 
|1,926
|165,232
|85.79
|13.71%
|-
|سيو تعلقو 
|258
|59,557
|230.84
|38.19%
|-
|دوآبه تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|...
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[Hangu District, Pakistan|Hangu District]]
| rowspan=&quot;17&quot; |[[Kohat Division]]
|-
|[[هنگو تعلقو]]
|669
|280,883
|419.86
|48.63%
|-
|[[ٽل تعلقو]]
|428
|248,019
|579.48
|36.70%
|-
|بانڊه دائود شاهه تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|53.95%
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[Karak District]]
|-
|[[ڪرڪ تعلقو]]
|1,299
|339,983
|261.73
|67.76%
|-
|تخت نصرتي تعلقو 
|607
|298,151
|491.19
|69.55%
|-
|دره آدم خيل تعلقو 
|446
|139,839
|313.54
|58.90%
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[Kohat District]]
|-
|گمبات تعلقو 
|503
|124,530
|247.57
|54.55%
|-
|[[ڪوهاٽ تعلقو]]
|911
|817,610
|897.49
|58.19%
|-
|[[لاچي تعلقو]] 
|1,131
|152,682
|135
|63.39%
|-
|سينٽرل ڪرم تعلقو
|1,470
|358,670
|243.99
|20.97%
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[Kurram District]]
|-
|لوئر ڪرم تعلقو
|940
|150,945
|160.58
|38.15%
|-
|اپر ڪرم تعلقو
|970
|275,819
|284.35
|49.07%
|-
|سينٽرل اورڪزئي تعلقو 
|399
|92,819
|232.63
|34.79%
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[Orakzai District]]
|-
|[[اسماعيل زئي تعلقو]] 
|275
|39,328
|143.01
|34.20%
|-
|لوئر اورڪزئي تعلقو 
|565
|125,944
|222.91
|41.86%
|-
|اپر اورڪزئي تعلقو 
|299
|129,470
|433.01
|23.98%
|-
|بار چمرڪنڊ تعلقو 
|13
|3,574
|104.41
|23.81%
| rowspan=&quot;7&quot; |[[Bajaur District]]
| rowspan=&quot;53&quot; |[[Malakand Division]]
|-
|برانگ تعلقو 
|159
|90,082
|100.27
|23.39%
|-
|[[خار باجوڙ تعلقو]] 
|238
|301,778
|102.81
|33.28%
|-
|[[ماموند تعلقو]]
|250
|358,190
|103.29
|24.48%
|-
|[[نواگئي تعلقو|ناواگئي تعلقو]] 
|216
|93,850
|103.2
|27.39%
|-
|[[سالارزئي تعلقو]]
|220
|316,767
|101.01
|19.90%
|-
|[[اتمان خيل تعلقو]] 
|194
|123,719
|100.66
|31.50%
|-
|[[چغرزئي تعلقو]]
|218
|125,949
|577.75
|38.27%
| rowspan=&quot;6&quot; |[[Buner District]]
|-
|ڊگر تعلقو
|290
|192,776
|664.74
|47.57%
|-
|گاديزئي تعلقو
|472
|197,466
|418.36
|44.22%
|-
|گاگره تعلقو
|217
|179,087
|825.29
|46.22%
|-
|خدو خيل تعلقو 
|343
|136,560
|398.13
|45.10%
|-
|ماندانر تعلقو 
|325
|185,031
|569.33
|39.47%
|-
|[[چترال تعلقو]]
|6,127
|211,374
|34.5
|70.20%
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[Lower Chitral District]]
|-
|دروش تعلقو
|331
|109,033
|329.4
|57.38%
|-
|آدينزئي تعلقو 
|372
|378,915
|1,018.59
|62.19%
| rowspan=&quot;7&quot; |[[Lower Dir District]]
|-
|[[بلامبٽ تعلقو]]
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|خال تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|لال قلعه تعلقو
|216
|247,381
|1,145.28
|53.29%
|-
|منڊا تعلقو
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|[[ثمر باغ تعلقو]]
|419
|427,714
|1,020.80
|45.75%
|-
|[[تيمرگره تعلقو]]
|576
|596,173
|1,035.02
|64.06%
|-
|سام رانيزئي تعلقو 
|280
|353,291
|1,261.75
|59.13%
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[Malakand District]]
|-
|سوات رانيزئي تعلقو 
|672
|472,959
|703.81
|63.57%
|-
|ٿانه بازئي تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|اتمان خيل تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|31.50%
|-
|[[الپوري تعلقو]]
|582
|366,772
|630.19
|38.26%
| rowspan=&quot;7&quot; |[[Shangla District]]
|-
|[[بيشام تعلقو]]
|184
|121,279
|659.13
|34.77%
|-
|چڪيسر تعلقو 
|335
|128,238
|382.8
|26.08%
|-
|مارتونگ تعلقو 
|188
|103,205
|548.96
|24.01%
|-
|ماخوزئي تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|شاهپور تعلقو
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|پوران تعلقو 
|297
|171,758
|578.31
|35.11%
|-
|بابوزئي تعلقو 
|297
|696,697
|2,345.78
|56.06%
| rowspan=&quot;7&quot; |[[Swat District]]
|-
|[[بريڪوٽ تعلقو]]
|419
|220,148
|525.41
|50.87%
|-
|[[بحرين تعلقو]]
|2,899
|270,623
|93.35
|39.26%
|-
|[[چارباغ تعلقو]]
|161
|159,358
|989.8
|50.01%
|-
|[[ڪبل تعلقو]]
|485
|480,827
|991.4
|49.26%
|-
|[[خوازہ خيله تعلقو|خوازه خيلا تعلقو]] 
|392
|307,300
|783.93
|42.63%
|-
|[[مٽه تعلقو]]
|684
|552,431
|807.65
|42.54%
|-
|[[بوني تعلقو]]
|...
|...
|...
|...
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[Upper Chitral District]]
|-
|ملڪوهه تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|تورڪوهه تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|[[مستوج تعلقو]] 
|8,392
|195,528
|23.3
|73.83%
|-
|باراوال تعلقو
|...
|...
|...
|...
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[Upper Dir District]]
|-
|[[دير تعلقو]]
|1,012
|384,667
|380.11
|48.26%
|-
|[[ڪالڪوٽ تعلقو]]
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|[[شئرنگل تعلقو]] 
|1,140
|210,356
|184.52
|37.15%
|-
|[[لارجام تعلقو]]
|1,039
|119,396
|114.91
|52.59%
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; |[[Central Dir District]]
|-
|[[واري تعلقو]]
|508
|369,147
|726.67
|48.56%
|-
|اخاگرام تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|نيهاگ دره تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|صاحب آباد تعلقو 
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|[[ڳڙهي ڪپوره تعلقو]]
|143
|319,465
|2,234.02
|51.70%
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; |[[Mardan District]]
| rowspan=&quot;9&quot; |[[Mardan Division]]
|-
|[[ڪٽلانگ تعلقو]]
|422
|377,535
|894.63
|61.47%
|-
|[[مردان تعلقو]] 
|335
|1,040,893
|3,107.14
|56.41%
|-
|[[رستم تعلقو]]
|379
|279,527
|737.54
|49.98%
|-
|[[تخت ڀائي تعلقو]] 
|353
|727,478
|2,060.84
|56.02%
|-
|[[لاهور تعلقو]]
|318
|354,383
|1,114.41
|54.16%
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[Swabi District]]
|-
|[[رزڙ تعلقو]]
|418
|682,303
|1,632.30
|56.61%
|-
|[[صوابي تعلقو]] 
|389
|475,352
|1,221.98
|63.23%
|-
|[[ٽوپي تعلقو]] 
|418
|382,562
|915.22
|59.83%
|-
|[[چارسده تعلقو]] 
|445
|909,438
|2,043.68
|58.56%
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[Charsadda District, Pakistan|Charsadda District]]
| rowspan=&quot;28&quot; |[[Peshawar Division]]
|-
|[[شبقدر تعلقو]] 
|204
|440,524
|2,159.43
|49.65%
|-
|[[تنگي تعلقو]] 
|347
|485,542
|1,399.26
|48.85%
|-
|[[باغ ميدان تعلقو]]
|...
|...
|...
|...
| rowspan=&quot;8&quot; |[[Khyber District]]
|-
|[[باڙه تعلقو]] 
|1,430
|548,084
|383.28
|34.72%
|-
|[[بازار زخه خيل تعلقو]]
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|[[فورٽ سالوپ تعلقو]]
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|[[جمرود تعلقو]] 
|311
|243,290
|782.28
|46.18%
|-
|[[لنڊي ڪوتل تعلقو]] 
|679
|312,313
|459.96
|38.92%
|-
|[[ملا گوري تعلقو]]
|156
|42,580
|272.95
|38.36%
|-
|[[پائنده چينه تعلقو]]
|...
|...
|...
|...
|-
|[[امبر اتمان خيل تعلقو]]
|273
|79,455
|291.04
|21.71%
| rowspan=&quot;7&quot; |[[Mohmand District]]
|-
|[[حليم زئي تعلقو]]
|211
|89,149
|422.51
|45.18%
|-
|[[پنڊيالي تعلقو]]
|454
|112,247
|247.24
|29.11%
|-
|[[پران غر تعلقو]]
|257
|36,046
|140.26
|35.46%
|-
|[[صافي تعلقو]]
|322
|109,620
|340.43
|26.21%
|-
|[[اپر مهمند تعلقو]]
|513
|63,659
|124.09
|21.62%
|-
|[[يڪه غنڊ تعلقو]]
|266
|63,757
|239.69
|41.38%
|-
|[[جهانگيره تعلقو]] 
|718
|434,984
|100.72
|56.92%
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[Nowshera District]]
|-
|[[نوشهره تعلقو]] 
|679
|796,226
|106.39
|56.76%
|-
|[[پبي تعلقو]] 
|351
|509,495
|102.42
|56.70%
|-
|[[بڍبير تعلقو]]
|357
|439,912
|1,232.25
|38.66%
| rowspan=&quot;7&quot; |[[Peshawar District]]
|-
|[[چمڪني تعلقو]]
|226
|624,354
|2,762.63
|54.72%
|-
|[[حسن خيل تعلقو]]
|261
|72,557
|278
|55.34%
|-
|[[مٿرا تعلقو]]
|218
|495,059
|2,270.91
|45.79%
|-
|[[پشاور|پشاور شهر تعلقو]]
|176
|2,113,596
|12,009.07
|60.88%
|-
|[[پشتاخره تعلقو]]
|135
|480,436
|3,558.79
|45.45%
|-
|[[شاهه عالم تعلقو]]
|145
|532,848
|3,674.81
|44.96%
|}

==ايراضي جي لحاظ کان فهرست==


==بنون ڊويزن== 
===بنون ضلعو=== 
• [[بکاخيل تعلقو]]
 
• [[بنون تعلقو]]
 
• [[ڊوميل تعلقو]]

• [[ڪڪي تعلقو]]
 
• [[ميران تعلقو]]
 
• [[وزير تعلقو]] 
===لڪي مروت ضلعو=== 
• [[بٽاڻي تعلقو]]
 
• [[غزني خيل تعلقو]]

• [[لڪي مروت تعلقو]] 

• [[سرائي نورنگ تعلقو]]
===اتر وزيرستان ضلعو=== 
• [[دتا خيل تعلقو]]

• [[دوسالي تعلقو]]
  
• [[غريوم تعلقو]]

• [[غلام خان تعلقو]]

• [[مير علي تعلقو]]

• [[ميران شاهه تعلقو]]
  
• [[رزمڪ تعلقو]]

• [[شيوا تعلقو]]

• [[اسپن وام تعلقو]]

==ڊيرا اسماعيل خان ڊويزن== 
===ڊيرا اسماعيل خان ضلعو=== 
• [[درابن تعلقو]]
 
• [[درازند تعلقو]]
 
• [[ڊيرا اسماعيل خان تعلقو]]
 
• [[ڪولاچي تعلقو]]

• [[پهاڙ پور تعلقو]]

• [[پنيالا تعلقو]]

• [[پارو تعلقو]]
===لوئر ڏکڻ وزيرستان ضلعو===
• [[برمل تعلقو]]

• [[شڪئي تعلقو]] 

• [[توئي خولا تعلقو]]

• [[وانا تعلقو]] 
===اپر ڏکڻ وزيرستان ضلعو=== 
• [[لڌا تعلقو]]

• [[مکين تعلقو]]

• [[سراروغہ تعلقو]]

• [[سروڪئي تعلقو]]  

• [[شڪتو تعلقو]]

• [[شوال تعلقو]] 

• [[ٽارزا تعلقو]]
===ٽانڪ ضلعو=== 
• [[جنڊولا تعلقو]]
 
• [[ٽانڪ تعلقو]]

==هزاره ڊويزن==

===ايبٽ آباد ضلعو=== 
• [[ايبٽ آباد تعلقو]]
 
• [[حويليان تعلقو]]

• [[لورا تعلقو]]

• [[لوئر تناول تعلقو]]
===بٽگرام ضلعو=== 
• [[الائي تعلقو]]

• [[بٽگرام تعلقو]]
===هريپور ضلعو=== 
• [[غازي تعلقو]]
 
• [[هري پور تعلقو]]

• [[خانپور تعلقو]] 
===ڪولئي۔پالس ضلعو=== 
• [[باتيرا]]/[[ڪولئي پالس تعلقو]] 
===لوئر ڪوهستان ضلعو=== 
• [[بانڪا تعلقو]]

• [[پتڻ تعلقو]] 
===مانسهره ضلعو=== 
• [[بفا پکل تعلقو]]

• [[بالاڪوٽ تعلقو]]
 
• [[دربند تعلقو]]

• [[مانسهره تعلقو]]
 
• [[اوگي تعلقو]]
 
• [[تناول تعلقو]]
===تورغر ضلعو===
• [[دڙي ميرا تعلقو]]

• [[جُدبا تعلقو]]

• [[کندر حسن زئي تعلقو]]
===اپر ڪوهستان ضلعو=== 
• [[داسو تعلقو]]

• [[هاربن ڀاشا تعلقو]] 
 
• [[ڪنڊا تعلقو]]

• [[سيو تعلقو]]
==ڪوهاٽ ڊويزن== 
===هنگو ضلعو===
• [[دوآبہ تعلقو]]

• [[هنگو تعلقو]]

• [[ٽل تعلقو]]
===ڪرڪ ضلعو=== 
• [[بانڊا دائود شاهه تعلقو]]
 
• [[ڪرڪ تعلقو]]

• [[تخت نصرتي تعلقو]] 
===ڪوهاٽ ضلعو=== 
• [[دره آدم خيل تعلقو]]

• [[گمباٽ تعلقو]]

• [[ڪوهاٽ تعلقو]]

• [[لاچي تعلقو]]
===ڪرم ضلعو=== 
• [[سينٽرل ڪرم تعلقو]]

• [[لوئر ڪرم تعلقو]] 

• [[اپر ڪرم تعلقو]] 
===اورڪزئي ضلعو===
• [[سينٽرل اورڪزئي تعلقو]] 

• [[اسماعيل زئي تعلقو]] 

• [[لوئر اورڪزئي تعلقو]]

• [[اپر اورڪزئي تعلقو]]

==مالاڪنڊ ڊويزن== 
===باجوڙ ضلعو=== 
• [[بار چمرڪند تعلقو]]

• [[بارنگ تعلقو]]

• [[خار باجوڙ تعلقو]]

• [[ماموند تعلقو]] 

• [[نواگئي تعلقو]]

• [[سالارزئي تعلقو]]

• [[اتمان خيل تعلقو]]

===بونير ضلعو=== 
• [[چغر زئي تعلقو]]

• [[ڏنگر تعلقو]] 

• [[گاديزئي تعلقو]] 

• [[گاگرا تعلقو]]

• [[خدو تعلقو]]

• [[مانڌر تعلقو]]
===لوئر چترال ضلعو===
• [[چترال تعلقو]]

• [[دروش تعلقو]] 
===لوئر دير ضلعو=== 
• [[آدینزئي تعلقو]] 

• [[بلامبٽ تعلقو]] 

• [[خال تعلقو]]

• [[لال قلعو تعلقو]] 

• [[منڊا تعلقو]]

• [[ثمر باغ تعلقو]]

• [[تئمرگرا تعلقو]] 
===مالاڪنڊ ضلعو=== 
• [[سام راڻيزئي تعلقو]]

• [[سوات راڻيزئي تعلقو]]

• [[ٿاڻي بائيزئي تعلقو]]

• [[اتمان خيل تعلقو]]

===شانگلا ضلعو=== 
• [[الپوري تعلقو]]

• [[بشام تعلقو]]

• [[چڪيسر تعلقو]] 
 
• [[مارتونگ تعلقو]] 

• [[مخوزئي تعلقو]]
 
• [[شاهپور تعلقو]]

• [[پاريان تعلقو]] 
===سوات ضلعو=== 
• [[بابوزئي تعلقو]]

• [[بريڪوٽ تعلقو]]

• [[بحرين تعلقو]]

• [[چارباغ تعلقو]]

• [[ڪبل تعلقو]] 

• [[خوازه خیلہ تعلقو]]

• [[مٽہ تعلقو]]
===اپر چترال ضلعو===
• [[مستوج تعلقو]]

• [[بوني تعلقو]]

• [[ملکو تعلقو]]

• [[تورخو تعلقو]]

===اپر دير ضلعو===
• [[بروال تعلقو]]
 
• [[دیر تعلقو]]

• [[ڪالڪوٽ تعلقو]] 

• [[لارڄام تعلقو]]

• [[شئرنگل تعلقو]]

• [[وار تعلقو]]

==مردان ڊويزن== 
===ضلع مردان===
• [[ڳڙهي ڪپوڙا تعلقو]]

• [[ڪتلانگ تعلقو]]

• [[مردان تعلقو]] 

• [[رستم تعلقو]]

• [[تخت ڀائي تعلقو]] 
===صوابي ضلعو=== 
• [[لاهور تعلقو]]

• [[راڳ تعلقو]] 

• [[صوابي تعلقو]]

• [[ٽوپي تعلقو]]

==پشاور ڊويزن==
===چارسده ضلعو===
• [[چارسده تعلقو]]

• [[شبقدر تعلقو]]

• [[تنگي تعلقو]]
===خيبر ضلعو===
• [[باغ ميدان تعلقو]] 

• [[باڙه تعلقو]] 

• [[بازار زخه خيل تعلقو]]

• [[قلعو سيلپ تعلقو]]

• [[جمرود تعلقو]]

• [[لنڊي ڪوتل تعلقو]]

• [[ملا گوري تعلقو]]

• [[پينڊا چينا تعلقو]]
===مهمند ضلعو=== 
• [[امبر اتمان خيل تعلقو]] 

• [[حليم زئي تعلقو]]

• [[پنڊيالي تعلقو]]

• [[پران غر تعلقو]] 

• [[صافي تعلقو]] 

• [[اپر مهمند تعلقو]] (بائيزئي)

• [[يڪہ غنڊ تعلقو]]
===نوشهره ضلعو=== 
# [[جهانگيره تعلقو|جهانگيرہ تعلقو]]
# [[نوشهره تعلقو]]
# [[پبي تعلقو]]

===پشاور ضلعو=== 
• [[بڈھ بیر تعلقو]]

• [[چمڪنئي تعلقو]]

• [[سرحدي علائقو پشاور|حسن خيل تعلقو]]

• [[ماٿرا تعلقو]]

• [[پشاور شهر تعلقو]] 

• [[پٺن تعلقو]]

• [[شاهه عالم تعلقو]]

==پڻ ڏسو==
• [[پاڪستان ۾ تعلقن جي فهرست]] 

• [[خيبرپختونخوا ۾ ضلعن جي فهرست]]

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:پاڪستان جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا]]
[[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا جي انتظامي ورهاست]]
[[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا جي جاگرافي]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>7gasih922lt3fja70vdzdjh849dwn9q</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:پاڪستاني پنجاب جا تعلقا</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>78895</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399179</id>
      <parentid>398385</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:13:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399179</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="291" sha1="etl7cx4tkd0aau10l58isn34eakhoab" xml:space="preserve">{{اصل مضمون|پنجاب، پاڪستان جي تعلقن جي فهرست}}
{{زمرو ڪامنز}}
[[زمرو:پنجاب جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:پنجاب، پاڪستان جي سياسي جاگرافي]]
[[زمرو:پنجاب، پاڪستان جي انتظامي ورهاست]]</text>
      <sha1>etl7cx4tkd0aau10l58isn34eakhoab</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399180</id>
      <parentid>399179</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:13:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399180</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="348" sha1="tju3tn3fmt1jfkorutfxp2w16xxdqqu" xml:space="preserve">{{اصل مضمون|پنجاب، پاڪستان جي تعلقن جي فهرست}}
{{زمرو ڪامنز}}
[[زمرو:پنجاب جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:پنجاب، پاڪستان جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:پنجاب، پاڪستان جي سياسي جاگرافي]]
[[زمرو:پنجاب، پاڪستان جي انتظامي ورهاست]]</text>
      <sha1>tju3tn3fmt1jfkorutfxp2w16xxdqqu</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>جلالپور شريف</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>78902</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399195</id>
      <parentid>348048</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:37:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* حوالا */</comment>
      <origin>399195</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4932" sha1="nnu97og2jxyx9tyxwg57owqebw0zxej" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
| official_name = Jalalpur Sharif
| name = جلالپور شريف
| settlement_type = 
| image_skyline = Jalalpur Sharif.jpg
| imagesize = 240px
| image_alt = 
| image_caption = 
| image_map = 
| mapsize = 100px
| map_alt = 
| map_caption = 
| coordinates = {{Coord|32|39|34|N|73|24|19|E|display=title}}
| pushpin_map = 
| pushpin_label_position = 
| pushpin_map_alt = 
| pushpin_mapsize = 
| pushpin_map_caption = 
| subdivision_type = [[ملڪ]]
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[پاڪستان جا صوبا|صوبو]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[پنجاب (پاڪستان)|پنجاب]]
| subdivision_type2 = ضلعو
| subdivision_name2 = [[جھلم ضلعو|جھلم]]
| subdivision_type3 = تعلقو
| subdivision_name3 = [[پنڊ دادن خان تعلقو|پنڊ دادن خان]]
| population_total = 10,527
| population_as_of = 2017
| population_est = 
| pop_est_as_of = 
| population_footnotes = 
| area_total_km2 = 
| elevation_m = 
| elevation_m_min = 
| elevation_m_max = 
| population_density_km2 = 
| leader_title = 
| leader_name = 
| leader_title1 = 
| leader_name1 = 
| area_code = +92544
| area_code_type = [[List of dialling codes of Pakistan|Calling code]]
| timezone1 = [[پاڪستان جو معياري وقت|پ.م.و]]
| utc_offset1 = +5
| website = 
| footnotes = 
}}
'''جلالپور شريف''' {{ٻيا نالا|انگريزي=Jalalpur Sharif}}، پاڪستان [[پنجاب، پاڪستان|پنجاب]] جي [[جھلم ضلعو|جھلم ضلعي]] جو ھڪ ٽائون آھي.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nrb.gov.pk/lg_election/union.asp?district=12&amp;dn=Jhelum Tehsils &amp; Unions in the District of Jhelum – Government of Pakistan] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209043508/http://www.nrb.gov.pk/lg_election/union.asp?district=12&amp;dn=Jhelum |date=2012-02-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
==تاريخ== 
جلالپور جو جديد نالو ملڪ درويش خان جنجوعه، جيڪو شهنشاهه جلال الدين محمد اڪبر جي دور ۾ شاهي مغل فوج جو اعليٰ عهدي وارو جنرل هو، ان جي قديم نالي گرجاک جي بدلي ۾ آيو. چيو وڃي ٿو ته ملڪ درويش جڏهن شهنشاهه اڪبر وٽ آيو ته گرجاک (پنهنجي وڌايل سلطنت جو حصو) جو نالو بدلائي جلالپور رکڻ جو حڪم ڏنو. اهو ڪم شهنشاهه ۽ جنجوعه خاندان جي لاڳاپن جي اعزاز ۾ ڪيو ويو. ان دور ۾ جلالپور علائقي جي واپار جو مرڪز هو.
 
هن علائقي جي تاريخ 326 ق.م. جي آهي جڏهن سڪندر اعظم ۽ سندس لشڪر جهلم نديءَ جي ساڄي ڪناري تي واقع جلالپور شريف ۾، هائيڊاسپس (جهلم) جي جنگ کان اڳ ۾ ڪئمپون لڳايون هيون. ان جنگ ۾ سڪندر جو گهوڙو، بوسيفالس (Bucephalus) سخت زخمي ٿي پيو ۽ کيس جلالپور شريف جي ويجهو دفن ڪيو ويو، جتان پوءِ سڪندر پنهنجي گهوڙي جي نالي تي بوڪيفالا جو شهر ٺهرايو. 

هن شهر جي هڪ نمايان نشاني پير سيد غلام حيدر علي شاهه جي درگاهه آهي، جيڪو چشتي بزرگ جي بزرگ هو. برصغير ​​جي مشهور چشتي روحاني بزرگن مان هڪ جي درگاهه سان اها وابستگي آهي جو جلالپور سان گڏ شريف جو لقب به مشهور آهي. پير سيد غلام حيدر علي شاهه ۽ سندس اولاد، خاص ڪري سندس پوٽي، جنهن کي امير حزب الله جو لقب ڏنو ويو، پير سيد محمد فاضل شاهه جو پنجاب جي مسلمانن جي روحاني ترقيءَ ۽ سياسي تحريڪ ۾ به تمام گهڻو اثر رهيو. جيڪو آخرڪار اسلامي جمهوريه پاڪستان جي قيام جو سبب بڻيو. کيوڙا سالٽ مائنز، دنيا جي ٻي وڏي لوڻ جي کاڻ، جيڪا 37 ڪلوميٽرن جي مفاصلي تي جلالپور شريف کان اولهه طرف کيوڙا ۾ واقع آهي.

==خارجي لنڪس==
* [http://wikimapia.org/#lat=32.6586074&amp;lon=73.4041536&amp;z=17&amp;l=0&amp;m=a&amp;v=2 Wikimapia map]
* [http://jalalpursharif.wordpress.com History of Jalalpur Sharif]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080223145358/http://www.worldisround.com/articles/328248/index.html Local Photos]
* [https://flickr.com/photos/77196102@N00/sets/72157600116286957 More Local Photos]

{{Neighbourhoods of Jhelum}}

[[Category:Populated places in Tehsil Pind Dadan Khan]]
[[Category:Union councils of Pind Dadan Khan Tehsil]]

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:پنڊ دادن خان تعلقو]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان جا قصبا]]
[[زمرو:جھلم ضلعي جا قصبا]]
[[زمرو:پنجاب، پاڪستان جا قصبا]]</text>
      <sha1>nnu97og2jxyx9tyxwg57owqebw0zxej</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:پشاور</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>87579</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399290</id>
      <parentid>344333</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:13:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399290</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="132" sha1="pyl0dc22m5d9ypmcwpx14dc1xz05rv1" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا شهر]]</text>
      <sha1>pyl0dc22m5d9ypmcwpx14dc1xz05rv1</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399368</id>
      <parentid>399290</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T08:40:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399368</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="83" sha1="4t7ivkqqge42a7hdkvmgzflgk2th4wo" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا شهر]]</text>
      <sha1>4t7ivkqqge42a7hdkvmgzflgk2th4wo</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>نيو ڪيليڊونيا</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>94921</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399230</id>
      <parentid>399161</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T14:56:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* فرانسيسي نوآباديات */</comment>
      <origin>399230</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="174496" sha1="6b4gprx0lcavsrn7hyzzw8271egkdv2" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|French territory in the southwest Pacific Ocean}}
{{Infobox dependency
| name   = نيو ڪيليڊونيا&lt;br&gt; New Caledonia
| native_name                   = Nouvelle-Calédonie ([[فرانسيسي ٻولي|فرينچ]])
| settlement_type   = سمنڊ پار علائقن جو مجموعو&lt;br&gt; Sui generis collectivity
| image_flag    = Flag of New Caledonia.svg
| flag_size             = 200
| flag_type      = پرچم 
| flag_link = Flags of New Caledonia
| image_blank_emblem = Emblem of New Caledonia.svg
| blank_emblem_size     = 60
| blank_emblem_type  = رياستي نشان 
| blank_emblem_link  = Emblem of New Caledonia
| motto  = &quot;Terre de parole, terre de partage&quot;&lt;br/&gt;&quot;ڳالهه ٻول ۽ حصيداري جي سر زمين&quot;
| anthem  = &quot;لا مارسيلئ&quot;
&lt;br /&gt;{{Center|[[File:La_Marseillaise.ogg]]}}&quot;[[Soyons unis, devenons frères]]&quot;{{refn|1=&quot;Soyons unis, devenons frères&quot; is officially a national anthem but is generally used only on regal and viceregal occasions.|group=nb}}&lt;br /&gt;''اچو متحد ٿيو، اچو ڀاء بڻجي ونجهي&quot;
| image_map   = {{switcher|[[File:New Caledonia in France (zoomed).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:NewCaledonia2022OSM.png|frameless]]|Map of New Caledonia}}
| map_alt  = Location of New Caledonia
| map_caption   = نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي جاء 
| mapsize       = 290px
| subdivision_type   = [[ملڪ|خودمختيار رياست]]
| subdivision_name = {{Flag|France}}
| established_title = فرانس پاران شامل ڪيو ويو 
| established_date = 24 سيپٽمبر، 1853ع
| established_title2 = سمنڊ پار علائقو قرار ڏنو ويو
| established_date2  = 1946ع
| established_title3 = نوميا معاهدو
| established_date3  = 5 مئي، 1998ع
| official_languages  = [[فرانسيسي ٻولي|فرانسيسي]]
| regional_languages            = {{hlist|دريهو|پائسي|نينگونئ|اجيئي|35 ٻيون مقامي ٻوليون}}
| languages_type = غير مقامي ٻوليون
| languages = [[English language|English]]{{efn|English is widely used in the tourism industry due to tourism from Australia and New Zealand.}}
| ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list|
* ڪاناڪ (41.2%)
* يورپيئن (24.1%)
* مخلوط نسل (11.3%)
* پولينيشيئن (10.3%)
* ٻيا (13.1%)}}
| ethnic_groups_year = 2019&lt;ref name=&quot;Population Structure of Communities&quot;/&gt;
| capital   = [[نوميا]]
| coordinates                   = {{coord|22|16|S|166|28|E}}
| largest_city   = [[راڄڌاني]]
| demonym   = {{hlist|نيو ڪيليڊونيئن|فرانسيسي}}
| government_type   = پارلياماني آئيني طور شامل انحصار
| leader_title1  = صدر
| leader_name1 = [[ايمانوئل مئڪرون]]
| leader_title2  = هاء ڪمشنر 
| leader_name2   = زاڪ بلانت 
| leader_title3   = حڪومتي صدر
| leader_name3   = السيدئ پونگا 
| leader_title4    = ڪانگريس جو صدر
| leader_name4   = ويلما فئلايو 
| legislature       = ڪانگريس 
| national_representation  = فرانسيسي پارليامان
| national_representation_type1 = سينيٽ 
| national_representation1  = 2 سينيٽر
| national_representation_type2 = {{nowrap|قومي اسيمبلي}}
| national_representation2   = 2 نشستون 
| area_km2    = 18,575&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/new-caledonia/|title=New Caledonia|date=6 December 2023|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|via=CIA.gov|access-date=25 January 2021|archive-date=7 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407121006/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/new-caledonia/|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| area_land_km2                 = 18,275
| area_rank                     = 
| percent_water                 = 1.6
| elevation_max_m               = 1,628
| elevation_max_point           = مونٽ پئني
| population_census             = 2,64,596&lt;ref name=census2025&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/population/recensement |title=Recensement 2025 |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2026-01-30 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_census_year        = اپريل، 2025ع
| population_census_rank        = 184هون
| population_estimate           = 
| population_estimate_rank      = 
| population_estimate_year      = 
| population_density_km2        = 14.5
| population_density_sq_mi      = 
| population_density_rank       = 200هون
| GDP_PPP                       = 
| GDP_PPP_rank                  = 
| GDP_PPP_year                  = 
| GDP_PPP_per_capita            = 
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank       = 
| GDP_nominal                   = US$9.48 billion&lt;ref name=&quot;GDP&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/82-donnees?download=566:pib |title=Evolution du PIB et du PIB par habitant |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| GDP_nominal_year              = 2019
| GDP_nominal_per_capita        = US$34,939&lt;ref name=&quot;GDP&quot;/&gt;
| currency                      = [[CFP franc]] (₣)
| currency_code                 = XPF
| timezone                      = 
| utc_offset                    = +11:00
| drives_on                     = right
| calling_code                  = [[+687]]
| iso_code                      = {{hlist|[[ISO 3166-2:NC|NC]]|[[ISO 3166-2:FR|FR-NC]]|[[ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|NCL]]}}
| cctld                         = [[.nc]]
}}
نيو ڪيليڊونيا (&lt;small&gt;New&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Caledonia&lt;/small&gt;) [[وانوآتو|وانواتو]] کان &lt;small&gt;220&lt;/small&gt; ڪلوميٽر (&lt;small&gt;140&lt;/small&gt; ميل) ڏکڻ اولهه ۽ [[آسٽريليا]] کان &lt;small&gt;1,210&lt;/small&gt; ڪلوميٽر &lt;small&gt;(750 ميل)&lt;/small&gt; اوڀر ۾، هڪ فرانسيسي علائقو آهي جيڪو ڏکڻ اولهه [[پيسفڪ سمنڊ|پئسفڪ سمنڊ]] ۾ [[ٻيٽن جو ميڙ|ٻيٽن جي هڪ ميڙ]] تي مشتمل آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;enc-pres2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Presentation|title=Présentation|language=fr|website=Nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr|access-date=2013-01-30|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030174803/http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Presentation|archive-date=30 October 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; مکيه سر زمين [[فرانس]] کان &lt;small&gt;16,100&lt;/small&gt; ڪلوميٽر (&lt;small&gt;10,000&lt;/small&gt; ميل) جي مفاصلي تي واقع، اها فرانسيسي جمهوريه ۾، سمنڊ پار فرانس جي هڪ منفرد قانوني حيثيت، &quot;سوئي جينرس مجموعي&quot; طور تي وجود رکي ٿو ۽ نيو ڪيليڊونيا رياست جي حيثيت لاءِ هڪ جاري منصوبي سان، فرانسيسي آئين جي هڪ وقف باب ۾ شامل آهي.

ٻيٽن جو ميڙ ([[ميلئنيزيا|ميلينيشيا]] جي ذيلي علائقي جو حصو) ۾ گرانڊي ٽيري جو مکيه ٻيٽ، لائلٽي ٻيٽ، چيسٽر فيلڊ ٻيٽ، بيلپ ٻيٽ، آئل آف پائنز ۽ ڪجھ ڏورانهن ٻيٽ شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;pres-om2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?presentation-nouvelle-caledonie.html|title=Présentation – L'Outre-Mer|website=Outre-mer.gouv.fr|access-date=2013-01-30|archive-date=9 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109131754/http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?presentation-nouvelle-caledonie.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; چيسٽر فيلڊ ٻيٽ [[ڪورل سمنڊ]] ۾ آهن. فرانسيسي ماڻهو، خاص طور تي مقامي ماڻهو، &quot;گرانڊي ٽيري لي ڪيلو&quot;  (Grande Terre {{lang|fr|le Caillou}}) سڏين ٿا، هڪ لقب جيڪو عام طور تي پوري نيو ڪيليڊونيا لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Stanley19892&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=David Stanley|title=South Pacific Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=unz2v_HT5q0C&amp;pg=PA549|year=1989|publisher=David Stanley|isbn=978-0-918373-29-8|page=549|access-date=18 October 2015|archive-date=13 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413093620/https://books.google.com/books?id=unz2v_HT5q0C&amp;pg=PA549|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; آزادي جي حامي ڪنڪ پارٽيون نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي حوالي سان نالو (لا) ڪنڪي (تلفظ) استعمال ڪن ٿيون، هڪ اصطلاح جيڪو 1980 جي ڏهاڪي ۾ مقامي ميلانيشين ڪنڪ ماڻهن جي نسلي نالي مان ٺاهيو ويو هو جيڪي نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي آبادي جو 41٪ ٺاهيندا آهن. نيو ڪيليڊونيا يورپي يونين سان هڪ اوورسيز ملڪ ۽ علائقي (OCT) جي طور تي لاڳاپيل آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=The European Union and New Caledonia {{!}} EEAS|url=https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/european-union-and-new-caledonia_en|access-date=2025-07-27|website=www.eeas.europa.eu|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

نيو ڪيليڊونيا جو زميني علائقو 18,575 چورس ڪلوميٽر (7,172 چورس ميل) آهي جيڪو ٽن صوبن ۾ ورهايل آهي. اتر ۽ ڏکڻ صوبا نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي مکيه زمين تي آهن. جڏهن ته لوئلٽي ٻيٽ صوبو مکيه زمين جي اوڀر ساحل کان پري چار آباد ٻيٽن جو هڪ سلسلو آهي (اتر کان ڏکڻ: اوويا، ليفو، ٽيگا، ۽ ماري). نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,64,596&lt;/small&gt; (اپريل &lt;small&gt;2025&lt;/small&gt;ع جي مردم شماري) مختلف اصلن جي آهي ۽ جاگرافي جي لحاظ کان مختلف آهي. اتر ۽ لوئلٽي ٻيٽ صوبن ۾ مقامي ڪنڪ ماڻهو غالب آهن، جڏهن ته ڏکڻ صوبي ۾ يورپي (ڪالڊوچ ۽ فرينچ)، ڪنڪ ۽ پولينيشين (گهڻو ڪري واليسين) نسل جي اهم آبادي ۽ انهي سان گڏ ڏکڻ اوڀر ايشيائي، پائيڊ-نائر ۽ اتر آفريقي ورثي جا ننڍا گروپن جي آبادي شامل آهي. نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ [[نوميا]] آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;enc-pres3&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Presentation|title=Présentation|language=fr|website=Nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr|access-date=2013-01-30|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030174803/http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Presentation|archive-date=30 October 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== تاريخ ==
نيو ڪيليڊونيا براعظم [[زيلينڊيا]] جو حصو هو، جيڪو سپر براعظم [[گونڊوانا]] کان الڳ ٿي ويو ۽ 79 ملين ۽ 83 ملين سال اڳ ٻڏي ويو. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/lost-continent-zealandia-mapped.html|title=Hidden boundaries of lost continent 'Zealandia' revealed in incredible detail|website=LiveScience|last=Pappas|first=Stephanie|date=25 March 2021|access-date=30 December 2022|archive-date=20 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220141754/https://www.livescience.com/lost-continent-zealandia-mapped.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ انساني موجودگي جا ابتدائي نشان ان دور جا آهن جڏهن، سال 1600-500 ق.م يا 1300-200 ق.م.، ۾ لپيتا ڪلچر پئسفڪ جي وڏي حصن ۾ اثر انداز ٿيو. &lt;ref name=&quot;pres-hist2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Histoire/Histoire|title=Histoire / La Nouvelle-Calédonie|language=fr|website=Nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr|date=2012-11-20|access-date=2013-01-30|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030183849/http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Histoire/Histoire|archive-date=30 October 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; لپيتا انتهائي ماهر جهاز ران ۽ زراعت پيشا هئا. پهرين آباديون ساحل جي چوڌاري مرڪوز هيون ۽ تقريبن 1100 ق.م ۽ 200 عيسوي جي وچ واري دور جون هيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;pres-hist3&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Histoire/Histoire|title=Histoire / La Nouvelle-Calédonie|language=fr|website=Nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr|date=2012-11-20|access-date=2013-01-30|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030183849/http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Histoire/Histoire|archive-date=30 October 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Two Kanak (Canaque) warriors posing with penis gourds and spears, New Caledonia.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|[[File:Two Kanak (Canaque) warriors posing with penis gourds and spears, New Caledonia.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|Two [[Kanak people|Kanak]] warriors posing with [[Koteka|penis gourd]]s and spears, around 1880]]]]برطانوي سياح جيمس ڪڪ انهن پهرين يورپين مان هڪ هو جن پنهنجي سامونڊي سفر دوران &lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt; سيپٽمبر &lt;small&gt;1774&lt;/small&gt; ع تي نيو ڪيليڊونيا کي ڏٺو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ieom.fr/IMG/pdf/ra2010_nouvelle-caledonie.pdf |title=Rapport annuel 2010 |publisher=IEOM Nouvelle-Calédonie |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=10 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310075134/https://www.ieom.fr/IMG/pdf/ra2010_nouvelle-caledonie.pdf |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ان جو نالو &quot;نيو ڪيليڊونيا&quot; رکيو ڇاڪاڻ ته ان ٻيٽ جو اتر-اوڀر وارو حصو کيس اسڪاٽلينڊ جي ياد ڏياري رهيو هو. ”گرانڊ ٽير“ (Grande Terre) جي اولهه واري ساحل تائين &quot;ڪومٽ ڊي لاپيروز&quot; &lt;small&gt;1788&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾، پنهنجي گم ٿيڻ کان ٿورو وقت اڳ پهتو هو؛ جڏهن ته &quot;لائلٽي ٻيٽن&quot; جو پهريون ڀيرو دورو 1793ع ۽ 1796ع جي وچ ۾ ڪيو ويو، جڏهن انگريز وهيل مڇي جي شڪاري &quot;وليم ريون“ مار (&lt;small&gt;Mare&lt;/small&gt;)، ليفائو (&lt;small&gt;Lifou&lt;/small&gt;)، ٽيگا (&lt;small&gt;Tiga&lt;/small&gt;) ۽ اوويئا (&lt;small&gt;Ouvea&lt;/small&gt;) جا نقشا تيار ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FUwDzM94jGUC&amp;pg=RA1-PA15|title=Historical Dictionary of the Discovery and Exploration of the Pacific Islands|last1=Quanchi|first1=Max|last2=Robson|first2=John|date=2005|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=9780810865280|access-date=30 December 2021|archive-date=31 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531052523/https://books.google.com/books?id=FUwDzM94jGUC&amp;pg=RA1-PA15|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; ريون نومبر 1793ع ۾ ان ٻيٽ سان روبرو ٿيو، جنهن جو نالو ان وقت &quot;برٽانيا&quot; هو ۽ اڄ اهو مار (&lt;small&gt;Maré&lt;/small&gt; - لائلٽي ٻيٽ) جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;maritimeheritage.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.maritimeheritage.org/ports/newCaledonia.html|title=New Caledonia and International Seaport History. The Maritime Heritage Project.|website=Maritimeheritage.org|access-date=2017-11-12|archive-date=13 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113112912/http://www.maritimeheritage.org/ports/newCaledonia.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; 1796ع کان 1840ع تائين، ان [[ٻيٽن جو ميڙ]] سان صرف ڪجهه ڇڙوڇڙ رابطن جو رڪارڊ ملي ٿو. تقريبن 50 آمريڪي وهيل شڪارين 1793ع ۽ 1887ع جي وچ ۾&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book| last= Langdon| first= Robert | year= 1983| title= Where the Whalers Went: An index of the Pacific Ports and Islands visited by American Whalers (and some other ships) in the 19th Century| place= Canberra| publisher= Pacific Manuscripts Bureau| page= 183 |isbn= 086784471X}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان علائقي (گرانڊ ٽير، لائلٽي ٻيٽ، والپول ۽ هنٽر) ۾ موجود هجڻ جا ثبوت ڇڏيا. &lt;small&gt;1840&lt;/small&gt;ع کان پوءِ ايندڙ جهازن سان رابطا وڌيڪ باقاعده ٿي ويا، جنهن جو سبب ”صندل جي ڪاٺ“ (&lt;small&gt;sandalwood&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ سندن دلچسپي هئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot; /&gt;

جيئن جيئن صندل جي ڪاٺ جي واپار ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، ان جي جاءِ هڪ نئين ڪاروباري سرگرمي ورتي، جنهن کي ”بليڪ برڊنگ“ (&lt;small&gt;blackbirding&lt;/small&gt;) چيو ويندو هو. هي اصطلاح ميلانيشين يا اولهه پئسفڪ ٻيٽن جي رهواسين (جن جو تعلق نيو ڪيليڊونيا، لائلٽي ٻيٽن، نيو هيبرائڊس، نيو گني ۽ سولومن ٻيٽن سان هو) کي مختلف قسمن جي چالاڪين ۽ دوکيبازين ذريعي غلامي، معاهدي تحت مزدوري يا زبردستي مزدوريءَ لاءِ فيجي ۽ ڪوئنزلينڊ جي گني جي فصلن ڏانهن کڻي وڃڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو هو. ”بليڪ برڊنگ“ جو عمل فرانسيسي ۽ آسٽريلين واپارين ٻنهي طرفان ڪيو ويندو هو، پر نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي حوالي سان، ويهين صديءَ جي شروعاتي ڏهاڪن ۾ هن واپار ۾ لائلٽي ٻيٽن مان ٻارن کي اغوا ڪري ”گرانڊ ٽير“ آڻڻ شامل هو، ته جيئن انهن کان زرعي فارمن ۾ زبردستي مزدوري ڪرائي سگهجي. نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ ”بليڪ برڊنگ“ جو بنيادي تجربو ”نيو هيبرائڊس“ (هاڻوڪو [[وانوآتو]]) کان ”گرانڊ ٽير“ تائين ٿيندڙ ان واپار تي ٻڌل هو، جنهن جو مقصد زرعي فارمن ۽ کاڻين ۾ مزدوري ڪرائڻ، گڏو جڏهن فرانسيسي غلامن جي واپار (جيڪو نيو هيبرائڊس ۽ نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي ميلانيشين نوآبادين جي وچ ۾ ٿيندو هو) جي ڳالهه اچي ٿي، ته ان سلسلي ۾ تمام گهٽ ضابطا لاڳو ڪيا ويا هئا. اهو عمل آسٽريليا ۾ ان دور جي ترقيات يا تبديلين کان مختلف هو، ڇاڪاڻ ته اتي ساحلي علائقن ۾ ”بليڪ برڊنگ“ (زبردستي يا ڌوڪي سان مزدورن کي کڻي وڃڻ) ۽ ”ڀرتي“ جي طريقن ذريعي ٿيندڙ زيادتين کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ سخت ضابطا جوڙيا ويا هئا. 

لنڊن مشنري سوسائٽي ۽ ماريسٽ برادرز جا پهريان مشنري &lt;small&gt;1840&lt;/small&gt;ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ اتي پهتا.&lt;ref name=&quot;abcau&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/ra/pacific/places/country/new_caledonia.htm |title=Charting the Pacific – Places |website=Abc.net.au |date=1998-10-13 |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=8 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171208231802/http://www.abc.net.au/ra/pacific/places/country/new_caledonia.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;small&gt;1849&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾، ”ڪٽر“ نالي آمريڪي جهاز جي عملي کي &quot;پوما&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Pouma&lt;/small&gt;) قبيلي پاران قتل ڪري کاڌو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;logan&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first1= Leanne |last1= Logan |first2= Geert |last2= Cole |title= New Caledonia |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA15 |year= 2001 |publisher= Lonely Planet |isbn= 978-1-86450-202-2 |page= 15 |via= Google Books |access-date= 18 October 2015 |archive-date= 12 April 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181115/https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA15 |url-status= live }}&lt;/ref&gt;     نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ انسانن جو گوشت کائڻ جو رواج (&lt;small&gt;cannibalism&lt;/small&gt;) عام هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Knauft1999&quot;&gt;{{cite book | first= Bruce M. | last= Knauft | title= From Primitive to Postcolonial in Melanesia and Anthropology | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=YM18gG16Z7YC&amp;pg=PA103 | year= 1999 | publisher= [[University of Michigan Press]] | isbn= 978-0-472-06687-2 | page= 103 | via= Google Books | access-date= 18 October 2015 | archive-date= 1 January 2016 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095349/https://books.google.com/books?id=YM18gG16Z7YC&amp;pg=PA103 | url-status= live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== فرانسيسي نوآباديات ===
24 سيپٽمبر &lt;small&gt;1853&lt;/small&gt;ع تي، شهنشاهه نيپولين ٽئين جي حڪم هيٺ، ايڊمرل فيبريئر ڊيسپوائنٽس نيو ڪيليڊونيا جو باضابطه قبضو حاصل ڪيو. ڪئپٽن لوئس-ميري-فرانسوا ٽارڊي ڊي مونٽراويل &lt;small&gt;25&lt;/small&gt; جون &lt;small&gt;1854&lt;/small&gt;ع تي &quot;پورٽ-ڊي-فرانس&quot; (نوميا) جو بنياد وڌو. &lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot; /&gt; ايندڙ سالن ۾، ڪجهه درجن آزاد آبادگار اولهه واري ساحل تي اچي آباد ٿيا. &lt;small&gt;1864&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ نيو ڪيليڊونيا هڪ ”قيدي ڪالوني“ (جتي سزا يافته قيدين کي موڪليو ويندو هو) بڻجي ويو؛ &lt;small&gt;1860&lt;/small&gt;ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي &lt;small&gt;1897ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾ قيدين جي منتقلي جي عمل جي خاتمي تائين، فرانس تقريباً &lt;small&gt;22,000&lt;/small&gt; ڏوهارين ۽ سياسي قيدين کي نيو ڪيليڊونيا موڪليو. &quot;بليٽن&quot; &lt;small&gt;1888&lt;/small&gt;ع جي سوسائٽي جنرل ڊي لس پريزنز&quot; جي رپورٽ مان ظاهر ٿئي ٿو ته 1 مئي &lt;small&gt;1888&lt;/small&gt;ع تائين ان ٻيٽ تي &lt;small&gt;10,428&lt;/small&gt; سزا يافته قيدي موجود هئا, جن ۾ &lt;small&gt;2,329&lt;/small&gt; آزاد ٿيل قيدي به شامل هئا؛ اها فرانس جي ٻاهرين ملڪن ۾ قائم جيلن يا اصلاحي مرڪزن ۾ رکيل قيدين جي سڀ کان وڏي تعداد تي مشتمل هئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;gb-1&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first1=Robert |last1=Aldrich |first2=John |last2=Connell |title=France's Overseas Frontier: Départements et territoires d'outre-mer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vRB3woPa7LAC&amp;pg=PA46 |year=2006 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-03036-6 |page=46 |via=Google Books |access-date=18 October 2015 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806165048/https://books.google.com/books?id=vRB3woPa7LAC&amp;pg=PA46 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; انهن قيدين ۾ ڪيترائي &quot;ڪميونارڊ, &lt;small&gt;1871&lt;/small&gt; ع جي ناڪام پيرس ڪميون واري واقعي, کانپوءِ گرفتار ٿيل ماڻهو&quot; شامل هئا، جن ۾ هينري ڊي روشفورٽ ۽ لوئس مائیکل به شامل هئا. &lt;small&gt;1873&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;1876&lt;/small&gt;ع جي وچ ۾، &lt;small&gt;4,200&lt;/small&gt; سياسي قيدين کي نيو ڪيليڊونيا ڏانهن جلاوطن يا منتقل ڪيو ويو. انهن مان صرف &lt;small&gt;40&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو اتي ڪالونيءَ ۾ آباد ٿيا، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو &lt;small&gt;1879&lt;/small&gt;ع ۽ &lt;small&gt;1880&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ عام معافي ملڻ کانپوءِ فرانس واپس هليا ويا.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot; /&gt;

[[File:King Jacques and his Queen.jpg|thumb|Chief&amp;nbsp;King Jacques and his Queen, from ''The Romance of the South Seas'', Clement Lindley Wragge, Chatto &amp; Windus, 1906]]
In 1864, [[nickel]] was discovered&lt;ref name=&quot;gb-1&quot;/&gt; on the banks of the [[Diahot River]]; with the establishment of the {{lang|fr|[[Société Le Nickel]]|italic=np}} in 1876, mining began in earnest.&lt;ref name=&quot;gb-2&quot;/&gt; To work the mines the French imported labourers from neighbouring islands and from the New Hebrides, and later from [[Japan]], the [[Dutch East Indies]], and [[French Indochina]].&lt;ref name=&quot;gb-1&quot;/&gt; The French government also attempted to encourage European immigration, without much success.&lt;ref name=&quot;gb-1&quot;/&gt;

The indigenous [[Kanak people]] were excluded from the French economy and from mining work, and ultimately confined to reservations.&lt;ref name=&quot;gb-1&quot;/&gt; This sparked a violent reaction in 1878, when High Chief {{ill|Ataï|fr}} of [[La Foa]] managed to unite many of the central tribes and launched a guerrilla war that killed 200 Frenchmen and 1,000 Kanaks.&lt;ref name=&quot;gb-2&quot;/&gt; A {{Interlanguage link|1917 Kanak revolt| lt=second uprising|fr|Révolte kanak de 1917|WD=}} occurred in 1917, with Protestant missionaries like [[Maurice Leenhardt]] functioning as witnesses to the events of this war. Leenhardt would pen a number of ethnographic works on the Kanak of New Caledonia. Noël of Tiamou led the 1917 rebellion, which resulted in a number of orphaned children, one of whom was taken into the care of Protestant missionary Alphonse Rouel. This child, Wenceslas Thi, would become the father of [[Jean-Marie Tjibaou]]&lt;ref&gt;Adrian Muckle&lt;/ref&gt; (1936–1989).{{citation needed|date=June 2025}}

Europeans brought new diseases such as [[smallpox]] and [[measles]], which caused the deaths of many natives.&lt;ref name=&quot;logan&quot;/&gt; The Kanak population declined from around 60,000 in 1878 to 27,100 in 1921, and their numbers did not increase again until the 1930s.&lt;ref name=&quot;gb-2&quot;/&gt;

===World War II===
{{further|Pacific Islands home front during World War II#Employment}}
In June 1940, after the [[fall of France]], the [[General councils (France)|General Council]] of New Caledonia voted to reject the [[Vichy France|Vichy government]] and continue supporting the Allied military effort against Germany. However, the colonial governor [[Georges-Marc Pélicier]] promulgated the Vichy government's [[French Constitutional Law of 1940|Constitutional Law]], which sparked street demonstrations and an assassination attempt. By this time Caldoches had been in contact with [[Charles de Gaulle]] who encouraged them to form a [[Free France|Free French]] committee and appointed [[Henri Sautot]] as governor. The Vichy government dispatched a warship, ''[[French aviso Dumont d'Urville|Dumont d'Urville]]'', at Pélicier's request, but soon deemed him incompetent and appointed an acting governor. By this time the Australian government had agreed to intervene and dispatched [[HMAS Adelaide (1918)|HMAS ''Adelaide'']] to oversee the installation of Sautot as governor. A stand-off between ''Dumont d'Urville'' and ''Adelaide'' followed, with Pélicier and other pro-Vichy officials ultimately deported to French Indochina.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|url=https://www.isfar.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/49.I_DENISE-FISHER-Supporting-the-Free-French-in-New-Caledonia-First-Steps-in-Australian-Diplomacy.pdf|title=Supporting the Free French in New Caledonia: First Steps in Australian Diplomacy|first=Denise|last=Fisher|journal=Explorations: A Journal of French-Australian Connections|volume=49|issue=1|year=2010|pages=18–37|access-date=26 May 2024|archive-date=24 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324131228/https://www.isfar.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/49.I_DENISE-FISHER-Supporting-the-Free-French-in-New-Caledonia-First-Steps-in-Australian-Diplomacy.pdf|url-status=live}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324131228/https://www.isfar.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/49.I_DENISE-FISHER-Supporting-the-Free-French-in-New-Caledonia-First-Steps-in-Australian-Diplomacy.pdf |date=24 March 2024 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1941, some 300 men from the territory volunteered for service overseas. They were joined, in April, by 300 men from French Polynesia ('the Tahitians'), plus a handful from the French districts of the New Hebrides: together they formed the {{lang|fr|Bataillon du Pacifique}}. The Caledonians formed two of the companies, and the Polynesians the other two. In May 1941, they sailed to Australia and boarded the {{RMS|Queen Elizabeth}} for the onward voyage to Africa. They joined the other Free French (FF) battalions in [[Qastina]] in August, before moving to the Western Desert with the 1st FF Brigade ({{lang|fr|1&lt;sup&gt;re&lt;/sup&gt; BFL}}). There they were one of the four battalions who took part in the breakout after the [[Battle of Bir Hakeim]] in 1942. Their losses could not easily be replaced from the Pacific and they were therefore amalgamated with the Frenchmen of another battalion wearing the anchor of {{lang|fr|la Coloniale}}, the BIM, to form the {{lang|fr|Bataillon de l'infanterie de marine et du Pacifique}}. The combined battalion formed part of the {{lang|fr|Gaulliste 1&lt;sup&gt;re&lt;/sup&gt; Division Motorisée d'Infanterie}}/{{lang|fr|Division de Marche d'Infanterie}}, alongside three divisions from the French North African forces, in the French Expeditionary Corps during the Italian Campaign. They landed in Provence in 1944, when they were posted out and replaced by local French volunteers and résistants.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

Meanwhile, in March 1942, with the assistance of Australia,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Hasluck |first=Paul Meernaa Caedwalla |url=https://s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/awm-media/collection/RCDIG1070583/document/5519866.PDF |chapter=Chapter 6 – Clearing a Way to Total War, October 1940 – January 1941 |title=The Government and the People, 1939–1941 |volume=I |year=1952 |publisher=Australian War Memorial |place=Canberra |edition=1965 |access-date=6 August 2009 |archive-date=30 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530234827/https://s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/awm-media/collection/RCDIG1070583/document/5519866.PDF |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; New Caledonia became an important [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] base,&lt;ref name=&quot;gb-2&quot;/&gt; and the main South Pacific Fleet base of the [[United States Navy]] in the South Pacific moved to Nouméa in 1942–1943.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rottman2002&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first=Gordon L. |last=Rottman |title=World War 2 Pacific Island Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC&amp;pg=PA71 |year=2002 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-31395-0 |page=71 |quote=In October, the decision was made to relocate the main South Pacific Fleet base from Auckland to Nouméa (FPO SF 131). Unloading facilities were improved by February 1943 and construction immediately began on the naval operating base. |via=Google Books |access-date=18 October 2015 |archive-date=19 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319130955/http://books.google.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC&amp;pg=PA71 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The fleet that turned back the [[Imperial Japanese Navy|Japanese Navy]] in the [[Battle of the Coral Sea]] in May 1942 was based at Nouméa.&lt;ref name=&quot;gb-2&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first=David |last=Stanley |title=South Pacific Handbook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=unz2v_HT5q0C&amp;pg=PA549 |year=1989 |publisher=David Stanley |isbn=978-0-918373-29-8 |pages=549– |via=Google Books |access-date=18 October 2015 |archive-date=13 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413093620/https://books.google.com/books?id=unz2v_HT5q0C&amp;pg=PA549 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; American troops [[Pacific Islands home front during World War II#Employment|stationed on New Caledonia]] numbered as many as 50,000, matching the entire local population at the time.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot;/&gt;

=== French overseas territory ===
In 1946, New Caledonia became an overseas territory.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot;/&gt; By 1953, [[French citizenship]] had been granted to all New Caledonians, regardless of ethnicity.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncbrit&quot;/&gt;

During the late 1940s and early 1950s, New Caledonia strengthened its economic links with Australia, particularly as turmoil within France and its empire weakened New Caledonia's traditional economic links to metropolitan France; New Caledonia supplied nickel to Australia in exchange for coal vital for smelting nickel. New Caledonian exports of iron ore and timber to Australia also increased during this time period.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Henningham |first1=Stephen |date=December 2014 |title=Australia's Economic Ambitions in French New Caledonia, 1945–1955 |journal=The Journal of Pacific History |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=421–439 |doi=10.1080/00223344.2014.976915 |jstor=24644648 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The European and [[Polynesians|Polynesian]] populations gradually increased in the years leading to the nickel boom of 1969–1972, and the indigenous [[Kanak people|Kanak]] Melanesians became a minority, though they were still the largest ethnic group.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncbrit&quot;&gt;{{Britannica|411221|New Caledonia}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====The Events====
Between 1976 and 1988, a period referred to as &quot;the Events&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;lm-mdg-24&quot;&gt;{{cite news |last1=Mannevy |first1=Charlotte |last2=Derel |first2=Mathurin |last3=Guibert |first3=Nathalie |title=Second night of riots shakes New Caledonia: 'I didn't think it could come to this' |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/en/france/article/2024/05/15/second-night-of-riots-shakes-new-caledonia-i-didn-t-think-it-could-come-to-this_6671533_7.html |work=Le Monde |date=May 15, 2024 |access-date=16 May 2024 |archive-date=24 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240524043441/https://www.lemonde.fr/en/france/article/2024/05/15/second-night-of-riots-shakes-new-caledonia-i-didn-t-think-it-could-come-to-this_6671533_7.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;nyt-vb-caled-24&quot;&gt;{{cite news |last1=Vinograd |first1=Cassandra |last2=Breeden |first2=Aurelien |title=France Declares State of Emergency Amid Protests in New Caledonia |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/15/world/asia/new-caledonia-france-macron.html |work=The New York Times |date=May 15, 2024 |access-date=16 May 2024 |archive-date=24 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240524053018/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/15/world/asia/new-caledonia-france-macron.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; ({{langx|fr|Les Événements}}&lt;ref name=&quot;horowitz-may-2009-pol-geo&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Horowitz |first1=Leah S. |title=Environmental violence and crises of legitimacy in New Caledonia |journal=[[Political Geography]] |date=May 2009 |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=248–258 |doi=10.1016/j.polgeo.2009.07.001 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;fisher-anu-2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=Denise |title=France in the South Pacific: Power and Politics |date=2013 |doi=10.22459/FSP.05.2013 |doi-access=free |isbn=978-1-922144-95-9 }}{{pn|date=February 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;), conflicts between French government actions and the Kanak independence movement saw periods of serious violence and disorder.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot; /&gt; In 1983, a statute of &quot;enlarged autonomy&quot; for the territory proposed a five-year transition period and a referendum in 1989. In March 1984, the Front Indépendantiste, a Kanak resistance group, seized farms and the [[Kanak and Socialist National Liberation Front]] (FLNKS) formed a provisional government. In January 1985, the French Left-wing government offered sovereignty to the Kanaks and legal protection for European settlers. The plan faltered as violence escalated. The government declared a state of emergency; however, [[1985 New Caledonian legislative election|regional elections went ahead]], and the FLNKS won control of three out of four provinces. The centre-right government [[1986 French legislative election|elected in France in March 1986]] began eroding the arrangements established under the Socialists, redistributing lands mostly without consideration of native land claims, resulting in over two-thirds going to Europeans and less than a third to the Kanaks. By the end of 1987, roadblocks, gun battles and the destruction of property culminated in the [[Ouvéa cave hostage taking]], a dramatic hostage crisis just days before the [[1988 French presidential election]] began. Pro-independence militants on [[Ouvéa]] killed four gendarmes and took 27 hostage. The military assaulted the cave to rescue the hostages. Nineteen Kanak hostage takers were killed and another three died in custody, while two soldiers were killed during the assault.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news| url= https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/land-and-independence-new-caledonia| title= Land and Independence in New Caledonia| work= Cultural Survival Quarterly Magazine| last= Winslow| first= Donna| date= June 1991| via= culturalsurvival.org| access-date= 2021-02-11| language= en| archive-date= 13 November 2017| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171113112859/https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/land-and-independence-new-caledonia| url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== نوميا معاهدو ۽ آزاديءَ بابت ريفرنڊم ====

[[File:Two official flags of New Caledonia on same flagpole.png|thumb|left|هڪ ئي ٿنڀي تي گڏ لڳل ٻه جهنڊا (فرانس ۽ نيو ڪيليڊونيا)، نوميا، مارچ 2011.]]
ميٽيگنون معاهدا, جيڪا &lt;small&gt;26&lt;/small&gt; جون &lt;small&gt;1988&lt;/small&gt; تي ٿيا هئا, هڪ ڏهاڪي تائين استحڪام کي يقيني بڻايو. نوميا معاهدو, جيڪو &lt;small&gt;5&lt;/small&gt; مئي &lt;small&gt;1998&lt;/small&gt; تي ٿيو, &lt;small&gt;20&lt;/small&gt; سالن جي منتقلي واري عمل جو بنياد رکيو، جنهن تحت مقامي حڪومت کي تدريجي طور تي اختيار منتقل ڪيا ويا. 

نوميا معاهدي ۾ مقرر ڪيل وقت جي حد مطابق، جنهن ۾ &lt;small&gt;2018&lt;/small&gt; جي ​​​​آخر تائين ووٽ ڪرائڻ لازمي قرار ڏنو ويو هو، فرانس کان مڪمل آزاديءَ بابت ريفرنڊم ڪرائڻ جو بنياد رکيو ويو (هي فيصلو 2 نومبر &lt;small&gt;2017&lt;/small&gt; تي فرانسيسي وزيراعظم ايڊورڊ فلپ جي صدارت هيٺ ٿيل اجلاس ۾ ڪيو ويو) ته جيئن نومبر &lt;small&gt;2018&lt;/small&gt; تائين اهو عمل مڪمل ٿي سگهي. ووٽر لسٽ ۾ اهل هجڻ جو معاملو هڪ ڊگهي تڪرار جو سبب رهيو، پر ان جا تفصيل هڪ چونڊ لسٽ ذريعي حل ڪيا ويا؛ ان لسٽ ۾ ڪاناڪ (&lt;small&gt;Kanak&lt;/small&gt;) نسل جي ووٽرن کي خودڪار طريقي سان اهل قرار ڏنو ويو، پر ٻين نسلن سان تعلق رکندڙ انهن ماڻهن کي شامل نه ڪيو ويو جيڪي ان علائقي جا ڊگهي عرصي کان رهواسي نه هئا. ريفرنڊم &lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt; نومبر &lt;small&gt;2018&lt;/small&gt; تي منعقد ٿيو،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/19/new-caledonia-sets-date-independence-referendum-france|title=New Caledonia sets date for independence referendum|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=20 March 2018|access-date=25 March 2018|archive-date=13 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513011939/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/19/new-caledonia-sets-date-independence-referendum-france|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; جنهن ۾ آزاديءَ جي تجويز کي رد ڪيو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite magazine| url= http://time.com/5444523/new-caledonia-france-referendum/| title= New Caledonia Votes to Remain Part of France| magazine= [[Time (magazine)|Time.com]]| agency= Associated Press| date= 5 November 2018| place= Nouméa, New Caledonia| language= en| access-date= 2018-11-08| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181109010235/http://time.com/5444523/new-caledonia-france-referendum/| archive-date= 9 November 2018| url-status= dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آڪٽوبر &lt;small&gt;2020&lt;/small&gt; ۾ هڪ ٻيو ريفرنڊم منعقد ٿيو، جنهن ۾ ووٽرن هڪ ڀيرو ٻيهر فرانس جو حصو رهڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite news| url= https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2020-10-04/new-caledonia-voters-choose-to-stay-part-of-france| title= New Caledonia voters choose to stay part of France| work= Los Angeles Times| agency= Associated Press| first= Charlotte| last= Antoine-Perron| date= 4 October 2020| place= Nouméa, New Caledonia| language= en| access-date= 11 February 2021| archive-date= 8 October 2020| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201008024613/https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2020-10-04/new-caledonia-voters-choose-to-stay-part-of-france| url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;small&gt;2018&lt;/small&gt; واري ريفرنڊم ۾، &lt;small&gt;56.7&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو ووٽرن فرانس سان گڏ رهڻ جو انتخاب ڪيو هو. &lt;small&gt;2020&lt;/small&gt; واري ريفرنڊم ۾، اهو تناسب گهٽجي ويو ۽ &lt;small&gt;53.4&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو ووٽرن فرانس جو حصو رهڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2020-10-04 |title=New Caledonia referendum: South Pacific territory rejects independence from France |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-54410059 |access-date=2021-07-08 |archive-date=4 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004210340/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-54410059 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ٽيون ريفرنڊم &lt;small&gt;12&lt;/small&gt; ڊسمبر &lt;small&gt;2021&lt;/small&gt; تي منعقد ٿيو. آزاديءَ جي حامي ڌرين ان ريفرنڊم جو بائيڪاٽ ڪيو؛ &lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20210602-french-territory-of-new-caledonia-to-hold-third-independence-referendum |title=French territory of New Caledonia held its third and last independence referendum where 96.49 voted against independence |work=France24 |date=12 December 2021 |access-date=12 December 2021 |archive-date=13 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211213224234/https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20210602-french-territory-of-new-caledonia-to-hold-third-independence-referendum |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; انهن جو موقف هو ته [[ڪوروناوائرس روڳ 2019|ڪووڊ-&lt;small&gt;19&lt;/small&gt; جي وبا]] سبب پيدا ٿيل حالتن جي ڪري ووٽنگ ملتوي ڪئي وڃي. جڏهن فرانسيسي حڪومت ائين ڪرڻ کان انڪار ڪيو، ته انهن بائيڪاٽ جو سڏ ڏنو. نتيجي طور، &lt;small&gt;96&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو ووٽرن فرانس سان گڏ رهڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Antoine-Perron |first=Charlotte |title=New Caledonia votes to stay in France; separatists boycott |url=https://apnews.com/article/coronavirus-pandemic-health-boycotts-paris-storms-bcdf16be51e3bd94e0f332c405c2da8e |work=Associated Press |date=12 December 2021 |access-date=13 December 2021 |archive-date=1 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401010044/https://apnews.com/article/coronavirus-pandemic-health-boycotts-paris-storms-bcdf16be51e3bd94e0f332c405c2da8e |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

مئي &lt;small&gt;2024&lt;/small&gt; ۾، علائقي ۾ چونڊ سڌارن جي تجويز تي بحث دوران فساد ڀڙڪي پيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=New Caledonia: 'Shots fired' at police in French territory amid riots over voting reforms |url=https://www.france24.com/en/france/20240514-shots-fired-at-security-forces-in-new-caledonia-riots-over-constitutional-reform |access-date=May 14, 2024 |work=France 24 |archive-date=15 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515003829/https://www.france24.com/en/france/20240514-shots-fired-at-security-forces-in-new-caledonia-riots-over-constitutional-reform |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|date=2024-10-04 |title=New Caledonian independence leaders wary as France drops voting reform |url=https://www.rfi.fr/en/france/20241004-independence-leaders-wary-as-france-suspends-new-caledonia-voting-reform |access-date=2025-04-16 |work=[[Radio France Internationale]] |language=en|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20241231050937/https://www.rfi.fr/en/france/20241004-independence-leaders-wary-as-france-suspends-new-caledonia-voting-reform |archive-date=31 December 2024|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; آڪٽوبر &lt;small&gt;2024&lt;/small&gt; ۾، ان وقت جي فرانسيسي وزيراعظم مائيڪل بارنيئر اهو بل رد ڪري ڇڏيو. امن بحال ڪرڻ جي ضرورت ۽ &quot;وڌيڪ بدامني کان بچڻ&quot; کي اوليت ڏيڻ جو حوالو ڏنو ويو ۽ قومي اسيمبليءَ کي ان بابت آگاهه ڪيو ويو. فساد ختم ٿيڻ کانپوءِ، &lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt; ڊسمبر &lt;small&gt;2024&lt;/small&gt; تي سرڪاري طور تي ڪرفيو ختم ڪيو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |title=Curfew lifted in French overseas territory of New Caledonia over 6 months after violent riots |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/curfew-lifted-in-french-overseas-territory-of-new-caledonia-over-6-months-after-violent-riots/3411117 |access-date=2025-04-16 |work=[[Anadolu Agency]]|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20241202195528/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/curfew-lifted-in-french-overseas-territory-of-new-caledonia-over-6-months-after-violent-riots/3411117|archive-date=2 December 2024|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جولاءِ &lt;small&gt;2025&lt;/small&gt; ۾، فرانسيسي حڪومت ۽ نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي وچ ۾ &quot;هڪ نئين ڪيليڊونيا جي رياست&quot; (&lt;small&gt;État&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;de&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Nouvelle&lt;/small&gt;-&lt;small&gt;Calédonie&lt;/small&gt;) جي قيام لاءِ معاهدو طئي ٿيو،&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=http://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2017/11/03/referendum-d-autodetermination-en-nouvelle-caledonie-un-accord-politique-trouve_5209433_823448.html|title=Nouvelle-Calédonie : ce que contient l'&quot; accord politique &quot; sur le référendum d'autodétermination|newspaper=LeMonde.fr|date=3 November 2017|last1=Roger|first1=Patrick|language=fr|trans-title=New Caledonia: what is contained in the 'political agreement' on the self-determination referendum|access-date=17 July 2018|archive-date=22 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622081810/https://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2017/11/03/referendum-d-autodetermination-en-nouvelle-caledonie-un-accord-politique-trouve_5209433_823448.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; جنهن جي حيثيت کي فرانسيسي جمهوريه جي آئين ۾ شامل ڪيو ويندو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-07-12 |title=New Caledonia's political leaders sign historic agreement to shape territory's future |url=https://www.rfi.fr/en/france/20250712-new-caledonia-s-political-leaders-sign-historic-agreement-to-shape-territory-s-future |access-date=2025-07-12 |website=RFI |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي رهواسين, جيڪي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ ڏهن سالن کان اتي رهي رهيا آهن, کي ووٽ ڏيڻ جو حق ڏنو ويندو، جنهن جي شروعات &lt;small&gt;2031&lt;/small&gt; جي صوبائي چونڊن سان ٿيندي. هن معاهدي جي توثيق فرانسيسي پارليامينٽ پاران &lt;small&gt;2025&lt;/small&gt; جي آخري ٽه ماهي ۾ ڪئي ويندي، ۽ ان کانپوءِ &lt;small&gt;2026&lt;/small&gt; ۾ نيو ڪيليڊونيا جا رهواسي هڪ ريفرنڊم ذريعي ان معاهدي تي ووٽ ڏيندا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-07-12 |title=France, New Caledonia reach 'historic' statehood deal; citizens to remain French |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/world/europe/article/3317992/france-new-caledonia-reach-historic-statehood-deal-citizens-remain-french |access-date=2025-07-12 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== سياست ==
{{main|Politics of New Caledonia}}
نيو ڪيليڊونيا هڪ منفرد حيثيت رکندڙ علائقو (&lt;small&gt;sui generis&lt;/small&gt;) آهي جنهن کي فرانس آهستي آهستي ڪجهه اختيار منتقل ڪيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;jc&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?presentation-nouvelle-caledonie.html&amp;artpage=3-3 |title=Présentation – L'Outre-Mer |website=Outre-mer.gouv.fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=21 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521094530/http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?presentation-nouvelle-caledonie.html&amp;artpage=3-3 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; ان ڪري، اتان جي شهرين وٽ فرانسيسي شهريت آهي ۽ اهي فرانس جي صدر لاءِ ووٽ ڏين ٿا. انهن کي يورپي پارليامينٽ جي چونڊن ۾ ووٽ ڏيڻ جو حق حاصل آهي. ان جو انتظام 54 رڪني ”ٽيريٽوريل ڪانگريس“ (علائقائي ڪانگريس) ذريعي هلايو وڃي ٿو، جيڪو هڪ قانون ساز ادارو آهي ۽ ٽن صوبائي اسيمبلين جي ميمبرن تي مشتمل آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;undcol&quot; /&gt; هن علائقي ۾ فرانسيسي رياست جي نمائندگي هڪ &quot;هاءِ ڪمشنر&quot; ڪري ٿو. قومي سطح تي، ڪيليڊونيا جي نمائندگي فرانسيسي پارليامينٽ ۾ ٻه نمائندا ۽ ٻه سينيٽر ڪن ٿا. &lt;small&gt;2012&lt;/small&gt;ع جي فرانسيسي صدارتي چونڊن ۾، ڪيليڊونيا ۾ ووٽرن جي شرڪت جو تناسب &lt;small&gt;61.19&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web| url=http://www.interieur.gouv.fr/sections/a_votre_service/resultats-elections/PR2012/000/988/index.html| title=Resultats de l'election presidentielle – Nouvelle Caledonie| publisher=[[Cabinet of France|Government of France]]| website=[[Minister of the Interior (France)|Minister of the Interior]]| language=fr| access-date=2012-08-06| archive-date=26 June 2012| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626023248/http://www.interieur.gouv.fr/sections/a_votre_service/resultats-elections/PR2012/000/988/index.html| url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;small&gt;25&lt;/small&gt; سالن تائين، نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي پارٽي نظام تي آزادي جي مخالف پارٽي ”دي ريلي-يو ايم پي“ (&lt;small&gt;The Rally–UMP&lt;/small&gt;) جو غلبو رهيو. هي غلبو هڪ نئين پارٽي &quot;ايونير اينسامبل&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Avenir Ensemble&lt;/small&gt;) جي اڀار سان ختم ٿيو؛ اها پارٽي پڻ آزادي جي مخالف هئي پر &quot;ڪاناڪ تحريڪ&quot; سان ڳالهين لاءِ وڌيڪ کليل ذهن رکندڙ سمجهي ويندي هئي. ڪاناڪ تحريڪ، &quot;ڪاناڪ اينڊ سوشلسٽ نيشنل لبريشن فرنٽ&quot; (&lt;small&gt;FLNKS&lt;/small&gt;) جو حصو آهي، جيڪو آزادي جي حمايت ڪندڙ ڪيترن ئي گروهن جو اتحاد آهي. جنوري &lt;small&gt;2025&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾، السائيڊ پونگا (&lt;small&gt;Alcide Ponga&lt;/small&gt;) نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي حڪومت جي صدر طور حلف کنيو؛&lt;ref name=&quot;undcol&quot; /&gt; هن لوئس ماپو (&lt;small&gt;Louis Mapou&lt;/small&gt;) جي اڳواڻي واري آزادي جي حامي حڪومت جي خاتمي کانپوءِ نئين حڪومت جوڙي. سندس قيادت کي &lt;small&gt;2024&lt;/small&gt;ع جي بدامنيءَ کانپوءِ استحڪام آڻڻ ۽ ملڪ جي فرانسيسي جمهوريه ۾ شامل رهڻ واري عمل کي جاري رکڻ جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;:02&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |last=Mazzoni |first=Julien |date=2025-01-09 |title=New Caledonia Congress elects pro-France president after political crisis |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/jan/09/new-caledonia-congress-elects-alcide-ponga-president |access-date=2025-04-05 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}&lt;/ref&gt; آڪٽوبر &lt;small&gt;2025&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ اها خبر سامهون آئي ته فرانسيسي پارليامينٽ جا ميمبر ان بل تي اختلاف ڪري رهيا هئا جنهن تحت &quot;بوگيوال معاهدي&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Bougival Agreement&lt;/small&gt;) جي تحت نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي صوبائي چونڊن کي جون &lt;small&gt;2026&lt;/small&gt;ع تائين ملتوي ڪرڻو هو. ڪاناڪ فرنٽ (&lt;small&gt;FLNKS&lt;/small&gt;) ۽ کاٻي ڌر جي ميمبرن ان تي اعتراض ڪيو، تقريبن &lt;small&gt;1,600&lt;/small&gt; ترميمون داخل ڪيون ۽ معاملي کي گڏيل ڪميٽي ڏانهن موڪلڻ تي مجبور ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=editor |first=A. P. R. |date=2025-10-24 |title=French MPs clash over New Caledonia policy, debates further postponed {{!}} Asia Pacific Report |url=https://asiapacificreport.nz/2025/10/24/french-mps-clash-over-new-caledonia-policy-debates-further-postponed/ |access-date=2025-10-26 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-10-24 |title=Manoeuvring in Paris delays decision on New Caledonia elections {{!}} PINA |url=https://pina.com.fj/2025/10/24/manoeuvring-in-paris-delays-decision-on-new-caledonia-elections/ |access-date=2025-10-26 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== روايتي اختيار ===
ڪاناڪ سماج ۾ روايتي اختيارن جا ڪيترائي درجا موجود آهن، جن ۾ &lt;small&gt;4,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; خاندانن تي ٻڌل &quot;ڪلان&quot; کان وٺي اٺ روايتي علائقا (&lt;small&gt;aires coutumières&lt;/small&gt;) شامل آهن جيڪي هن علائقي کي ٺاهين ٿا. ڪلانن جي اڳواڻي ڪلان جا سردار ڪن ٿا ۽ اهي &lt;small&gt;341&lt;/small&gt; قبيلن تي مشتمل آهن، جن مان هر هڪ جي سربراهي قبيلي جو سردار ڪري ٿو. قبيلن کي وڌيڪ &lt;small&gt;57&lt;/small&gt; روايتي سرداري علائقن (&lt;small&gt;chefferies&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي، جن مان هر هڪ جي سربراهي هڪ &quot;اعليٰ سردار&quot; (&lt;small&gt;head chief&lt;/small&gt;) ڪري ٿو ۽ اهي روايتي علائقن جا انتظامي ذيلي حصا ٺاهين ٿا.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=8}}
[[File:US Navy 090925-N-8721D-037 Capt. Thom Burke, commanding officer of the amphibious command ship USS Blue Ridge (LCC 19) receives a wreath to lay at the U.S. war memorial during a ceremony.jpg|thumb|[[Jean Lèques]] during a ceremony honouring U.S. service members who helped ensure the freedom of New Caledonia during World War II ]]
The Customary Senate is the assembly of the various traditional councils of the Kanaks, and has jurisdiction over the law proposals concerning the Kanak identity.&lt;ref name=&quot;cs-fra&quot;/&gt; The Customary Senate is composed of 16 members appointed by each traditional council, with two representatives per customary area.&lt;ref name=&quot;cs-fra&quot;/&gt; In its advisory role, the Customary Senate must be consulted on law proposals &quot;concerning the Kanak identity&quot; as defined in the Nouméa Accord.&lt;ref name=&quot;cs-fra&quot;/&gt; It also has a deliberative role on law proposals that would affect identity, the civil customary statute, and the land system.&lt;ref name=&quot;cs-fra&quot;/&gt; A new president is appointed each year in August or September, and the presidency rotates between the eight customary areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;cs-fra&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Les-Elus/Senat-coutumier |title=Sénat coutumier |language=fr |website=Nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030174915/http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Les-Elus/Senat-coutumier |archive-date=30 October 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Kanak people have recourse to customary authorities regarding civil matters such as marriage, adoption, inheritance, and some land issues.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=8}} The French administration typically respects decisions made in the customary system.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=8}} However, their jurisdiction is sharply limited in penal matters, as some matters relating to the customary justice system, including the use of [[judicial corporal punishment|corporal punishment]], are seen as clashing with the human rights obligations of France.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=8}}

===Military and gendarmerie===
The Armed Forces of New Caledonia ({{langx|fr|Forces armées de Nouvelle-Calédonie}}, or {{lang|fr|FANC|italic=no}}) include about 2,000 soldiers, mainly deployed in [[Koumac]], [[Nandaï, New Caledonia|Nandaï]], [[La Tontouta International Airport|Tontouta]], [[Plum, New Caledonia|Plum]], and [[Nouméa]].&lt;ref name=&quot;fanc&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.defense.gouv.fr/ema/forces-prepositionnees/nouvelle-caledonie/dossier/les-forces-armees-de-nouvelle-caledonie |title=Les Forces armées de Nouvelle-Calédonie |language=fr |website=Defense.gouv.fr |date=2012-12-20 |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=9 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109131917/http://www.defense.gouv.fr/ema/forces-prepositionnees/nouvelle-caledonie/dossier/les-forces-armees-de-nouvelle-caledonie |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The land forces consist of a regiment of the {{lang|fr|[[Troupes de marine]]}}, the {{lang|fr|Régiment d'infanterie de marine du Pacifique}}. About 80 percent of the 700-member regiment is composed of soldiers on short-term (four month) deployments from metropolitan France. As of 2018, only about 30 personnel in the regiment were locally recruited.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.opex360.com/2018/09/19/regiment-dinfanterie-de-marine-pacifique-nouvelle-caledonie-se-distingue-lors-dun-exercice-australie/ |title=Le Régiment d'Infanterie de Marine du Pacifique-Nouvelle Calédonie se distingue lors d'un exercice en Australie; Zone Militaire |last=Lagneau |first=Laurent |date=19 September 2018 |access-date=12 February 2023 |archive-date=12 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212160931/https://www.opex360.com/2018/09/19/regiment-dinfanterie-de-marine-pacifique-nouvelle-caledonie-se-distingue-lors-dun-exercice-australie/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The naval forces incorporate several vessels of the French Navy including: one {{sclass|Floréal|frigate|1}}, {{ship|French frigate|Vendémiaire||2}}, the patrol and support vessel {{lang|fr|[[D'Entrecasteaux-class patrol ship|D'Entrecasteaux]]}} and [[French patrol vessel Auguste Bénébig|''Auguste Benebig'']], the lead ship of the [[Patrouilleur Outre-mer|{{lang|fr|Félix Éboué|nocat=y}} class]] of patrol vessels. One EDA-S landing craft (''Sabre'') is also deployed to support operations in the territory,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://voixducaillou.nc/2025/01/23/la-marine-accueillera-prochainement-un-nouveau-bateau/ |title=La Marine accueillera prochainement un nouveau bateau |date=23 January 2025 |access-date=6 April 2025 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2021/11/first-two-eda-s-next-gen-amphibious-landing-crafts-delivered-to-french-dga/ |title=First Two EDA-S Next Gen Amphibious Landing Craft Delivered to French DGA |date=25 November 2021 |access-date=10 December 2021 |archive-date=26 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126153129/https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2021/11/first-two-eda-s-next-gen-amphibious-landing-crafts-delivered-to-french-dga/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; along with two ''RP10''-class harbour tugboats.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.meretmarine.com/fr/defense/merre-met-a-l-eau-le-dernier-remorqueur-pousseur-du-type-rp-10 |title=Merré met à l’eau le dernier remorqueur-pousseur du type RP 10 |website=Mer et Marine |date=13 October 2025 |access-date=13 October 2025 |last= Groizeleau  |first=Vincent |language=fr }}&lt;/ref&gt; The French Navy will further reinforce its offshore patrol capabilities in New Caledonia by deploying a second vessel of the {{lang|fr|Félix Éboué}} class ({{lang|fr|Jean Tranape}}) to the territory by 2026.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.defense.gouv.fr/marine/actualites/prise-darmement-essais-du-patrouilleur-outre-mer-jean-tranape |title=Prise d'armement pour essais du patrouilleur outre-mer Jean Tranape |work=French Navy |date=5 March 2025 |access-date=31 March 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.shephardmedia.com/news/naval-warfare/new-french-overseas-patrol-vessels-set-for-2023-service-entry/ |title=New French overseas patrol vessels set for 2023 service entry |work=Shepherd |last=Tanguy |first=Jean-Marc |date=4 August 2022 |access-date=30 December 2022 |archive-date=21 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121132746/https://www.shephardmedia.com/news/naval-warfare/new-french-overseas-patrol-vessels-set-for-2023-service-entry/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;brestboulogne&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.meretmarine.com/fr/defense/pom-le-premier-patrouilleur-reprend-ses-essais-a-brest-le-second-en-achevement-a-boulogne |title=POM : Le premier patrouilleur reprend ses essais à Brest, le second en achèvement à Boulogne |work=Mer et Marine |language=fr |last=Groizeleau |first=Vincent |date=21 September 2022 |access-date=3 November 2022 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=22 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922152111/https://www.meretmarine.com/fr/defense/pom-le-premier-patrouilleur-reprend-ses-essais-a-brest-le-second-en-achevement-a-boulogne |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

As of 2025/26, French naval aviation and air force elements in New Caledonia included two Navy [[Dassault Falcon 20|Falcon 200 Gardian maritime surveillance aircraft]] (drawn from Flotilla 25F), which, as of 2025/26 are being replaced, on an interim basis, by the more advanced [[Dassault Falcon 50|Falcon 50 aircraft]]. These aircraft will in turn be superseded by the new [[Dassault Falcon 2000|Falcon 2000 Albatros]] starting in about 2030.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.meretmarine.com/fr/defense/le-retrait-du-service-des-falcon-200-gardian-bases-a-tahiti-et-noumea-a-debute|title =Le retrait du service des Falcon 200 Gardian basés à Tahiti et Nouméa a débuté  |website=Mer et Marine |last=Groizeleau |first=Vincent |date=17 October 2025|access-date=17 October 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Two [[CASA/IPTN CN-235|Casa CN235]] transport aircraft and three [[Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma|Puma]] helicopters from the Air Force's 52 &quot;Tontouta&quot; Squadron are also deployed in New Caledonia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.defense.gouv.fr/operations/monde/asie-pacifique/forces-armees-nouvelle-caledonie |title=Forces armées en Nouvelle-Calédonie; Ministère des Armées |date=14 February 2022 |access-date=11 February 2023 |archive-date=5 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105110702/https://www.defense.gouv.fr/operations/monde/asie-pacifique/forces-armees-nouvelle-caledonie |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.defense.gouv.fr/operations/actualites/fanc-bilan-du-deploiement-du-bsaom-dentrecasteaux-pacifique-sud |title=FANC – Bilan du déploiement du BSAOM D'Entrecasteaux dans le Pacifique Sud; Ministère des Armées |date=10 February 2023 |access-date=11 February 2023 |archive-date=11 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211120443/https://www.defense.gouv.fr/operations/actualites/fanc-bilan-du-deploiement-du-bsaom-dentrecasteaux-pacifique-sud |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Prior to 2022, the frigate {{lang|fr|Vendémiaire}} operated the [[Aérospatiale Alouette III|Alouette III helicopter]]. However, with the retirement of the type in 2022, it is being replaced by the [[Eurocopter AS365 Dauphin|Eurocopter Dauphin N3]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=French Navy will receive first three Airbus Dauphin N3 at December 1 |url=https://aircosmosinternational.com/article/french-navy-will-receive-first-three-airbus-dauphin-n3-at-december-1-3005 |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=Air &amp; Cosmos |language=fr |archive-date=13 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221113231455/https://aircosmosinternational.com/article/french-navy-will-receive-first-three-airbus-dauphin-n3-at-december-1-3005 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Marine Nationale Dossier d'Information, p. 23 |url=https://www.colsbleus.fr/sites/default/files/2023-02/DIM%202023_PLANCHE_0.pdf |date=January 2023 |access-date=2023-03-04 |website=Cols Bleus |language=fr |archive-date=4 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230304112422/https://www.colsbleus.fr/sites/default/files/2023-02/DIM%202023_PLANCHE_0.pdf |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2022, the [[French Air Force]] demonstrated a capacity to reinforce the territory by deploying three [[Dassault Rafale|Rafale]] fighters, supported by [[Airbus A400M Atlas|A400M]] transport aircraft and [[Airbus A330 MRTT|A330 MRTT Phénix]] tankers, from France to New Caledonia for a three-week exercise.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last= |date=2022-08-27 |title=French Air and Space Force Rafales Train Alongside Royal Australian Air Force Growlers |url=https://militaryleak.com/2022/08/27/french-air-and-space-force-rafales-train-alongside-royal-australian-air-force-growlers/ |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=MilitaryLeak |archive-date=14 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114105036/https://militaryleak.com/2022/08/27/french-air-and-space-force-rafales-train-alongside-royal-australian-air-force-growlers/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=France successfully conducts long-range strategic deployment to Asian-Pacific region |url=https://ac.nato.int/archive/2022/FRA_deploy_PB22-2 |access-date=28 December 2023 |website=ac.nato.int |archive-date=3 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203040915/https://ac.nato.int/archive/2022/FRA_deploy_PB22-2 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In addition, some 855 personnel from the [[National Gendarmerie]] are stationed on the archipelago, divided into 4 companies, 27 brigades and several specialized, and mobile Gendarmerie units. During periods such the 2021 referendum on independence, these forces have been significantly reinforced with personnel deployed from metropolitan France.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |first=Julien |last=Sartre |date=2021-12-07 |title=Covid, mourning and the spectre of violence: New Caledonia prepares for blighted independence vote |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/dec/08/covid-mourning-and-the-fear-of-violence-new-caledonia-prepares-for-blighted-independence-vote |access-date=2022-11-18 |work=[[The Guardian]] }}&lt;/ref&gt; The air component includes two {{lang|fr|[[Eurocopter AS350 Écureuil|Écureuil]]|italic=no}} helicopters&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=COMGEND – Commandant de la gendarmerie pour la Nouvelle-Calédonie et les îles Wallis et Futuna / Sécurité / Services de l'État / Accueil – Les services de l'État en Nouvelle-Calédonie |url=https://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/Services-de-l-Etat/Securite/COMGEND-Commandant-de-la-gendarmerie-pour-la-Nouvelle-Caledonie-et-les-iles-Wallis-et-Futuna |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr |archive-date=7 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221107121810/https://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/Services-de-l-Etat/Securite/COMGEND-Commandant-de-la-gendarmerie-pour-la-Nouvelle-Caledonie-et-les-iles-Wallis-et-Futuna |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; while the {{lang|fr|[[Maritime Gendarmerie]]|italic=no}} deploys the patrol boat [[Vedette côtière de surveillance maritime|''Dumbea'']] in the territory.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.homelandsecurity-technology.com/projects/vedette-cotiere-de-surveillance-maritime-boats/ |title=Vedette Côtière de Surveillance Maritime (VCSM) Boats |publisher=Homelandsecurity Technology |date= |accessdate=2022-08-28 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207152543/https://www.homelandsecurity-technology.com/projects/vedette-cotiere-de-surveillance-maritime-boats/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;fanc&quot;/&gt;

=== Status ===
{{Further|Foreign relations of New Caledonia}}
New Caledonia has been a member of the [[Pacific Community]] since 1983 with Nouméa the home of the organization's regional headquarters. Since 1986, the [[United Nations Committee on Decolonization]] has included New Caledonia on the [[United Nations list of non-self-governing territories]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/decolonization/nonselfgov.shtml#1 |title=Trust and Non-Self-Governing Territories (1945–1999) |publisher=[[United Nations]] |access-date=29 June 2017 |archive-date=6 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006064439/http://www.un.org/en/decolonization/nonselfgov.shtml#1 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; An [[1987 New Caledonian independence referendum|independence referendum]] was held the following year, but independence was rejected by a large majority.[[File:Administrative divisions of New Caledonia.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|Pyramid graph illustrating the administration of New Caledonia]]

Under the [[Nouméa Accord]], signed in 1998 following a period of secessionist unrest in the 1980s and approved in [[1998 New Caledonian Nouméa Accord referendum|a referendum]], New Caledonia was granted special status. Twenty years after inception, the Nouméa Accord required an [[2018 New Caledonian independence referendum|referendum on independence]] which was held on 4 November 2018.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/19/new-caledonia-sets-date-independence-referendum-france|title=New Caledonia sets date for independence referendum|website=The Guardian|access-date=20 March 2018|date=19 March 2018|last=Willsher|first=Kim|archive-date=25 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025142615/https://amp.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/19/new-caledonia-sets-date-independence-referendum-france|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/programmes/datelinepacific/audio/201787812/paris-meeting-to-prepare-new-caledonia-independence-vote|title=Paris meeting to prepare New Caledonia independence vote|website=Radio New Zealand|access-date=2016-03-08|date=2016-02-02|archive-date=8 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308001209/http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/programmes/datelinepacific/audio/201787812/paris-meeting-to-prepare-new-caledonia-independence-vote|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The result was that 56.9% of voters chose to remain with France.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/nov/04/new-caledonia-votes-non-to-independence-from-france|title=New Caledonia votes 'non' to independence from France|agency=Reuters|date=2018-11-04|website=The Guardian|language=en|access-date=2018-11-04|archive-date=6 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206051007/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/nov/04/new-caledonia-votes-non-to-independence-from-france|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Nouméa Accord required [[2020 New Caledonian independence referendum|another independence referendum]], which was held on 4 October 2020. The result was that 53.26% of voters chose to remain with France.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/oct/04/new-caledonia-rejects-independence-from-france-for-second-time|title=New Caledonia rejects independence from France for second time|date=2020-10-05|website=The Guardian|language=en|access-date=2020-10-05|archive-date=20 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420065852/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/oct/04/new-caledonia-rejects-independence-from-france-for-second-time|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The third and last referendum permitted by the Nouméa Accord [[2021 New Caledonian independence referendum|was held on 12 December 2021]], confirming New Caledonia as part of the French Republic with 96% voting &quot;no&quot; to independence after the vote was boycotted by the bulk of the Kanak population.

The official name of the territory, {{lang|fr|Nouvelle-Calédonie}}, could be changed in the near future due to the accord, which states that &quot;a name, a flag, an anthem, a motto, and the design of banknotes will have to be sought by all parties together, to express the Kanak identity and the future shared by all parties.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://www.gouv.nc/static/pages/outils/telechargement/accordsNoumea.pdf| title=Les accords de Nouméa|author=Government of New Caledonia| access-date=11 August 2008|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080405032022/http://www.gouv.nc/static/pages/outils/telechargement/accordsNoumea.pdf |archive-date = 5 April 2008 |language=fr |author-link=Government of New Caledonia}}&lt;/ref&gt; To date, however, there has been no consensus on a new name for the territory, although ''Kanak Republic'' is popular among 40% of the population.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://nouvellecaledonie.rfo.fr/article424.html| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080627221108/http://nouvellecaledonie.rfo.fr/article424.html| url-status=dead| archive-date=27 June 2008| title=Société : La Nouvelle-Calédonie choisit un hymne et une devise| author=RFO| access-date=11 August 2008| author-link=Réseau France Outre-mer}}&lt;/ref&gt; New Caledonia has increasingly adopted its own symbols, choosing an anthem, a motto, and a new design for its banknotes.&lt;ref name=&quot;monde1&quot; /&gt; In July 2010, the [[Congress of New Caledonia]] voted in favour of a wish to fly the [[Kanak people|Kanak]] flag of the independence movement [[Kanak and Socialist National Liberation Front|FLNKS]] alongside the [[Flag of France|French tricolour]], as [[Flag of New Caledonia|dual flags of the territory]]. The wish, legally non-binding, proved controversial.&lt;ref name=&quot;congress&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/pacifique/ncal-voeu-drapeau2010.htm|title=Nouvelle-Calédonie: Voeu sur le drapeau Kanaky de 2010|website=axl.cefan.ulaval.ca|access-date=26 November 2021|archive-date=23 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023193014/http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/pacifique/ncal-voeu-drapeau2010.htm|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;voeux&quot;&gt;{{cite web| url = http://www.juridoc.gouv.nc/JuriDoc/jdJ201.nsf/JoncP/2010-06341/$File/2010-6341.pdf?OpenElement&amp;root=2010&amp;page=6341| title = Voeux n° 1 du treize juillet 2010| access-date = 26 November 2021| archive-date = 17 April 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210417013852/https://juridoc.gouv.nc/JuriDoc/jdJ201.nsf/JoncP/2010-06341/$File/2010-6341.pdf?OpenElement&amp;root=2010&amp;page=6341| url-status = live}}&lt;/ref&gt; A majority of New Caledonian communes, but not all, now fly both flags, the rest flying only the French Tricolour.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://la1ere.francetvinfo.fr/nouvellecaledonie/2014/05/09/roch-wamytan-descendre-le-drapeau-kanak-est-un-geste-ignoble-il-ne-faut-plus-parler-de-destin-commun-150319.html|title=Roch Wamytan: &quot;descendre le drapeau kanak est un geste ignoble, il ne faut plus parler de destin commun!&quot;|website=Nouvelle-Calédonie la 1ère|date=9 May 2014 |access-date=26 November 2021|archive-date=26 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126140755/https://la1ere.francetvinfo.fr/nouvellecaledonie/2014/05/09/roch-wamytan-descendre-le-drapeau-kanak-est-un-geste-ignoble-il-ne-faut-plus-parler-de-destin-commun-150319.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The non-official adoption made New Caledonia one of the few countries or territories in the world with two flags. The decision to wish for the use of two flags has been a constant battleground between the two sides and led the coalition government to collapse in February 2011.&lt;ref name=&quot;fr24&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.france24.com/en/20110826-france-sarkozy-urges-dialogue-over-violence-new-caledonia-airfare-protests |title=Sarkozy calls for dialogue over New Caledonia violence |publisher=France 24 |date=2011-08-26 |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=7 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110907145342/http://www.france24.com/en/20110826-france-sarkozy-urges-dialogue-over-violence-new-caledonia-airfare-protests |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 2025 political talks in Paris ===
{{Main|Bougival Accord}}

On 24 June 2025, [[President of France|President]] [[Emmanuel Macron]] extended an invitation to both pro‑ and anti‑independence leaders from New Caledonia to participate in talks in Paris starting 2 July 2025, aimed at negotiating the territory's future governance and status. Objectives of the talks include a revised political framework for New Caledonia, potentially including greater autonomy and redesigned electoral rules, socioeconomic challenges, such as the nickel-dependent economy, youth employment, and post‑unrest recovery.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-05-27 |title=Macron calls for June talks to break deadlock over New Caledonia's future |url=https://www.france24.com/en/france/20250527-france-new-caledonia |access-date=2025-07-13 |website=France 24 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2025-06-24 |title=Macron invites New Caledonian leaders to talks on territory's future |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/en/france/article/2025/06/24/new-caledonia-macron-invites-local-leaders-to-talks-on-the-territory-s-future_6742681_7.html |access-date=2025-07-13 |work=Le Monde |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 13 July 2025, weeks of negotiations concluded with an agreement between all parties that New Caledonia should remain within France, but with far greater levels of autonomy, the status of a state, and a dual citizenship arrangement for those that wish it.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=France-Presse |first=Agence |date=2025-07-13 |title=New Caledonia to be declared a state in 'historic' agreement – but will remain French |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/jul/13/new-caledonia-to-be-declared-a-state-in-historic-agreement-but-will-remain-french |access-date=2025-07-13 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}&lt;/ref&gt; The agreement will require ratification by both chambers of the French parliamentary system, followed by a referendum in New Caledonia in 2026. Initial thoughts on the deal suggest it is not what independence supporters hoped for, but statehood is a major concession by France.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-07-12 |title=France announces 'historic' deal creating New Caledonia state that stays French |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20250712-ncaledonia-politicians-agree-on-statehood-while-remaining-french |access-date=2025-07-13 |website=France 24 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 13 August 2025, the FLNKS stated in a press conference that they had voted to reject the agreement on the basis that an independence referendum prior to France's [[2027 French presidential election|2027 presidential election]] was absent from the deal.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-08-13 |title=New Caledonia independence bloc rejects deal giving powers but no referendum |url=https://www.rfi.fr/en/france/20250813-new-caledonia-independence-leaders-reject-bougival-accord-call-for-new-deal |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=RFI |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 16 September 2025, the New Caledonia Congress approved once again for the third time, another postponement, regarding the election within the territory. The votes were divided to 39 out of 52 Congress members (75%) voted in favor of the postponement, while the FLNKS pro-independence group cast 13 votes against (25%).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Decloitre |first1=Patrick |title=New Caledonia's Congress votes to postpone provincial elections |url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/573170/new-caledonia-s-congress-votes-to-postpone-provincial-elections |work=RNZ |date=16 September 2025 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== انتظامي ورهاست ==
ادارتي تنظيم ان بنيادي قانون (organic law) ۽ عام قانون جو نتيجو آهي جيڪي پارليامينٽ پاران 16 فيبروري 1999 تي منظور ڪيا ويا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;jc&quot; /&gt; هي ٻيٽن جو مجموعو (آرڪيپيلاگو) ٽن صوبن ۾ ورهايل آهي: 
* ڏکڻ صوبو (Province Sud): صوبائي گاديءَ جو هنڌ: نوميا رقبو: 9,407 چورس ڪلوميٽر. آبادي: 2,12,082 ماڻهو (2019)
* اتر صوبو (Province Nord): صوبائي گاديءَ جو هنڌ: ڪوني (Koné). رقبو: 7,348 چورس ڪلوميٽر. آبادي: 49,910 ماڻهو (2019). 
* لائلٽي آئلينڊز صوبو (Province des îles Loyauté): صوبائي گاديءَ جو هنڌ: ليفو (Lifou). رقبو: 1,981 چورس ڪلوميٽر. آبادي: 18,353 ماڻهو (2019).&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Populations légales des provinces de Nouvelle-Calédonie en 2019 − Populations légales de Nouvelle-Calédonie en 2019 {{!}} Insee |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/4464927?sommaire=2122859 |access-date=2023-09-11 |website=www.insee.fr |archive-date=25 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425125921/https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/4464927?sommaire=2122859 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

نيو ڪيليڊونيا کي وڌيڪ 33 ڪميونز (مقامي انتظامي علائقن) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;jc&quot; /&gt; هڪ ڪميون پويا (Poya) ٻن صوبن جي وچ ۾ ورهايل آهي. پويا جو اتر وارو حصو, جتي مکيه آبادي ۽ اڪثر رهواسي موجود آهن, اتر صوبي جو حصو آهي، جڏهن ته ان ڪميون جو ڏکڻ وارو حصو, جتي 2019 ۾ صرف 210 رهواسي هئا, ڏکڻ صوبي جو حصو آهي. 


جاگرافي: ماحول:سياست 

== جاگرافي: ==
[[File:New Caledonia - S199828000484.jpg|thumb|New Caledonia from space]]
[[File:Reefs of New Caledonia from ISS, September 9, 2020.jpg|thumb|Coral reefs of New Caledonia from ISS, September 9, 2020]]

New Caledonia is part of [[Zealandia]], a fragment of the ancient [[Gondwana]] super-continent, which is part of [[Oceania]]. It is speculated that New Caledonia separated from Australia roughly 66 million years ago, subsequently drifting in a north-easterly direction, reaching its present position about 50 million years ago.&lt;ref&gt;Boyer &amp; Giribet 2007: 355{{full|date=February 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The mainland is divided in length by a central mountain range whose highest peaks are [[Mont Panié]] ({{cvt|1,629|m|disp=or}}) in the north and [[Mont Humboldt]] ({{cvt|1,618|m|disp=or}}) in the southeast.&lt;ref name=&quot;geo-jc&quot;/&gt; The east coast is covered by lush vegetation.&lt;ref name=&quot;geo-jc&quot;/&gt; The west coast, with its large savannahs and plains suitable for farming, is a drier area. Many ore-rich massifs are found along this coast.&lt;ref name=&quot;geo-jc&quot;/&gt;

The [[Diahot River]] is the longest river of New Caledonia, flowing for some {{convert|100|km}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;EB&quot;&gt;{{Britannica|161133|Diahot River}}&lt;/ref&gt; It has a catchment area of {{cvt|620|km2}} and opens north-westward into the [[Baie d'Harcourt]], flowing towards the northern point of the island along the western escarpment of the Mount Panié.&lt;ref name=&quot;EB&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;UNU&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.greenstone.org/greenstone3/nzdl;jsessionid=9C07FFA7400A6C3C823F1ACAF98A3D9D?a=d&amp;d=HASH01e0de34b153f45530bc1736.5.pp&amp;c=ccgi&amp;sib=1&amp;dt=&amp;ec=&amp;et=&amp;p.a=b&amp;p.s=ClassifierBrowse&amp;p.sa= |title=The impacts of opencast mining in New Caledonia |publisher=The [[United Nations University]] |access-date=9 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727215730/http://www.greenstone.org/greenstone3/nzdl;jsessionid=9C07FFA7400A6C3C823F1ACAF98A3D9D?a=d&amp;d=HASH01e0de34b153f45530bc1736.5.pp&amp;c=ccgi&amp;sib=1&amp;dt=&amp;ec=&amp;et=&amp;p.a=b&amp;p.s=ClassifierBrowse&amp;p.sa= |archive-date=27 July 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Most of the island is covered by wet evergreen forests, while savannahs dominate the lower elevations.&lt;ref name=&quot;gbrs&quot;/&gt; The New Caledonian lagoon, with a total area of {{convert|24000|km2}} is one of the largest lagoons in the world. The lagoon and the surrounding [[New Caledonia Barrier Reef]] was named a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] in 2008 for its exceptional beauty and marine biodiversity.&lt;ref name=&quot;geo-jc&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Donnees-Geographiques |title=Données Géographiques |language=fr |website=Nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030174815/http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Donnees-Geographiques |archive-date=30 October 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name = &quot;unesco&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url = https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1115 |title = Lagoons of New Caledonia: Reef Diversity and Associated Ecosystems |website = UNESCO World Heritage Centre |publisher = United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization |access-date = 20 November 2021 |archive-date = 20 November 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211120223140/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1115/ |url-status = live }}&lt;/ref&gt; In May 2023, there was an earthquake and tsunami in New Caledonia. This triggered a tsunami warning here as well as in other nearby countries.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/australasia/loyalty-islands-south-pacific-earthquake-today-tsunami-b2341846.html |title=Earthquake triggers 3ft wave tsunami warnings across South Pacific |work=The Independent |first=Shweta |last=Sharma |date=19 May 2023 |access-date=29 May 2023 |archive-date=19 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519062421/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/australasia/loyalty-islands-south-pacific-earthquake-today-tsunami-b2341846.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Climate ===
The climate is [[tropical climate|tropical]], with a hot and humid season from November to March with temperatures between {{convert|27|and|30|C}},&lt;ref name=&quot;geo-jc&quot;/&gt; and a cooler, dry season from June to August with temperatures between {{cvt|20|and|23|C}},&lt;ref name=&quot;geo-jc&quot;/&gt; linked by two short interstices.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot;/&gt; The tropical climate is strongly moderated by the oceanic influence and the [[trade winds]] that attenuate humidity, which can be close to 80%.&lt;ref name=&quot;geo-jc&quot;/&gt; The average annual temperature is 23&amp;nbsp;°C, with historical extremes of {{cvt|2.3|and|39.1|C}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot;/&gt;

The rainfall records show that precipitation differs greatly within the island. The {{convert|3000|mm}} of rainfall recorded in [[Galarino]] are three times the average of the west coast. There are also dry periods, because of the effects of [[El Niño]].&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot;/&gt; Between December and April, [[tropical depressions]] and [[cyclones]] can cause winds to exceed a speed of {{convert|100|kph}}, with gusts of {{convert|250|kph}} and very abundant rainfall.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot;/&gt; The last cyclone affecting New Caledonia was [[Cyclone Niran]], in March 2021.

== ماحول ==
{{See also|Biodiversity of New Caledonia}}
[[File:Landscape, south of New Caledonia.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Landscape in the south of New Caledonia]]
New Caledonia has many unique taxa, especially birds and plants.&lt;ref name=&quot;hjnc&quot;/&gt; It has the richest diversity in the world per square kilometre.&lt;ref name=&quot;hjnc&quot;/&gt; The biodiversity is caused by Grande Terre's central mountain range, which has created a variety of niches, landforms and micro-climates where [[Endemism|endemic]] species thrive.&lt;ref name=&quot;hjnc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Leanne Logan|author2=Geert Cole|title=New Caledonia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA26|year=2001|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=978-1-86450-202-2|page=26|access-date=18 October 2015|archive-date=26 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226010023/https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA26|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Largely due to its nickel industry, New Caledonia [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita|emits a high level of carbon dioxide per person]] compared to other countries. In 2019, it emitted 55.25 tons of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; per person, compared to 4.81 for France.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=EDGAR – The Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research|url=https://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/report_2020#emissions_table|access-date=2021-04-24|website=edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu|archive-date=31 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210531025125/https://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/report_2020#emissions_table|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The combination of the exceptional biodiversity of New Caledonia and its threatened status has made it one of the most critical [[biodiversity hotspots]] on Earth.&lt;ref name = &quot;myers&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Myers |first1=Norman |last2=Mittermeier |first2=Russell A. |last3=Mittermeier |first3=Cristina G. |last4=da Fonseca |first4=Gustavo A. B. |last5=Kent |first5=Jennifer |title=Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities |journal=Nature |date=February 2000 |volume=403 |issue=6772 |pages=853–858 |doi=10.1038/35002501 |pmid=10706275 |bibcode=2000Natur.403..853M }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2001, [[Bruno Van Peteghem]] was awarded the [[Goldman Environmental Prize]] for his efforts on behalf of the Caledonian ecological protection movement in the face of &quot;serious challenges&quot; from [[Jacques Lafleur]]'s [[Rally for Caledonia in the Republic|RPCR]] party.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Bruno Van Peteghem |url=http://www.goldmanprize.org/node/169 |website=Goldman Environmental Prize |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201050426/http://www.goldmanprize.org/node/169 |archive-date=1 February 2009 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Progress has been made in a few areas in addressing the protection of New Caledonia's ecological diversity from fire, industrial and residential development, unrestricted agricultural activity and mining (such as the judicial revocation of [[INCO]]'s mining licence in June 2006 owing to claimed abuses).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Indigenous Kanaks Take On Inco in New Caledonia |url=http://www.miningwatch.ca/index.php?%2FNew_Caledonia%2FGoro_Licence_Revoked |website=MiningWatch Canada |date=19 July 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013113126/http://www.miningwatch.ca/index.php?%2FNew_Caledonia%2FGoro_Licence_Revoked |archive-date=13 October 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2008, six lagoons of the [[New Caledonian barrier reef]], the world's longest continuous barrier reef system, were inscribed on the [[UNESCO World Heritage List]].

=== Flora ===
[[File:Amborella trichopoda (3065968016) fragment.jpg|thumb|''[[Amborella]]'', the world's oldest living lineage of flowering plant]]
[[File:0 Araucaria columnaris New Caledonia.jpg|thumb|''[[Araucaria columnaris]]'' on the [[Isle of Pines (New Caledonia)|Isle of Pines]]]]
New Caledonia's fauna and flora derive from ancestral species isolated in the region when it broke away from [[Gondwana]] many tens of millions of years ago.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |first1=Alan S. |last1=Collins |first2=Sergei A. |last2=Pisarevsky |title=Amalgamating eastern Gondwana: The evolution of the Circum-Indian Orogens |journal= Earth-Science Reviews |date= August 2005 |volume=71 |issue=3–4 |pages=229–270 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.02.004 |bibcode=2005ESRv...71..229C }}&lt;/ref&gt; Not only endemic species have evolved here, but entire [[Genus|genera]], [[Family (biology)|families]], and even [[Order (biology)|orders]] are unique to the islands.

More tropical [[gymnosperm]] species are endemic to New Caledonia than to any similar region on Earth. Of the 44 indigenous species of gymnosperms, 43 are endemic, including the only known parasitic gymnosperm (''[[Parasitaxus usta]]'').&lt;ref name=&quot;futura1&quot;/&gt; Also, of the 35 known species of ''[[Araucaria]]'', 13 are endemic to New Caledonia.&lt;ref name=&quot;hjnc&quot;/&gt; New Caledonia also has the world's most divergent lineage of [[flowering plant]], ''[[Amborella trichopoda]]'', which is at, or near, the base of the clade of all flowering plants.

The world's largest [[Neontology|extant]] species of [[fern]], ''[[Sphaeropteris intermedia]]'', also is endemic to New Caledonia. It is very common on acidic soil, usually found on fallow ground or in forest clearings, and grows about one metre per year on the east coast. There also are other species of [[tree fern]]s, notably ''[[Sphaeropteris novae-caledoniae]]''&lt;ref name=&quot;ncd2&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url= http://www.futura-sciences.com/fr/doc/t/zoologie-1/r/nouvelle-caledonie/d/la-faune-et-la-flore-de-nouvelle-caledonie_468/c3/221/p3/ |title= La flore de Nouvelle-Calédonie – Deuxième partie |website= Futura-sciences.com |date= 2004-08-18 |access-date= 2013-01-30 |archive-date= 11 March 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130311213816/http://www.futura-sciences.com/fr/doc/t/zoologie-1/r/nouvelle-caledonie/d/la-faune-et-la-flore-de-nouvelle-caledonie_468/c3/221/p3/ |url-status= live }}&lt;/ref&gt; and the New Caledonian fork fern, (Tmesipteris oblanceolata) which has the largest genome known in a eukaryotic organism.

New Caledonia also is one of five regions on the planet where species of southern beeches (''[[Nothofagus]]'') are indigenous; five species are known to occur here.&lt;ref name=&quot;futura1&quot;/&gt;

New Caledonia has its own version of [[maquis shrubland|maquis]] (''[[maquis minier]]'') occurring on metalliferous soils, mostly in the south.&lt;ref name=&quot;gbrs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=New Caledonia: a very old Darwinian island? |pmc=2607381 |year=2008 |last1=Grandcolas |first1=P |last2=Murienne |first2=J |last3=Robillard |first3=T |last4=Desutter-Grandcolas |first4=L |last5=Jourdan |first5=H |last6=Guilbert |first6=E |last7=Deharveng |first7=L |volume=363 |issue=1508 |pages=3309–3317 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2008.0122 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |pmid=18765357 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The soils of ultramafic rocks (mining terrains) have been a refuge for many native flora species which are adapted to the toxic mineral content of the soils, to which most foreign species of plants are poorly suited, which has therefore prevented invasion into the habitat or displacement of indigenous plants.&lt;ref name=&quot;futura1&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.futura-sciences.com/fr/doc/t/zoologie-1/r/nouvelle-caledonie/d/la-faune-et-la-flore-de-nouvelle-caledonie_468/c3/221/p2/ |title=La flore de Nouvelle-Calédonie – Première partie |website=Futura-sciences.com |date=2004-08-18 |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=11 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130311213828/http://www.futura-sciences.com/fr/doc/t/zoologie-1/r/nouvelle-caledonie/d/la-faune-et-la-flore-de-nouvelle-caledonie_468/c3/221/p2/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Two terrestrial ecoregions lie within New Caledonia's territory: [[New Caledonia rain forests]] and [[New Caledonia dry forests]].&lt;ref name=&quot;DinersteinOlson2017&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Dinerstein |first1=Eric |last2=Olson |first2=David |last3=Joshi |first3=Anup |last4=Vynne |first4=Carly |last5=Burgess |first5=Neil D. |last6=Wikramanayake |first6=Eric |last7=Hahn |first7=Nathan |last8=Palminteri |first8=Suzanne |last9=Hedao |first9=Prashant |last10=Noss |first10=Reed |last11=Hansen |first11=Matt |last12=Locke |first12=Harvey |last13=Ellis |first13=Erle C |last14=Jones |first14=Benjamin |last15=Barber |first15=Charles Victor |last16=Hayes |first16=Randy |last17=Kormos |first17=Cyril |last18=Martin |first18=Vance |last19=Crist |first19=Eileen |last20=Sechrest |first20=Wes |last21=Price |first21=Lori |last22=Baillie |first22=Jonathan E. M. |last23=Weeden |first23=Don |last24=Suckling |first24=Kierán |last25=Davis |first25=Crystal |last26=Sizer |first26=Nigel |last27=Moore |first27=Rebecca |last28=Thau |first28=David |last29=Birch |first29=Tanya |last30=Potapov |first30=Peter |last31=Turubanova |first31=Svetlana |last32=Tyukavina |first32=Alexandra |last33=de Souza |first33=Nadia |last34=Pintea |first34=Lilian |last35=Brito |first35=José C. |last36=Llewellyn |first36=Othman A. |last37=Miller |first37=Anthony G. |last38=Patzelt |first38=Annette |last39=Ghazanfar |first39=Shahina A. |last40=Timberlake |first40=Jonathan |last41=Klöser |first41=Heinz |last42=Shennan-Farpón |first42=Yara |last43=Kindt |first43=Roeland |last44=Lillesø |first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow |last45=van Breugel |first45=Paulo |last46=Graudal |first46=Lars |last47=Voge |first47=Maianna |last48=Al-Shammari |first48=Khalaf F. |last49=Saleem |first49=Muhammad |title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm |journal=BioScience |date=June 2017 |volume=67 |issue=6 |pages=534–545 |doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014 |pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{See also|List of endemic plants of New Caledonia}}

=== Fauna ===
In addition to its outstanding plant diversity and endemism, New Caledonia also provides habitat for a wide diversity of animals. Over 100 bird species live in New Caledonia, of which 24 are endemic.&lt;ref name = &quot;Palmas&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Palmas |first1=Pauline |last2=Jourdan |first2=Hervé |last3=Rigault |first3=Fredéric |last4=Debar |first4=Léo |last5=De Meringo |first5=Hélène |last6=Bourguet |first6=Edouard |last7=Mathivet |first7=Mathieu |last8=Lee |first8=Matthias |last9=Adjouhgniope |first9=Rachelle |last10=Papillon |first10=Yves |last11=Bonnaud |first11=Elsa |last12=Vidal |first12=Eric |title=Feral cats threaten the outstanding endemic fauna of the New Caledonia biodiversity hotspot |journal=Biological Conservation |date=1 October 2017 |volume=214 |pages=250–259 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2017.08.003 |bibcode=2017BCons.214..250P |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01793811 }}&lt;/ref&gt; One of these endemic bird species is the [[New Caledonian crow]], a bird noted for its [[tool use in animals|tool-making]] abilities, which rival those of primates.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Weir |first1=Alex A. S. |last2=Chappell |first2=Jackie |last3=Kacelnik |first3=Alex |title=Shaping of Hooks in New Caledonian Crows |journal=Science |date=9 August 2002 |volume=297 |issue=5583 |pages=981 |doi=10.1126/science.1073433 |pmid=12169726 }}&lt;/ref&gt; These crows are renowned for their extraordinary intelligence and ability to fashion tools to solve problems, and make the most complex tools of any animal yet studied apart from humans.&lt;ref name=&quot;nccbbc&quot;&gt;{{cite news |last=Walker |first=Matt |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_9125000/9125227.stm |title=Clever New Caledonian crows go to parents' tool school |work=[[BBC News]] |date=2010-10-26 |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=14 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111014003859/http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_9125000/9125227.stm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Cagou.jpg|thumb|left|The [[kagu]], an [[endemic]] flightless bird]]
The endemic [[kagu]],&lt;ref&gt;Attenborough, D. 1998 ''The Life of Birds'' BBC  {{ISBN|0563-38792-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; agile and able to run quickly, is a flightless bird, but it is able to use its wings to climb branches or glide. Its sound is similar to the bark of a dog. It is the surviving member of [[monotypic]] family [[Rhynochetidae]], order [[Eurypygiformes]].&lt;ref name=&quot;kagu&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.oiseaux-birds.com/card-kagu.html |title=Kagu |website=Oiseaux-birds.com |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=24 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124171207/http://www.oiseaux-birds.com/card-kagu.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

There are 11 endemic fish species and 14 endemic species of [[Decapoda|decapod]] [[crustaceans]] in the rivers and lakes of New Caledonia. Some, such as ''[[Neogalaxias]]'', exist only in small areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncnau&quot;/&gt; The [[nautilus]]—considered a living fossil and related to the extinct [[ammonite]]s—occurs in Pacific waters around New Caledonia.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncnau&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.endemia.nc/biodiversite.php |title=La Biodiversité |website=Endemia.nc |access-date=2013-01-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130106120416/http://www.endemia.nc/biodiversite.php |archive-date=6 January 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; There is a large diversity of [[List of fishes of the Coral Sea|marine fish]] in the surrounding waters, which are within the extents of the [[Coral Sea]].

Despite its large number of bird, reptile, and fish species, New Caledonia has remarkably few mammal species: nine, of which six are endemic.&lt;ref name = &quot;Palmas&quot; /&gt;

Several species of New Caledonia are remarkable for their size: ''[[Ducula goliath]]'' is the largest extant species of arboreal pigeon; ''[[Rhacodactylus leachianus]]'', the largest gecko in the world; ''[[Phoboscincus bocourti]]'', a large skink thought to be extinct until [[Lazarus taxon|rediscovered]] in 2003.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncnau&quot;/&gt;

Much of New Caledonia's fauna present before human settlement is now extinct, including ''[[Sylviornis]]'', a bird over a metre tall not closely related to any living species, and ''[[Meiolania]]'', a giant horned turtle that diverged from living turtles during the Jurassic period.

In January 2024, a court in the Capital Nouméa issued a ruling banning the culling of sharks citing it as disproportionate. The culls began after an Australian tourist was killed by a shark in the previous year.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=New Caledonia court bans shark culls amid environmental backlash |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/jan/09/new-caledonia-court-bans-shark-culls-amid-environmental-backlash |work=The Guardian |date=8 January 2024 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{See also|List of birds of New Caledonia}}

== آباديءَ جا انگ اکر ==
{{Historical populations
| title       = Historical populations
| footnote    = ISEE&lt;ref name=&quot;The Population at Different Censuses&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/195-donnees?download=764:la-population-aux-differents-recensements|title=The Population at Different Censuses |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411094321/https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/195-donnees?download=764:la-population-aux-differents-recensements|archive-date=11 April 2020 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=census2025 /&gt;
| percentages = pagr
| 1956.931693989 |68480
| 1963.334246575 |86519
| 1969.191780822 |100579
| 1976.31147541 |133233
| 1983.287671233 |145368
| 1989.257534247 |164173
| 1996.292349727 |196836
| 2009.569863014 |245580
| 2014.652055 |268767
| 2019.693151 |271407
| 2025.306849 |264596
}}
اپريل &lt;small&gt;2025&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ ٿيل آخري مردم شماري مطابق، نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;264,596&lt;/small&gt; هئي. هي انگ سيپٽمبر &lt;small&gt;2019&lt;/small&gt;ع جي مردم شماري (&lt;small&gt;271,407&lt;/small&gt;) جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ هو، ڇاڪاڻ ته معاشي بحران ۽ &lt;small&gt;2024&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ ٿيل بدامنيءَ سبب ماڻهن اهو علائقو ڇڏي ڏنو هو. انهن &lt;small&gt;264,596&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن مان، &lt;small&gt;18,671&lt;/small&gt; لائلٽي آئلينڊز صوبي ۾، &lt;small&gt;50,947&lt;/small&gt; اتر صوبي ۾، ۽ &lt;small&gt;194,978&lt;/small&gt; ڏکڻ صوبي ۾ رهندا هئا.  

&lt;small&gt;2019&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;2025&lt;/small&gt;ع جي مردم شمارين جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ اتر صوبي ۽ لائلٽي آئلينڊز ۾ آباديءَ ۾ ترتيبوار &lt;small&gt;2.1&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;1.7&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو اضافو رڪارڊ ڪيو ويو، جڏهن ته ڏکڻ صوبي ۾ آباديءَ ۾ &lt;small&gt;4.0&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو گهٽتائي ڏٺي وئي، جيتوڻيڪ تازو ئي گريٽر نوميا (&lt;small&gt;Greater&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Nouméa&lt;/small&gt;) واري علائقي ۾ نوان ماڻهو اچي آباد ٿيا آهن. خاص طور تي، &lt;small&gt;2024&lt;/small&gt;ع واري بدامني ۽ شهري فسادن کانپوءِ &quot;گريٽر نوميا&quot; واري علائقي ۾ معاشي صورتحال خراب ٿيڻ سبب، ڪانڪ (&lt;small&gt;Kanak&lt;/small&gt;) ماڻهن نوميا ڇڏي نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي ٻين علائقن ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/195-donnees?download=2291:les-populations-de-reference |title=Populations aux différents recensements|publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2026-01-30}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

آباديءَ جو &lt;small&gt;30&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو حصو &lt;small&gt;20&lt;/small&gt; سالن کان گهٽ عمر وارن ماڻهن تي مشتمل هو، جڏهن ته مجموعي آباديءَ ۾ بزرگن جو تناسب وڌي رهيو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;insee-1&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?ref_id=ip1338 |title=Recensement de la population en Nouvelle-Calédonie en 2009 – 50 000 habitants de plus en 13 ans |publisher=Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques ([[INSEE]].fr) |language=fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=31 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131233952/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?ref_id=ip1338 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; نيو ڪيليڊونيا جا ٽن مان ٻه رهواسي گريٽر نوميا ۾ رهن ٿا. &lt;small&gt;78&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو ماڻهو نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ ئي پيدا ٿيا هئا. ٻارن جي پيدائش جي مجموعي شرح (&lt;small&gt;Total fertility rate&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;small&gt;2014&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ في عورت &lt;small&gt;'''2.2'''&lt;/small&gt; ٻارن کان گهٽجي &lt;small&gt;2019&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ &lt;small&gt;'''1.9'''&lt;/small&gt; ٿي وئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/230-toutes-les-publications?download=1982:rp-2019-la-croissance-demographique-flechit-nettement-en-nc-entre-2014-et-2019 |title=La croissance démographique fléchit nettement en Nouvelle-Calédonie entre 2014 et 2019 |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2 November 2020 |archive-date=7 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107165152/https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/230-toutes-les-publications?download=1982:rp-2019-la-croissance-demographique-flechit-nettement-en-nc-entre-2014-et-2019 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== نسلي گروهه ===
{{bar box
|title=Ethnic Groups in New Caledonia (2019 Census)&lt;ref name=&quot;Population Structure of Communities&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/278-donnees?download=874:structure-de-la-population-des-communautes |title=Population Structure of Communities |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=29 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113144638/http://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/278-donnees?download=874:structure-de-la-population-des-communautes |archive-date=13 November 2019 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|titlebar=#ddd
|left1=Ethnic Groups
|right1=percent
|float=right
|bars=
{{bar percent|Kanak|darkgreen|41.2}}
{{bar percent|European|purple|24.1}}
{{bar percent|&quot;Caledonian&quot; or not stated|pink|7.5}}
{{bar percent|Mixed|red|11.3}}
{{bar percent|Wallisian/Futunian|black|8.3}}
{{bar percent|Tahitian|darkblue|2.0}}
{{bar percent|Javanese|Violet|1.4}}
{{bar percent|Ni-Vanuatu|maroon|0.9}}
{{bar percent|Vietnamese|darkgray|0.8}}
{{bar percent|Other Asian|gray|0.4}}
{{bar percent|Other|tan|2.1}}
}}
At the 2019 census,&lt;ref name=&quot;Population Structure of Communities&quot; /&gt; 41.2% of the population reported belonging to the [[Kanak people|Kanak]] community (up from 39.1% at the 2014 census&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://xt.isee.nc/xtc/tele.php?tableau=xt127001.xls&amp;base=rp09indcomap |title=Communauté d'appartenance – INSEE – ISEE / Recensement de la population de 2009 en Nouvelle-Calédonie |format=XLS |access-date=2015-08-24 |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |archive-date=31 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331120910/https://xt.isee.nc/xtc/tele.php?tableau=xt127001.xls&amp;base=rp09indcomap |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;) and 24.1% to the [[Europe]]an ([[Caldoche]] and [[Zoreilles|Zoreille]]) community (down from 27.2% at the 2014 census). A further 7.5% of the population either self-identified as &quot;Caledonian&quot; or refused to declare an ethnic group (down from 9.9% at the 2014 census). Most of the people who self-identify as &quot;Caledonian&quot; or refuse to declare an ethnic group are thought to be ethnically European.&lt;ref name=&quot;LoganCole2001b&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Leanne Logan|author2=Geert Cole|title=New Caledonia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA39|year=2001|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=978-1-86450-202-2|page=39|access-date=18 October 2015|archive-date=13 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413094632/https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA39|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The other self-reported communities were [[Wallis and Futuna|Wallisians and Futunians]] (8.3% of the total population, up from 8.2% at the 2014 census), [[Overseas Indonesian|Indonesians]] who are from the [[Javanese New Caledonians|Javanese ethnic group]] (1.4% of the total population, the same as in 2014),&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=New Caledonian Javanese, in New Caledonia |url=https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/13321/NC |website=joshuaproject.net |publisher=Joshua Project |access-date=14 December 2020 |archive-date=5 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205095432/https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/13321/NC |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Tahitians]] (2.0% of the total population, down from 2.1% at the 2014 census), [[Ni-Vanuatu]] (0.9%, down from 1.0% at the 2014 census), [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] (0.8%, down from 0.9% at the 2014 census), and other Asians (primarily [[Overseas Chinese|ethnic Chinese]]; 0.4% of the total population, the same as in 2014).

11.3% of the population reported belonging to multiple communities ([[Multiracial people|mixed race]]) (up from 8.6% at the 2014 census). The question on community belonging, which had been left out of the 2004 census, was reintroduced in 2009 under a new formulation, different from the 1996 census, allowing multiple choices (mixed race) and the possibility to clarify the choice &quot;other&quot; (which led many Europeans to self-identify as &quot;Caledonian&quot; in the category &quot;other&quot;, or to select several ethnic communities, such as both European and Kanak, thus appearing as mixed race, which is particularly the case for the Caldoches living in the bush, who often have mixed ancestry).&lt;ref name=&quot;eth09&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.isee.nc/population/telecharpdf/4%20page-rpnc09.pdf |title=Recensement de la population 2009 |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=13 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113151907/http://www.isee.nc/population/telecharpdf/4%20page-rpnc09.pdf |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Finally, 2.1% of the population reported belonging to other communities to the exclusion of &quot;Caledonian&quot; (up from 1.3% at the 2014 census).

The Kanak people, part of the ethnic [[Melanesians|Melanesian]] group, are indigenous to New Caledonia.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=5}} Their social organization is traditionally based on [[clan]]s, which identify as either &quot;land&quot; or &quot;sea&quot; clans, depending on their original location and the occupation of their ancestors.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=5}} According to the 2019 census, the Kanak constitute 95% of the population in the [[Loyalty Islands Province]], 72% in the North Province and 29% in the South Province.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=5}} The Kanak tend to be of lower socio-economic status than the Europeans and other settlers.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=5}}&lt;ref name=&quot;isee.nc&quot;&gt;{{cite magazine |magazine=Synthèse |issue=35 |url=http://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/197-analyse?download=1484:une-demographie-toujours-dynamique |format=PDF |title=Recensement de la population 2014 |lang=fr |trans-title=2014 population census |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=14 December 2019 |archive-date=14 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214213813/http://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/197-analyse%3Fdownload%3D1484:une-demographie-toujours-dynamique |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Europeans in Oceania|Europeans]] first settled in New Caledonia when France established a penal colony on the archipelago.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=5}} Once the prisoners had completed their sentences, they were given land to settle.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=5}} According to the 2014 census, of the 73,199 Europeans in New Caledonia, 30,484 were [[Caldoche|native-born]], 36,975 were born in [[Zoreilles|Metropolitan France]], 488 were born in [[French Polynesia]], 86 were born in [[Wallis and Futuna]], and 5,166 were born abroad.&lt;ref name=&quot;ridet&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=DONNEES DE CADRAGE |url=http://www.isee.nc/population/telecharxls/don.cadrage-rp-09.xls |format=XLS |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030182817/http://www.isee.nc/population/telecharxls/don.cadrage-rp-09.xls |archive-date=30 October 2012 |place=Nouméa}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Europeans are divided into several groups. The [[Caldoche]]s are usually defined as those born in New Caledonia who have ancestral ties that span back to the early French settlers.&lt;ref name=&quot;LoganCole2001b&quot;/&gt; They often settled in the rural areas of the western coast of Grande Terre, where many continue to run large cattle properties.&lt;ref name=&quot;LoganCole2001b&quot;/&gt;

Distinct from the Caldoches are those who were born in New Caledonia from families that had settled more recently, and are called simply Caledonians.&lt;ref name=&quot;LoganCole2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1= Leanne|last1= vLogan|first2= Geert|last2= Cole|title= New Caledonia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA13|year= 2001|publisher= Lonely Planet|isbn= 978-1-86450-202-2|page= 13|via= Google Books|access-date= 18 October 2015|archive-date= 13 April 2016|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160413093509/https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA13|url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Metropolitan France|Metropolitan French]]-born migrants who come to New Caledonia are called ''Métros'' or ''Zoreilles'', indicating their origins in metropolitan France.&lt;ref name=&quot;LoganCole2001&quot;/&gt; There is also a community of about 2,000&lt;ref name=&quot;LoganCole2001&quot;/&gt; [[Pied-Noir|pieds noirs]], descended from European settlers in France's former North African colonies;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Chappell |first1=David A. |title=New Caledonia |journal=The Contemporary Pacific |date=September 2005 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=435–448 |doi=10.1353/cp.2005.0043 }}&lt;/ref&gt; some of them are prominent in anti-independence politics, including [[Pierre Maresca]], a leader of the [[Rally for Caledonia in the Republic|RPCR]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE7DC1E3FF935A15754C0A96E948260&amp;sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=all|title=Noumea Journal; On an Island in the Pacific, but Far From at Peace|work=The New York Times|author=Henry Kamm|date=26 July 1988|author-link=Henry Kamm|access-date=11 February 2017|archive-date=23 April 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423052218/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE7DC1E3FF935A15754C0A96E948260&amp;sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=all|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A 2015 documentary by [[Al Jazeera English]] asserted that up to 10%{{dubious|date=September 2015}} of New Caledonia's population is descended from around 2,000 [[Arabs|Arab]]-[[Imazighen|Berber]] people deported from [[French Algeria]] in the late 19th century to [[Penal colony|prisons on the island]] in reprisal for the [[Mokrani Revolt]] in 1871. After serving their sentences, they were released and given land to own and cultivate as part of colonisation efforts on the island. As the overwhelming majority of the [[Algerians of the Pacific|Algerians imprisoned on New Caledonia]] were men, the community was continued through intermarriage with women of other ethnic groups, mainly French women from nearby women's prisons. Despite facing both assimilation into the Euro-French population and discrimination for their ethnic background, descendants of the deportees have succeeded in preserving a common identity as Algerians, including maintaining certain cultural practices (such as Arabic names) and in some cases [[Islam]]ic religion. Some travel to Algeria as a rite of passage, though obtaining Algerian citizenship is often a difficult process. The largest population of Algerian-Caledonians lives in the commune of [[Bourail]] (particularly in the {{ill|Nessadiou|fr|Nessadiou}} district, where there is an Islamic cultural centre and {{ill|Arabic cemetery of Nesssadiou|lt=cemetery|fr|Cimetière des Arabes de Nessadiou}}), with smaller communities in [[Nouméa]], [[Koné, New Caledonia|Koné]], [[Pouembout]], and [[Yaté]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/aljazeeraworld/2015/09/exile-caledonia-150914145540415.html|title=Exile in New Caledonia|last1=Mame|first1=Abdelkader|first2=Abdelaziz|last2=Abid|date=14 September 2015|publisher=Al Jazeera English|access-date=17 September 2015|archive-date=19 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919090331/http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/aljazeeraworld/2015/09/exile-caledonia-150914145540415.html|url-status=dead}} [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1qsr-FjZhEM video] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920034630/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1qsr-FjZhEM |date=20 September 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;gallery widths=&quot;200px&quot; heights=&quot;155px&quot;&gt;
Femmes kanak2.jpg|[[Kanak people|Kanak]] women
Rodéo cheval.JPG|[[Rodeo]]s (here at the annual fair of [[Bourail]]) are part of [[Caldoche]] culture.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=== Languages ===
{{Main|Languages of New Caledonia}}

The [[French language]] began to spread with the establishment of French settlements, and French is now spoken even in the most secluded villages. For a long time the level of fluency varied significantly across the population as a whole, primarily due to the absence of universal access to public education before 1953, and also due to immigration and ethnic diversity,&lt;ref name=&quot;rl-lang&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ac-noumea.nc/sitevr/spip.php?rubrique48 |title=Situation linguistique en Nouvelle-Calédonie |publisher=Vice-Rectorat de Nouvelle-Calédonie |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=18 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118021148/http://www.ac-noumea.nc/sitevr/spip.php?rubrique48 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; but the French language has now become universal among the younger generations as shown by the censuses of population. At the 2009 census, 97.3% of people aged 15 or older reported that they could speak, read and write French, whereas only 1.1% reported that they had no knowledge of French.&lt;ref name=&quot;cen-lang&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Principales caractéristiques des individus de 15 ans et plus, par province de résidence et sexe |format=XLS |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/193-recensement?download=1876:rp-09-population-menages-logement-par-commune |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030182817/http://www.isee.nc/population/telecharxls/don.cadrage-rp-09.xls |place=Nouméa |access-date=2013-02-28|archive-date=30 October 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt; No questions regarding the knowledge of French were asked in the 2014 and 2019 censuses, on account of the population's nearly universal understanding of it.

The 28 [[Kanak languages]] spoken in New Caledonia are part of the [[Oceanic languages|Oceanic]] group of the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] family.&lt;ref name=&quot;macc&quot;&gt;{{cite web |website=Académie des Langues Kanak |title=Langues |url=http://www.alk.gouv.nc/portal/page/portal/alk/langues |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109131824/http://www.alk.gouv.nc/portal/page/portal/alk/langues |archive-date=9 November 2017 |url-status=dead |access-date=15 October 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Eight of these can be chosen by parents as optional subjects for their children from kindergarten to high school (four languages are taught up to the bachelor's degree) and an academy is responsible for their promotion.&lt;ref name=&quot;maskan&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.maisonnouvellecaledonieparis.nc/site/population.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426023621/http://www.maisonnouvellecaledonieparis.nc/site/population.php |archive-date=2009-04-26 |title=La Population De Nouvelle-Caledonie |publisher=La maison de la Nouvelle-Calédonie |language=fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; The three most widely spoken indigenous languages are [[Drehu]] (spoken in [[Lifou]]), [[Nengone language|Nengone]] (spoken on [[Maré]]) and [[Paicî]] (northern part of Grande Terre).&lt;ref name=&quot;maskan&quot;/&gt; Others include [[Iaai language|Iaai]] (spoken on [[Ouvéa]]). At the 2019 census, 44.0% of people whose age was 15 or older reported that they had some form of knowledge of at least one Kanak language (up from 41.3% at the 2009 census), whereas 56.0% reported that they had no knowledge of any of the Kanak languages (down from 58.7% at the 2009 census).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/193-recensement?download=1980:rp2019-population-menages-logement-province |title=Population, ménages et logement par province, en 2019 – P20 Population de 15 ans et plus, selon le genre, la connaissance d'une langue kanak et la province de résidence par groupe d'âge décennal |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |language=fr |access-date=2023-03-06 |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101013043/https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/193-recensement?download=1980:rp2019-population-menages-logement-province |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;cen-lang&quot;/&gt;

Other significant language communities among immigrant populations include speakers of [[Wallisian]], [[Futunan language|Futunian]], [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]], [[Javanese language|Javanese]], [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], and [[Bislama]].

=== Religion ===
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Religion in New Caledonia according to the ''Global Religious Landscape'' survey by the [[Pew Research Center|Pew Forum]], 2012&lt;ref name=&quot;Survey&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.pewforum.org/files/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125173538/https://www.pewforum.org/files/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 January 2017|title=The Global Religious Landscape|publisher=Pewforum.org|access-date=2 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|label1 = [[Christianity]]
|value1 = 85.2
|color1 = Red
|label2 = No religion
|value2 = 10.4
|color2 = #FFFFFF
|label3 = [[Islam]]
|value3 = 2.8
|color3 = Green
|label4 = [[Buddhism]]
|value4 = 0.6
|color4 = Gold
|label5 = Folk religion
|value5 = 0.2
|color5 = Chartreuse
|label6 = Others
|value6 = 0.8
|color6 = Orange
}}
The predominant religion is [[Christianity]]; half of the population is [[Catholic]], including most of the Europeans, [[West Uvean]]s, and Vietnamese and half of the Melanesian and Polynesian minorities.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncbrit&quot;/&gt; Catholicism was introduced by French colonists. The island also has numerous [[Protestant]] churches, of which the [[Free Evangelical Church]] and the [[Evangelical Church in New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands]] have the largest number of adherents; their memberships are almost entirely Melanesian.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncbrit&quot;/&gt; Protestantism gained ground in the late 20th century and continues to expand. There are also numerous other Christian groups and more than 6,000 Muslims.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncbrit&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=R. G. Crocombe|title=Asia in the Pacific Islands: Replacing the West|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iDg9oAkwsXAC&amp;pg=PA375|access-date=24 August 2012|year=2007|publisher=editorips@usp.ac.fj|isbn=978-982-02-0388-4|pages=375–|archive-date=4 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604054847/http://books.google.com/books?id=iDg9oAkwsXAC&amp;pg=PA375|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; (See [[Islam in New Caledonia]] and [[Baháʼí Faith in New Caledonia]].) Nouméa is the seat of the [[Archdiocese of Nouméa]].

== تعليم ==
نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ تعليم فرانسيسي نصاب تي ٻڌل آهي ۽ اها فرانسيسي استادن توڙي فرانس ۾ تربيت يافته استادن ذريعي ڏني وڃي ٿي. 1998ع جي نوميا معاهدي (Nouméa Accord) جي شرطن تحت، پرائمري تعليم ٽن صوبن جي ذميواري آهي. 2010ع تائين، سيڪنڊري تعليم کي صوبن جي حوالي ڪرڻ جو عمل جاري هو. اڪثر اسڪول نوميا (Nouméa) ۾ واقع آهن، پر ڪجهه ٻيٽن ۽ نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي اترئين حصي ۾ پڻ موجود آهن. جڏهن شاگرد هاءِ اسڪول واري عمر کي پهچندا آهن، ته انهن مان گهڻن کي سيڪنڊري تعليم جاري رکڻ لاءِ نوميا موڪليو ويندو آهي. ڇهن سالن جي عمر کان تعليم لازمي آهي. 

نيو ڪيليڊونيا جو اعليٰ تعليم جو مکيه ادارو ”يونيورسٽي آف نيو ڪيليڊونيا“ (Université de la Nouvelle-Calédonie) آهي، جنهن جو بنياد 1993ع ۾ رکيو ويو ۽ اهو اعليٰ تعليم، تحقيق ۽ جدت واري وزارت جي نگرانيءَ هيٺ ڪم ڪري ٿو. هي يونيورسٽي نوميا ۾ واقع آهي ۽ مختلف قسم جا پيشه ورانه (وڪيشنل)، بيچلرز، ايم اي (MA) ۽ پي ايڇ ڊي (PhD) پروگرام ۽ ڪورس پيش ڪري ٿي. يونيورسٽي آف نيو ڪيليڊونيا ٽن تعليمي شعبن، هڪ ٽيڪنالاجي انسٽيٽيوٽ، هڪ پي ايڇ ڊي اسڪول ۽ هڪ ٽيچرز ڪاليج تي مشتمل آهي. 2013ع تائين، يونيورسٽي ۾ تقريبن 3,000 شاگرد، 107 تعليمي ماهر (استاد) ۽ 95 انتظامي توڙي لائبريري عملي جا ميمبر موجود هئا. نيو ڪيليڊونيا جا ڪيترائي شاگرد مرڪزي فرانس (Metropolitan France) ۾ تعليم حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ اسڪالرشپ پڻ حاصل ڪندا آهن. نوميا معاهدي واري عمل جي حصي طور، ”ڪيڊر ايونير“ (Cadre Avenir) پروگرام ڪانڪ (Kanak) پيشه ور ماڻهن کي فرانس ۾ تعليم حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ اسڪالرشپ فراهم ڪري ٿو. 

in New Caledonia is based on the [[Education in France|French curriculum]] and delivered by both French teachers and French-trained teachers. Under the terms of the 1998 [[Nouméa Accord]], primary education is the responsibility of the three provinces. As of 2010, secondary education was in the process of being transferred to the provinces.&lt;ref name=&quot;CSC Australia 2010&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Emerging Pacific Leaders Dialogue 2010 New Caledonia Report|url=http://www.cscaustralia.com/ep10/reports/Study%20Tour%20Report,%20New%20Caledonia%20April%20'10.pdf|publisher=Commonwealth Study Conferences Australia|access-date=1 March 2018|archive-date=18 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170918190058/http://www.cscaustralia.com/ep10/reports/Study%20Tour%20Report%2C%20New%20Caledonia%20April%20%2710.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; The majority of schools are located in [[Nouméa]] but some are found in the islands and the north of New Caledonia. When students reach high school age, most are sent to Nouméa to continue their secondary education. Education is compulsory from the age of six years.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=What is education like in New Caledonia?|url=https://newcaledoniatoday.wordpress.com/2013/02/28/what-is-education-like-in-new-caledonia/|website=New Caledonia Today|access-date=1 March 2018|date=2013-02-28|archive-date=1 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180301164416/https://newcaledoniatoday.wordpress.com/2013/02/28/what-is-education-like-in-new-caledonia/|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unreliable source?|date=March 2018}}

New Caledonia's main tertiary education institution is the [[University of New Caledonia]] (''Université de la Nouvelle-Calédonie''), which was founded in 1993 and comes under the supervision of the [[Ministry of Higher Education, Research and Innovation]]. It is based in Nouméa and offers a range of vocational, Bachelor, MA, and PhD programs and courses. The University of New Caledonia consists of three academic departments, one institute of technology, one PhD school, and one teachers' college. As of 2013, the university has approximately 3,000 students, 107 academics, and 95 administrative and library staff.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Presentation UNC en Anglais 2012|url=http://unc.nc/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/presentation-UNC-english-1.pdf|publisher=[[University of New Caledonia]]|access-date=1 March 2018|archive-date=25 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025024601/https://unc.nc/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/presentation-UNC-english-1.pdf|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CSC Australia 2010&quot; /&gt; Many New Caledonian students also pursue scholarships to study in metropolitan France. As part of the Nouméa Accord process, a ''Cadre Avenir'' provides scholarships for Kanak professionals to study in France.&lt;ref name=&quot;CSC Australia 2010&quot; /&gt;

== ثقافت ==
[[File:Foire chevaux.JPG|thumb|[[Caldoche]]s, [[European emigration|European]] people born in New Caledonia]]

[[Wood carving]], especially of the houp (''[[Montrouziera cauliflora]]''), is a contemporary reflection of the beliefs of the traditional tribal society, and includes [[totem]]s, masks, [[chambranle]]s, or [[flèche faîtière]],&lt;ref name=&quot;desc&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://fr.visitenouvellecaledonie.com/decouvrez/la-culture |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724075625/http://fr.visitenouvellecaledonie.com/decouvrez/la-culture |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-07-24 |title=La Culture |publisher=Tourisme Nouvelle-Calédonie |access-date=2013-01-30 }}&lt;/ref&gt; a kind of arrow that adorns the roofs of Kanak houses. [[Basketry]] is a craft widely practised by tribal women, creating objects of daily use.&lt;ref name=&quot;desc&quot;/&gt;

The [[Jean-Marie Tjibaou Cultural Centre]], designed by Italian architect [[Renzo Piano]] and opened in 1998, celebrates Kanak culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;desc&quot;/&gt;

The [[Kaneka (music)|Kaneka]] is a form of local music, inspired by [[reggae]] and originating in the 1980s.&lt;ref name=&quot;desc&quot;/&gt;

The [[Mwâ Ka]] is a {{convert|12|m|ft|adj=on}} [[totem pole]] commemorating the French annexation of New Caledonia, and was inaugurated in 2005.&lt;ref name=&quot;mka&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/new-caledonia/noumea/sights/monument/mwa-ka |title=Mwâ Ka in Noumea, New Caledonia |publisher=Lonely Planet |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=17 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130317231552/http://www.lonelyplanet.com/new-caledonia/noumea/sights/monument/mwa-ka |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ميڊيا ==
&quot;ليس نيوويلس ڪيليڊونينس&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Les&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Nouvelles&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Calédoniennes&lt;/small&gt;) هن ٻيٽن جي مجموعي (&lt;small&gt;archipelago&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ واحد روزاني اخبار آهي. &lt;ref&gt;The name is a pun, and can be read in English as &quot;The Caledonian News&quot; or &quot;Women of New Caledonia&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; هڪ ماهوار رسالو، ”لي چين بلو“ (&lt;small&gt;Le Chien bleu&lt;/small&gt;)، نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي خبرن تي طنزيه تبصرا يا پيروڊي (&lt;small&gt;parody&lt;/small&gt;) پيش ڪري ٿو.

هتي پنج ريڊيو اسٽيشنون: عوامي خدمت وارو نشرياتي ادارو ريڊيو نيوويل-ڪيليڊونيا (&lt;small&gt;RFO radio Nouvelle&lt;/small&gt;-&lt;small&gt;Calédonie&lt;/small&gt;)، اوشين ايف ايم (&lt;small&gt;Océane&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;FM&lt;/small&gt;) - جيڪا علائقي جي نئين ترين اسٽيشن آهي، نوجوانن لاءِ مخصوص اسٽيشن اين آر جي (&lt;small&gt;NRJ&lt;/small&gt;)، ريڊيو جيڊو (&lt;small&gt;Radio Djiido&lt;/small&gt;) جنهن جو بنياد جين-ميري جيباؤ رکيو هو، ۽ &quot;ريڊيو رٿمز بلوز&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Radio Rythmes Bleus&lt;/small&gt;) آهن. آخري ٻه اسٽيشنون بنيادي طور تي مختلف ڪنڪ گروپن کي نشانو بڻايون ويون آهن جيڪي نيو ڪيليڊونيا جا مقامي آهن. &quot;جيڊو&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Djiido&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;)&lt;/small&gt; فوائي ٻولي مان هڪ اصطلاح آهي، جيڪا اتر صوبي ۾ هينگين ۾ ڳالهائي ويندي آهي، هڪ ڌاتو جي اسپائڪ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي جيڪا روايتي ڪنڪ گهر جي ڇت تي پٽي جي ڇل کي محفوظ ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي.

ٽيليويزن جي حوالي سان، فرانس ٽيليويزن هڪ مقامي چينل، ريسو آئوٽريمر 1ري، فرانس 2، فرانس 3، فرانس 4، فرانس 5، فرانس 24 ۽ آرٽ سان گڏ هلائي ٿو، جيڪي سڀئي پيرس کان نشر ٿين ٿا. ڪينال پلس ڪيليڊوني فرانسيسي ۾ 17 ڊجيٽل چينل کڻي ٿو، جن ۾ ڪينال+ ۽ TF1 شامل آهن. اينالاگ ٽيليويزن نشريات سيپٽمبر 2011 ۾ ختم ٿي ويون، نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ ڊجيٽل ٽيليويزن منتقلي کي مڪمل ڪيو. فرانسيسي نشريات اختيارين پاران ٻن نون مقامي ٽيليويزن اسٽيشنن، NCTV ۽ NC9 لاءِ بوليون تي غور ڪيو ويو. NCTV ڊسمبر 2013 ۾ شروع ڪيو ويو.

the only daily newspaper in the archipelago.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/WO1403/S00173/pff-stands-in-solidarity-with-les-nouvelles-caledoniennes.htm |title=PFF stands in solidarity with Les Nouvelles Calédoniennes |website=[[Scoop (website)|Scoop]] |date=11 March 2014 |access-date=25 April 2016 |archive-date=25 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425125050/http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/WO1403/S00173/pff-stands-in-solidarity-with-les-nouvelles-caledoniennes.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;vivmed&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.gitesnouvellecaledonie.nc/nouvelle-caledonie/vivre-en-nouvelle-caledonie |title=Vivre en Nouvelle-Calédonie |publisher=Gîtes Nouvelle Calédonie |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=19 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119144106/http://www.gitesnouvellecaledonie.nc/nouvelle-caledonie/vivre-en-nouvelle-caledonie |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; A monthly publication, ''{{lang|fr|Le Chien bleu}}'', parodies the news from New Caledonia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.lechienbleu.nc/|title=Le Chien bleu : Journal satirique de Nouvelle-Calédonie. Y en aura pour tout le monde!|website=Lechienbleu.nc|access-date=17 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726061552/http://www.lechienbleu.nc/|archive-date=26 July 2018|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

There are five radio stations: the public service broadcaster [[Outre-Mer 1ère|RFO radio Nouvelle-Calédonie]], [[Océane FM]] (the collectivity's newest station), the youth-oriented station [[NRJ]], [[Radio Djiido]] (established by [[Jean-Marie Tjibaou]]), and [[Radio Rythmes Bleus]].&lt;ref name=&quot;vivmed&quot;/&gt; The last two stations are primarily targeted to the various [[Kanak people|Kanak]] groups who are indigenous to New Caledonia (&quot;Djiido&quot; is a term from the [[Fwâi language]], spoken in [[Hienghène]] in the [[North Province, New Caledonia|North Province]], denoting a metal spike used to secure straw thatching to the roof of a traditional Kanak house).

As for television, the public service broadcaster [[France Télévisions]] operates a local channel, [[Réseau Outre-Mer 1re]], along with [[France 2]], [[France 3]], [[France 4]], [[France 5]], [[France 24]] and [[Arte TV|Arte]] which all broadcast from [[Paris]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.gouv.nc/portal/page/portal/gouv/tnt|title=Télévision Numérique Terrestre (TNT)|website=Gouv.nc|access-date=17 July 2018|date=2016-01-31|archive-date=29 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140629052143/http://www.gouv.nc/portal/page/portal/gouv/tnt|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[CanalSat Calédonie|Canal Plus Calédonie]] carries 17 digital channels in French, including [[Canal+ (French TV channel)|Canal+]] and [[TF1]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.canalplus-caledonie.com/grille-tv/toutes-les-chaines|title=Grille TV – Canal+ Calédonie|website=Canalplus-caledonie.com|access-date=17 July 2018|archive-date=18 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718001322/https://www.canalplus-caledonie.com/grille-tv/toutes-les-chaines|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Analogue television broadcasts ended in September 2011, completing the [[digital television transition]] in New Caledonia.&lt;ref name=&quot;tnt&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://nouvellecaledonie.la1ere.fr/infos/actualites/loutre-mer-dit-adieu-a-lanalogique_64703.html |title=L'Outre-mer dit adieu à l'analogique – Audiovisuel – Info – Nouvelle-Calédonie – La 1ère |website=nouvellecaledonie.la1ere.fr|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930124824/http://nouvellecaledonie.la1ere.fr/infos/actualites/loutre-mer-dit-adieu-a-lanalogique_64703.html |archive-date=30 September 2011 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Bids for two new local television stations, NCTV and NC9, were considered by the French broadcasting authorities.&lt;ref name=&quot;rnzitv&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&amp;id=63685 |title=Two new New Caledonia television channels proposed |website=Rnzi.com |date=2011-10-12 |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=5 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305034204/http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&amp;id=63685 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; NCTV was launched in December 2013.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.lnc.nc/article/pays/nctv-c-est-parti |title=NCTV, c'est parti! |language=fr |work=[[Les Nouvelles Calédoniennes]] |date=9 December 2013 |access-date=19 April 2016 |archive-date=27 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427112334/http://www.lnc.nc/article/pays/nctv-c-est-parti |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The media are considered to be able to operate freely, but [[Reporters Without Borders]] raised concerns in 2006 about &quot;threats and intimidation&quot; of RFO staff by members of a pro-independence group.&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc-cp&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-16740838 |title=Regions and territories: New Caledonia |work=[[BBC News]] |date=2013-01-16 |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=13 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013082759/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_profiles/3921323.stm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== رانديون ==
[[File:Christian_Karembeu_-_2014.jpg|thumb|upright|نيو ڪيليڊونيا جو فٽبالر ڪرسچن ڪيريمبيو، جيڪو فرانس سان گڏ 1998ع جو فيفا ورلڊ ڪپ کٽيندڙ رانديگر رهيو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Swaminathan |first1=Swaroop |title=Karembeu, France &amp; New Caledonia – a complex relationship |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/sport/football/fifa-u-17-world-cup-2017/2017/oct/12/karembeu-france--new-caledonia--a-complex-relationship-1672627.html |access-date=4 November 2018 |work=The New Indian Express |date=12 October 2018 |archive-date=5 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105062122/http://www.newindianexpress.com/sport/football/fifa-u-17-world-cup-2017/2017/oct/12/karembeu-france--new-caledonia--a-complex-relationship-1672627.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي فٽبال ٽيم &lt;small&gt;1950&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ راند شروع ڪئي ۽ &lt;small&gt;2004&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ ان کي فيفا (فٽبال ليگز جي عالمي تنظيم) ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو. فيفا ۾ شامل ٿيڻ کان اڳ، نيو ڪيليڊونيا کي اوشينيا فٽبال ڪنفيڊريشن (&lt;small&gt;OFC&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ مبصر جو درجو حاصل هو ۽ فيفا جي رڪنيت ملڻ سان گڏ ئي اها اوشينيا فٽبال ڪنفيڊريشن جي باضابطه ميمبر بڻجي وئي. هنن پنج ڀيرا &quot;ساوٿ پيسفڪ گيمز&quot; کٽيون آهن، جن ۾ تازو ترين ڪاميابي &lt;small&gt;2007&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ ملي؛&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/federation/news/newsid=92706.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070718153916/http://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/federation/news/newsid=92706.html|archive-date=2007-07-18 |title=New Caledonia joins the world football community |publisher=FIFA |date=24 May 2004 |access-date=6 August 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کان علاوه، هنن اوشينيا فٽبال ڪنفيڊريشن نيشنز ڪپ ۾ ٻه ڀيرا ٽيون نمبر حاصل ڪيو آهي. ڪرسچن ڪيريمبيو نيو ڪيليڊونيا جو هڪ مشهور اڳوڻو فٽبالر آهي. انڊر-&lt;small&gt;17&lt;/small&gt; ٽيم &lt;small&gt;2017&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ فيفا انڊر-&lt;small&gt;17&lt;/small&gt; ورلڊ ڪپ لاءِ ڪواليفائي ڪيو هو.

نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ باسڪيٽ بال کي ميڊيا ۽ راند جي شوقينن طرفان تمام گهڻي اهميت ۽ توجه ڏني ويندي آهي. ڪيليڊونيا جي قومي ٽيم اوشينيا واري خطي ۾ ڪيترائي ميڊل کٽيا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.visitnewcaledonia.com/new-caledonia-national-basketball-team-an-unknown-champion-bet365/ |title=New Caledonia National Basketball Team – An Unknown Champion |website=VisitNewCaledonia.com |date=13 November 2019 |access-date=30 September 2021 |archive-date=30 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930084118/https://www.visitnewcaledonia.com/new-caledonia-national-basketball-team-an-unknown-champion-bet365/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; ڪيليڊونيا جون نمايان باسڪيٽ بال ڪلب ٽيمون &quot;اي ايس 6 اي ڪلوميٽر&quot; (&lt;small&gt;AS 6e Km&lt;/small&gt;) ۽ &quot;اي ايس ڊمبيا&quot; (&lt;small&gt;AS&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Dumbea&lt;/small&gt;) آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Beniela Adjouhgniope,le colosse de l'AS 6e Km |url=https://www.lnc.nc/article/sports/beniela-adjouhgniope-le-colosse-de-l-as-6e-km |accessdate=1 October 2021 |work=[[Les Nouvelles Calédoniennes]] |language=French |archive-date=1 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211001071450/https://www.lnc.nc/article/sports/beniela-adjouhgniope-le-colosse-de-l-as-6e-km |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ منعقد ٿيندڙ سڀ کان وڏو راندين جو مقابلو &quot;ايف آءِ اي ايشيا پيسفڪ ريلي چيمپيئن شپ&quot; (&lt;small&gt;APRC&lt;/small&gt;) جو هڪ مرحلو آهي.  &quot;ٽوئر سائيڪلسٽ ڊي نيوويل-ڪيليڊونيا&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Tour&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Cycliste&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;de&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Nouvelle-Calédonie&lt;/small&gt;) سائيڪلنگ جي هڪ گهڻ-ڏينهن واري اسٽيج ريس آهي، جيڪا عام طور تي آڪٽوبر ۾ منعقد ٿيندي آهي. هيءَ ريس &quot;ڪميٽي سائيڪلسٽ نيو ڪيليڊونيا&quot; (Comite Cycliste New Caledonia) پاران منعقد ڪئي ويندي آهي. هن ريس ۾ آسٽريليا، نيوزي لينڊ، فرانس، ري يونين (فرانس جو اوورسيز علائقو)، يورپ ۽ تاهيتي (فرانسيسي پولينيشيا) جا سائيڪل سوار حصو وٺندا آهن. آسٽريليا جي برينڊن واشنگٽن 2005ع ۽ 2009ع جي وچ ۾ هن ريس ۾ ٽي ڀيرا آخري نمبر حاصل ڪيو، ۽ کيس نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ &quot;دي لانٽرن روج“ (The Lanterne Rouge) جي نالي هنن فائنل ۾ آسٽريليا کي شڪست ڏني.

&quot;انٽرنيشنل ڊي نيو-ڪيليڊونيا&quot; (Internationaux de Nouvelle-Calédonie) هڪ ٽينس ٽورنامينٽ آهي جيڪا جنوري جي پهرين هفتي ۾ منعقد ٿيندي آهي. 2004ع کان وٺي، هي ٽورنامينٽ ”اي ٽي پي چيلينجر ٽوئر“ (ATP Challenger Tour) جو حصو رهي آهي، ۽ رانديگر عام طور تي ان ۾ ”آسٽريلين اوپن“ (جيڪو سال جو پهريون گرانڊ سليم هوندو آهي) جي تياريءَ طور حصو وٺندا آهن.

رگبي ليگ ٽيم &lt;small&gt;2004&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ پيسفڪ ڪپ ۾ حصو ورتو. &lt;small&gt;2020&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾، نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ رگبي ليگ ٽيم (&lt;small&gt;Pacifique Trieze&lt;/small&gt;) ٺاهڻ جو منصوبا تيار ڪيا ويو ته جيئن اها مستقبل ۾ آسٽريليا جي ڪوئنزلينڊ ڪپ (&lt;small&gt;Queensland Cup&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ شامل ٿي سگهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Darbyshire |first=Drew |date=2020-05-08 |title=Pacifique Treize: The French-speaking Pacific team who want to join Queensland Cup |url=https://www.loverugbyleague.com/post/pacifique-treize-the-french-speaking-pacific-team-who-want-to-join-queensland-cup/ |access-date=2022-06-30 |website=LoveRugbyLeague |language=en-GB |archive-date=30 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630210006/https://www.loverugbyleague.com/post/pacifique-treize-the-french-speaking-pacific-team-who-want-to-join-queensland-cup/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ گهوڙن جي ڊوڙ (Horse Racing) پڻ تمام گهڻي مقبول آهي ۽ ساڳئي طرح عورتن جا ڪرڪيٽ ميچ پڻ شوق سان ڏٺا وڃن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/new-caledonia/noumea/activities/cricket/women-s-cricket |title=Women's Cricket |publisher=Lonely Planet |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=16 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516172954/http://www.lonelyplanet.com/new-caledonia/noumea/activities/cricket/women-s-cricket |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

نيو ڪيليڊونيا وٽ هڪ قومي ”سنڪرونائزڊ سوئمنگ“ (هم آهنگ ترڻ) ٽيم پڻ موجود آهي، جيڪا پرڏيهي دورا ڪندي آهي.

نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي عورتن جي قومي والي بال ٽيم ڪيترائي ڀيرا گولڊ ميڊل کٽيو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |author1=Shreya Kumar |title=Let's Go Local: The Sand Dunes And Café Planet For Drau |url=https://fijisun.com.fj/2021/03/20/lets-go-local-the-sand-dunes-and-cafe-planet-for-drau/ |accessdate=27 September 2021 |work=[[Fiji Sun]] |date=20 March 2021 |archive-date=27 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927060217/https://fijisun.com.fj/2021/03/20/lets-go-local-the-sand-dunes-and-cafe-planet-for-drau/ |url-status=live |archivedate=27 September 2021 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927060217/https://fijisun.com.fj/2021/03/20/lets-go-local-the-sand-dunes-and-cafe-planet-for-drau/ }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== کاڌا ==
گهريلو باغباني جي گهٽ سطح جي ڪري، تازو ٽراپيڪل ميوو نيو ڪيليڊونين کاڌي ۾ ٻين پئسفڪ قومن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ اهميت رکي ٿو، ان جي بدران چانورن، مڇي ۽ جڙ ڀاڄين جهڙوڪ تارو تي ڀروسو ڪيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://newcaledoniatoday.wordpress.com/2013/01/30/what-do-people-eat-in-new-caledonia/|website=Newcaledoniatoday.wordpress.com|title=What Do People Eat in New Caledonia?|access-date=16 February 2014|date=2013-01-30|archive-date=14 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140214183037/http://newcaledoniatoday.wordpress.com/2013/01/30/what-do-people-eat-in-new-caledonia/|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; هڪ طريقو جيڪو اڪثر تيار ڪيو ويندو آهي اهو دفن ٿيل تندور جي طرز جي دعوت ۾ آهي، جنهن کي بوگنا سڏيو ويندو آهي. ڪيلي جي پنن ۾ ويڙهيل، مڇي، تارو، ڪيلا ۽ ٻيا سامونڊي کاڌ خوراڪ کي گرم پٿرن سان دفن ڪيو ويندو آهي، پوءِ کوٽيو ويندو آهي ۽ کائي ويندو آهي.

== ٽرانسپورٽ ==
لا ٽونٽائوٽا انٽرنيشنل ايئرپورٽ [[نوميا]] کان 50 ڪلوميٽر (31 ميل) اتر اولهه ۾ آهي ۽ نيو ڪيليڊونيا کي [[پيرس]]، [[ٽوڪيو]]، [[سڊني]]، [[آڪلينڊ]]، [[برسبين]]، [[ميلبورن]]، [[اوساڪا]]، [[پورٽ ولا]] پاپيٽي ۽ والس جي هوائي اڏن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;tppdf&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.isee.nc/anglais/teca/productivesystem/telechargements/25-06-transport.pdf |title=Transport |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113170544/http://www.isee.nc/anglais/teca/productivesystem/telechargements/25-06-transport.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2011 |place=Nouméa}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;aport&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.tontouta-aeroport.nc/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=blogcategory&amp;id=17&amp;Itemid=107 |title=Présentation |publisher=Aéroport international de Nouméa la Tontouta |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118184638/http://www.tontouta-aeroport.nc/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=blogcategory&amp;id=17&amp;Itemid=107 |archive-date=18 January 2012 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;  گهڻيون اندروني هوائي خدمتون بين الاقوامي ڪمپني، &quot;ايئرڪلين&quot; پاران هلائيون وينديون آهن. ڪروز جهاز نوميا ۾ &quot;گيري ميري ٽائيم&quot; تي ڊاک ڪندا آهن. مسافر ۽ سامان کڻڻ واري ٻيڙي، &quot;هاوانا&quot; مهيني ۾ هڪ ڀيرو وانواتو ۾ پورٽ ويلا، ماليڪولو ۽ سينٽو ڏانهن ويندي آهي. نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي روڊ نيٽ ورڪ ۾ شامل آهن:&lt;ref name=&quot;lptra&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/new-caledonia/transport/getting-there-away |title=Transport in New Caledonia |publisher=Lonely Planet |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=25 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110825112035/http://www.lonelyplanet.com/new-caledonia/transport/getting-there-away |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; 
* روٽ ٽيريٽريل-1 (RT1): نوميا کان نڪرندڙ رستي کان نيهوئي ندي تائين، ڪوماڪ جي اتر ۾ وڃي ٿو.
* روٽ ٽيريٽريل-2، ليفو ٻيٽ تي ۽ ليفو ايئرپورٽ کان وي جي ڏکڻ ۾.
* روٽ ٽيريٽريل-3، نندي ۾ RT1 سان سنگم کان وٺي ٽيواڪا ندي تائين.
* روٽ ٽيريٽريل-4، مويو جي ويجهو RT1 سان سنگم کان پاور پلانٽ تائين.&lt;ref name=&quot;rtne&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.dittt.gouv.nc/portal/page/portal/dittt/infrastructures_routieres|title=Site de la DITTT – Infrastructures routières|website=Dittt.gouv.nc|access-date=17 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908082903/http://www.dittt.gouv.nc/portal/page/portal/dittt/infrastructures_routieres|archive-date=8 September 2015|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
==پڻ ڏسو==
{{Portal|جاگرافي|ٻيٽ|اوشينيا}}
* [[زيلينڊيا]]
* [[ٻيٽن جي فهرست]] 
* [[پئسفڪ ڪميونٽي]]
* [[نيو ڪيليڊونيا آزادي لاءِ ريفرينڊم، 2018ع]]

==نوٽ==
{{Reflist|group=nb}}
{{notelist}}

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}

==ذريعا==
* {{cite web |url=http://unsr.jamesanaya.org/docs/countries/2011-newcaledonia-a-hrc-18-35-add6_en.pdf |author-link=James Anaya |first=James |last=Anaya |date=23 November 2011 |title=Report of the Special Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples on the situation of Kanak people in New Caledonia, France |id=A/HRC/18/35/Add.6 |publisher=[[United Nations General Assembly]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109131805/http://unsr.jamesanaya.org/docs/countries/2011-newcaledonia-a-hrc-18-35-add6_en.pdf |archive-date=9 November 2017 |via=JamesAnaya.org |url-status=dead}}

==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Sister project links|New Caledonia|voy=New Caledonia}}
* {{cite web |title=Texte intégral de la Constitution du 4 octobre 1958 en vigueur {{!}} Conseil constitutionnel |url=https://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/le-bloc-de-constitutionnalite/texte-integral-de-la-constitution-du-4-octobre-1958-en-vigueur#article_76 |website=conseil-constitutionnel.fr |language=fr}}
* [https://gouv.nc Government of New Caledonia] {{in lang|fr}}.
* [http://www.visitnewcaledonia.com/ Tourism New Caledonia]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913032738/http://www.visitnewcaledonia.com/ |date=13 September 2016 }}.
* [https://endemia.nc Fauna and Flora of New Caledonia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250814084136/https://endemia.nc/ |date=2025-08-14 }}
* {{cite book |editor-first1=Matthias |editor-first2=Simon P. J. |editor-last1=Kowasch |editor-last2=Batterbury |title=Geographies of New Caledonia-Kanaky |date=2024 |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-49140-5 |isbn=978-3-031-49139-9 }}

{{Navboxes
 |title = Articles relating to New Caledonia's locale
 |list =
{{Melanesia}}
{{Countries and territories of Oceania}}
}}
{{United Nations list of non-self-governing territories}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Coord|-21.25|165.30|display=title|dim:200km}}

==Economy==
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable floatright&quot;  style=&quot;margin:20px 0px 20px 20px&quot;
|-
! Region
! style=&quot;width:6em;&quot; | Total GDP, nominal, 2019 &lt;br /&gt;(billion US$)
! style=&quot;width:6em;&quot; | GDP per capita, nominal, 2019 &lt;br /&gt;(US$)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Australia}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 1,388.09
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 54,391
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|New Zealand}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 210.76
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 42,274
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Hawaii}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 93.24
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; |  63,997
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Papua New Guinea}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 24.75
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 2,315
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|New Caledonia}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 9.48
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 34,939 
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Guam}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 6.36
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 37,794
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|French Polynesia}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 6.02
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 21,673
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Fiji}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 5.44
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 6,079
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Solomon Islands}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 1.62
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 2,278
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Northern Mariana Islands}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 1.18
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 24,670
|-
| style=&quot;t.ext-align:left;&quot;  | {{flagcountry|Vanuatu}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.93
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 3,187
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Samoa}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.91
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 4,472
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|American Samoa}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.65
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 13,352
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Tonga}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.45
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 4,435
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Micronesia}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.39
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 4,001
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Cook Islands}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.39
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 22,752 
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Palau}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.28
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 15,992
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Marshall Islands}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.23
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 5,275
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Kiribati}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.22
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 1,847
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Wallis and Futuna}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.21
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 18,360
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Nauru}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.13
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 10,567
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Tuvalu}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.05 
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 5,277
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; colspan=3   | Sources:&lt;ref name=&quot;GDP&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;IMF&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=512,914,612,171,614,311,213,911,314,193,122,912,313,419,513,316,913,124,339,638,514,218,963,616,223,516,918,748,618,624,522,622,156,626,628,228,924,233,632,636,634,238,662,960,423,935,128,611,321,243,248,469,253,642,643,939,734,644,819,172,132,646,648,915,134,652,174,328,258,656,654,336,263,268,532,944,176,534,536,429,433,178,436,136,343,158,439,916,664,826,542,967,443,917,544,941,446,666,668,672,946,137,546,674,676,548,556,678,181,867,682,684,273,868,921,948,943,686,688,518,728,836,558,138,196,278,692,694,962,142,449,564,565,283,853,288,293,566,964,182,359,453,968,922,714,862,135,716,456,722,942,718,724,576,936,961,813,726,199,733,184,524,361,362,364,732,366,144,146,463,528,923,738,578,537,742,866,369,744,186,925,869,746,926,466,112,111,298,927,846,299,582,487,474,754,698,&amp;s=NGDPD,NGDPDPC,&amp;sy=2019&amp;ey=2019&amp;ssm=0&amp;scsm=1&amp;scc=0&amp;ssd=1&amp;ssc=0&amp;sic=0&amp;sort=country&amp;ds=.&amp;br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database – October 2024 |publisher=IMF |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ispf.pf/themes/pib |title=Les comptes économiques rapides de la Polynésie française |publisher=Institut de la statistique de la Polynésie française (ISPF) |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=SASUMMARY State annual summary statistics: personal income, GDP, consumer spending, price indexes, and employment |url=https://apps.bea.gov/itable/?ReqID=70&amp;step=1#eyJhcHBpZCI6NzAsInN0ZXBzIjpbMSwyOSwyNSwzMSwyNiwyNywzMF0sImRhdGEiOltbIlRhYmxlSWQiLCI2MDAiXSxbIk1ham9yX0FyZWEiLCIwIl0sWyJTdGF0ZSIsWyIwIl1dLFsiQXJlYSIsWyIxNTAwMCJdXSxbIlN0YXRpc3RpYyIsWyI0Il1dLFsiVW5pdF9vZl9tZWFzdXJlIiwiTGV2ZWxzIl0sWyJZZWFyIixbIjIwMTkiXV0sWyJZZWFyQmVnaW4iLCItMSJdLFsiWWVhcl9FbmQiLCItMSJdXX0=  |publisher=[[Bureau of Economic Analysis]] (BEA) |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://apps.bea.gov/itable/?ReqID=70&amp;step=1#eyJhcHBpZCI6NzAsInN0ZXBzIjpbMSwyOSwyNSwzMSwyNiwyNywzMF0sImRhdGEiOltbIlRhYmxlSWQiLCI4MDAiXSxbIk1ham9yX0FyZWEiLCIxNiJdLFsiU3RhdGUiLFsiMCJdXSxbIkFyZWEiLFsiNjAwMDAiLCI2NjAwMCIsIjY5MDAwIl1dLFsiU3RhdGlzdGljIixbIjEiXV0sWyJVbml0X29mX21lYXN1cmUiLCJMZXZlbHMiXSxbIlllYXIiLFsiMjAxOSJdXSxbIlllYXJCZWdpbiIsIi0xIl0sWyJZZWFyX0VuZCIsIi0xIl1dfQ== |title=TASUMMARY1 Summary of GDP and components for U.S. territories, current dollars |publisher=[[Bureau of Economic Analysis]] (BEA) |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://stats.gov.ck/download/476/2024/6494/gross-domestic-product-march-quarter-2024.xlsx |title=Table 1: Gross domestic product at current prices by industry – quarterly value |publisher=Cook Islands Statistics Office |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cerom-outremer.fr/wallis-et-futuna/publications/etudes-cerom/evaluation-du-pib-de-wallis-et-futuna-en-2019.html |title=Évaluation du PIB de Wallis-et-Futuna en 2019  |author=INSEE, CEROM |date=11 September 2024 |access-date=2025-02-22 |language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|}

New Caledonia has one of the largest economies in the South Pacific, with a GDP of US$9.48 billion in 2019.&lt;ref name=&quot;GDP&quot;/&gt; The nominal GDP per capita was US$34,939 (at market exchange rates) in 2019.&lt;ref name=&quot;GDP&quot;/&gt; It is lower than the nominal GDP per capita of [[Hawaii]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], and [[Guam]], but higher than all other independent and non-sovereign countries and territories in [[Oceania]], although there is significant inequality in income distribution,&lt;ref name=&quot;nzmin&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mfat.govt.nz/Countries/Pacific/New-Caledonia.php |title=New Caledonia – Information Paper |publisher=NZ Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade |access-date=2013-01-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128203127/http://www.mfat.govt.nz/Countries/Pacific/New-Caledonia.php |archive-date=28 January 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and long-standing structural imbalances between the economically dominant South Province and the less developed North Province and Loyalty Islands.&lt;ref name=&quot;undcol&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2008/gacol3181.doc.htm |title=Concluding session, Special Committee on Decolonization approves two texts on New Caledonia, Tokelau; hears appeals to heed criticism of its work |publisher=United Nations |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=23 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023045300/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2008/gacol3181.doc.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The currency in use in New Caledonia is the [[CFP franc]], as of May 2020, pegged to the euro at a rate of 119.3 CFP to 1.00 euros.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.xe.com/currencyconverter/convert/?Amount=1&amp;From=EUR&amp;To=XPF|title=XE: Convert EUR/XPF. Euro Member Countries to Comptoirs Français du Pacifique (CFP) Franc|website=xe.com|access-date=16 May 2020|archive-date=25 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125045100/https://www.xe.com/currencyconverter/convert/?Amount=1&amp;From=EUR&amp;To=XPF|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; It is issued by the Institut d'Émission d'Outre-Mer.&lt;ref name=&quot;viep&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?vie-pratique-nouvelle-caledonie.html |title=Vie pratique – L'Outre-Mer |website=Outre-mer.gouv.fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=30 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330070058/http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?vie-pratique-nouvelle-caledonie.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Real gross domestic product|Real GDP]] grew by an average of +3.3% per year in the first half of the 2010s, boosted by rising worldwide nickel prices and an increase in domestic demand due to rising employment, as well as strong business investments, but by only +0.2% per year in the second half of the 2010s, as the local nickel industry entered a period of crisis and the repeated independence referendums have generated economic uncertainty.&lt;ref name=&quot;GDP&quot;/&gt; In 2017, exports of goods and services from New Caledonia amounted to 1.93&amp;nbsp;billion US dollars, 77.5% of which were mineral products and alloys (mainly nickel ore and [[ferronickel]]) and 5.0% exports of hotel and restaurant services (i.e. international tourism in New Caledonia).&lt;ref name=&quot;trade&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/82-donnees?download=569:les-importations-et-exportations-de-biens-et-services |title=Importations et exportations de biens et services à prix courants |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Imports of goods and services amounted to 3.48&amp;nbsp;billion US dollars.&lt;ref name=&quot;trade&quot;/&gt; 40.9% of the imports of goods came from [[Metropolitan France]] and its [[overseas department]]s, 11.7% from Singapore (essentially fuel), 11.5% from Australia, 5.0% from other countries in the [[European Union]], 4.2% from China and Hong Kong, 4.1% from New Zealand, 3.7% from South Korea, 2.4% from Japan, 2.0% from the United States, 1.9% from Canada, and 12.6% from other countries.&lt;ref name=&quot;trade_partners&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/100-donnees?download=1606:les-principaux-partenaires-commerciaux |title=Principaux pays partenaires commerciaux de la Nouvelle-Calédonie |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The trade deficit in goods and services stood at 1.55 billion US dollars in 2017.&lt;ref name=&quot;trade&quot;/&gt;

Financial support from France is substantial, representing more than 15% of the GDP, and contributes to the health of the economy.&lt;ref name=&quot;cia&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/new-caledonia/ |title=New Caledonia |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |access-date=25 January 2021 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407121006/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/new-caledonia/ |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Tourism is underdeveloped, with 100,000 visitors a year, compared to 400,000 in the [[Cook Islands]] and 200,000 in [[Vanuatu]].&lt;ref name=&quot;monde1&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |url=http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2011/08/26/nouvelle-caledonie-ou-en-est-le-processus-d-independance_1564084_3216.html |title=Nouvelle-Calédonie: où en est le processus d'indépendance? |language=fr |newspaper=Le Monde.fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |date=2011-08-26 |last1=Bolis |first1=Angela |archive-date=19 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119211529/http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2011/08/26/nouvelle-caledonie-ou-en-est-le-processus-d-independance_1564084_3216.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Much of the land is unsuitable for agriculture, and food accounts for about 20% of imports.&lt;ref name=&quot;cia&quot;/&gt; According to [[FAOSTAT]], New Caledonia is a significant producer of: [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]] (33rd); [[taro]] (44th); [[Plantain (cooking)|plantains]] (50th); [[coconut]]s (52nd).&lt;ref name=&quot;FAOSTAT Production statistics 2008&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url= http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx |title= FAOSTAT 2008 by Production |website= Faostat.fao.org |access-date= 6 June 2008 |archive-date= 13 July 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110713020710/http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx |url-status= live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[exclusive economic zone]] of New Caledonia covers {{convert|1.4 |e6km2|e6sqmi |abbr=off}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;pres-om&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?presentation-nouvelle-caledonie.html |title=Présentation – L'Outre-Mer |website=Outre-mer.gouv.fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=9 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109131754/http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?presentation-nouvelle-caledonie.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The construction sector accounts for roughly 12% of GDP, employing 9.9% of the salaried population in 2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;nzmin&quot;/&gt; Manufacturing is largely confined to small-scale activities such as the transformation of foodstuffs, textiles and plastics.&lt;ref name=&quot;nzmin&quot;/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+GDP (nominal) per capita in 2019 (US$)
|-
| {{Color box|#e43114|$0 – $5,000|white|border=darkgray|}}  {{Color box|#f57e00|$5,000 – $10,000|white|border=darkgray}}  {{Color box|#eea800|$10,000 – $20,000|white|border=darkgray}}  {{Color box|#22aaff|$20,000 – $30,000|white|border=darkgray}} {{Color box|#2259ff|$30,000 – $45,000|white|border=darkgray}}  {{Color box|#5222ff|$45,000 – $60,000|white|border=darkgray}}  {{Color box|#a522ff|$60,000 – $90,000|white|border=darkgray}}
|}
{{Image label begin|image=Oceania political map.png|width=662}}
{{Image label|x=0.15|y=0.55|scale=662|text=[[Australia|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#5222ff;color:white&quot;&gt;54,391&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.45|y=0.67|scale=662|text=[[New Zealand|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#2259ff;color:white&quot;&gt;42,274&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.7|y=0.07|scale=662|text=[[Hawaii|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#a522ff;color:white&quot;&gt; 63,997&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.3|y=0.43|scale=662|text=&lt;span style=&quot;background:#2259ff;color:white&quot;&gt;34,939&lt;/span&gt;}}
{{Image label|x=0.135|y=0.118|scale=662|text=[[Guam|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#2259ff;color:white&quot;&gt;37,794&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.18|y=0.31|scale=662|text=[[Papua New Guinea|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#e43114;color:white&quot;&gt;2,315&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.8|y=0.46|scale=662|text=[[French Polynesia|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#2af; color:white;&quot;&gt;21,673&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.36|y=0.39|scale=662|text=[[Vanuatu|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#e43114;color:white&quot;&gt;3,187&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.3|y=0.365|scale=662|text=[[Solomon Islands|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#e43114;color:white&quot;&gt;2,278&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.47|y=0.45|scale=662|text=[[Fiji|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#f57e00;color:white&quot;&gt;6,079&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.513|y=0.353|scale=662|text=[[Wallis and Futuna|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#eea800;color:white&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;18,360&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.566|y=0.388|scale=662|text=[[Samoa|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#e43114;color:white&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;4,472&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.611|y=0.395|scale=662|text=[[American Samoa|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#eea800;color:white&quot;&gt;13,352&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.67|y=0.43|scale=662|text=[[Cook Islands|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#22aaff;color:white&quot;&gt;22,752&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.55|y=0.44|scale=662|text=[[Tonga|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#e43114;color:white&quot;&gt;4,435&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.15|y=0.079|scale=662|text=[[Northern Mariana Islands|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#2af; color:white;&quot;&gt;24,670&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.02|y=0.165|scale=662|text=[[Palau|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#eea800;color:white&quot;&gt;15,992&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.22|y=0.18|scale=662|text=[[Federated States of Micronesia|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#e43114;color:white&quot;&gt;4,001&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.38|y=0.16|scale=662|text=[[Marshall Islands|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#f57e00;color:white&quot;&gt;5,275&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.434|y=0.262|scale=662|text=[[Kiribati|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#e43114;color:white&quot;&gt;1,847&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.348|y=0.262|scale=662|text=[[Nauru|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#eea800;color:white&quot;&gt;10,567&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.48|y=0.325|scale=662|text=[[Tuvalu|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#f57e00;color:white&quot;&gt;5,277&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label end}}

=== Nickel sector ===
{{main|Nickel mining in New Caledonia}}

{{see also|Geology of New Caledonia}}

[[File:Creek South New Caledonia.JPG|thumb|A creek in southern New Caledonia. Red colours reveal the richness of the ground in [[iron oxide]]s and nickel.]]

New Caledonian soils contain about 25% of the world's [[nickel]] resources.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.metalbulletin.com/Article/1446693/Nickel-gleams-again-in-New-Caledonia.html |title=Nickel gleams again in New Caledonia |work=Metal Bulletin |date=3 December 2001 |access-date=13 March 2009 |archive-date=9 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090909043855/http://www.metalbulletin.com/Article/1446693/Nickel-gleams-again-in-New-Caledonia.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Better source needed|reason=Citation is quite old, from 2001, also only for subscribers, world reserves vs resources should be distinguished)|date=July 2025}} The [[late-2000s recession]] has gravely affected the nickel industry, as the sector faced a significant drop in nickel prices (−31.0% year-on-year in 2009) for the second consecutive year.&lt;ref name=&quot;comptes&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.isee.nc/compteco/telechargement/4pagecerom2011.pdf |title=Les comptes économiques rapides de Nouvelle-Calédonie  |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113144920/http://www.isee.nc/compteco/telechargement/4pagecerom2011.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2011 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; The fall in prices has led a number of producers to reduce or stop altogether their activity, resulting in a reduction of the global supply of nickel by 6% compared to 2008.&lt;ref name=&quot;comptes&quot;/&gt;

This context, combined with bad weather, has forced the operators in the sector to revise downwards their production target.&lt;ref name=&quot;comptes&quot;/&gt; Thus, the activity of mineral extraction has declined by 8% in volume year on year.{{when|date=October 2017}}&lt;ref name=&quot;comptes&quot; /&gt; The share of the nickel sector as a percentage of GDP fell from 8% in 2008 to 5% in 2009.&lt;ref name=&quot;comptes&quot; /&gt; A trend reversal and a recovery in demand have been recorded early in the second half of 2009, allowing a 2.0% increase in the local metal production.&lt;ref name=&quot;comptes&quot;/&gt; A March 2020 report stated that &quot;New Caledonia is the world's fourth largest nickel producer, which has seen a 26% rally in prices in the past year&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc.com&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-56288781 |title=Tesla partners with nickel mine amid shortage fears |work=[[BBC News]] |date=5 March 2021 |access-date=9 March 2021 |archive-date=9 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309131304/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-56288781 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; According to industry sources however, the [[Goro mine]] has never met its potential capacity to produce &quot;60,000 tpy of nickel in the form of nickel oxide, due to design flaws and operational commissioning issues&quot; In 2019, it produced slightly over a third of its annual capacity&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;mining.com&quot;&gt;{{cite web| url = https://www.mining.com/tesla-gets-involved-in-new-caledonia-nickel-mine-to-secure-metal-supply/| title = Tesla gets involved in New Caledonia mine to secure nickel supply| date = 5 March 2021| access-date = 9 March 2021| archive-date = 8 March 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210308133905/https://www.mining.com/tesla-gets-involved-in-new-caledonia-nickel-mine-to-secure-metal-supply/| url-status = live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In March 2021, [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]] agreed to a partnership with the Goro Mine, a &quot;technical and industrial partnership to help with product and sustainability standards along with taking nickel for its battery production, according to the agreement&quot;, according to a [[BBC News]] report. The majority owner, Vale, said that the deal will be of long-term benefit in terms of jobs and the economy. Tesla is a heavy user of nickel for making the lithium-ion batteries and wanted to &quot;secure its long-term supply&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc.com&quot;/&gt;

Also in March 2021, a part of Vale's nickel business was sold &quot;to a consortium called Prony, which includes Swiss commodity trader [[Trafigura]]&quot;. Provincial authorities and businesses in New Caledonia would have a 51% stake in the Vale operation.&lt;ref name=&quot;mining.com&quot;/&gt;

[[زمرو:نيو ڪيليڊونيا| ]] 
[[زمرو:اوشينيا]]
[[زمرو:زيلينڊيا]] 
[[زمرو:ميلانيشيا ۾ منحصر علائقا]] 
[[زمرو:اوشينيا ۾ منحصر علائقا]]
[[زمرو:فرانس جا اوورسيز مجموعا]] 
[[زمرو:يورپي يونين جا خاص علائقا]]
[[زمرو:ترقي پذير ننڍا ٻيٽ رياستون]] 
[[زمرو:فرينچ سرڪاري ٻولي وارا ملڪ ۽ علائقا]] 
[[زمرو:اوشينيا ۾ آدم خوري]] 
[[زمرو:1853ع ۾ قائم ٿيل رياستون ۽ علائقا]] 
[[زمرو:اوشيانا ۾ 1853 ادارا]]</text>
      <sha1>6b4gprx0lcavsrn7hyzzw8271egkdv2</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399237</id>
      <parentid>399230</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T15:22:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* فرانسيسي نوآباديات */</comment>
      <origin>399237</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="175709" sha1="awn3gq6kxpue5rnu1uwbrf7zhxj7ap0" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|French territory in the southwest Pacific Ocean}}
{{Infobox dependency
| name   = نيو ڪيليڊونيا&lt;br&gt; New Caledonia
| native_name                   = Nouvelle-Calédonie ([[فرانسيسي ٻولي|فرينچ]])
| settlement_type   = سمنڊ پار علائقن جو مجموعو&lt;br&gt; Sui generis collectivity
| image_flag    = Flag of New Caledonia.svg
| flag_size             = 200
| flag_type      = پرچم 
| flag_link = Flags of New Caledonia
| image_blank_emblem = Emblem of New Caledonia.svg
| blank_emblem_size     = 60
| blank_emblem_type  = رياستي نشان 
| blank_emblem_link  = Emblem of New Caledonia
| motto  = &quot;Terre de parole, terre de partage&quot;&lt;br/&gt;&quot;ڳالهه ٻول ۽ حصيداري جي سر زمين&quot;
| anthem  = &quot;لا مارسيلئ&quot;
&lt;br /&gt;{{Center|[[File:La_Marseillaise.ogg]]}}&quot;[[Soyons unis, devenons frères]]&quot;{{refn|1=&quot;Soyons unis, devenons frères&quot; is officially a national anthem but is generally used only on regal and viceregal occasions.|group=nb}}&lt;br /&gt;''اچو متحد ٿيو، اچو ڀاء بڻجي ونجهي&quot;
| image_map   = {{switcher|[[File:New Caledonia in France (zoomed).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:NewCaledonia2022OSM.png|frameless]]|Map of New Caledonia}}
| map_alt  = Location of New Caledonia
| map_caption   = نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي جاء 
| mapsize       = 290px
| subdivision_type   = [[ملڪ|خودمختيار رياست]]
| subdivision_name = {{Flag|France}}
| established_title = فرانس پاران شامل ڪيو ويو 
| established_date = 24 سيپٽمبر، 1853ع
| established_title2 = سمنڊ پار علائقو قرار ڏنو ويو
| established_date2  = 1946ع
| established_title3 = نوميا معاهدو
| established_date3  = 5 مئي، 1998ع
| official_languages  = [[فرانسيسي ٻولي|فرانسيسي]]
| regional_languages            = {{hlist|دريهو|پائسي|نينگونئ|اجيئي|35 ٻيون مقامي ٻوليون}}
| languages_type = غير مقامي ٻوليون
| languages = [[English language|English]]{{efn|English is widely used in the tourism industry due to tourism from Australia and New Zealand.}}
| ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list|
* ڪاناڪ (41.2%)
* يورپيئن (24.1%)
* مخلوط نسل (11.3%)
* پولينيشيئن (10.3%)
* ٻيا (13.1%)}}
| ethnic_groups_year = 2019&lt;ref name=&quot;Population Structure of Communities&quot;/&gt;
| capital   = [[نوميا]]
| coordinates                   = {{coord|22|16|S|166|28|E}}
| largest_city   = [[راڄڌاني]]
| demonym   = {{hlist|نيو ڪيليڊونيئن|فرانسيسي}}
| government_type   = پارلياماني آئيني طور شامل انحصار
| leader_title1  = صدر
| leader_name1 = [[ايمانوئل مئڪرون]]
| leader_title2  = هاء ڪمشنر 
| leader_name2   = زاڪ بلانت 
| leader_title3   = حڪومتي صدر
| leader_name3   = السيدئ پونگا 
| leader_title4    = ڪانگريس جو صدر
| leader_name4   = ويلما فئلايو 
| legislature       = ڪانگريس 
| national_representation  = فرانسيسي پارليامان
| national_representation_type1 = سينيٽ 
| national_representation1  = 2 سينيٽر
| national_representation_type2 = {{nowrap|قومي اسيمبلي}}
| national_representation2   = 2 نشستون 
| area_km2    = 18,575&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/new-caledonia/|title=New Caledonia|date=6 December 2023|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|via=CIA.gov|access-date=25 January 2021|archive-date=7 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407121006/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/new-caledonia/|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| area_land_km2                 = 18,275
| area_rank                     = 
| percent_water                 = 1.6
| elevation_max_m               = 1,628
| elevation_max_point           = مونٽ پئني
| population_census             = 2,64,596&lt;ref name=census2025&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/population/recensement |title=Recensement 2025 |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2026-01-30 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_census_year        = اپريل، 2025ع
| population_census_rank        = 184هون
| population_estimate           = 
| population_estimate_rank      = 
| population_estimate_year      = 
| population_density_km2        = 14.5
| population_density_sq_mi      = 
| population_density_rank       = 200هون
| GDP_PPP                       = 
| GDP_PPP_rank                  = 
| GDP_PPP_year                  = 
| GDP_PPP_per_capita            = 
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank       = 
| GDP_nominal                   = US$9.48 billion&lt;ref name=&quot;GDP&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/82-donnees?download=566:pib |title=Evolution du PIB et du PIB par habitant |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| GDP_nominal_year              = 2019
| GDP_nominal_per_capita        = US$34,939&lt;ref name=&quot;GDP&quot;/&gt;
| currency                      = [[CFP franc]] (₣)
| currency_code                 = XPF
| timezone                      = 
| utc_offset                    = +11:00
| drives_on                     = right
| calling_code                  = [[+687]]
| iso_code                      = {{hlist|[[ISO 3166-2:NC|NC]]|[[ISO 3166-2:FR|FR-NC]]|[[ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|NCL]]}}
| cctld                         = [[.nc]]
}}
نيو ڪيليڊونيا (&lt;small&gt;New&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Caledonia&lt;/small&gt;) [[وانوآتو|وانواتو]] کان &lt;small&gt;220&lt;/small&gt; ڪلوميٽر (&lt;small&gt;140&lt;/small&gt; ميل) ڏکڻ اولهه ۽ [[آسٽريليا]] کان &lt;small&gt;1,210&lt;/small&gt; ڪلوميٽر &lt;small&gt;(750 ميل)&lt;/small&gt; اوڀر ۾، هڪ فرانسيسي علائقو آهي جيڪو ڏکڻ اولهه [[پيسفڪ سمنڊ|پئسفڪ سمنڊ]] ۾ [[ٻيٽن جو ميڙ|ٻيٽن جي هڪ ميڙ]] تي مشتمل آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;enc-pres2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Presentation|title=Présentation|language=fr|website=Nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr|access-date=2013-01-30|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030174803/http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Presentation|archive-date=30 October 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; مکيه سر زمين [[فرانس]] کان &lt;small&gt;16,100&lt;/small&gt; ڪلوميٽر (&lt;small&gt;10,000&lt;/small&gt; ميل) جي مفاصلي تي واقع، اها فرانسيسي جمهوريه ۾، سمنڊ پار فرانس جي هڪ منفرد قانوني حيثيت، &quot;سوئي جينرس مجموعي&quot; طور تي وجود رکي ٿو ۽ نيو ڪيليڊونيا رياست جي حيثيت لاءِ هڪ جاري منصوبي سان، فرانسيسي آئين جي هڪ وقف باب ۾ شامل آهي.

ٻيٽن جو ميڙ ([[ميلئنيزيا|ميلينيشيا]] جي ذيلي علائقي جو حصو) ۾ گرانڊي ٽيري جو مکيه ٻيٽ، لائلٽي ٻيٽ، چيسٽر فيلڊ ٻيٽ، بيلپ ٻيٽ، آئل آف پائنز ۽ ڪجھ ڏورانهن ٻيٽ شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;pres-om2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?presentation-nouvelle-caledonie.html|title=Présentation – L'Outre-Mer|website=Outre-mer.gouv.fr|access-date=2013-01-30|archive-date=9 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109131754/http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?presentation-nouvelle-caledonie.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; چيسٽر فيلڊ ٻيٽ [[ڪورل سمنڊ]] ۾ آهن. فرانسيسي ماڻهو، خاص طور تي مقامي ماڻهو، &quot;گرانڊي ٽيري لي ڪيلو&quot;  (Grande Terre {{lang|fr|le Caillou}}) سڏين ٿا، هڪ لقب جيڪو عام طور تي پوري نيو ڪيليڊونيا لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Stanley19892&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=David Stanley|title=South Pacific Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=unz2v_HT5q0C&amp;pg=PA549|year=1989|publisher=David Stanley|isbn=978-0-918373-29-8|page=549|access-date=18 October 2015|archive-date=13 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413093620/https://books.google.com/books?id=unz2v_HT5q0C&amp;pg=PA549|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; آزادي جي حامي ڪنڪ پارٽيون نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي حوالي سان نالو (لا) ڪنڪي (تلفظ) استعمال ڪن ٿيون، هڪ اصطلاح جيڪو 1980 جي ڏهاڪي ۾ مقامي ميلانيشين ڪنڪ ماڻهن جي نسلي نالي مان ٺاهيو ويو هو جيڪي نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي آبادي جو 41٪ ٺاهيندا آهن. نيو ڪيليڊونيا يورپي يونين سان هڪ اوورسيز ملڪ ۽ علائقي (OCT) جي طور تي لاڳاپيل آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=The European Union and New Caledonia {{!}} EEAS|url=https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/european-union-and-new-caledonia_en|access-date=2025-07-27|website=www.eeas.europa.eu|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

نيو ڪيليڊونيا جو زميني علائقو 18,575 چورس ڪلوميٽر (7,172 چورس ميل) آهي جيڪو ٽن صوبن ۾ ورهايل آهي. اتر ۽ ڏکڻ صوبا نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي مکيه زمين تي آهن. جڏهن ته لوئلٽي ٻيٽ صوبو مکيه زمين جي اوڀر ساحل کان پري چار آباد ٻيٽن جو هڪ سلسلو آهي (اتر کان ڏکڻ: اوويا، ليفو، ٽيگا، ۽ ماري). نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,64,596&lt;/small&gt; (اپريل &lt;small&gt;2025&lt;/small&gt;ع جي مردم شماري) مختلف اصلن جي آهي ۽ جاگرافي جي لحاظ کان مختلف آهي. اتر ۽ لوئلٽي ٻيٽ صوبن ۾ مقامي ڪنڪ ماڻهو غالب آهن، جڏهن ته ڏکڻ صوبي ۾ يورپي (ڪالڊوچ ۽ فرينچ)، ڪنڪ ۽ پولينيشين (گهڻو ڪري واليسين) نسل جي اهم آبادي ۽ انهي سان گڏ ڏکڻ اوڀر ايشيائي، پائيڊ-نائر ۽ اتر آفريقي ورثي جا ننڍا گروپن جي آبادي شامل آهي. نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ [[نوميا]] آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;enc-pres3&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Presentation|title=Présentation|language=fr|website=Nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr|access-date=2013-01-30|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030174803/http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Presentation|archive-date=30 October 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== تاريخ ==
نيو ڪيليڊونيا براعظم [[زيلينڊيا]] جو حصو هو، جيڪو سپر براعظم [[گونڊوانا]] کان الڳ ٿي ويو ۽ 79 ملين ۽ 83 ملين سال اڳ ٻڏي ويو. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/lost-continent-zealandia-mapped.html|title=Hidden boundaries of lost continent 'Zealandia' revealed in incredible detail|website=LiveScience|last=Pappas|first=Stephanie|date=25 March 2021|access-date=30 December 2022|archive-date=20 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220141754/https://www.livescience.com/lost-continent-zealandia-mapped.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ انساني موجودگي جا ابتدائي نشان ان دور جا آهن جڏهن، سال 1600-500 ق.م يا 1300-200 ق.م.، ۾ لپيتا ڪلچر پئسفڪ جي وڏي حصن ۾ اثر انداز ٿيو. &lt;ref name=&quot;pres-hist2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Histoire/Histoire|title=Histoire / La Nouvelle-Calédonie|language=fr|website=Nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr|date=2012-11-20|access-date=2013-01-30|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030183849/http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Histoire/Histoire|archive-date=30 October 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; لپيتا انتهائي ماهر جهاز ران ۽ زراعت پيشا هئا. پهرين آباديون ساحل جي چوڌاري مرڪوز هيون ۽ تقريبن 1100 ق.م ۽ 200 عيسوي جي وچ واري دور جون هيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;pres-hist3&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Histoire/Histoire|title=Histoire / La Nouvelle-Calédonie|language=fr|website=Nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr|date=2012-11-20|access-date=2013-01-30|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030183849/http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Histoire/Histoire|archive-date=30 October 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Two Kanak (Canaque) warriors posing with penis gourds and spears, New Caledonia.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|[[File:Two Kanak (Canaque) warriors posing with penis gourds and spears, New Caledonia.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|Two [[Kanak people|Kanak]] warriors posing with [[Koteka|penis gourd]]s and spears, around 1880]]]]برطانوي سياح جيمس ڪڪ انهن پهرين يورپين مان هڪ هو جن پنهنجي سامونڊي سفر دوران &lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt; سيپٽمبر &lt;small&gt;1774&lt;/small&gt; ع تي نيو ڪيليڊونيا کي ڏٺو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ieom.fr/IMG/pdf/ra2010_nouvelle-caledonie.pdf |title=Rapport annuel 2010 |publisher=IEOM Nouvelle-Calédonie |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=10 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310075134/https://www.ieom.fr/IMG/pdf/ra2010_nouvelle-caledonie.pdf |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ان جو نالو &quot;نيو ڪيليڊونيا&quot; رکيو ڇاڪاڻ ته ان ٻيٽ جو اتر-اوڀر وارو حصو کيس اسڪاٽلينڊ جي ياد ڏياري رهيو هو. ”گرانڊ ٽير“ (Grande Terre) جي اولهه واري ساحل تائين &quot;ڪومٽ ڊي لاپيروز&quot; &lt;small&gt;1788&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾، پنهنجي گم ٿيڻ کان ٿورو وقت اڳ پهتو هو؛ جڏهن ته &quot;لائلٽي ٻيٽن&quot; جو پهريون ڀيرو دورو 1793ع ۽ 1796ع جي وچ ۾ ڪيو ويو، جڏهن انگريز وهيل مڇي جي شڪاري &quot;وليم ريون“ مار (&lt;small&gt;Mare&lt;/small&gt;)، ليفائو (&lt;small&gt;Lifou&lt;/small&gt;)، ٽيگا (&lt;small&gt;Tiga&lt;/small&gt;) ۽ اوويئا (&lt;small&gt;Ouvea&lt;/small&gt;) جا نقشا تيار ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FUwDzM94jGUC&amp;pg=RA1-PA15|title=Historical Dictionary of the Discovery and Exploration of the Pacific Islands|last1=Quanchi|first1=Max|last2=Robson|first2=John|date=2005|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=9780810865280|access-date=30 December 2021|archive-date=31 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531052523/https://books.google.com/books?id=FUwDzM94jGUC&amp;pg=RA1-PA15|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; ريون نومبر 1793ع ۾ ان ٻيٽ سان روبرو ٿيو، جنهن جو نالو ان وقت &quot;برٽانيا&quot; هو ۽ اڄ اهو مار (&lt;small&gt;Maré&lt;/small&gt; - لائلٽي ٻيٽ) جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;maritimeheritage.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.maritimeheritage.org/ports/newCaledonia.html|title=New Caledonia and International Seaport History. The Maritime Heritage Project.|website=Maritimeheritage.org|access-date=2017-11-12|archive-date=13 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113112912/http://www.maritimeheritage.org/ports/newCaledonia.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; 1796ع کان 1840ع تائين، ان [[ٻيٽن جو ميڙ]] سان صرف ڪجهه ڇڙوڇڙ رابطن جو رڪارڊ ملي ٿو. تقريبن 50 آمريڪي وهيل شڪارين 1793ع ۽ 1887ع جي وچ ۾&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book| last= Langdon| first= Robert | year= 1983| title= Where the Whalers Went: An index of the Pacific Ports and Islands visited by American Whalers (and some other ships) in the 19th Century| place= Canberra| publisher= Pacific Manuscripts Bureau| page= 183 |isbn= 086784471X}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان علائقي (گرانڊ ٽير، لائلٽي ٻيٽ، والپول ۽ هنٽر) ۾ موجود هجڻ جا ثبوت ڇڏيا. &lt;small&gt;1840&lt;/small&gt;ع کان پوءِ ايندڙ جهازن سان رابطا وڌيڪ باقاعده ٿي ويا، جنهن جو سبب ”صندل جي ڪاٺ“ (&lt;small&gt;sandalwood&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ سندن دلچسپي هئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot; /&gt;

جيئن جيئن صندل جي ڪاٺ جي واپار ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، ان جي جاءِ هڪ نئين ڪاروباري سرگرمي ورتي، جنهن کي ”بليڪ برڊنگ“ (&lt;small&gt;blackbirding&lt;/small&gt;) چيو ويندو هو. هي اصطلاح ميلانيشين يا اولهه پئسفڪ ٻيٽن جي رهواسين (جن جو تعلق نيو ڪيليڊونيا، لائلٽي ٻيٽن، نيو هيبرائڊس، نيو گني ۽ سولومن ٻيٽن سان هو) کي مختلف قسمن جي چالاڪين ۽ دوکيبازين ذريعي غلامي، معاهدي تحت مزدوري يا زبردستي مزدوريءَ لاءِ فيجي ۽ ڪوئنزلينڊ جي گني جي فصلن ڏانهن کڻي وڃڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو هو. ”بليڪ برڊنگ“ جو عمل فرانسيسي ۽ آسٽريلين واپارين ٻنهي طرفان ڪيو ويندو هو، پر نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي حوالي سان، ويهين صديءَ جي شروعاتي ڏهاڪن ۾ هن واپار ۾ لائلٽي ٻيٽن مان ٻارن کي اغوا ڪري ”گرانڊ ٽير“ آڻڻ شامل هو، ته جيئن انهن کان زرعي فارمن ۾ زبردستي مزدوري ڪرائي سگهجي. نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ ”بليڪ برڊنگ“ جو بنيادي تجربو ”نيو هيبرائڊس“ (هاڻوڪو [[وانوآتو]]) کان ”گرانڊ ٽير“ تائين ٿيندڙ ان واپار تي ٻڌل هو، جنهن جو مقصد زرعي فارمن ۽ کاڻين ۾ مزدوري ڪرائڻ، گڏو جڏهن فرانسيسي غلامن جي واپار (جيڪو نيو هيبرائڊس ۽ نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي ميلانيشين نوآبادين جي وچ ۾ ٿيندو هو) جي ڳالهه اچي ٿي، ته ان سلسلي ۾ تمام گهٽ ضابطا لاڳو ڪيا ويا هئا. اهو عمل آسٽريليا ۾ ان دور جي ترقيات يا تبديلين کان مختلف هو، ڇاڪاڻ ته اتي ساحلي علائقن ۾ ”بليڪ برڊنگ“ (زبردستي يا ڌوڪي سان مزدورن کي کڻي وڃڻ) ۽ ”ڀرتي“ جي طريقن ذريعي ٿيندڙ زيادتين کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ سخت ضابطا جوڙيا ويا هئا. 

لنڊن مشنري سوسائٽي ۽ ماريسٽ برادرز جا پهريان مشنري &lt;small&gt;1840&lt;/small&gt;ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ اتي پهتا.&lt;ref name=&quot;abcau&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/ra/pacific/places/country/new_caledonia.htm |title=Charting the Pacific – Places |website=Abc.net.au |date=1998-10-13 |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=8 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171208231802/http://www.abc.net.au/ra/pacific/places/country/new_caledonia.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;small&gt;1849&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾، ”ڪٽر“ نالي آمريڪي جهاز جي عملي کي &quot;پوما&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Pouma&lt;/small&gt;) قبيلي پاران قتل ڪري کاڌو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;logan&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first1= Leanne |last1= Logan |first2= Geert |last2= Cole |title= New Caledonia |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA15 |year= 2001 |publisher= Lonely Planet |isbn= 978-1-86450-202-2 |page= 15 |via= Google Books |access-date= 18 October 2015 |archive-date= 12 April 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181115/https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA15 |url-status= live }}&lt;/ref&gt;     نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ انسانن جو گوشت کائڻ جو رواج (&lt;small&gt;cannibalism&lt;/small&gt;) عام هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Knauft1999&quot;&gt;{{cite book | first= Bruce M. | last= Knauft | title= From Primitive to Postcolonial in Melanesia and Anthropology | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=YM18gG16Z7YC&amp;pg=PA103 | year= 1999 | publisher= [[University of Michigan Press]] | isbn= 978-0-472-06687-2 | page= 103 | via= Google Books | access-date= 18 October 2015 | archive-date= 1 January 2016 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095349/https://books.google.com/books?id=YM18gG16Z7YC&amp;pg=PA103 | url-status= live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== فرانسيسي نوآباديات ===
24 سيپٽمبر &lt;small&gt;1853&lt;/small&gt;ع تي، شهنشاهه نيپولين ٽئين جي حڪم هيٺ، ايڊمرل فيبريئر ڊيسپوائنٽس نيو ڪيليڊونيا جو باضابطه قبضو حاصل ڪيو. ڪئپٽن لوئس-ميري-فرانسوا ٽارڊي ڊي مونٽراويل &lt;small&gt;25&lt;/small&gt; جون &lt;small&gt;1854&lt;/small&gt;ع تي &quot;پورٽ-ڊي-فرانس&quot; (نوميا) جو بنياد وڌو. &lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot; /&gt; ايندڙ سالن ۾، ڪجهه درجن آزاد آبادگار اولهه واري ساحل تي اچي آباد ٿيا. &lt;small&gt;1864&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ نيو ڪيليڊونيا هڪ ”قيدي ڪالوني“ (جتي سزا يافته قيدين کي موڪليو ويندو هو) بڻجي ويو؛ &lt;small&gt;1860&lt;/small&gt;ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي &lt;small&gt;1897ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾ قيدين جي منتقلي جي عمل جي خاتمي تائين، فرانس تقريباً &lt;small&gt;22,000&lt;/small&gt; ڏوهارين ۽ سياسي قيدين کي نيو ڪيليڊونيا موڪليو. &quot;بليٽن&quot; &lt;small&gt;1888&lt;/small&gt;ع جي سوسائٽي جنرل ڊي لس پريزنز&quot; جي رپورٽ مان ظاهر ٿئي ٿو ته 1 مئي &lt;small&gt;1888&lt;/small&gt;ع تائين ان ٻيٽ تي &lt;small&gt;10,428&lt;/small&gt; سزا يافته قيدي موجود هئا, جن ۾ &lt;small&gt;2,329&lt;/small&gt; آزاد ٿيل قيدي به شامل هئا؛ اها فرانس جي ٻاهرين ملڪن ۾ قائم جيلن يا اصلاحي مرڪزن ۾ رکيل قيدين جي سڀ کان وڏي تعداد تي مشتمل هئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;gb-1&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first1=Robert |last1=Aldrich |first2=John |last2=Connell |title=France's Overseas Frontier: Départements et territoires d'outre-mer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vRB3woPa7LAC&amp;pg=PA46 |year=2006 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-03036-6 |page=46 |via=Google Books |access-date=18 October 2015 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806165048/https://books.google.com/books?id=vRB3woPa7LAC&amp;pg=PA46 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; انهن قيدين ۾ ڪيترائي &quot;ڪميونارڊ, &lt;small&gt;1871&lt;/small&gt; ع جي ناڪام پيرس ڪميون واري واقعي, کانپوءِ گرفتار ٿيل ماڻهو&quot; شامل هئا، جن ۾ هينري ڊي روشفورٽ ۽ لوئس مائیکل به شامل هئا. &lt;small&gt;1873&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;1876&lt;/small&gt;ع جي وچ ۾، &lt;small&gt;4,200&lt;/small&gt; سياسي قيدين کي نيو ڪيليڊونيا ڏانهن جلاوطن يا منتقل ڪيو ويو. انهن مان صرف &lt;small&gt;40&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو اتي ڪالونيءَ ۾ آباد ٿيا، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو &lt;small&gt;1879&lt;/small&gt;ع ۽ &lt;small&gt;1880&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ عام معافي ملڻ کانپوءِ فرانس واپس هليا ويا.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot; /&gt;

[[File:King Jacques and his Queen.jpg|thumb|چيف ڪنگ جيڪس ۽ سندس راڻي، &quot;دي رومانس آف دي سائوٿ سيز&quot; مان؛ ليکڪ: ڪليمنٽ لنڊلي ريگ؛ ڇپائيندڙ: چاٽو اينڊ ونڊس، 1906ع ]]
&lt;small&gt;1864&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ ڊياھوٽ درياهه جي ڪناري تي [[نڪل|نڪل ڌاتوءَ]] جي دريافت ٿي. &lt;small&gt;1876&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ &quot;سوسائٽي لي نڪل&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Société Le Nickel&lt;/small&gt;) جي قيام سان گڏوگڏ، ڌاتوءَ جي کوٽائي جو ڪم زور شور سان شروع ٿيو. &lt;ref name=&quot;gb-1&quot; /&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;gb-2&quot; /&gt; کاڻين ۾ ڪم ڪرڻ لاءِ فرانسيسين ڀرپاسي وارن ٻيٽن ۽ نيو هيبرائڊس (&lt;small&gt;New Hebrides&lt;/small&gt;) مان مزدور گهرايا، ۽ بعد ۾ جاپان، ڊچ ايسٽ انڊيز ۽ فرينچ انڊو چائنا مان به مزدور آندا ويا. فرانسيسي حڪومت يورپي لڏپلاڻ (آبادڪاري) جي حوصلا افزائي ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش پڻ ڪئي، پر ان ۾ کين گهڻي ڪاميابي نه ملي.&lt;ref name=&quot;gb-1&quot; /&gt;

مقامي ڪانڪ ماڻهن کي فرانسيسي معيشت ۽ کاڻين جي ڪم کان الڳ رکيو ويو، ۽ آخرڪار کين مخصوص علائقن (&lt;small&gt;reservations&lt;/small&gt;) تائين محدود ڪيو ويو. ان صورتحال &lt;small&gt;1878&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ هڪ پرتشدد ردعمل کي جنم ڏنو، جڏهن &quot;لا فوا&quot; (&lt;small&gt;La Foa&lt;/small&gt;) جي اعليٰ سردار &quot;اٽائي&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Ataï&lt;/small&gt;) مرڪزي علائقن جي ڪيترن ئي قبيلن کي متحد ڪري گوريلا جنگ شروع ڪئي؛ ان جنگ ۾ &lt;small&gt;200&lt;/small&gt; فرانسيسي ۽ &lt;small&gt;1,000&lt;/small&gt; ڪانڪ ماڻهو مارجي ويا. &lt;small&gt;1917&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ ٻيو ڀيرو بغاوت ٿي، جنهن دوران مورس لينهارڊٽ جهڙا پروٽيسٽنٽ مشنري ان جنگ جي واقعن جا شاهد رهيا. لينهارڊٽ نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي ڪانڪ ماڻهن بابت ڪيترائي نسلياتي مطالعا ۽ تحريرون قلمبند ڪيون. &lt;small&gt;1917&lt;/small&gt;ع واري بغاوت جي اڳواڻي &quot;ٽيامو&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Tiamou&lt;/small&gt;) جي &quot;نوئل&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Noël&lt;/small&gt;) ڪئي؛ ان بغاوت جي نتيجي ۾ ڪيترائي ٻار يتيم ٿي پيا، جن مان هڪ کي پروٽيسٽنٽ مشنري الفونس روئل پنهنجي سرپرستي ۾ ورتو. اهو ٻار, وينسلاس ٿي (&lt;small&gt;Wenceslas Thi&lt;/small&gt;) اڳتي هلي جين-ميري ٽجيباؤ (&lt;small&gt;1936–1989&lt;/small&gt;) جو پيءُ بڻيو.&lt;ref&gt;Adrian Muckle&lt;/ref&gt;

يورپين پنهنجي گڏ نيون بيماريون، چيچڪ ۽ خسرہ، آنديون جن سبب ڪيترائي مقامي ماڻهو موت جو شڪار ٿيا.&lt;ref name=&quot;logan&quot; /&gt; ڪانڪ آبادي &lt;small&gt;1878&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ تقريباً &lt;small&gt;60,000&lt;/small&gt; هئي جيڪا گهٽجي &lt;small&gt;1921&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ &lt;small&gt;27,100&lt;/small&gt; ٿي وئي ۽ &lt;small&gt;1930&lt;/small&gt;ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين انهن جي انگ ۾ ٻيهر ڪو به اضافو نه ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;gb-2&quot; /&gt;

===World War II===
{{further|Pacific Islands home front during World War II#Employment}}
In June 1940, after the [[fall of France]], the [[General councils (France)|General Council]] of New Caledonia voted to reject the [[Vichy France|Vichy government]] and continue supporting the Allied military effort against Germany. However, the colonial governor [[Georges-Marc Pélicier]] promulgated the Vichy government's [[French Constitutional Law of 1940|Constitutional Law]], which sparked street demonstrations and an assassination attempt. By this time Caldoches had been in contact with [[Charles de Gaulle]] who encouraged them to form a [[Free France|Free French]] committee and appointed [[Henri Sautot]] as governor. The Vichy government dispatched a warship, ''[[French aviso Dumont d'Urville|Dumont d'Urville]]'', at Pélicier's request, but soon deemed him incompetent and appointed an acting governor. By this time the Australian government had agreed to intervene and dispatched [[HMAS Adelaide (1918)|HMAS ''Adelaide'']] to oversee the installation of Sautot as governor. A stand-off between ''Dumont d'Urville'' and ''Adelaide'' followed, with Pélicier and other pro-Vichy officials ultimately deported to French Indochina.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|url=https://www.isfar.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/49.I_DENISE-FISHER-Supporting-the-Free-French-in-New-Caledonia-First-Steps-in-Australian-Diplomacy.pdf|title=Supporting the Free French in New Caledonia: First Steps in Australian Diplomacy|first=Denise|last=Fisher|journal=Explorations: A Journal of French-Australian Connections|volume=49|issue=1|year=2010|pages=18–37|access-date=26 May 2024|archive-date=24 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324131228/https://www.isfar.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/49.I_DENISE-FISHER-Supporting-the-Free-French-in-New-Caledonia-First-Steps-in-Australian-Diplomacy.pdf|url-status=live}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324131228/https://www.isfar.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/49.I_DENISE-FISHER-Supporting-the-Free-French-in-New-Caledonia-First-Steps-in-Australian-Diplomacy.pdf |date=24 March 2024 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1941, some 300 men from the territory volunteered for service overseas. They were joined, in April, by 300 men from French Polynesia ('the Tahitians'), plus a handful from the French districts of the New Hebrides: together they formed the {{lang|fr|Bataillon du Pacifique}}. The Caledonians formed two of the companies, and the Polynesians the other two. In May 1941, they sailed to Australia and boarded the {{RMS|Queen Elizabeth}} for the onward voyage to Africa. They joined the other Free French (FF) battalions in [[Qastina]] in August, before moving to the Western Desert with the 1st FF Brigade ({{lang|fr|1&lt;sup&gt;re&lt;/sup&gt; BFL}}). There they were one of the four battalions who took part in the breakout after the [[Battle of Bir Hakeim]] in 1942. Their losses could not easily be replaced from the Pacific and they were therefore amalgamated with the Frenchmen of another battalion wearing the anchor of {{lang|fr|la Coloniale}}, the BIM, to form the {{lang|fr|Bataillon de l'infanterie de marine et du Pacifique}}. The combined battalion formed part of the {{lang|fr|Gaulliste 1&lt;sup&gt;re&lt;/sup&gt; Division Motorisée d'Infanterie}}/{{lang|fr|Division de Marche d'Infanterie}}, alongside three divisions from the French North African forces, in the French Expeditionary Corps during the Italian Campaign. They landed in Provence in 1944, when they were posted out and replaced by local French volunteers and résistants.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

Meanwhile, in March 1942, with the assistance of Australia,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Hasluck |first=Paul Meernaa Caedwalla |url=https://s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/awm-media/collection/RCDIG1070583/document/5519866.PDF |chapter=Chapter 6 – Clearing a Way to Total War, October 1940 – January 1941 |title=The Government and the People, 1939–1941 |volume=I |year=1952 |publisher=Australian War Memorial |place=Canberra |edition=1965 |access-date=6 August 2009 |archive-date=30 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530234827/https://s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/awm-media/collection/RCDIG1070583/document/5519866.PDF |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; New Caledonia became an important [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] base,&lt;ref name=&quot;gb-2&quot;/&gt; and the main South Pacific Fleet base of the [[United States Navy]] in the South Pacific moved to Nouméa in 1942–1943.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rottman2002&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first=Gordon L. |last=Rottman |title=World War 2 Pacific Island Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC&amp;pg=PA71 |year=2002 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-31395-0 |page=71 |quote=In October, the decision was made to relocate the main South Pacific Fleet base from Auckland to Nouméa (FPO SF 131). Unloading facilities were improved by February 1943 and construction immediately began on the naval operating base. |via=Google Books |access-date=18 October 2015 |archive-date=19 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319130955/http://books.google.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC&amp;pg=PA71 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The fleet that turned back the [[Imperial Japanese Navy|Japanese Navy]] in the [[Battle of the Coral Sea]] in May 1942 was based at Nouméa.&lt;ref name=&quot;gb-2&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first=David |last=Stanley |title=South Pacific Handbook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=unz2v_HT5q0C&amp;pg=PA549 |year=1989 |publisher=David Stanley |isbn=978-0-918373-29-8 |pages=549– |via=Google Books |access-date=18 October 2015 |archive-date=13 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413093620/https://books.google.com/books?id=unz2v_HT5q0C&amp;pg=PA549 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; American troops [[Pacific Islands home front during World War II#Employment|stationed on New Caledonia]] numbered as many as 50,000, matching the entire local population at the time.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot;/&gt;

=== French overseas territory ===
In 1946, New Caledonia became an overseas territory.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot;/&gt; By 1953, [[French citizenship]] had been granted to all New Caledonians, regardless of ethnicity.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncbrit&quot;/&gt;

During the late 1940s and early 1950s, New Caledonia strengthened its economic links with Australia, particularly as turmoil within France and its empire weakened New Caledonia's traditional economic links to metropolitan France; New Caledonia supplied nickel to Australia in exchange for coal vital for smelting nickel. New Caledonian exports of iron ore and timber to Australia also increased during this time period.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Henningham |first1=Stephen |date=December 2014 |title=Australia's Economic Ambitions in French New Caledonia, 1945–1955 |journal=The Journal of Pacific History |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=421–439 |doi=10.1080/00223344.2014.976915 |jstor=24644648 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The European and [[Polynesians|Polynesian]] populations gradually increased in the years leading to the nickel boom of 1969–1972, and the indigenous [[Kanak people|Kanak]] Melanesians became a minority, though they were still the largest ethnic group.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncbrit&quot;&gt;{{Britannica|411221|New Caledonia}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====The Events====
Between 1976 and 1988, a period referred to as &quot;the Events&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;lm-mdg-24&quot;&gt;{{cite news |last1=Mannevy |first1=Charlotte |last2=Derel |first2=Mathurin |last3=Guibert |first3=Nathalie |title=Second night of riots shakes New Caledonia: 'I didn't think it could come to this' |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/en/france/article/2024/05/15/second-night-of-riots-shakes-new-caledonia-i-didn-t-think-it-could-come-to-this_6671533_7.html |work=Le Monde |date=May 15, 2024 |access-date=16 May 2024 |archive-date=24 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240524043441/https://www.lemonde.fr/en/france/article/2024/05/15/second-night-of-riots-shakes-new-caledonia-i-didn-t-think-it-could-come-to-this_6671533_7.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;nyt-vb-caled-24&quot;&gt;{{cite news |last1=Vinograd |first1=Cassandra |last2=Breeden |first2=Aurelien |title=France Declares State of Emergency Amid Protests in New Caledonia |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/15/world/asia/new-caledonia-france-macron.html |work=The New York Times |date=May 15, 2024 |access-date=16 May 2024 |archive-date=24 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240524053018/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/15/world/asia/new-caledonia-france-macron.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; ({{langx|fr|Les Événements}}&lt;ref name=&quot;horowitz-may-2009-pol-geo&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Horowitz |first1=Leah S. |title=Environmental violence and crises of legitimacy in New Caledonia |journal=[[Political Geography]] |date=May 2009 |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=248–258 |doi=10.1016/j.polgeo.2009.07.001 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;fisher-anu-2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=Denise |title=France in the South Pacific: Power and Politics |date=2013 |doi=10.22459/FSP.05.2013 |doi-access=free |isbn=978-1-922144-95-9 }}{{pn|date=February 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;), conflicts between French government actions and the Kanak independence movement saw periods of serious violence and disorder.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot; /&gt; In 1983, a statute of &quot;enlarged autonomy&quot; for the territory proposed a five-year transition period and a referendum in 1989. In March 1984, the Front Indépendantiste, a Kanak resistance group, seized farms and the [[Kanak and Socialist National Liberation Front]] (FLNKS) formed a provisional government. In January 1985, the French Left-wing government offered sovereignty to the Kanaks and legal protection for European settlers. The plan faltered as violence escalated. The government declared a state of emergency; however, [[1985 New Caledonian legislative election|regional elections went ahead]], and the FLNKS won control of three out of four provinces. The centre-right government [[1986 French legislative election|elected in France in March 1986]] began eroding the arrangements established under the Socialists, redistributing lands mostly without consideration of native land claims, resulting in over two-thirds going to Europeans and less than a third to the Kanaks. By the end of 1987, roadblocks, gun battles and the destruction of property culminated in the [[Ouvéa cave hostage taking]], a dramatic hostage crisis just days before the [[1988 French presidential election]] began. Pro-independence militants on [[Ouvéa]] killed four gendarmes and took 27 hostage. The military assaulted the cave to rescue the hostages. Nineteen Kanak hostage takers were killed and another three died in custody, while two soldiers were killed during the assault.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news| url= https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/land-and-independence-new-caledonia| title= Land and Independence in New Caledonia| work= Cultural Survival Quarterly Magazine| last= Winslow| first= Donna| date= June 1991| via= culturalsurvival.org| access-date= 2021-02-11| language= en| archive-date= 13 November 2017| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171113112859/https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/land-and-independence-new-caledonia| url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== نوميا معاهدو ۽ آزاديءَ بابت ريفرنڊم ====

[[File:Two official flags of New Caledonia on same flagpole.png|thumb|left|هڪ ئي ٿنڀي تي گڏ لڳل ٻه جهنڊا (فرانس ۽ نيو ڪيليڊونيا)، نوميا، مارچ 2011.]]
ميٽيگنون معاهدا, جيڪا &lt;small&gt;26&lt;/small&gt; جون &lt;small&gt;1988&lt;/small&gt; تي ٿيا هئا, هڪ ڏهاڪي تائين استحڪام کي يقيني بڻايو. نوميا معاهدو, جيڪو &lt;small&gt;5&lt;/small&gt; مئي &lt;small&gt;1998&lt;/small&gt; تي ٿيو, &lt;small&gt;20&lt;/small&gt; سالن جي منتقلي واري عمل جو بنياد رکيو، جنهن تحت مقامي حڪومت کي تدريجي طور تي اختيار منتقل ڪيا ويا. 

نوميا معاهدي ۾ مقرر ڪيل وقت جي حد مطابق، جنهن ۾ &lt;small&gt;2018&lt;/small&gt; جي ​​​​آخر تائين ووٽ ڪرائڻ لازمي قرار ڏنو ويو هو، فرانس کان مڪمل آزاديءَ بابت ريفرنڊم ڪرائڻ جو بنياد رکيو ويو (هي فيصلو 2 نومبر &lt;small&gt;2017&lt;/small&gt; تي فرانسيسي وزيراعظم ايڊورڊ فلپ جي صدارت هيٺ ٿيل اجلاس ۾ ڪيو ويو) ته جيئن نومبر &lt;small&gt;2018&lt;/small&gt; تائين اهو عمل مڪمل ٿي سگهي. ووٽر لسٽ ۾ اهل هجڻ جو معاملو هڪ ڊگهي تڪرار جو سبب رهيو، پر ان جا تفصيل هڪ چونڊ لسٽ ذريعي حل ڪيا ويا؛ ان لسٽ ۾ ڪاناڪ (&lt;small&gt;Kanak&lt;/small&gt;) نسل جي ووٽرن کي خودڪار طريقي سان اهل قرار ڏنو ويو، پر ٻين نسلن سان تعلق رکندڙ انهن ماڻهن کي شامل نه ڪيو ويو جيڪي ان علائقي جا ڊگهي عرصي کان رهواسي نه هئا. ريفرنڊم &lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt; نومبر &lt;small&gt;2018&lt;/small&gt; تي منعقد ٿيو،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/19/new-caledonia-sets-date-independence-referendum-france|title=New Caledonia sets date for independence referendum|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=20 March 2018|access-date=25 March 2018|archive-date=13 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513011939/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/19/new-caledonia-sets-date-independence-referendum-france|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; جنهن ۾ آزاديءَ جي تجويز کي رد ڪيو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite magazine| url= http://time.com/5444523/new-caledonia-france-referendum/| title= New Caledonia Votes to Remain Part of France| magazine= [[Time (magazine)|Time.com]]| agency= Associated Press| date= 5 November 2018| place= Nouméa, New Caledonia| language= en| access-date= 2018-11-08| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181109010235/http://time.com/5444523/new-caledonia-france-referendum/| archive-date= 9 November 2018| url-status= dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آڪٽوبر &lt;small&gt;2020&lt;/small&gt; ۾ هڪ ٻيو ريفرنڊم منعقد ٿيو، جنهن ۾ ووٽرن هڪ ڀيرو ٻيهر فرانس جو حصو رهڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite news| url= https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2020-10-04/new-caledonia-voters-choose-to-stay-part-of-france| title= New Caledonia voters choose to stay part of France| work= Los Angeles Times| agency= Associated Press| first= Charlotte| last= Antoine-Perron| date= 4 October 2020| place= Nouméa, New Caledonia| language= en| access-date= 11 February 2021| archive-date= 8 October 2020| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201008024613/https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2020-10-04/new-caledonia-voters-choose-to-stay-part-of-france| url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;small&gt;2018&lt;/small&gt; واري ريفرنڊم ۾، &lt;small&gt;56.7&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو ووٽرن فرانس سان گڏ رهڻ جو انتخاب ڪيو هو. &lt;small&gt;2020&lt;/small&gt; واري ريفرنڊم ۾، اهو تناسب گهٽجي ويو ۽ &lt;small&gt;53.4&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو ووٽرن فرانس جو حصو رهڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2020-10-04 |title=New Caledonia referendum: South Pacific territory rejects independence from France |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-54410059 |access-date=2021-07-08 |archive-date=4 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004210340/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-54410059 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ٽيون ريفرنڊم &lt;small&gt;12&lt;/small&gt; ڊسمبر &lt;small&gt;2021&lt;/small&gt; تي منعقد ٿيو. آزاديءَ جي حامي ڌرين ان ريفرنڊم جو بائيڪاٽ ڪيو؛ &lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20210602-french-territory-of-new-caledonia-to-hold-third-independence-referendum |title=French territory of New Caledonia held its third and last independence referendum where 96.49 voted against independence |work=France24 |date=12 December 2021 |access-date=12 December 2021 |archive-date=13 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211213224234/https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20210602-french-territory-of-new-caledonia-to-hold-third-independence-referendum |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; انهن جو موقف هو ته [[ڪوروناوائرس روڳ 2019|ڪووڊ-&lt;small&gt;19&lt;/small&gt; جي وبا]] سبب پيدا ٿيل حالتن جي ڪري ووٽنگ ملتوي ڪئي وڃي. جڏهن فرانسيسي حڪومت ائين ڪرڻ کان انڪار ڪيو، ته انهن بائيڪاٽ جو سڏ ڏنو. نتيجي طور، &lt;small&gt;96&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو ووٽرن فرانس سان گڏ رهڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Antoine-Perron |first=Charlotte |title=New Caledonia votes to stay in France; separatists boycott |url=https://apnews.com/article/coronavirus-pandemic-health-boycotts-paris-storms-bcdf16be51e3bd94e0f332c405c2da8e |work=Associated Press |date=12 December 2021 |access-date=13 December 2021 |archive-date=1 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401010044/https://apnews.com/article/coronavirus-pandemic-health-boycotts-paris-storms-bcdf16be51e3bd94e0f332c405c2da8e |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

مئي &lt;small&gt;2024&lt;/small&gt; ۾، علائقي ۾ چونڊ سڌارن جي تجويز تي بحث دوران فساد ڀڙڪي پيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=New Caledonia: 'Shots fired' at police in French territory amid riots over voting reforms |url=https://www.france24.com/en/france/20240514-shots-fired-at-security-forces-in-new-caledonia-riots-over-constitutional-reform |access-date=May 14, 2024 |work=France 24 |archive-date=15 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515003829/https://www.france24.com/en/france/20240514-shots-fired-at-security-forces-in-new-caledonia-riots-over-constitutional-reform |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|date=2024-10-04 |title=New Caledonian independence leaders wary as France drops voting reform |url=https://www.rfi.fr/en/france/20241004-independence-leaders-wary-as-france-suspends-new-caledonia-voting-reform |access-date=2025-04-16 |work=[[Radio France Internationale]] |language=en|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20241231050937/https://www.rfi.fr/en/france/20241004-independence-leaders-wary-as-france-suspends-new-caledonia-voting-reform |archive-date=31 December 2024|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; آڪٽوبر &lt;small&gt;2024&lt;/small&gt; ۾، ان وقت جي فرانسيسي وزيراعظم مائيڪل بارنيئر اهو بل رد ڪري ڇڏيو. امن بحال ڪرڻ جي ضرورت ۽ &quot;وڌيڪ بدامني کان بچڻ&quot; کي اوليت ڏيڻ جو حوالو ڏنو ويو ۽ قومي اسيمبليءَ کي ان بابت آگاهه ڪيو ويو. فساد ختم ٿيڻ کانپوءِ، &lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt; ڊسمبر &lt;small&gt;2024&lt;/small&gt; تي سرڪاري طور تي ڪرفيو ختم ڪيو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |title=Curfew lifted in French overseas territory of New Caledonia over 6 months after violent riots |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/curfew-lifted-in-french-overseas-territory-of-new-caledonia-over-6-months-after-violent-riots/3411117 |access-date=2025-04-16 |work=[[Anadolu Agency]]|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20241202195528/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/curfew-lifted-in-french-overseas-territory-of-new-caledonia-over-6-months-after-violent-riots/3411117|archive-date=2 December 2024|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جولاءِ &lt;small&gt;2025&lt;/small&gt; ۾، فرانسيسي حڪومت ۽ نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي وچ ۾ &quot;هڪ نئين ڪيليڊونيا جي رياست&quot; (&lt;small&gt;État&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;de&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Nouvelle&lt;/small&gt;-&lt;small&gt;Calédonie&lt;/small&gt;) جي قيام لاءِ معاهدو طئي ٿيو،&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=http://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2017/11/03/referendum-d-autodetermination-en-nouvelle-caledonie-un-accord-politique-trouve_5209433_823448.html|title=Nouvelle-Calédonie : ce que contient l'&quot; accord politique &quot; sur le référendum d'autodétermination|newspaper=LeMonde.fr|date=3 November 2017|last1=Roger|first1=Patrick|language=fr|trans-title=New Caledonia: what is contained in the 'political agreement' on the self-determination referendum|access-date=17 July 2018|archive-date=22 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622081810/https://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2017/11/03/referendum-d-autodetermination-en-nouvelle-caledonie-un-accord-politique-trouve_5209433_823448.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; جنهن جي حيثيت کي فرانسيسي جمهوريه جي آئين ۾ شامل ڪيو ويندو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-07-12 |title=New Caledonia's political leaders sign historic agreement to shape territory's future |url=https://www.rfi.fr/en/france/20250712-new-caledonia-s-political-leaders-sign-historic-agreement-to-shape-territory-s-future |access-date=2025-07-12 |website=RFI |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي رهواسين, جيڪي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ ڏهن سالن کان اتي رهي رهيا آهن, کي ووٽ ڏيڻ جو حق ڏنو ويندو، جنهن جي شروعات &lt;small&gt;2031&lt;/small&gt; جي صوبائي چونڊن سان ٿيندي. هن معاهدي جي توثيق فرانسيسي پارليامينٽ پاران &lt;small&gt;2025&lt;/small&gt; جي آخري ٽه ماهي ۾ ڪئي ويندي، ۽ ان کانپوءِ &lt;small&gt;2026&lt;/small&gt; ۾ نيو ڪيليڊونيا جا رهواسي هڪ ريفرنڊم ذريعي ان معاهدي تي ووٽ ڏيندا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-07-12 |title=France, New Caledonia reach 'historic' statehood deal; citizens to remain French |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/world/europe/article/3317992/france-new-caledonia-reach-historic-statehood-deal-citizens-remain-french |access-date=2025-07-12 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== سياست ==
{{main|Politics of New Caledonia}}
نيو ڪيليڊونيا هڪ منفرد حيثيت رکندڙ علائقو (&lt;small&gt;sui generis&lt;/small&gt;) آهي جنهن کي فرانس آهستي آهستي ڪجهه اختيار منتقل ڪيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;jc&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?presentation-nouvelle-caledonie.html&amp;artpage=3-3 |title=Présentation – L'Outre-Mer |website=Outre-mer.gouv.fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=21 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521094530/http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?presentation-nouvelle-caledonie.html&amp;artpage=3-3 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; ان ڪري، اتان جي شهرين وٽ فرانسيسي شهريت آهي ۽ اهي فرانس جي صدر لاءِ ووٽ ڏين ٿا. انهن کي يورپي پارليامينٽ جي چونڊن ۾ ووٽ ڏيڻ جو حق حاصل آهي. ان جو انتظام 54 رڪني ”ٽيريٽوريل ڪانگريس“ (علائقائي ڪانگريس) ذريعي هلايو وڃي ٿو، جيڪو هڪ قانون ساز ادارو آهي ۽ ٽن صوبائي اسيمبلين جي ميمبرن تي مشتمل آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;undcol&quot; /&gt; هن علائقي ۾ فرانسيسي رياست جي نمائندگي هڪ &quot;هاءِ ڪمشنر&quot; ڪري ٿو. قومي سطح تي، ڪيليڊونيا جي نمائندگي فرانسيسي پارليامينٽ ۾ ٻه نمائندا ۽ ٻه سينيٽر ڪن ٿا. &lt;small&gt;2012&lt;/small&gt;ع جي فرانسيسي صدارتي چونڊن ۾، ڪيليڊونيا ۾ ووٽرن جي شرڪت جو تناسب &lt;small&gt;61.19&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web| url=http://www.interieur.gouv.fr/sections/a_votre_service/resultats-elections/PR2012/000/988/index.html| title=Resultats de l'election presidentielle – Nouvelle Caledonie| publisher=[[Cabinet of France|Government of France]]| website=[[Minister of the Interior (France)|Minister of the Interior]]| language=fr| access-date=2012-08-06| archive-date=26 June 2012| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626023248/http://www.interieur.gouv.fr/sections/a_votre_service/resultats-elections/PR2012/000/988/index.html| url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;small&gt;25&lt;/small&gt; سالن تائين، نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي پارٽي نظام تي آزادي جي مخالف پارٽي ”دي ريلي-يو ايم پي“ (&lt;small&gt;The Rally–UMP&lt;/small&gt;) جو غلبو رهيو. هي غلبو هڪ نئين پارٽي &quot;ايونير اينسامبل&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Avenir Ensemble&lt;/small&gt;) جي اڀار سان ختم ٿيو؛ اها پارٽي پڻ آزادي جي مخالف هئي پر &quot;ڪاناڪ تحريڪ&quot; سان ڳالهين لاءِ وڌيڪ کليل ذهن رکندڙ سمجهي ويندي هئي. ڪاناڪ تحريڪ، &quot;ڪاناڪ اينڊ سوشلسٽ نيشنل لبريشن فرنٽ&quot; (&lt;small&gt;FLNKS&lt;/small&gt;) جو حصو آهي، جيڪو آزادي جي حمايت ڪندڙ ڪيترن ئي گروهن جو اتحاد آهي. جنوري &lt;small&gt;2025&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾، السائيڊ پونگا (&lt;small&gt;Alcide Ponga&lt;/small&gt;) نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي حڪومت جي صدر طور حلف کنيو؛&lt;ref name=&quot;undcol&quot; /&gt; هن لوئس ماپو (&lt;small&gt;Louis Mapou&lt;/small&gt;) جي اڳواڻي واري آزادي جي حامي حڪومت جي خاتمي کانپوءِ نئين حڪومت جوڙي. سندس قيادت کي &lt;small&gt;2024&lt;/small&gt;ع جي بدامنيءَ کانپوءِ استحڪام آڻڻ ۽ ملڪ جي فرانسيسي جمهوريه ۾ شامل رهڻ واري عمل کي جاري رکڻ جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;:02&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |last=Mazzoni |first=Julien |date=2025-01-09 |title=New Caledonia Congress elects pro-France president after political crisis |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/jan/09/new-caledonia-congress-elects-alcide-ponga-president |access-date=2025-04-05 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}&lt;/ref&gt; آڪٽوبر &lt;small&gt;2025&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ اها خبر سامهون آئي ته فرانسيسي پارليامينٽ جا ميمبر ان بل تي اختلاف ڪري رهيا هئا جنهن تحت &quot;بوگيوال معاهدي&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Bougival Agreement&lt;/small&gt;) جي تحت نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي صوبائي چونڊن کي جون &lt;small&gt;2026&lt;/small&gt;ع تائين ملتوي ڪرڻو هو. ڪاناڪ فرنٽ (&lt;small&gt;FLNKS&lt;/small&gt;) ۽ کاٻي ڌر جي ميمبرن ان تي اعتراض ڪيو، تقريبن &lt;small&gt;1,600&lt;/small&gt; ترميمون داخل ڪيون ۽ معاملي کي گڏيل ڪميٽي ڏانهن موڪلڻ تي مجبور ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=editor |first=A. P. R. |date=2025-10-24 |title=French MPs clash over New Caledonia policy, debates further postponed {{!}} Asia Pacific Report |url=https://asiapacificreport.nz/2025/10/24/french-mps-clash-over-new-caledonia-policy-debates-further-postponed/ |access-date=2025-10-26 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-10-24 |title=Manoeuvring in Paris delays decision on New Caledonia elections {{!}} PINA |url=https://pina.com.fj/2025/10/24/manoeuvring-in-paris-delays-decision-on-new-caledonia-elections/ |access-date=2025-10-26 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== روايتي اختيار ===
ڪاناڪ سماج ۾ روايتي اختيارن جا ڪيترائي درجا موجود آهن، جن ۾ &lt;small&gt;4,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; خاندانن تي ٻڌل &quot;ڪلان&quot; کان وٺي اٺ روايتي علائقا (&lt;small&gt;aires coutumières&lt;/small&gt;) شامل آهن جيڪي هن علائقي کي ٺاهين ٿا. ڪلانن جي اڳواڻي ڪلان جا سردار ڪن ٿا ۽ اهي &lt;small&gt;341&lt;/small&gt; قبيلن تي مشتمل آهن، جن مان هر هڪ جي سربراهي قبيلي جو سردار ڪري ٿو. قبيلن کي وڌيڪ &lt;small&gt;57&lt;/small&gt; روايتي سرداري علائقن (&lt;small&gt;chefferies&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي، جن مان هر هڪ جي سربراهي هڪ &quot;اعليٰ سردار&quot; (&lt;small&gt;head chief&lt;/small&gt;) ڪري ٿو ۽ اهي روايتي علائقن جا انتظامي ذيلي حصا ٺاهين ٿا.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=8}}
[[File:US Navy 090925-N-8721D-037 Capt. Thom Burke, commanding officer of the amphibious command ship USS Blue Ridge (LCC 19) receives a wreath to lay at the U.S. war memorial during a ceremony.jpg|thumb|[[Jean Lèques]] during a ceremony honouring U.S. service members who helped ensure the freedom of New Caledonia during World War II ]]
The Customary Senate is the assembly of the various traditional councils of the Kanaks, and has jurisdiction over the law proposals concerning the Kanak identity.&lt;ref name=&quot;cs-fra&quot;/&gt; The Customary Senate is composed of 16 members appointed by each traditional council, with two representatives per customary area.&lt;ref name=&quot;cs-fra&quot;/&gt; In its advisory role, the Customary Senate must be consulted on law proposals &quot;concerning the Kanak identity&quot; as defined in the Nouméa Accord.&lt;ref name=&quot;cs-fra&quot;/&gt; It also has a deliberative role on law proposals that would affect identity, the civil customary statute, and the land system.&lt;ref name=&quot;cs-fra&quot;/&gt; A new president is appointed each year in August or September, and the presidency rotates between the eight customary areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;cs-fra&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Les-Elus/Senat-coutumier |title=Sénat coutumier |language=fr |website=Nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030174915/http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Les-Elus/Senat-coutumier |archive-date=30 October 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Kanak people have recourse to customary authorities regarding civil matters such as marriage, adoption, inheritance, and some land issues.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=8}} The French administration typically respects decisions made in the customary system.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=8}} However, their jurisdiction is sharply limited in penal matters, as some matters relating to the customary justice system, including the use of [[judicial corporal punishment|corporal punishment]], are seen as clashing with the human rights obligations of France.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=8}}

===Military and gendarmerie===
The Armed Forces of New Caledonia ({{langx|fr|Forces armées de Nouvelle-Calédonie}}, or {{lang|fr|FANC|italic=no}}) include about 2,000 soldiers, mainly deployed in [[Koumac]], [[Nandaï, New Caledonia|Nandaï]], [[La Tontouta International Airport|Tontouta]], [[Plum, New Caledonia|Plum]], and [[Nouméa]].&lt;ref name=&quot;fanc&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.defense.gouv.fr/ema/forces-prepositionnees/nouvelle-caledonie/dossier/les-forces-armees-de-nouvelle-caledonie |title=Les Forces armées de Nouvelle-Calédonie |language=fr |website=Defense.gouv.fr |date=2012-12-20 |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=9 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109131917/http://www.defense.gouv.fr/ema/forces-prepositionnees/nouvelle-caledonie/dossier/les-forces-armees-de-nouvelle-caledonie |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The land forces consist of a regiment of the {{lang|fr|[[Troupes de marine]]}}, the {{lang|fr|Régiment d'infanterie de marine du Pacifique}}. About 80 percent of the 700-member regiment is composed of soldiers on short-term (four month) deployments from metropolitan France. As of 2018, only about 30 personnel in the regiment were locally recruited.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.opex360.com/2018/09/19/regiment-dinfanterie-de-marine-pacifique-nouvelle-caledonie-se-distingue-lors-dun-exercice-australie/ |title=Le Régiment d'Infanterie de Marine du Pacifique-Nouvelle Calédonie se distingue lors d'un exercice en Australie; Zone Militaire |last=Lagneau |first=Laurent |date=19 September 2018 |access-date=12 February 2023 |archive-date=12 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212160931/https://www.opex360.com/2018/09/19/regiment-dinfanterie-de-marine-pacifique-nouvelle-caledonie-se-distingue-lors-dun-exercice-australie/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The naval forces incorporate several vessels of the French Navy including: one {{sclass|Floréal|frigate|1}}, {{ship|French frigate|Vendémiaire||2}}, the patrol and support vessel {{lang|fr|[[D'Entrecasteaux-class patrol ship|D'Entrecasteaux]]}} and [[French patrol vessel Auguste Bénébig|''Auguste Benebig'']], the lead ship of the [[Patrouilleur Outre-mer|{{lang|fr|Félix Éboué|nocat=y}} class]] of patrol vessels. One EDA-S landing craft (''Sabre'') is also deployed to support operations in the territory,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://voixducaillou.nc/2025/01/23/la-marine-accueillera-prochainement-un-nouveau-bateau/ |title=La Marine accueillera prochainement un nouveau bateau |date=23 January 2025 |access-date=6 April 2025 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2021/11/first-two-eda-s-next-gen-amphibious-landing-crafts-delivered-to-french-dga/ |title=First Two EDA-S Next Gen Amphibious Landing Craft Delivered to French DGA |date=25 November 2021 |access-date=10 December 2021 |archive-date=26 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126153129/https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2021/11/first-two-eda-s-next-gen-amphibious-landing-crafts-delivered-to-french-dga/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; along with two ''RP10''-class harbour tugboats.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.meretmarine.com/fr/defense/merre-met-a-l-eau-le-dernier-remorqueur-pousseur-du-type-rp-10 |title=Merré met à l’eau le dernier remorqueur-pousseur du type RP 10 |website=Mer et Marine |date=13 October 2025 |access-date=13 October 2025 |last= Groizeleau  |first=Vincent |language=fr }}&lt;/ref&gt; The French Navy will further reinforce its offshore patrol capabilities in New Caledonia by deploying a second vessel of the {{lang|fr|Félix Éboué}} class ({{lang|fr|Jean Tranape}}) to the territory by 2026.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.defense.gouv.fr/marine/actualites/prise-darmement-essais-du-patrouilleur-outre-mer-jean-tranape |title=Prise d'armement pour essais du patrouilleur outre-mer Jean Tranape |work=French Navy |date=5 March 2025 |access-date=31 March 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.shephardmedia.com/news/naval-warfare/new-french-overseas-patrol-vessels-set-for-2023-service-entry/ |title=New French overseas patrol vessels set for 2023 service entry |work=Shepherd |last=Tanguy |first=Jean-Marc |date=4 August 2022 |access-date=30 December 2022 |archive-date=21 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121132746/https://www.shephardmedia.com/news/naval-warfare/new-french-overseas-patrol-vessels-set-for-2023-service-entry/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;brestboulogne&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.meretmarine.com/fr/defense/pom-le-premier-patrouilleur-reprend-ses-essais-a-brest-le-second-en-achevement-a-boulogne |title=POM : Le premier patrouilleur reprend ses essais à Brest, le second en achèvement à Boulogne |work=Mer et Marine |language=fr |last=Groizeleau |first=Vincent |date=21 September 2022 |access-date=3 November 2022 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=22 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922152111/https://www.meretmarine.com/fr/defense/pom-le-premier-patrouilleur-reprend-ses-essais-a-brest-le-second-en-achevement-a-boulogne |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

As of 2025/26, French naval aviation and air force elements in New Caledonia included two Navy [[Dassault Falcon 20|Falcon 200 Gardian maritime surveillance aircraft]] (drawn from Flotilla 25F), which, as of 2025/26 are being replaced, on an interim basis, by the more advanced [[Dassault Falcon 50|Falcon 50 aircraft]]. These aircraft will in turn be superseded by the new [[Dassault Falcon 2000|Falcon 2000 Albatros]] starting in about 2030.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.meretmarine.com/fr/defense/le-retrait-du-service-des-falcon-200-gardian-bases-a-tahiti-et-noumea-a-debute|title =Le retrait du service des Falcon 200 Gardian basés à Tahiti et Nouméa a débuté  |website=Mer et Marine |last=Groizeleau |first=Vincent |date=17 October 2025|access-date=17 October 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Two [[CASA/IPTN CN-235|Casa CN235]] transport aircraft and three [[Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma|Puma]] helicopters from the Air Force's 52 &quot;Tontouta&quot; Squadron are also deployed in New Caledonia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.defense.gouv.fr/operations/monde/asie-pacifique/forces-armees-nouvelle-caledonie |title=Forces armées en Nouvelle-Calédonie; Ministère des Armées |date=14 February 2022 |access-date=11 February 2023 |archive-date=5 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105110702/https://www.defense.gouv.fr/operations/monde/asie-pacifique/forces-armees-nouvelle-caledonie |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.defense.gouv.fr/operations/actualites/fanc-bilan-du-deploiement-du-bsaom-dentrecasteaux-pacifique-sud |title=FANC – Bilan du déploiement du BSAOM D'Entrecasteaux dans le Pacifique Sud; Ministère des Armées |date=10 February 2023 |access-date=11 February 2023 |archive-date=11 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211120443/https://www.defense.gouv.fr/operations/actualites/fanc-bilan-du-deploiement-du-bsaom-dentrecasteaux-pacifique-sud |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Prior to 2022, the frigate {{lang|fr|Vendémiaire}} operated the [[Aérospatiale Alouette III|Alouette III helicopter]]. However, with the retirement of the type in 2022, it is being replaced by the [[Eurocopter AS365 Dauphin|Eurocopter Dauphin N3]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=French Navy will receive first three Airbus Dauphin N3 at December 1 |url=https://aircosmosinternational.com/article/french-navy-will-receive-first-three-airbus-dauphin-n3-at-december-1-3005 |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=Air &amp; Cosmos |language=fr |archive-date=13 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221113231455/https://aircosmosinternational.com/article/french-navy-will-receive-first-three-airbus-dauphin-n3-at-december-1-3005 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Marine Nationale Dossier d'Information, p. 23 |url=https://www.colsbleus.fr/sites/default/files/2023-02/DIM%202023_PLANCHE_0.pdf |date=January 2023 |access-date=2023-03-04 |website=Cols Bleus |language=fr |archive-date=4 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230304112422/https://www.colsbleus.fr/sites/default/files/2023-02/DIM%202023_PLANCHE_0.pdf |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2022, the [[French Air Force]] demonstrated a capacity to reinforce the territory by deploying three [[Dassault Rafale|Rafale]] fighters, supported by [[Airbus A400M Atlas|A400M]] transport aircraft and [[Airbus A330 MRTT|A330 MRTT Phénix]] tankers, from France to New Caledonia for a three-week exercise.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last= |date=2022-08-27 |title=French Air and Space Force Rafales Train Alongside Royal Australian Air Force Growlers |url=https://militaryleak.com/2022/08/27/french-air-and-space-force-rafales-train-alongside-royal-australian-air-force-growlers/ |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=MilitaryLeak |archive-date=14 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114105036/https://militaryleak.com/2022/08/27/french-air-and-space-force-rafales-train-alongside-royal-australian-air-force-growlers/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=France successfully conducts long-range strategic deployment to Asian-Pacific region |url=https://ac.nato.int/archive/2022/FRA_deploy_PB22-2 |access-date=28 December 2023 |website=ac.nato.int |archive-date=3 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203040915/https://ac.nato.int/archive/2022/FRA_deploy_PB22-2 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In addition, some 855 personnel from the [[National Gendarmerie]] are stationed on the archipelago, divided into 4 companies, 27 brigades and several specialized, and mobile Gendarmerie units. During periods such the 2021 referendum on independence, these forces have been significantly reinforced with personnel deployed from metropolitan France.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |first=Julien |last=Sartre |date=2021-12-07 |title=Covid, mourning and the spectre of violence: New Caledonia prepares for blighted independence vote |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/dec/08/covid-mourning-and-the-fear-of-violence-new-caledonia-prepares-for-blighted-independence-vote |access-date=2022-11-18 |work=[[The Guardian]] }}&lt;/ref&gt; The air component includes two {{lang|fr|[[Eurocopter AS350 Écureuil|Écureuil]]|italic=no}} helicopters&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=COMGEND – Commandant de la gendarmerie pour la Nouvelle-Calédonie et les îles Wallis et Futuna / Sécurité / Services de l'État / Accueil – Les services de l'État en Nouvelle-Calédonie |url=https://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/Services-de-l-Etat/Securite/COMGEND-Commandant-de-la-gendarmerie-pour-la-Nouvelle-Caledonie-et-les-iles-Wallis-et-Futuna |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr |archive-date=7 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221107121810/https://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/Services-de-l-Etat/Securite/COMGEND-Commandant-de-la-gendarmerie-pour-la-Nouvelle-Caledonie-et-les-iles-Wallis-et-Futuna |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; while the {{lang|fr|[[Maritime Gendarmerie]]|italic=no}} deploys the patrol boat [[Vedette côtière de surveillance maritime|''Dumbea'']] in the territory.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.homelandsecurity-technology.com/projects/vedette-cotiere-de-surveillance-maritime-boats/ |title=Vedette Côtière de Surveillance Maritime (VCSM) Boats |publisher=Homelandsecurity Technology |date= |accessdate=2022-08-28 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207152543/https://www.homelandsecurity-technology.com/projects/vedette-cotiere-de-surveillance-maritime-boats/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;fanc&quot;/&gt;

=== Status ===
{{Further|Foreign relations of New Caledonia}}
New Caledonia has been a member of the [[Pacific Community]] since 1983 with Nouméa the home of the organization's regional headquarters. Since 1986, the [[United Nations Committee on Decolonization]] has included New Caledonia on the [[United Nations list of non-self-governing territories]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/decolonization/nonselfgov.shtml#1 |title=Trust and Non-Self-Governing Territories (1945–1999) |publisher=[[United Nations]] |access-date=29 June 2017 |archive-date=6 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006064439/http://www.un.org/en/decolonization/nonselfgov.shtml#1 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; An [[1987 New Caledonian independence referendum|independence referendum]] was held the following year, but independence was rejected by a large majority.[[File:Administrative divisions of New Caledonia.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|Pyramid graph illustrating the administration of New Caledonia]]

Under the [[Nouméa Accord]], signed in 1998 following a period of secessionist unrest in the 1980s and approved in [[1998 New Caledonian Nouméa Accord referendum|a referendum]], New Caledonia was granted special status. Twenty years after inception, the Nouméa Accord required an [[2018 New Caledonian independence referendum|referendum on independence]] which was held on 4 November 2018.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/19/new-caledonia-sets-date-independence-referendum-france|title=New Caledonia sets date for independence referendum|website=The Guardian|access-date=20 March 2018|date=19 March 2018|last=Willsher|first=Kim|archive-date=25 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025142615/https://amp.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/19/new-caledonia-sets-date-independence-referendum-france|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/programmes/datelinepacific/audio/201787812/paris-meeting-to-prepare-new-caledonia-independence-vote|title=Paris meeting to prepare New Caledonia independence vote|website=Radio New Zealand|access-date=2016-03-08|date=2016-02-02|archive-date=8 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308001209/http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/programmes/datelinepacific/audio/201787812/paris-meeting-to-prepare-new-caledonia-independence-vote|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The result was that 56.9% of voters chose to remain with France.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/nov/04/new-caledonia-votes-non-to-independence-from-france|title=New Caledonia votes 'non' to independence from France|agency=Reuters|date=2018-11-04|website=The Guardian|language=en|access-date=2018-11-04|archive-date=6 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206051007/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/nov/04/new-caledonia-votes-non-to-independence-from-france|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Nouméa Accord required [[2020 New Caledonian independence referendum|another independence referendum]], which was held on 4 October 2020. The result was that 53.26% of voters chose to remain with France.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/oct/04/new-caledonia-rejects-independence-from-france-for-second-time|title=New Caledonia rejects independence from France for second time|date=2020-10-05|website=The Guardian|language=en|access-date=2020-10-05|archive-date=20 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420065852/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/oct/04/new-caledonia-rejects-independence-from-france-for-second-time|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The third and last referendum permitted by the Nouméa Accord [[2021 New Caledonian independence referendum|was held on 12 December 2021]], confirming New Caledonia as part of the French Republic with 96% voting &quot;no&quot; to independence after the vote was boycotted by the bulk of the Kanak population.

The official name of the territory, {{lang|fr|Nouvelle-Calédonie}}, could be changed in the near future due to the accord, which states that &quot;a name, a flag, an anthem, a motto, and the design of banknotes will have to be sought by all parties together, to express the Kanak identity and the future shared by all parties.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://www.gouv.nc/static/pages/outils/telechargement/accordsNoumea.pdf| title=Les accords de Nouméa|author=Government of New Caledonia| access-date=11 August 2008|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080405032022/http://www.gouv.nc/static/pages/outils/telechargement/accordsNoumea.pdf |archive-date = 5 April 2008 |language=fr |author-link=Government of New Caledonia}}&lt;/ref&gt; To date, however, there has been no consensus on a new name for the territory, although ''Kanak Republic'' is popular among 40% of the population.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://nouvellecaledonie.rfo.fr/article424.html| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080627221108/http://nouvellecaledonie.rfo.fr/article424.html| url-status=dead| archive-date=27 June 2008| title=Société : La Nouvelle-Calédonie choisit un hymne et une devise| author=RFO| access-date=11 August 2008| author-link=Réseau France Outre-mer}}&lt;/ref&gt; New Caledonia has increasingly adopted its own symbols, choosing an anthem, a motto, and a new design for its banknotes.&lt;ref name=&quot;monde1&quot; /&gt; In July 2010, the [[Congress of New Caledonia]] voted in favour of a wish to fly the [[Kanak people|Kanak]] flag of the independence movement [[Kanak and Socialist National Liberation Front|FLNKS]] alongside the [[Flag of France|French tricolour]], as [[Flag of New Caledonia|dual flags of the territory]]. The wish, legally non-binding, proved controversial.&lt;ref name=&quot;congress&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/pacifique/ncal-voeu-drapeau2010.htm|title=Nouvelle-Calédonie: Voeu sur le drapeau Kanaky de 2010|website=axl.cefan.ulaval.ca|access-date=26 November 2021|archive-date=23 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023193014/http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/pacifique/ncal-voeu-drapeau2010.htm|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;voeux&quot;&gt;{{cite web| url = http://www.juridoc.gouv.nc/JuriDoc/jdJ201.nsf/JoncP/2010-06341/$File/2010-6341.pdf?OpenElement&amp;root=2010&amp;page=6341| title = Voeux n° 1 du treize juillet 2010| access-date = 26 November 2021| archive-date = 17 April 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210417013852/https://juridoc.gouv.nc/JuriDoc/jdJ201.nsf/JoncP/2010-06341/$File/2010-6341.pdf?OpenElement&amp;root=2010&amp;page=6341| url-status = live}}&lt;/ref&gt; A majority of New Caledonian communes, but not all, now fly both flags, the rest flying only the French Tricolour.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://la1ere.francetvinfo.fr/nouvellecaledonie/2014/05/09/roch-wamytan-descendre-le-drapeau-kanak-est-un-geste-ignoble-il-ne-faut-plus-parler-de-destin-commun-150319.html|title=Roch Wamytan: &quot;descendre le drapeau kanak est un geste ignoble, il ne faut plus parler de destin commun!&quot;|website=Nouvelle-Calédonie la 1ère|date=9 May 2014 |access-date=26 November 2021|archive-date=26 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126140755/https://la1ere.francetvinfo.fr/nouvellecaledonie/2014/05/09/roch-wamytan-descendre-le-drapeau-kanak-est-un-geste-ignoble-il-ne-faut-plus-parler-de-destin-commun-150319.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The non-official adoption made New Caledonia one of the few countries or territories in the world with two flags. The decision to wish for the use of two flags has been a constant battleground between the two sides and led the coalition government to collapse in February 2011.&lt;ref name=&quot;fr24&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.france24.com/en/20110826-france-sarkozy-urges-dialogue-over-violence-new-caledonia-airfare-protests |title=Sarkozy calls for dialogue over New Caledonia violence |publisher=France 24 |date=2011-08-26 |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=7 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110907145342/http://www.france24.com/en/20110826-france-sarkozy-urges-dialogue-over-violence-new-caledonia-airfare-protests |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 2025 political talks in Paris ===
{{Main|Bougival Accord}}

On 24 June 2025, [[President of France|President]] [[Emmanuel Macron]] extended an invitation to both pro‑ and anti‑independence leaders from New Caledonia to participate in talks in Paris starting 2 July 2025, aimed at negotiating the territory's future governance and status. Objectives of the talks include a revised political framework for New Caledonia, potentially including greater autonomy and redesigned electoral rules, socioeconomic challenges, such as the nickel-dependent economy, youth employment, and post‑unrest recovery.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-05-27 |title=Macron calls for June talks to break deadlock over New Caledonia's future |url=https://www.france24.com/en/france/20250527-france-new-caledonia |access-date=2025-07-13 |website=France 24 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2025-06-24 |title=Macron invites New Caledonian leaders to talks on territory's future |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/en/france/article/2025/06/24/new-caledonia-macron-invites-local-leaders-to-talks-on-the-territory-s-future_6742681_7.html |access-date=2025-07-13 |work=Le Monde |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 13 July 2025, weeks of negotiations concluded with an agreement between all parties that New Caledonia should remain within France, but with far greater levels of autonomy, the status of a state, and a dual citizenship arrangement for those that wish it.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=France-Presse |first=Agence |date=2025-07-13 |title=New Caledonia to be declared a state in 'historic' agreement – but will remain French |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/jul/13/new-caledonia-to-be-declared-a-state-in-historic-agreement-but-will-remain-french |access-date=2025-07-13 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}&lt;/ref&gt; The agreement will require ratification by both chambers of the French parliamentary system, followed by a referendum in New Caledonia in 2026. Initial thoughts on the deal suggest it is not what independence supporters hoped for, but statehood is a major concession by France.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-07-12 |title=France announces 'historic' deal creating New Caledonia state that stays French |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20250712-ncaledonia-politicians-agree-on-statehood-while-remaining-french |access-date=2025-07-13 |website=France 24 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 13 August 2025, the FLNKS stated in a press conference that they had voted to reject the agreement on the basis that an independence referendum prior to France's [[2027 French presidential election|2027 presidential election]] was absent from the deal.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-08-13 |title=New Caledonia independence bloc rejects deal giving powers but no referendum |url=https://www.rfi.fr/en/france/20250813-new-caledonia-independence-leaders-reject-bougival-accord-call-for-new-deal |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=RFI |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 16 September 2025, the New Caledonia Congress approved once again for the third time, another postponement, regarding the election within the territory. The votes were divided to 39 out of 52 Congress members (75%) voted in favor of the postponement, while the FLNKS pro-independence group cast 13 votes against (25%).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Decloitre |first1=Patrick |title=New Caledonia's Congress votes to postpone provincial elections |url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/573170/new-caledonia-s-congress-votes-to-postpone-provincial-elections |work=RNZ |date=16 September 2025 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== انتظامي ورهاست ==
ادارتي تنظيم ان بنيادي قانون (organic law) ۽ عام قانون جو نتيجو آهي جيڪي پارليامينٽ پاران 16 فيبروري 1999 تي منظور ڪيا ويا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;jc&quot; /&gt; هي ٻيٽن جو مجموعو (آرڪيپيلاگو) ٽن صوبن ۾ ورهايل آهي: 
* ڏکڻ صوبو (Province Sud): صوبائي گاديءَ جو هنڌ: نوميا رقبو: 9,407 چورس ڪلوميٽر. آبادي: 2,12,082 ماڻهو (2019)
* اتر صوبو (Province Nord): صوبائي گاديءَ جو هنڌ: ڪوني (Koné). رقبو: 7,348 چورس ڪلوميٽر. آبادي: 49,910 ماڻهو (2019). 
* لائلٽي آئلينڊز صوبو (Province des îles Loyauté): صوبائي گاديءَ جو هنڌ: ليفو (Lifou). رقبو: 1,981 چورس ڪلوميٽر. آبادي: 18,353 ماڻهو (2019).&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Populations légales des provinces de Nouvelle-Calédonie en 2019 − Populations légales de Nouvelle-Calédonie en 2019 {{!}} Insee |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/4464927?sommaire=2122859 |access-date=2023-09-11 |website=www.insee.fr |archive-date=25 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425125921/https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/4464927?sommaire=2122859 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

نيو ڪيليڊونيا کي وڌيڪ 33 ڪميونز (مقامي انتظامي علائقن) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;jc&quot; /&gt; هڪ ڪميون پويا (Poya) ٻن صوبن جي وچ ۾ ورهايل آهي. پويا جو اتر وارو حصو, جتي مکيه آبادي ۽ اڪثر رهواسي موجود آهن, اتر صوبي جو حصو آهي، جڏهن ته ان ڪميون جو ڏکڻ وارو حصو, جتي 2019 ۾ صرف 210 رهواسي هئا, ڏکڻ صوبي جو حصو آهي. 


جاگرافي: ماحول:سياست 

== جاگرافي: ==
[[File:New Caledonia - S199828000484.jpg|thumb|New Caledonia from space]]
[[File:Reefs of New Caledonia from ISS, September 9, 2020.jpg|thumb|Coral reefs of New Caledonia from ISS, September 9, 2020]]

New Caledonia is part of [[Zealandia]], a fragment of the ancient [[Gondwana]] super-continent, which is part of [[Oceania]]. It is speculated that New Caledonia separated from Australia roughly 66 million years ago, subsequently drifting in a north-easterly direction, reaching its present position about 50 million years ago.&lt;ref&gt;Boyer &amp; Giribet 2007: 355{{full|date=February 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The mainland is divided in length by a central mountain range whose highest peaks are [[Mont Panié]] ({{cvt|1,629|m|disp=or}}) in the north and [[Mont Humboldt]] ({{cvt|1,618|m|disp=or}}) in the southeast.&lt;ref name=&quot;geo-jc&quot;/&gt; The east coast is covered by lush vegetation.&lt;ref name=&quot;geo-jc&quot;/&gt; The west coast, with its large savannahs and plains suitable for farming, is a drier area. Many ore-rich massifs are found along this coast.&lt;ref name=&quot;geo-jc&quot;/&gt;

The [[Diahot River]] is the longest river of New Caledonia, flowing for some {{convert|100|km}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;EB&quot;&gt;{{Britannica|161133|Diahot River}}&lt;/ref&gt; It has a catchment area of {{cvt|620|km2}} and opens north-westward into the [[Baie d'Harcourt]], flowing towards the northern point of the island along the western escarpment of the Mount Panié.&lt;ref name=&quot;EB&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;UNU&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.greenstone.org/greenstone3/nzdl;jsessionid=9C07FFA7400A6C3C823F1ACAF98A3D9D?a=d&amp;d=HASH01e0de34b153f45530bc1736.5.pp&amp;c=ccgi&amp;sib=1&amp;dt=&amp;ec=&amp;et=&amp;p.a=b&amp;p.s=ClassifierBrowse&amp;p.sa= |title=The impacts of opencast mining in New Caledonia |publisher=The [[United Nations University]] |access-date=9 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727215730/http://www.greenstone.org/greenstone3/nzdl;jsessionid=9C07FFA7400A6C3C823F1ACAF98A3D9D?a=d&amp;d=HASH01e0de34b153f45530bc1736.5.pp&amp;c=ccgi&amp;sib=1&amp;dt=&amp;ec=&amp;et=&amp;p.a=b&amp;p.s=ClassifierBrowse&amp;p.sa= |archive-date=27 July 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Most of the island is covered by wet evergreen forests, while savannahs dominate the lower elevations.&lt;ref name=&quot;gbrs&quot;/&gt; The New Caledonian lagoon, with a total area of {{convert|24000|km2}} is one of the largest lagoons in the world. The lagoon and the surrounding [[New Caledonia Barrier Reef]] was named a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] in 2008 for its exceptional beauty and marine biodiversity.&lt;ref name=&quot;geo-jc&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Donnees-Geographiques |title=Données Géographiques |language=fr |website=Nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030174815/http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Donnees-Geographiques |archive-date=30 October 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name = &quot;unesco&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url = https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1115 |title = Lagoons of New Caledonia: Reef Diversity and Associated Ecosystems |website = UNESCO World Heritage Centre |publisher = United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization |access-date = 20 November 2021 |archive-date = 20 November 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211120223140/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1115/ |url-status = live }}&lt;/ref&gt; In May 2023, there was an earthquake and tsunami in New Caledonia. This triggered a tsunami warning here as well as in other nearby countries.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/australasia/loyalty-islands-south-pacific-earthquake-today-tsunami-b2341846.html |title=Earthquake triggers 3ft wave tsunami warnings across South Pacific |work=The Independent |first=Shweta |last=Sharma |date=19 May 2023 |access-date=29 May 2023 |archive-date=19 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519062421/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/australasia/loyalty-islands-south-pacific-earthquake-today-tsunami-b2341846.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Climate ===
The climate is [[tropical climate|tropical]], with a hot and humid season from November to March with temperatures between {{convert|27|and|30|C}},&lt;ref name=&quot;geo-jc&quot;/&gt; and a cooler, dry season from June to August with temperatures between {{cvt|20|and|23|C}},&lt;ref name=&quot;geo-jc&quot;/&gt; linked by two short interstices.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot;/&gt; The tropical climate is strongly moderated by the oceanic influence and the [[trade winds]] that attenuate humidity, which can be close to 80%.&lt;ref name=&quot;geo-jc&quot;/&gt; The average annual temperature is 23&amp;nbsp;°C, with historical extremes of {{cvt|2.3|and|39.1|C}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot;/&gt;

The rainfall records show that precipitation differs greatly within the island. The {{convert|3000|mm}} of rainfall recorded in [[Galarino]] are three times the average of the west coast. There are also dry periods, because of the effects of [[El Niño]].&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot;/&gt; Between December and April, [[tropical depressions]] and [[cyclones]] can cause winds to exceed a speed of {{convert|100|kph}}, with gusts of {{convert|250|kph}} and very abundant rainfall.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot;/&gt; The last cyclone affecting New Caledonia was [[Cyclone Niran]], in March 2021.

== ماحول ==
{{See also|Biodiversity of New Caledonia}}
[[File:Landscape, south of New Caledonia.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Landscape in the south of New Caledonia]]
New Caledonia has many unique taxa, especially birds and plants.&lt;ref name=&quot;hjnc&quot;/&gt; It has the richest diversity in the world per square kilometre.&lt;ref name=&quot;hjnc&quot;/&gt; The biodiversity is caused by Grande Terre's central mountain range, which has created a variety of niches, landforms and micro-climates where [[Endemism|endemic]] species thrive.&lt;ref name=&quot;hjnc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Leanne Logan|author2=Geert Cole|title=New Caledonia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA26|year=2001|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=978-1-86450-202-2|page=26|access-date=18 October 2015|archive-date=26 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226010023/https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA26|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Largely due to its nickel industry, New Caledonia [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita|emits a high level of carbon dioxide per person]] compared to other countries. In 2019, it emitted 55.25 tons of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; per person, compared to 4.81 for France.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=EDGAR – The Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research|url=https://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/report_2020#emissions_table|access-date=2021-04-24|website=edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu|archive-date=31 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210531025125/https://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/report_2020#emissions_table|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The combination of the exceptional biodiversity of New Caledonia and its threatened status has made it one of the most critical [[biodiversity hotspots]] on Earth.&lt;ref name = &quot;myers&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Myers |first1=Norman |last2=Mittermeier |first2=Russell A. |last3=Mittermeier |first3=Cristina G. |last4=da Fonseca |first4=Gustavo A. B. |last5=Kent |first5=Jennifer |title=Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities |journal=Nature |date=February 2000 |volume=403 |issue=6772 |pages=853–858 |doi=10.1038/35002501 |pmid=10706275 |bibcode=2000Natur.403..853M }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2001, [[Bruno Van Peteghem]] was awarded the [[Goldman Environmental Prize]] for his efforts on behalf of the Caledonian ecological protection movement in the face of &quot;serious challenges&quot; from [[Jacques Lafleur]]'s [[Rally for Caledonia in the Republic|RPCR]] party.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Bruno Van Peteghem |url=http://www.goldmanprize.org/node/169 |website=Goldman Environmental Prize |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201050426/http://www.goldmanprize.org/node/169 |archive-date=1 February 2009 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Progress has been made in a few areas in addressing the protection of New Caledonia's ecological diversity from fire, industrial and residential development, unrestricted agricultural activity and mining (such as the judicial revocation of [[INCO]]'s mining licence in June 2006 owing to claimed abuses).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Indigenous Kanaks Take On Inco in New Caledonia |url=http://www.miningwatch.ca/index.php?%2FNew_Caledonia%2FGoro_Licence_Revoked |website=MiningWatch Canada |date=19 July 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013113126/http://www.miningwatch.ca/index.php?%2FNew_Caledonia%2FGoro_Licence_Revoked |archive-date=13 October 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2008, six lagoons of the [[New Caledonian barrier reef]], the world's longest continuous barrier reef system, were inscribed on the [[UNESCO World Heritage List]].

=== Flora ===
[[File:Amborella trichopoda (3065968016) fragment.jpg|thumb|''[[Amborella]]'', the world's oldest living lineage of flowering plant]]
[[File:0 Araucaria columnaris New Caledonia.jpg|thumb|''[[Araucaria columnaris]]'' on the [[Isle of Pines (New Caledonia)|Isle of Pines]]]]
New Caledonia's fauna and flora derive from ancestral species isolated in the region when it broke away from [[Gondwana]] many tens of millions of years ago.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |first1=Alan S. |last1=Collins |first2=Sergei A. |last2=Pisarevsky |title=Amalgamating eastern Gondwana: The evolution of the Circum-Indian Orogens |journal= Earth-Science Reviews |date= August 2005 |volume=71 |issue=3–4 |pages=229–270 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.02.004 |bibcode=2005ESRv...71..229C }}&lt;/ref&gt; Not only endemic species have evolved here, but entire [[Genus|genera]], [[Family (biology)|families]], and even [[Order (biology)|orders]] are unique to the islands.

More tropical [[gymnosperm]] species are endemic to New Caledonia than to any similar region on Earth. Of the 44 indigenous species of gymnosperms, 43 are endemic, including the only known parasitic gymnosperm (''[[Parasitaxus usta]]'').&lt;ref name=&quot;futura1&quot;/&gt; Also, of the 35 known species of ''[[Araucaria]]'', 13 are endemic to New Caledonia.&lt;ref name=&quot;hjnc&quot;/&gt; New Caledonia also has the world's most divergent lineage of [[flowering plant]], ''[[Amborella trichopoda]]'', which is at, or near, the base of the clade of all flowering plants.

The world's largest [[Neontology|extant]] species of [[fern]], ''[[Sphaeropteris intermedia]]'', also is endemic to New Caledonia. It is very common on acidic soil, usually found on fallow ground or in forest clearings, and grows about one metre per year on the east coast. There also are other species of [[tree fern]]s, notably ''[[Sphaeropteris novae-caledoniae]]''&lt;ref name=&quot;ncd2&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url= http://www.futura-sciences.com/fr/doc/t/zoologie-1/r/nouvelle-caledonie/d/la-faune-et-la-flore-de-nouvelle-caledonie_468/c3/221/p3/ |title= La flore de Nouvelle-Calédonie – Deuxième partie |website= Futura-sciences.com |date= 2004-08-18 |access-date= 2013-01-30 |archive-date= 11 March 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130311213816/http://www.futura-sciences.com/fr/doc/t/zoologie-1/r/nouvelle-caledonie/d/la-faune-et-la-flore-de-nouvelle-caledonie_468/c3/221/p3/ |url-status= live }}&lt;/ref&gt; and the New Caledonian fork fern, (Tmesipteris oblanceolata) which has the largest genome known in a eukaryotic organism.

New Caledonia also is one of five regions on the planet where species of southern beeches (''[[Nothofagus]]'') are indigenous; five species are known to occur here.&lt;ref name=&quot;futura1&quot;/&gt;

New Caledonia has its own version of [[maquis shrubland|maquis]] (''[[maquis minier]]'') occurring on metalliferous soils, mostly in the south.&lt;ref name=&quot;gbrs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=New Caledonia: a very old Darwinian island? |pmc=2607381 |year=2008 |last1=Grandcolas |first1=P |last2=Murienne |first2=J |last3=Robillard |first3=T |last4=Desutter-Grandcolas |first4=L |last5=Jourdan |first5=H |last6=Guilbert |first6=E |last7=Deharveng |first7=L |volume=363 |issue=1508 |pages=3309–3317 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2008.0122 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |pmid=18765357 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The soils of ultramafic rocks (mining terrains) have been a refuge for many native flora species which are adapted to the toxic mineral content of the soils, to which most foreign species of plants are poorly suited, which has therefore prevented invasion into the habitat or displacement of indigenous plants.&lt;ref name=&quot;futura1&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.futura-sciences.com/fr/doc/t/zoologie-1/r/nouvelle-caledonie/d/la-faune-et-la-flore-de-nouvelle-caledonie_468/c3/221/p2/ |title=La flore de Nouvelle-Calédonie – Première partie |website=Futura-sciences.com |date=2004-08-18 |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=11 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130311213828/http://www.futura-sciences.com/fr/doc/t/zoologie-1/r/nouvelle-caledonie/d/la-faune-et-la-flore-de-nouvelle-caledonie_468/c3/221/p2/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Two terrestrial ecoregions lie within New Caledonia's territory: [[New Caledonia rain forests]] and [[New Caledonia dry forests]].&lt;ref name=&quot;DinersteinOlson2017&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Dinerstein |first1=Eric |last2=Olson |first2=David |last3=Joshi |first3=Anup |last4=Vynne |first4=Carly |last5=Burgess |first5=Neil D. |last6=Wikramanayake |first6=Eric |last7=Hahn |first7=Nathan |last8=Palminteri |first8=Suzanne |last9=Hedao |first9=Prashant |last10=Noss |first10=Reed |last11=Hansen |first11=Matt |last12=Locke |first12=Harvey |last13=Ellis |first13=Erle C |last14=Jones |first14=Benjamin |last15=Barber |first15=Charles Victor |last16=Hayes |first16=Randy |last17=Kormos |first17=Cyril |last18=Martin |first18=Vance |last19=Crist |first19=Eileen |last20=Sechrest |first20=Wes |last21=Price |first21=Lori |last22=Baillie |first22=Jonathan E. M. |last23=Weeden |first23=Don |last24=Suckling |first24=Kierán |last25=Davis |first25=Crystal |last26=Sizer |first26=Nigel |last27=Moore |first27=Rebecca |last28=Thau |first28=David |last29=Birch |first29=Tanya |last30=Potapov |first30=Peter |last31=Turubanova |first31=Svetlana |last32=Tyukavina |first32=Alexandra |last33=de Souza |first33=Nadia |last34=Pintea |first34=Lilian |last35=Brito |first35=José C. |last36=Llewellyn |first36=Othman A. |last37=Miller |first37=Anthony G. |last38=Patzelt |first38=Annette |last39=Ghazanfar |first39=Shahina A. |last40=Timberlake |first40=Jonathan |last41=Klöser |first41=Heinz |last42=Shennan-Farpón |first42=Yara |last43=Kindt |first43=Roeland |last44=Lillesø |first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow |last45=van Breugel |first45=Paulo |last46=Graudal |first46=Lars |last47=Voge |first47=Maianna |last48=Al-Shammari |first48=Khalaf F. |last49=Saleem |first49=Muhammad |title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm |journal=BioScience |date=June 2017 |volume=67 |issue=6 |pages=534–545 |doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014 |pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{See also|List of endemic plants of New Caledonia}}

=== Fauna ===
In addition to its outstanding plant diversity and endemism, New Caledonia also provides habitat for a wide diversity of animals. Over 100 bird species live in New Caledonia, of which 24 are endemic.&lt;ref name = &quot;Palmas&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Palmas |first1=Pauline |last2=Jourdan |first2=Hervé |last3=Rigault |first3=Fredéric |last4=Debar |first4=Léo |last5=De Meringo |first5=Hélène |last6=Bourguet |first6=Edouard |last7=Mathivet |first7=Mathieu |last8=Lee |first8=Matthias |last9=Adjouhgniope |first9=Rachelle |last10=Papillon |first10=Yves |last11=Bonnaud |first11=Elsa |last12=Vidal |first12=Eric |title=Feral cats threaten the outstanding endemic fauna of the New Caledonia biodiversity hotspot |journal=Biological Conservation |date=1 October 2017 |volume=214 |pages=250–259 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2017.08.003 |bibcode=2017BCons.214..250P |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01793811 }}&lt;/ref&gt; One of these endemic bird species is the [[New Caledonian crow]], a bird noted for its [[tool use in animals|tool-making]] abilities, which rival those of primates.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Weir |first1=Alex A. S. |last2=Chappell |first2=Jackie |last3=Kacelnik |first3=Alex |title=Shaping of Hooks in New Caledonian Crows |journal=Science |date=9 August 2002 |volume=297 |issue=5583 |pages=981 |doi=10.1126/science.1073433 |pmid=12169726 }}&lt;/ref&gt; These crows are renowned for their extraordinary intelligence and ability to fashion tools to solve problems, and make the most complex tools of any animal yet studied apart from humans.&lt;ref name=&quot;nccbbc&quot;&gt;{{cite news |last=Walker |first=Matt |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_9125000/9125227.stm |title=Clever New Caledonian crows go to parents' tool school |work=[[BBC News]] |date=2010-10-26 |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=14 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111014003859/http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_9125000/9125227.stm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Cagou.jpg|thumb|left|The [[kagu]], an [[endemic]] flightless bird]]
The endemic [[kagu]],&lt;ref&gt;Attenborough, D. 1998 ''The Life of Birds'' BBC  {{ISBN|0563-38792-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; agile and able to run quickly, is a flightless bird, but it is able to use its wings to climb branches or glide. Its sound is similar to the bark of a dog. It is the surviving member of [[monotypic]] family [[Rhynochetidae]], order [[Eurypygiformes]].&lt;ref name=&quot;kagu&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.oiseaux-birds.com/card-kagu.html |title=Kagu |website=Oiseaux-birds.com |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=24 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124171207/http://www.oiseaux-birds.com/card-kagu.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

There are 11 endemic fish species and 14 endemic species of [[Decapoda|decapod]] [[crustaceans]] in the rivers and lakes of New Caledonia. Some, such as ''[[Neogalaxias]]'', exist only in small areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncnau&quot;/&gt; The [[nautilus]]—considered a living fossil and related to the extinct [[ammonite]]s—occurs in Pacific waters around New Caledonia.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncnau&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.endemia.nc/biodiversite.php |title=La Biodiversité |website=Endemia.nc |access-date=2013-01-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130106120416/http://www.endemia.nc/biodiversite.php |archive-date=6 January 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; There is a large diversity of [[List of fishes of the Coral Sea|marine fish]] in the surrounding waters, which are within the extents of the [[Coral Sea]].

Despite its large number of bird, reptile, and fish species, New Caledonia has remarkably few mammal species: nine, of which six are endemic.&lt;ref name = &quot;Palmas&quot; /&gt;

Several species of New Caledonia are remarkable for their size: ''[[Ducula goliath]]'' is the largest extant species of arboreal pigeon; ''[[Rhacodactylus leachianus]]'', the largest gecko in the world; ''[[Phoboscincus bocourti]]'', a large skink thought to be extinct until [[Lazarus taxon|rediscovered]] in 2003.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncnau&quot;/&gt;

Much of New Caledonia's fauna present before human settlement is now extinct, including ''[[Sylviornis]]'', a bird over a metre tall not closely related to any living species, and ''[[Meiolania]]'', a giant horned turtle that diverged from living turtles during the Jurassic period.

In January 2024, a court in the Capital Nouméa issued a ruling banning the culling of sharks citing it as disproportionate. The culls began after an Australian tourist was killed by a shark in the previous year.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=New Caledonia court bans shark culls amid environmental backlash |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/jan/09/new-caledonia-court-bans-shark-culls-amid-environmental-backlash |work=The Guardian |date=8 January 2024 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{See also|List of birds of New Caledonia}}

== آباديءَ جا انگ اکر ==
{{Historical populations
| title       = Historical populations
| footnote    = ISEE&lt;ref name=&quot;The Population at Different Censuses&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/195-donnees?download=764:la-population-aux-differents-recensements|title=The Population at Different Censuses |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411094321/https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/195-donnees?download=764:la-population-aux-differents-recensements|archive-date=11 April 2020 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=census2025 /&gt;
| percentages = pagr
| 1956.931693989 |68480
| 1963.334246575 |86519
| 1969.191780822 |100579
| 1976.31147541 |133233
| 1983.287671233 |145368
| 1989.257534247 |164173
| 1996.292349727 |196836
| 2009.569863014 |245580
| 2014.652055 |268767
| 2019.693151 |271407
| 2025.306849 |264596
}}
اپريل &lt;small&gt;2025&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ ٿيل آخري مردم شماري مطابق، نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;264,596&lt;/small&gt; هئي. هي انگ سيپٽمبر &lt;small&gt;2019&lt;/small&gt;ع جي مردم شماري (&lt;small&gt;271,407&lt;/small&gt;) جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ هو، ڇاڪاڻ ته معاشي بحران ۽ &lt;small&gt;2024&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ ٿيل بدامنيءَ سبب ماڻهن اهو علائقو ڇڏي ڏنو هو. انهن &lt;small&gt;264,596&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن مان، &lt;small&gt;18,671&lt;/small&gt; لائلٽي آئلينڊز صوبي ۾، &lt;small&gt;50,947&lt;/small&gt; اتر صوبي ۾، ۽ &lt;small&gt;194,978&lt;/small&gt; ڏکڻ صوبي ۾ رهندا هئا.  

&lt;small&gt;2019&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;2025&lt;/small&gt;ع جي مردم شمارين جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ اتر صوبي ۽ لائلٽي آئلينڊز ۾ آباديءَ ۾ ترتيبوار &lt;small&gt;2.1&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;1.7&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو اضافو رڪارڊ ڪيو ويو، جڏهن ته ڏکڻ صوبي ۾ آباديءَ ۾ &lt;small&gt;4.0&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو گهٽتائي ڏٺي وئي، جيتوڻيڪ تازو ئي گريٽر نوميا (&lt;small&gt;Greater&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Nouméa&lt;/small&gt;) واري علائقي ۾ نوان ماڻهو اچي آباد ٿيا آهن. خاص طور تي، &lt;small&gt;2024&lt;/small&gt;ع واري بدامني ۽ شهري فسادن کانپوءِ &quot;گريٽر نوميا&quot; واري علائقي ۾ معاشي صورتحال خراب ٿيڻ سبب، ڪانڪ (&lt;small&gt;Kanak&lt;/small&gt;) ماڻهن نوميا ڇڏي نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي ٻين علائقن ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/195-donnees?download=2291:les-populations-de-reference |title=Populations aux différents recensements|publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2026-01-30}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

آباديءَ جو &lt;small&gt;30&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو حصو &lt;small&gt;20&lt;/small&gt; سالن کان گهٽ عمر وارن ماڻهن تي مشتمل هو، جڏهن ته مجموعي آباديءَ ۾ بزرگن جو تناسب وڌي رهيو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;insee-1&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?ref_id=ip1338 |title=Recensement de la population en Nouvelle-Calédonie en 2009 – 50 000 habitants de plus en 13 ans |publisher=Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques ([[INSEE]].fr) |language=fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=31 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131233952/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?ref_id=ip1338 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; نيو ڪيليڊونيا جا ٽن مان ٻه رهواسي گريٽر نوميا ۾ رهن ٿا. &lt;small&gt;78&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو ماڻهو نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ ئي پيدا ٿيا هئا. ٻارن جي پيدائش جي مجموعي شرح (&lt;small&gt;Total fertility rate&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;small&gt;2014&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ في عورت &lt;small&gt;'''2.2'''&lt;/small&gt; ٻارن کان گهٽجي &lt;small&gt;2019&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ &lt;small&gt;'''1.9'''&lt;/small&gt; ٿي وئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/230-toutes-les-publications?download=1982:rp-2019-la-croissance-demographique-flechit-nettement-en-nc-entre-2014-et-2019 |title=La croissance démographique fléchit nettement en Nouvelle-Calédonie entre 2014 et 2019 |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2 November 2020 |archive-date=7 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107165152/https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/230-toutes-les-publications?download=1982:rp-2019-la-croissance-demographique-flechit-nettement-en-nc-entre-2014-et-2019 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== نسلي گروهه ===
{{bar box
|title=Ethnic Groups in New Caledonia (2019 Census)&lt;ref name=&quot;Population Structure of Communities&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/278-donnees?download=874:structure-de-la-population-des-communautes |title=Population Structure of Communities |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=29 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113144638/http://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/278-donnees?download=874:structure-de-la-population-des-communautes |archive-date=13 November 2019 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|titlebar=#ddd
|left1=Ethnic Groups
|right1=percent
|float=right
|bars=
{{bar percent|Kanak|darkgreen|41.2}}
{{bar percent|European|purple|24.1}}
{{bar percent|&quot;Caledonian&quot; or not stated|pink|7.5}}
{{bar percent|Mixed|red|11.3}}
{{bar percent|Wallisian/Futunian|black|8.3}}
{{bar percent|Tahitian|darkblue|2.0}}
{{bar percent|Javanese|Violet|1.4}}
{{bar percent|Ni-Vanuatu|maroon|0.9}}
{{bar percent|Vietnamese|darkgray|0.8}}
{{bar percent|Other Asian|gray|0.4}}
{{bar percent|Other|tan|2.1}}
}}
At the 2019 census,&lt;ref name=&quot;Population Structure of Communities&quot; /&gt; 41.2% of the population reported belonging to the [[Kanak people|Kanak]] community (up from 39.1% at the 2014 census&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://xt.isee.nc/xtc/tele.php?tableau=xt127001.xls&amp;base=rp09indcomap |title=Communauté d'appartenance – INSEE – ISEE / Recensement de la population de 2009 en Nouvelle-Calédonie |format=XLS |access-date=2015-08-24 |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |archive-date=31 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331120910/https://xt.isee.nc/xtc/tele.php?tableau=xt127001.xls&amp;base=rp09indcomap |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;) and 24.1% to the [[Europe]]an ([[Caldoche]] and [[Zoreilles|Zoreille]]) community (down from 27.2% at the 2014 census). A further 7.5% of the population either self-identified as &quot;Caledonian&quot; or refused to declare an ethnic group (down from 9.9% at the 2014 census). Most of the people who self-identify as &quot;Caledonian&quot; or refuse to declare an ethnic group are thought to be ethnically European.&lt;ref name=&quot;LoganCole2001b&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Leanne Logan|author2=Geert Cole|title=New Caledonia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA39|year=2001|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=978-1-86450-202-2|page=39|access-date=18 October 2015|archive-date=13 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413094632/https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA39|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The other self-reported communities were [[Wallis and Futuna|Wallisians and Futunians]] (8.3% of the total population, up from 8.2% at the 2014 census), [[Overseas Indonesian|Indonesians]] who are from the [[Javanese New Caledonians|Javanese ethnic group]] (1.4% of the total population, the same as in 2014),&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=New Caledonian Javanese, in New Caledonia |url=https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/13321/NC |website=joshuaproject.net |publisher=Joshua Project |access-date=14 December 2020 |archive-date=5 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205095432/https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/13321/NC |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Tahitians]] (2.0% of the total population, down from 2.1% at the 2014 census), [[Ni-Vanuatu]] (0.9%, down from 1.0% at the 2014 census), [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] (0.8%, down from 0.9% at the 2014 census), and other Asians (primarily [[Overseas Chinese|ethnic Chinese]]; 0.4% of the total population, the same as in 2014).

11.3% of the population reported belonging to multiple communities ([[Multiracial people|mixed race]]) (up from 8.6% at the 2014 census). The question on community belonging, which had been left out of the 2004 census, was reintroduced in 2009 under a new formulation, different from the 1996 census, allowing multiple choices (mixed race) and the possibility to clarify the choice &quot;other&quot; (which led many Europeans to self-identify as &quot;Caledonian&quot; in the category &quot;other&quot;, or to select several ethnic communities, such as both European and Kanak, thus appearing as mixed race, which is particularly the case for the Caldoches living in the bush, who often have mixed ancestry).&lt;ref name=&quot;eth09&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.isee.nc/population/telecharpdf/4%20page-rpnc09.pdf |title=Recensement de la population 2009 |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=13 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113151907/http://www.isee.nc/population/telecharpdf/4%20page-rpnc09.pdf |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Finally, 2.1% of the population reported belonging to other communities to the exclusion of &quot;Caledonian&quot; (up from 1.3% at the 2014 census).

The Kanak people, part of the ethnic [[Melanesians|Melanesian]] group, are indigenous to New Caledonia.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=5}} Their social organization is traditionally based on [[clan]]s, which identify as either &quot;land&quot; or &quot;sea&quot; clans, depending on their original location and the occupation of their ancestors.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=5}} According to the 2019 census, the Kanak constitute 95% of the population in the [[Loyalty Islands Province]], 72% in the North Province and 29% in the South Province.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=5}} The Kanak tend to be of lower socio-economic status than the Europeans and other settlers.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=5}}&lt;ref name=&quot;isee.nc&quot;&gt;{{cite magazine |magazine=Synthèse |issue=35 |url=http://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/197-analyse?download=1484:une-demographie-toujours-dynamique |format=PDF |title=Recensement de la population 2014 |lang=fr |trans-title=2014 population census |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=14 December 2019 |archive-date=14 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214213813/http://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/197-analyse%3Fdownload%3D1484:une-demographie-toujours-dynamique |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Europeans in Oceania|Europeans]] first settled in New Caledonia when France established a penal colony on the archipelago.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=5}} Once the prisoners had completed their sentences, they were given land to settle.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=5}} According to the 2014 census, of the 73,199 Europeans in New Caledonia, 30,484 were [[Caldoche|native-born]], 36,975 were born in [[Zoreilles|Metropolitan France]], 488 were born in [[French Polynesia]], 86 were born in [[Wallis and Futuna]], and 5,166 were born abroad.&lt;ref name=&quot;ridet&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=DONNEES DE CADRAGE |url=http://www.isee.nc/population/telecharxls/don.cadrage-rp-09.xls |format=XLS |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030182817/http://www.isee.nc/population/telecharxls/don.cadrage-rp-09.xls |archive-date=30 October 2012 |place=Nouméa}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Europeans are divided into several groups. The [[Caldoche]]s are usually defined as those born in New Caledonia who have ancestral ties that span back to the early French settlers.&lt;ref name=&quot;LoganCole2001b&quot;/&gt; They often settled in the rural areas of the western coast of Grande Terre, where many continue to run large cattle properties.&lt;ref name=&quot;LoganCole2001b&quot;/&gt;

Distinct from the Caldoches are those who were born in New Caledonia from families that had settled more recently, and are called simply Caledonians.&lt;ref name=&quot;LoganCole2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1= Leanne|last1= vLogan|first2= Geert|last2= Cole|title= New Caledonia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA13|year= 2001|publisher= Lonely Planet|isbn= 978-1-86450-202-2|page= 13|via= Google Books|access-date= 18 October 2015|archive-date= 13 April 2016|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160413093509/https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA13|url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Metropolitan France|Metropolitan French]]-born migrants who come to New Caledonia are called ''Métros'' or ''Zoreilles'', indicating their origins in metropolitan France.&lt;ref name=&quot;LoganCole2001&quot;/&gt; There is also a community of about 2,000&lt;ref name=&quot;LoganCole2001&quot;/&gt; [[Pied-Noir|pieds noirs]], descended from European settlers in France's former North African colonies;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Chappell |first1=David A. |title=New Caledonia |journal=The Contemporary Pacific |date=September 2005 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=435–448 |doi=10.1353/cp.2005.0043 }}&lt;/ref&gt; some of them are prominent in anti-independence politics, including [[Pierre Maresca]], a leader of the [[Rally for Caledonia in the Republic|RPCR]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE7DC1E3FF935A15754C0A96E948260&amp;sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=all|title=Noumea Journal; On an Island in the Pacific, but Far From at Peace|work=The New York Times|author=Henry Kamm|date=26 July 1988|author-link=Henry Kamm|access-date=11 February 2017|archive-date=23 April 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423052218/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE7DC1E3FF935A15754C0A96E948260&amp;sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=all|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A 2015 documentary by [[Al Jazeera English]] asserted that up to 10%{{dubious|date=September 2015}} of New Caledonia's population is descended from around 2,000 [[Arabs|Arab]]-[[Imazighen|Berber]] people deported from [[French Algeria]] in the late 19th century to [[Penal colony|prisons on the island]] in reprisal for the [[Mokrani Revolt]] in 1871. After serving their sentences, they were released and given land to own and cultivate as part of colonisation efforts on the island. As the overwhelming majority of the [[Algerians of the Pacific|Algerians imprisoned on New Caledonia]] were men, the community was continued through intermarriage with women of other ethnic groups, mainly French women from nearby women's prisons. Despite facing both assimilation into the Euro-French population and discrimination for their ethnic background, descendants of the deportees have succeeded in preserving a common identity as Algerians, including maintaining certain cultural practices (such as Arabic names) and in some cases [[Islam]]ic religion. Some travel to Algeria as a rite of passage, though obtaining Algerian citizenship is often a difficult process. The largest population of Algerian-Caledonians lives in the commune of [[Bourail]] (particularly in the {{ill|Nessadiou|fr|Nessadiou}} district, where there is an Islamic cultural centre and {{ill|Arabic cemetery of Nesssadiou|lt=cemetery|fr|Cimetière des Arabes de Nessadiou}}), with smaller communities in [[Nouméa]], [[Koné, New Caledonia|Koné]], [[Pouembout]], and [[Yaté]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/aljazeeraworld/2015/09/exile-caledonia-150914145540415.html|title=Exile in New Caledonia|last1=Mame|first1=Abdelkader|first2=Abdelaziz|last2=Abid|date=14 September 2015|publisher=Al Jazeera English|access-date=17 September 2015|archive-date=19 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919090331/http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/aljazeeraworld/2015/09/exile-caledonia-150914145540415.html|url-status=dead}} [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1qsr-FjZhEM video] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920034630/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1qsr-FjZhEM |date=20 September 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;gallery widths=&quot;200px&quot; heights=&quot;155px&quot;&gt;
Femmes kanak2.jpg|[[Kanak people|Kanak]] women
Rodéo cheval.JPG|[[Rodeo]]s (here at the annual fair of [[Bourail]]) are part of [[Caldoche]] culture.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=== Languages ===
{{Main|Languages of New Caledonia}}

The [[French language]] began to spread with the establishment of French settlements, and French is now spoken even in the most secluded villages. For a long time the level of fluency varied significantly across the population as a whole, primarily due to the absence of universal access to public education before 1953, and also due to immigration and ethnic diversity,&lt;ref name=&quot;rl-lang&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ac-noumea.nc/sitevr/spip.php?rubrique48 |title=Situation linguistique en Nouvelle-Calédonie |publisher=Vice-Rectorat de Nouvelle-Calédonie |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=18 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118021148/http://www.ac-noumea.nc/sitevr/spip.php?rubrique48 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; but the French language has now become universal among the younger generations as shown by the censuses of population. At the 2009 census, 97.3% of people aged 15 or older reported that they could speak, read and write French, whereas only 1.1% reported that they had no knowledge of French.&lt;ref name=&quot;cen-lang&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Principales caractéristiques des individus de 15 ans et plus, par province de résidence et sexe |format=XLS |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/193-recensement?download=1876:rp-09-population-menages-logement-par-commune |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030182817/http://www.isee.nc/population/telecharxls/don.cadrage-rp-09.xls |place=Nouméa |access-date=2013-02-28|archive-date=30 October 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt; No questions regarding the knowledge of French were asked in the 2014 and 2019 censuses, on account of the population's nearly universal understanding of it.

The 28 [[Kanak languages]] spoken in New Caledonia are part of the [[Oceanic languages|Oceanic]] group of the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] family.&lt;ref name=&quot;macc&quot;&gt;{{cite web |website=Académie des Langues Kanak |title=Langues |url=http://www.alk.gouv.nc/portal/page/portal/alk/langues |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109131824/http://www.alk.gouv.nc/portal/page/portal/alk/langues |archive-date=9 November 2017 |url-status=dead |access-date=15 October 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Eight of these can be chosen by parents as optional subjects for their children from kindergarten to high school (four languages are taught up to the bachelor's degree) and an academy is responsible for their promotion.&lt;ref name=&quot;maskan&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.maisonnouvellecaledonieparis.nc/site/population.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426023621/http://www.maisonnouvellecaledonieparis.nc/site/population.php |archive-date=2009-04-26 |title=La Population De Nouvelle-Caledonie |publisher=La maison de la Nouvelle-Calédonie |language=fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; The three most widely spoken indigenous languages are [[Drehu]] (spoken in [[Lifou]]), [[Nengone language|Nengone]] (spoken on [[Maré]]) and [[Paicî]] (northern part of Grande Terre).&lt;ref name=&quot;maskan&quot;/&gt; Others include [[Iaai language|Iaai]] (spoken on [[Ouvéa]]). At the 2019 census, 44.0% of people whose age was 15 or older reported that they had some form of knowledge of at least one Kanak language (up from 41.3% at the 2009 census), whereas 56.0% reported that they had no knowledge of any of the Kanak languages (down from 58.7% at the 2009 census).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/193-recensement?download=1980:rp2019-population-menages-logement-province |title=Population, ménages et logement par province, en 2019 – P20 Population de 15 ans et plus, selon le genre, la connaissance d'une langue kanak et la province de résidence par groupe d'âge décennal |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |language=fr |access-date=2023-03-06 |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101013043/https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/193-recensement?download=1980:rp2019-population-menages-logement-province |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;cen-lang&quot;/&gt;

Other significant language communities among immigrant populations include speakers of [[Wallisian]], [[Futunan language|Futunian]], [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]], [[Javanese language|Javanese]], [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], and [[Bislama]].

=== Religion ===
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Religion in New Caledonia according to the ''Global Religious Landscape'' survey by the [[Pew Research Center|Pew Forum]], 2012&lt;ref name=&quot;Survey&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.pewforum.org/files/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125173538/https://www.pewforum.org/files/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 January 2017|title=The Global Religious Landscape|publisher=Pewforum.org|access-date=2 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|label1 = [[Christianity]]
|value1 = 85.2
|color1 = Red
|label2 = No religion
|value2 = 10.4
|color2 = #FFFFFF
|label3 = [[Islam]]
|value3 = 2.8
|color3 = Green
|label4 = [[Buddhism]]
|value4 = 0.6
|color4 = Gold
|label5 = Folk religion
|value5 = 0.2
|color5 = Chartreuse
|label6 = Others
|value6 = 0.8
|color6 = Orange
}}
The predominant religion is [[Christianity]]; half of the population is [[Catholic]], including most of the Europeans, [[West Uvean]]s, and Vietnamese and half of the Melanesian and Polynesian minorities.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncbrit&quot;/&gt; Catholicism was introduced by French colonists. The island also has numerous [[Protestant]] churches, of which the [[Free Evangelical Church]] and the [[Evangelical Church in New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands]] have the largest number of adherents; their memberships are almost entirely Melanesian.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncbrit&quot;/&gt; Protestantism gained ground in the late 20th century and continues to expand. There are also numerous other Christian groups and more than 6,000 Muslims.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncbrit&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=R. G. Crocombe|title=Asia in the Pacific Islands: Replacing the West|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iDg9oAkwsXAC&amp;pg=PA375|access-date=24 August 2012|year=2007|publisher=editorips@usp.ac.fj|isbn=978-982-02-0388-4|pages=375–|archive-date=4 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604054847/http://books.google.com/books?id=iDg9oAkwsXAC&amp;pg=PA375|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; (See [[Islam in New Caledonia]] and [[Baháʼí Faith in New Caledonia]].) Nouméa is the seat of the [[Archdiocese of Nouméa]].

== تعليم ==
نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ تعليم فرانسيسي نصاب تي ٻڌل آهي ۽ اها فرانسيسي استادن توڙي فرانس ۾ تربيت يافته استادن ذريعي ڏني وڃي ٿي. 1998ع جي نوميا معاهدي (Nouméa Accord) جي شرطن تحت، پرائمري تعليم ٽن صوبن جي ذميواري آهي. 2010ع تائين، سيڪنڊري تعليم کي صوبن جي حوالي ڪرڻ جو عمل جاري هو. اڪثر اسڪول نوميا (Nouméa) ۾ واقع آهن، پر ڪجهه ٻيٽن ۽ نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي اترئين حصي ۾ پڻ موجود آهن. جڏهن شاگرد هاءِ اسڪول واري عمر کي پهچندا آهن، ته انهن مان گهڻن کي سيڪنڊري تعليم جاري رکڻ لاءِ نوميا موڪليو ويندو آهي. ڇهن سالن جي عمر کان تعليم لازمي آهي. 

نيو ڪيليڊونيا جو اعليٰ تعليم جو مکيه ادارو ”يونيورسٽي آف نيو ڪيليڊونيا“ (Université de la Nouvelle-Calédonie) آهي، جنهن جو بنياد 1993ع ۾ رکيو ويو ۽ اهو اعليٰ تعليم، تحقيق ۽ جدت واري وزارت جي نگرانيءَ هيٺ ڪم ڪري ٿو. هي يونيورسٽي نوميا ۾ واقع آهي ۽ مختلف قسم جا پيشه ورانه (وڪيشنل)، بيچلرز، ايم اي (MA) ۽ پي ايڇ ڊي (PhD) پروگرام ۽ ڪورس پيش ڪري ٿي. يونيورسٽي آف نيو ڪيليڊونيا ٽن تعليمي شعبن، هڪ ٽيڪنالاجي انسٽيٽيوٽ، هڪ پي ايڇ ڊي اسڪول ۽ هڪ ٽيچرز ڪاليج تي مشتمل آهي. 2013ع تائين، يونيورسٽي ۾ تقريبن 3,000 شاگرد، 107 تعليمي ماهر (استاد) ۽ 95 انتظامي توڙي لائبريري عملي جا ميمبر موجود هئا. نيو ڪيليڊونيا جا ڪيترائي شاگرد مرڪزي فرانس (Metropolitan France) ۾ تعليم حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ اسڪالرشپ پڻ حاصل ڪندا آهن. نوميا معاهدي واري عمل جي حصي طور، ”ڪيڊر ايونير“ (Cadre Avenir) پروگرام ڪانڪ (Kanak) پيشه ور ماڻهن کي فرانس ۾ تعليم حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ اسڪالرشپ فراهم ڪري ٿو. 

in New Caledonia is based on the [[Education in France|French curriculum]] and delivered by both French teachers and French-trained teachers. Under the terms of the 1998 [[Nouméa Accord]], primary education is the responsibility of the three provinces. As of 2010, secondary education was in the process of being transferred to the provinces.&lt;ref name=&quot;CSC Australia 2010&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Emerging Pacific Leaders Dialogue 2010 New Caledonia Report|url=http://www.cscaustralia.com/ep10/reports/Study%20Tour%20Report,%20New%20Caledonia%20April%20'10.pdf|publisher=Commonwealth Study Conferences Australia|access-date=1 March 2018|archive-date=18 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170918190058/http://www.cscaustralia.com/ep10/reports/Study%20Tour%20Report%2C%20New%20Caledonia%20April%20%2710.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; The majority of schools are located in [[Nouméa]] but some are found in the islands and the north of New Caledonia. When students reach high school age, most are sent to Nouméa to continue their secondary education. Education is compulsory from the age of six years.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=What is education like in New Caledonia?|url=https://newcaledoniatoday.wordpress.com/2013/02/28/what-is-education-like-in-new-caledonia/|website=New Caledonia Today|access-date=1 March 2018|date=2013-02-28|archive-date=1 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180301164416/https://newcaledoniatoday.wordpress.com/2013/02/28/what-is-education-like-in-new-caledonia/|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unreliable source?|date=March 2018}}

New Caledonia's main tertiary education institution is the [[University of New Caledonia]] (''Université de la Nouvelle-Calédonie''), which was founded in 1993 and comes under the supervision of the [[Ministry of Higher Education, Research and Innovation]]. It is based in Nouméa and offers a range of vocational, Bachelor, MA, and PhD programs and courses. The University of New Caledonia consists of three academic departments, one institute of technology, one PhD school, and one teachers' college. As of 2013, the university has approximately 3,000 students, 107 academics, and 95 administrative and library staff.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Presentation UNC en Anglais 2012|url=http://unc.nc/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/presentation-UNC-english-1.pdf|publisher=[[University of New Caledonia]]|access-date=1 March 2018|archive-date=25 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025024601/https://unc.nc/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/presentation-UNC-english-1.pdf|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CSC Australia 2010&quot; /&gt; Many New Caledonian students also pursue scholarships to study in metropolitan France. As part of the Nouméa Accord process, a ''Cadre Avenir'' provides scholarships for Kanak professionals to study in France.&lt;ref name=&quot;CSC Australia 2010&quot; /&gt;

== ثقافت ==
[[File:Foire chevaux.JPG|thumb|[[Caldoche]]s, [[European emigration|European]] people born in New Caledonia]]

[[Wood carving]], especially of the houp (''[[Montrouziera cauliflora]]''), is a contemporary reflection of the beliefs of the traditional tribal society, and includes [[totem]]s, masks, [[chambranle]]s, or [[flèche faîtière]],&lt;ref name=&quot;desc&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://fr.visitenouvellecaledonie.com/decouvrez/la-culture |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724075625/http://fr.visitenouvellecaledonie.com/decouvrez/la-culture |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-07-24 |title=La Culture |publisher=Tourisme Nouvelle-Calédonie |access-date=2013-01-30 }}&lt;/ref&gt; a kind of arrow that adorns the roofs of Kanak houses. [[Basketry]] is a craft widely practised by tribal women, creating objects of daily use.&lt;ref name=&quot;desc&quot;/&gt;

The [[Jean-Marie Tjibaou Cultural Centre]], designed by Italian architect [[Renzo Piano]] and opened in 1998, celebrates Kanak culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;desc&quot;/&gt;

The [[Kaneka (music)|Kaneka]] is a form of local music, inspired by [[reggae]] and originating in the 1980s.&lt;ref name=&quot;desc&quot;/&gt;

The [[Mwâ Ka]] is a {{convert|12|m|ft|adj=on}} [[totem pole]] commemorating the French annexation of New Caledonia, and was inaugurated in 2005.&lt;ref name=&quot;mka&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/new-caledonia/noumea/sights/monument/mwa-ka |title=Mwâ Ka in Noumea, New Caledonia |publisher=Lonely Planet |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=17 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130317231552/http://www.lonelyplanet.com/new-caledonia/noumea/sights/monument/mwa-ka |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ميڊيا ==
&quot;ليس نيوويلس ڪيليڊونينس&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Les&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Nouvelles&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Calédoniennes&lt;/small&gt;) هن ٻيٽن جي مجموعي (&lt;small&gt;archipelago&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ واحد روزاني اخبار آهي. &lt;ref&gt;The name is a pun, and can be read in English as &quot;The Caledonian News&quot; or &quot;Women of New Caledonia&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; هڪ ماهوار رسالو، ”لي چين بلو“ (&lt;small&gt;Le Chien bleu&lt;/small&gt;)، نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي خبرن تي طنزيه تبصرا يا پيروڊي (&lt;small&gt;parody&lt;/small&gt;) پيش ڪري ٿو.

هتي پنج ريڊيو اسٽيشنون: عوامي خدمت وارو نشرياتي ادارو ريڊيو نيوويل-ڪيليڊونيا (&lt;small&gt;RFO radio Nouvelle&lt;/small&gt;-&lt;small&gt;Calédonie&lt;/small&gt;)، اوشين ايف ايم (&lt;small&gt;Océane&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;FM&lt;/small&gt;) - جيڪا علائقي جي نئين ترين اسٽيشن آهي، نوجوانن لاءِ مخصوص اسٽيشن اين آر جي (&lt;small&gt;NRJ&lt;/small&gt;)، ريڊيو جيڊو (&lt;small&gt;Radio Djiido&lt;/small&gt;) جنهن جو بنياد جين-ميري جيباؤ رکيو هو، ۽ &quot;ريڊيو رٿمز بلوز&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Radio Rythmes Bleus&lt;/small&gt;) آهن. آخري ٻه اسٽيشنون بنيادي طور تي مختلف ڪنڪ گروپن کي نشانو بڻايون ويون آهن جيڪي نيو ڪيليڊونيا جا مقامي آهن. &quot;جيڊو&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Djiido&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;)&lt;/small&gt; فوائي ٻولي مان هڪ اصطلاح آهي، جيڪا اتر صوبي ۾ هينگين ۾ ڳالهائي ويندي آهي، هڪ ڌاتو جي اسپائڪ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي جيڪا روايتي ڪنڪ گهر جي ڇت تي پٽي جي ڇل کي محفوظ ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي.

ٽيليويزن جي حوالي سان، فرانس ٽيليويزن هڪ مقامي چينل، ريسو آئوٽريمر 1ري، فرانس 2، فرانس 3، فرانس 4، فرانس 5، فرانس 24 ۽ آرٽ سان گڏ هلائي ٿو، جيڪي سڀئي پيرس کان نشر ٿين ٿا. ڪينال پلس ڪيليڊوني فرانسيسي ۾ 17 ڊجيٽل چينل کڻي ٿو، جن ۾ ڪينال+ ۽ TF1 شامل آهن. اينالاگ ٽيليويزن نشريات سيپٽمبر 2011 ۾ ختم ٿي ويون، نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ ڊجيٽل ٽيليويزن منتقلي کي مڪمل ڪيو. فرانسيسي نشريات اختيارين پاران ٻن نون مقامي ٽيليويزن اسٽيشنن، NCTV ۽ NC9 لاءِ بوليون تي غور ڪيو ويو. NCTV ڊسمبر 2013 ۾ شروع ڪيو ويو.

the only daily newspaper in the archipelago.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/WO1403/S00173/pff-stands-in-solidarity-with-les-nouvelles-caledoniennes.htm |title=PFF stands in solidarity with Les Nouvelles Calédoniennes |website=[[Scoop (website)|Scoop]] |date=11 March 2014 |access-date=25 April 2016 |archive-date=25 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425125050/http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/WO1403/S00173/pff-stands-in-solidarity-with-les-nouvelles-caledoniennes.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;vivmed&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.gitesnouvellecaledonie.nc/nouvelle-caledonie/vivre-en-nouvelle-caledonie |title=Vivre en Nouvelle-Calédonie |publisher=Gîtes Nouvelle Calédonie |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=19 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119144106/http://www.gitesnouvellecaledonie.nc/nouvelle-caledonie/vivre-en-nouvelle-caledonie |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; A monthly publication, ''{{lang|fr|Le Chien bleu}}'', parodies the news from New Caledonia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.lechienbleu.nc/|title=Le Chien bleu : Journal satirique de Nouvelle-Calédonie. Y en aura pour tout le monde!|website=Lechienbleu.nc|access-date=17 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726061552/http://www.lechienbleu.nc/|archive-date=26 July 2018|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

There are five radio stations: the public service broadcaster [[Outre-Mer 1ère|RFO radio Nouvelle-Calédonie]], [[Océane FM]] (the collectivity's newest station), the youth-oriented station [[NRJ]], [[Radio Djiido]] (established by [[Jean-Marie Tjibaou]]), and [[Radio Rythmes Bleus]].&lt;ref name=&quot;vivmed&quot;/&gt; The last two stations are primarily targeted to the various [[Kanak people|Kanak]] groups who are indigenous to New Caledonia (&quot;Djiido&quot; is a term from the [[Fwâi language]], spoken in [[Hienghène]] in the [[North Province, New Caledonia|North Province]], denoting a metal spike used to secure straw thatching to the roof of a traditional Kanak house).

As for television, the public service broadcaster [[France Télévisions]] operates a local channel, [[Réseau Outre-Mer 1re]], along with [[France 2]], [[France 3]], [[France 4]], [[France 5]], [[France 24]] and [[Arte TV|Arte]] which all broadcast from [[Paris]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.gouv.nc/portal/page/portal/gouv/tnt|title=Télévision Numérique Terrestre (TNT)|website=Gouv.nc|access-date=17 July 2018|date=2016-01-31|archive-date=29 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140629052143/http://www.gouv.nc/portal/page/portal/gouv/tnt|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[CanalSat Calédonie|Canal Plus Calédonie]] carries 17 digital channels in French, including [[Canal+ (French TV channel)|Canal+]] and [[TF1]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.canalplus-caledonie.com/grille-tv/toutes-les-chaines|title=Grille TV – Canal+ Calédonie|website=Canalplus-caledonie.com|access-date=17 July 2018|archive-date=18 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718001322/https://www.canalplus-caledonie.com/grille-tv/toutes-les-chaines|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Analogue television broadcasts ended in September 2011, completing the [[digital television transition]] in New Caledonia.&lt;ref name=&quot;tnt&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://nouvellecaledonie.la1ere.fr/infos/actualites/loutre-mer-dit-adieu-a-lanalogique_64703.html |title=L'Outre-mer dit adieu à l'analogique – Audiovisuel – Info – Nouvelle-Calédonie – La 1ère |website=nouvellecaledonie.la1ere.fr|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930124824/http://nouvellecaledonie.la1ere.fr/infos/actualites/loutre-mer-dit-adieu-a-lanalogique_64703.html |archive-date=30 September 2011 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Bids for two new local television stations, NCTV and NC9, were considered by the French broadcasting authorities.&lt;ref name=&quot;rnzitv&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&amp;id=63685 |title=Two new New Caledonia television channels proposed |website=Rnzi.com |date=2011-10-12 |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=5 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305034204/http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&amp;id=63685 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; NCTV was launched in December 2013.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.lnc.nc/article/pays/nctv-c-est-parti |title=NCTV, c'est parti! |language=fr |work=[[Les Nouvelles Calédoniennes]] |date=9 December 2013 |access-date=19 April 2016 |archive-date=27 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427112334/http://www.lnc.nc/article/pays/nctv-c-est-parti |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The media are considered to be able to operate freely, but [[Reporters Without Borders]] raised concerns in 2006 about &quot;threats and intimidation&quot; of RFO staff by members of a pro-independence group.&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc-cp&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-16740838 |title=Regions and territories: New Caledonia |work=[[BBC News]] |date=2013-01-16 |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=13 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013082759/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_profiles/3921323.stm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== رانديون ==
[[File:Christian_Karembeu_-_2014.jpg|thumb|upright|نيو ڪيليڊونيا جو فٽبالر ڪرسچن ڪيريمبيو، جيڪو فرانس سان گڏ 1998ع جو فيفا ورلڊ ڪپ کٽيندڙ رانديگر رهيو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Swaminathan |first1=Swaroop |title=Karembeu, France &amp; New Caledonia – a complex relationship |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/sport/football/fifa-u-17-world-cup-2017/2017/oct/12/karembeu-france--new-caledonia--a-complex-relationship-1672627.html |access-date=4 November 2018 |work=The New Indian Express |date=12 October 2018 |archive-date=5 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105062122/http://www.newindianexpress.com/sport/football/fifa-u-17-world-cup-2017/2017/oct/12/karembeu-france--new-caledonia--a-complex-relationship-1672627.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي فٽبال ٽيم &lt;small&gt;1950&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ راند شروع ڪئي ۽ &lt;small&gt;2004&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ ان کي فيفا (فٽبال ليگز جي عالمي تنظيم) ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو. فيفا ۾ شامل ٿيڻ کان اڳ، نيو ڪيليڊونيا کي اوشينيا فٽبال ڪنفيڊريشن (&lt;small&gt;OFC&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ مبصر جو درجو حاصل هو ۽ فيفا جي رڪنيت ملڻ سان گڏ ئي اها اوشينيا فٽبال ڪنفيڊريشن جي باضابطه ميمبر بڻجي وئي. هنن پنج ڀيرا &quot;ساوٿ پيسفڪ گيمز&quot; کٽيون آهن، جن ۾ تازو ترين ڪاميابي &lt;small&gt;2007&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ ملي؛&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/federation/news/newsid=92706.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070718153916/http://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/federation/news/newsid=92706.html|archive-date=2007-07-18 |title=New Caledonia joins the world football community |publisher=FIFA |date=24 May 2004 |access-date=6 August 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کان علاوه، هنن اوشينيا فٽبال ڪنفيڊريشن نيشنز ڪپ ۾ ٻه ڀيرا ٽيون نمبر حاصل ڪيو آهي. ڪرسچن ڪيريمبيو نيو ڪيليڊونيا جو هڪ مشهور اڳوڻو فٽبالر آهي. انڊر-&lt;small&gt;17&lt;/small&gt; ٽيم &lt;small&gt;2017&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ فيفا انڊر-&lt;small&gt;17&lt;/small&gt; ورلڊ ڪپ لاءِ ڪواليفائي ڪيو هو.

نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ باسڪيٽ بال کي ميڊيا ۽ راند جي شوقينن طرفان تمام گهڻي اهميت ۽ توجه ڏني ويندي آهي. ڪيليڊونيا جي قومي ٽيم اوشينيا واري خطي ۾ ڪيترائي ميڊل کٽيا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.visitnewcaledonia.com/new-caledonia-national-basketball-team-an-unknown-champion-bet365/ |title=New Caledonia National Basketball Team – An Unknown Champion |website=VisitNewCaledonia.com |date=13 November 2019 |access-date=30 September 2021 |archive-date=30 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930084118/https://www.visitnewcaledonia.com/new-caledonia-national-basketball-team-an-unknown-champion-bet365/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; ڪيليڊونيا جون نمايان باسڪيٽ بال ڪلب ٽيمون &quot;اي ايس 6 اي ڪلوميٽر&quot; (&lt;small&gt;AS 6e Km&lt;/small&gt;) ۽ &quot;اي ايس ڊمبيا&quot; (&lt;small&gt;AS&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Dumbea&lt;/small&gt;) آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Beniela Adjouhgniope,le colosse de l'AS 6e Km |url=https://www.lnc.nc/article/sports/beniela-adjouhgniope-le-colosse-de-l-as-6e-km |accessdate=1 October 2021 |work=[[Les Nouvelles Calédoniennes]] |language=French |archive-date=1 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211001071450/https://www.lnc.nc/article/sports/beniela-adjouhgniope-le-colosse-de-l-as-6e-km |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ منعقد ٿيندڙ سڀ کان وڏو راندين جو مقابلو &quot;ايف آءِ اي ايشيا پيسفڪ ريلي چيمپيئن شپ&quot; (&lt;small&gt;APRC&lt;/small&gt;) جو هڪ مرحلو آهي.  &quot;ٽوئر سائيڪلسٽ ڊي نيوويل-ڪيليڊونيا&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Tour&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Cycliste&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;de&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Nouvelle-Calédonie&lt;/small&gt;) سائيڪلنگ جي هڪ گهڻ-ڏينهن واري اسٽيج ريس آهي، جيڪا عام طور تي آڪٽوبر ۾ منعقد ٿيندي آهي. هيءَ ريس &quot;ڪميٽي سائيڪلسٽ نيو ڪيليڊونيا&quot; (Comite Cycliste New Caledonia) پاران منعقد ڪئي ويندي آهي. هن ريس ۾ آسٽريليا، نيوزي لينڊ، فرانس، ري يونين (فرانس جو اوورسيز علائقو)، يورپ ۽ تاهيتي (فرانسيسي پولينيشيا) جا سائيڪل سوار حصو وٺندا آهن. آسٽريليا جي برينڊن واشنگٽن 2005ع ۽ 2009ع جي وچ ۾ هن ريس ۾ ٽي ڀيرا آخري نمبر حاصل ڪيو، ۽ کيس نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ &quot;دي لانٽرن روج“ (The Lanterne Rouge) جي نالي هنن فائنل ۾ آسٽريليا کي شڪست ڏني.

&quot;انٽرنيشنل ڊي نيو-ڪيليڊونيا&quot; (Internationaux de Nouvelle-Calédonie) هڪ ٽينس ٽورنامينٽ آهي جيڪا جنوري جي پهرين هفتي ۾ منعقد ٿيندي آهي. 2004ع کان وٺي، هي ٽورنامينٽ ”اي ٽي پي چيلينجر ٽوئر“ (ATP Challenger Tour) جو حصو رهي آهي، ۽ رانديگر عام طور تي ان ۾ ”آسٽريلين اوپن“ (جيڪو سال جو پهريون گرانڊ سليم هوندو آهي) جي تياريءَ طور حصو وٺندا آهن.

رگبي ليگ ٽيم &lt;small&gt;2004&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ پيسفڪ ڪپ ۾ حصو ورتو. &lt;small&gt;2020&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾، نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ رگبي ليگ ٽيم (&lt;small&gt;Pacifique Trieze&lt;/small&gt;) ٺاهڻ جو منصوبا تيار ڪيا ويو ته جيئن اها مستقبل ۾ آسٽريليا جي ڪوئنزلينڊ ڪپ (&lt;small&gt;Queensland Cup&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ شامل ٿي سگهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Darbyshire |first=Drew |date=2020-05-08 |title=Pacifique Treize: The French-speaking Pacific team who want to join Queensland Cup |url=https://www.loverugbyleague.com/post/pacifique-treize-the-french-speaking-pacific-team-who-want-to-join-queensland-cup/ |access-date=2022-06-30 |website=LoveRugbyLeague |language=en-GB |archive-date=30 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630210006/https://www.loverugbyleague.com/post/pacifique-treize-the-french-speaking-pacific-team-who-want-to-join-queensland-cup/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ گهوڙن جي ڊوڙ (Horse Racing) پڻ تمام گهڻي مقبول آهي ۽ ساڳئي طرح عورتن جا ڪرڪيٽ ميچ پڻ شوق سان ڏٺا وڃن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/new-caledonia/noumea/activities/cricket/women-s-cricket |title=Women's Cricket |publisher=Lonely Planet |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=16 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516172954/http://www.lonelyplanet.com/new-caledonia/noumea/activities/cricket/women-s-cricket |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

نيو ڪيليڊونيا وٽ هڪ قومي ”سنڪرونائزڊ سوئمنگ“ (هم آهنگ ترڻ) ٽيم پڻ موجود آهي، جيڪا پرڏيهي دورا ڪندي آهي.

نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي عورتن جي قومي والي بال ٽيم ڪيترائي ڀيرا گولڊ ميڊل کٽيو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |author1=Shreya Kumar |title=Let's Go Local: The Sand Dunes And Café Planet For Drau |url=https://fijisun.com.fj/2021/03/20/lets-go-local-the-sand-dunes-and-cafe-planet-for-drau/ |accessdate=27 September 2021 |work=[[Fiji Sun]] |date=20 March 2021 |archive-date=27 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927060217/https://fijisun.com.fj/2021/03/20/lets-go-local-the-sand-dunes-and-cafe-planet-for-drau/ |url-status=live |archivedate=27 September 2021 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927060217/https://fijisun.com.fj/2021/03/20/lets-go-local-the-sand-dunes-and-cafe-planet-for-drau/ }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== کاڌا ==
گهريلو باغباني جي گهٽ سطح جي ڪري، تازو ٽراپيڪل ميوو نيو ڪيليڊونين کاڌي ۾ ٻين پئسفڪ قومن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ اهميت رکي ٿو، ان جي بدران چانورن، مڇي ۽ جڙ ڀاڄين جهڙوڪ تارو تي ڀروسو ڪيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://newcaledoniatoday.wordpress.com/2013/01/30/what-do-people-eat-in-new-caledonia/|website=Newcaledoniatoday.wordpress.com|title=What Do People Eat in New Caledonia?|access-date=16 February 2014|date=2013-01-30|archive-date=14 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140214183037/http://newcaledoniatoday.wordpress.com/2013/01/30/what-do-people-eat-in-new-caledonia/|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; هڪ طريقو جيڪو اڪثر تيار ڪيو ويندو آهي اهو دفن ٿيل تندور جي طرز جي دعوت ۾ آهي، جنهن کي بوگنا سڏيو ويندو آهي. ڪيلي جي پنن ۾ ويڙهيل، مڇي، تارو، ڪيلا ۽ ٻيا سامونڊي کاڌ خوراڪ کي گرم پٿرن سان دفن ڪيو ويندو آهي، پوءِ کوٽيو ويندو آهي ۽ کائي ويندو آهي.

== ٽرانسپورٽ ==
لا ٽونٽائوٽا انٽرنيشنل ايئرپورٽ [[نوميا]] کان 50 ڪلوميٽر (31 ميل) اتر اولهه ۾ آهي ۽ نيو ڪيليڊونيا کي [[پيرس]]، [[ٽوڪيو]]، [[سڊني]]، [[آڪلينڊ]]، [[برسبين]]، [[ميلبورن]]، [[اوساڪا]]، [[پورٽ ولا]] پاپيٽي ۽ والس جي هوائي اڏن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;tppdf&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.isee.nc/anglais/teca/productivesystem/telechargements/25-06-transport.pdf |title=Transport |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113170544/http://www.isee.nc/anglais/teca/productivesystem/telechargements/25-06-transport.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2011 |place=Nouméa}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;aport&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.tontouta-aeroport.nc/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=blogcategory&amp;id=17&amp;Itemid=107 |title=Présentation |publisher=Aéroport international de Nouméa la Tontouta |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118184638/http://www.tontouta-aeroport.nc/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=blogcategory&amp;id=17&amp;Itemid=107 |archive-date=18 January 2012 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;  گهڻيون اندروني هوائي خدمتون بين الاقوامي ڪمپني، &quot;ايئرڪلين&quot; پاران هلائيون وينديون آهن. ڪروز جهاز نوميا ۾ &quot;گيري ميري ٽائيم&quot; تي ڊاک ڪندا آهن. مسافر ۽ سامان کڻڻ واري ٻيڙي، &quot;هاوانا&quot; مهيني ۾ هڪ ڀيرو وانواتو ۾ پورٽ ويلا، ماليڪولو ۽ سينٽو ڏانهن ويندي آهي. نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي روڊ نيٽ ورڪ ۾ شامل آهن:&lt;ref name=&quot;lptra&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/new-caledonia/transport/getting-there-away |title=Transport in New Caledonia |publisher=Lonely Planet |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=25 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110825112035/http://www.lonelyplanet.com/new-caledonia/transport/getting-there-away |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; 
* روٽ ٽيريٽريل-1 (RT1): نوميا کان نڪرندڙ رستي کان نيهوئي ندي تائين، ڪوماڪ جي اتر ۾ وڃي ٿو.
* روٽ ٽيريٽريل-2، ليفو ٻيٽ تي ۽ ليفو ايئرپورٽ کان وي جي ڏکڻ ۾.
* روٽ ٽيريٽريل-3، نندي ۾ RT1 سان سنگم کان وٺي ٽيواڪا ندي تائين.
* روٽ ٽيريٽريل-4، مويو جي ويجهو RT1 سان سنگم کان پاور پلانٽ تائين.&lt;ref name=&quot;rtne&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.dittt.gouv.nc/portal/page/portal/dittt/infrastructures_routieres|title=Site de la DITTT – Infrastructures routières|website=Dittt.gouv.nc|access-date=17 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908082903/http://www.dittt.gouv.nc/portal/page/portal/dittt/infrastructures_routieres|archive-date=8 September 2015|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
==پڻ ڏسو==
{{Portal|جاگرافي|ٻيٽ|اوشينيا}}
* [[زيلينڊيا]]
* [[ٻيٽن جي فهرست]] 
* [[پئسفڪ ڪميونٽي]]
* [[نيو ڪيليڊونيا آزادي لاءِ ريفرينڊم، 2018ع]]

==نوٽ==
{{Reflist|group=nb}}
{{notelist}}

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}

==ذريعا==
* {{cite web |url=http://unsr.jamesanaya.org/docs/countries/2011-newcaledonia-a-hrc-18-35-add6_en.pdf |author-link=James Anaya |first=James |last=Anaya |date=23 November 2011 |title=Report of the Special Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples on the situation of Kanak people in New Caledonia, France |id=A/HRC/18/35/Add.6 |publisher=[[United Nations General Assembly]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109131805/http://unsr.jamesanaya.org/docs/countries/2011-newcaledonia-a-hrc-18-35-add6_en.pdf |archive-date=9 November 2017 |via=JamesAnaya.org |url-status=dead}}

==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Sister project links|New Caledonia|voy=New Caledonia}}
* {{cite web |title=Texte intégral de la Constitution du 4 octobre 1958 en vigueur {{!}} Conseil constitutionnel |url=https://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/le-bloc-de-constitutionnalite/texte-integral-de-la-constitution-du-4-octobre-1958-en-vigueur#article_76 |website=conseil-constitutionnel.fr |language=fr}}
* [https://gouv.nc Government of New Caledonia] {{in lang|fr}}.
* [http://www.visitnewcaledonia.com/ Tourism New Caledonia]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913032738/http://www.visitnewcaledonia.com/ |date=13 September 2016 }}.
* [https://endemia.nc Fauna and Flora of New Caledonia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250814084136/https://endemia.nc/ |date=2025-08-14 }}
* {{cite book |editor-first1=Matthias |editor-first2=Simon P. J. |editor-last1=Kowasch |editor-last2=Batterbury |title=Geographies of New Caledonia-Kanaky |date=2024 |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-49140-5 |isbn=978-3-031-49139-9 }}

{{Navboxes
 |title = Articles relating to New Caledonia's locale
 |list =
{{Melanesia}}
{{Countries and territories of Oceania}}
}}
{{United Nations list of non-self-governing territories}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Coord|-21.25|165.30|display=title|dim:200km}}

==Economy==
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable floatright&quot;  style=&quot;margin:20px 0px 20px 20px&quot;
|-
! Region
! style=&quot;width:6em;&quot; | Total GDP, nominal, 2019 &lt;br /&gt;(billion US$)
! style=&quot;width:6em;&quot; | GDP per capita, nominal, 2019 &lt;br /&gt;(US$)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Australia}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 1,388.09
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 54,391
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|New Zealand}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 210.76
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 42,274
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Hawaii}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 93.24
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; |  63,997
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Papua New Guinea}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 24.75
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 2,315
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|New Caledonia}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 9.48
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 34,939 
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Guam}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 6.36
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 37,794
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|French Polynesia}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 6.02
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 21,673
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Fiji}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 5.44
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 6,079
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Solomon Islands}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 1.62
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 2,278
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Northern Mariana Islands}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 1.18
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 24,670
|-
| style=&quot;t.ext-align:left;&quot;  | {{flagcountry|Vanuatu}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.93
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 3,187
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Samoa}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.91
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 4,472
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|American Samoa}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.65
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 13,352
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Tonga}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.45
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 4,435
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Micronesia}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.39
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 4,001
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Cook Islands}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.39
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 22,752 
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Palau}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.28
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 15,992
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Marshall Islands}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.23
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 5,275
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Kiribati}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.22
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 1,847
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Wallis and Futuna}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.21
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 18,360
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Nauru}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.13
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 10,567
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Tuvalu}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.05 
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 5,277
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; colspan=3   | Sources:&lt;ref name=&quot;GDP&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;IMF&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=512,914,612,171,614,311,213,911,314,193,122,912,313,419,513,316,913,124,339,638,514,218,963,616,223,516,918,748,618,624,522,622,156,626,628,228,924,233,632,636,634,238,662,960,423,935,128,611,321,243,248,469,253,642,643,939,734,644,819,172,132,646,648,915,134,652,174,328,258,656,654,336,263,268,532,944,176,534,536,429,433,178,436,136,343,158,439,916,664,826,542,967,443,917,544,941,446,666,668,672,946,137,546,674,676,548,556,678,181,867,682,684,273,868,921,948,943,686,688,518,728,836,558,138,196,278,692,694,962,142,449,564,565,283,853,288,293,566,964,182,359,453,968,922,714,862,135,716,456,722,942,718,724,576,936,961,813,726,199,733,184,524,361,362,364,732,366,144,146,463,528,923,738,578,537,742,866,369,744,186,925,869,746,926,466,112,111,298,927,846,299,582,487,474,754,698,&amp;s=NGDPD,NGDPDPC,&amp;sy=2019&amp;ey=2019&amp;ssm=0&amp;scsm=1&amp;scc=0&amp;ssd=1&amp;ssc=0&amp;sic=0&amp;sort=country&amp;ds=.&amp;br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database – October 2024 |publisher=IMF |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ispf.pf/themes/pib |title=Les comptes économiques rapides de la Polynésie française |publisher=Institut de la statistique de la Polynésie française (ISPF) |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=SASUMMARY State annual summary statistics: personal income, GDP, consumer spending, price indexes, and employment |url=https://apps.bea.gov/itable/?ReqID=70&amp;step=1#eyJhcHBpZCI6NzAsInN0ZXBzIjpbMSwyOSwyNSwzMSwyNiwyNywzMF0sImRhdGEiOltbIlRhYmxlSWQiLCI2MDAiXSxbIk1ham9yX0FyZWEiLCIwIl0sWyJTdGF0ZSIsWyIwIl1dLFsiQXJlYSIsWyIxNTAwMCJdXSxbIlN0YXRpc3RpYyIsWyI0Il1dLFsiVW5pdF9vZl9tZWFzdXJlIiwiTGV2ZWxzIl0sWyJZZWFyIixbIjIwMTkiXV0sWyJZZWFyQmVnaW4iLCItMSJdLFsiWWVhcl9FbmQiLCItMSJdXX0=  |publisher=[[Bureau of Economic Analysis]] (BEA) |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://apps.bea.gov/itable/?ReqID=70&amp;step=1#eyJhcHBpZCI6NzAsInN0ZXBzIjpbMSwyOSwyNSwzMSwyNiwyNywzMF0sImRhdGEiOltbIlRhYmxlSWQiLCI4MDAiXSxbIk1ham9yX0FyZWEiLCIxNiJdLFsiU3RhdGUiLFsiMCJdXSxbIkFyZWEiLFsiNjAwMDAiLCI2NjAwMCIsIjY5MDAwIl1dLFsiU3RhdGlzdGljIixbIjEiXV0sWyJVbml0X29mX21lYXN1cmUiLCJMZXZlbHMiXSxbIlllYXIiLFsiMjAxOSJdXSxbIlllYXJCZWdpbiIsIi0xIl0sWyJZZWFyX0VuZCIsIi0xIl1dfQ== |title=TASUMMARY1 Summary of GDP and components for U.S. territories, current dollars |publisher=[[Bureau of Economic Analysis]] (BEA) |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://stats.gov.ck/download/476/2024/6494/gross-domestic-product-march-quarter-2024.xlsx |title=Table 1: Gross domestic product at current prices by industry – quarterly value |publisher=Cook Islands Statistics Office |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cerom-outremer.fr/wallis-et-futuna/publications/etudes-cerom/evaluation-du-pib-de-wallis-et-futuna-en-2019.html |title=Évaluation du PIB de Wallis-et-Futuna en 2019  |author=INSEE, CEROM |date=11 September 2024 |access-date=2025-02-22 |language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|}

New Caledonia has one of the largest economies in the South Pacific, with a GDP of US$9.48 billion in 2019.&lt;ref name=&quot;GDP&quot;/&gt; The nominal GDP per capita was US$34,939 (at market exchange rates) in 2019.&lt;ref name=&quot;GDP&quot;/&gt; It is lower than the nominal GDP per capita of [[Hawaii]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], and [[Guam]], but higher than all other independent and non-sovereign countries and territories in [[Oceania]], although there is significant inequality in income distribution,&lt;ref name=&quot;nzmin&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mfat.govt.nz/Countries/Pacific/New-Caledonia.php |title=New Caledonia – Information Paper |publisher=NZ Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade |access-date=2013-01-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128203127/http://www.mfat.govt.nz/Countries/Pacific/New-Caledonia.php |archive-date=28 January 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and long-standing structural imbalances between the economically dominant South Province and the less developed North Province and Loyalty Islands.&lt;ref name=&quot;undcol&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2008/gacol3181.doc.htm |title=Concluding session, Special Committee on Decolonization approves two texts on New Caledonia, Tokelau; hears appeals to heed criticism of its work |publisher=United Nations |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=23 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023045300/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2008/gacol3181.doc.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The currency in use in New Caledonia is the [[CFP franc]], as of May 2020, pegged to the euro at a rate of 119.3 CFP to 1.00 euros.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.xe.com/currencyconverter/convert/?Amount=1&amp;From=EUR&amp;To=XPF|title=XE: Convert EUR/XPF. Euro Member Countries to Comptoirs Français du Pacifique (CFP) Franc|website=xe.com|access-date=16 May 2020|archive-date=25 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125045100/https://www.xe.com/currencyconverter/convert/?Amount=1&amp;From=EUR&amp;To=XPF|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; It is issued by the Institut d'Émission d'Outre-Mer.&lt;ref name=&quot;viep&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?vie-pratique-nouvelle-caledonie.html |title=Vie pratique – L'Outre-Mer |website=Outre-mer.gouv.fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=30 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330070058/http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?vie-pratique-nouvelle-caledonie.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Real gross domestic product|Real GDP]] grew by an average of +3.3% per year in the first half of the 2010s, boosted by rising worldwide nickel prices and an increase in domestic demand due to rising employment, as well as strong business investments, but by only +0.2% per year in the second half of the 2010s, as the local nickel industry entered a period of crisis and the repeated independence referendums have generated economic uncertainty.&lt;ref name=&quot;GDP&quot;/&gt; In 2017, exports of goods and services from New Caledonia amounted to 1.93&amp;nbsp;billion US dollars, 77.5% of which were mineral products and alloys (mainly nickel ore and [[ferronickel]]) and 5.0% exports of hotel and restaurant services (i.e. international tourism in New Caledonia).&lt;ref name=&quot;trade&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/82-donnees?download=569:les-importations-et-exportations-de-biens-et-services |title=Importations et exportations de biens et services à prix courants |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Imports of goods and services amounted to 3.48&amp;nbsp;billion US dollars.&lt;ref name=&quot;trade&quot;/&gt; 40.9% of the imports of goods came from [[Metropolitan France]] and its [[overseas department]]s, 11.7% from Singapore (essentially fuel), 11.5% from Australia, 5.0% from other countries in the [[European Union]], 4.2% from China and Hong Kong, 4.1% from New Zealand, 3.7% from South Korea, 2.4% from Japan, 2.0% from the United States, 1.9% from Canada, and 12.6% from other countries.&lt;ref name=&quot;trade_partners&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/100-donnees?download=1606:les-principaux-partenaires-commerciaux |title=Principaux pays partenaires commerciaux de la Nouvelle-Calédonie |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The trade deficit in goods and services stood at 1.55 billion US dollars in 2017.&lt;ref name=&quot;trade&quot;/&gt;

Financial support from France is substantial, representing more than 15% of the GDP, and contributes to the health of the economy.&lt;ref name=&quot;cia&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/new-caledonia/ |title=New Caledonia |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |access-date=25 January 2021 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407121006/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/new-caledonia/ |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Tourism is underdeveloped, with 100,000 visitors a year, compared to 400,000 in the [[Cook Islands]] and 200,000 in [[Vanuatu]].&lt;ref name=&quot;monde1&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |url=http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2011/08/26/nouvelle-caledonie-ou-en-est-le-processus-d-independance_1564084_3216.html |title=Nouvelle-Calédonie: où en est le processus d'indépendance? |language=fr |newspaper=Le Monde.fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |date=2011-08-26 |last1=Bolis |first1=Angela |archive-date=19 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119211529/http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2011/08/26/nouvelle-caledonie-ou-en-est-le-processus-d-independance_1564084_3216.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Much of the land is unsuitable for agriculture, and food accounts for about 20% of imports.&lt;ref name=&quot;cia&quot;/&gt; According to [[FAOSTAT]], New Caledonia is a significant producer of: [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]] (33rd); [[taro]] (44th); [[Plantain (cooking)|plantains]] (50th); [[coconut]]s (52nd).&lt;ref name=&quot;FAOSTAT Production statistics 2008&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url= http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx |title= FAOSTAT 2008 by Production |website= Faostat.fao.org |access-date= 6 June 2008 |archive-date= 13 July 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110713020710/http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx |url-status= live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[exclusive economic zone]] of New Caledonia covers {{convert|1.4 |e6km2|e6sqmi |abbr=off}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;pres-om&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?presentation-nouvelle-caledonie.html |title=Présentation – L'Outre-Mer |website=Outre-mer.gouv.fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=9 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109131754/http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?presentation-nouvelle-caledonie.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The construction sector accounts for roughly 12% of GDP, employing 9.9% of the salaried population in 2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;nzmin&quot;/&gt; Manufacturing is largely confined to small-scale activities such as the transformation of foodstuffs, textiles and plastics.&lt;ref name=&quot;nzmin&quot;/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+GDP (nominal) per capita in 2019 (US$)
|-
| {{Color box|#e43114|$0 – $5,000|white|border=darkgray|}}  {{Color box|#f57e00|$5,000 – $10,000|white|border=darkgray}}  {{Color box|#eea800|$10,000 – $20,000|white|border=darkgray}}  {{Color box|#22aaff|$20,000 – $30,000|white|border=darkgray}} {{Color box|#2259ff|$30,000 – $45,000|white|border=darkgray}}  {{Color box|#5222ff|$45,000 – $60,000|white|border=darkgray}}  {{Color box|#a522ff|$60,000 – $90,000|white|border=darkgray}}
|}
{{Image label begin|image=Oceania political map.png|width=662}}
{{Image label|x=0.15|y=0.55|scale=662|text=[[Australia|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#5222ff;color:white&quot;&gt;54,391&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.45|y=0.67|scale=662|text=[[New Zealand|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#2259ff;color:white&quot;&gt;42,274&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.7|y=0.07|scale=662|text=[[Hawaii|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#a522ff;color:white&quot;&gt; 63,997&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.3|y=0.43|scale=662|text=&lt;span style=&quot;background:#2259ff;color:white&quot;&gt;34,939&lt;/span&gt;}}
{{Image label|x=0.135|y=0.118|scale=662|text=[[Guam|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#2259ff;color:white&quot;&gt;37,794&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.18|y=0.31|scale=662|text=[[Papua New Guinea|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#e43114;color:white&quot;&gt;2,315&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.8|y=0.46|scale=662|text=[[French Polynesia|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#2af; color:white;&quot;&gt;21,673&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.36|y=0.39|scale=662|text=[[Vanuatu|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#e43114;color:white&quot;&gt;3,187&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.3|y=0.365|scale=662|text=[[Solomon Islands|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#e43114;color:white&quot;&gt;2,278&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.47|y=0.45|scale=662|text=[[Fiji|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#f57e00;color:white&quot;&gt;6,079&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.513|y=0.353|scale=662|text=[[Wallis and Futuna|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#eea800;color:white&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;18,360&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.566|y=0.388|scale=662|text=[[Samoa|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#e43114;color:white&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;4,472&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.611|y=0.395|scale=662|text=[[American Samoa|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#eea800;color:white&quot;&gt;13,352&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.67|y=0.43|scale=662|text=[[Cook Islands|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#22aaff;color:white&quot;&gt;22,752&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.55|y=0.44|scale=662|text=[[Tonga|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#e43114;color:white&quot;&gt;4,435&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.15|y=0.079|scale=662|text=[[Northern Mariana Islands|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#2af; color:white;&quot;&gt;24,670&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.02|y=0.165|scale=662|text=[[Palau|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#eea800;color:white&quot;&gt;15,992&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.22|y=0.18|scale=662|text=[[Federated States of Micronesia|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#e43114;color:white&quot;&gt;4,001&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.38|y=0.16|scale=662|text=[[Marshall Islands|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#f57e00;color:white&quot;&gt;5,275&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.434|y=0.262|scale=662|text=[[Kiribati|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#e43114;color:white&quot;&gt;1,847&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.348|y=0.262|scale=662|text=[[Nauru|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#eea800;color:white&quot;&gt;10,567&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.48|y=0.325|scale=662|text=[[Tuvalu|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#f57e00;color:white&quot;&gt;5,277&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label end}}

=== Nickel sector ===
{{main|Nickel mining in New Caledonia}}

{{see also|Geology of New Caledonia}}

[[File:Creek South New Caledonia.JPG|thumb|A creek in southern New Caledonia. Red colours reveal the richness of the ground in [[iron oxide]]s and nickel.]]

New Caledonian soils contain about 25% of the world's [[nickel]] resources.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.metalbulletin.com/Article/1446693/Nickel-gleams-again-in-New-Caledonia.html |title=Nickel gleams again in New Caledonia |work=Metal Bulletin |date=3 December 2001 |access-date=13 March 2009 |archive-date=9 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090909043855/http://www.metalbulletin.com/Article/1446693/Nickel-gleams-again-in-New-Caledonia.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Better source needed|reason=Citation is quite old, from 2001, also only for subscribers, world reserves vs resources should be distinguished)|date=July 2025}} The [[late-2000s recession]] has gravely affected the nickel industry, as the sector faced a significant drop in nickel prices (−31.0% year-on-year in 2009) for the second consecutive year.&lt;ref name=&quot;comptes&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.isee.nc/compteco/telechargement/4pagecerom2011.pdf |title=Les comptes économiques rapides de Nouvelle-Calédonie  |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113144920/http://www.isee.nc/compteco/telechargement/4pagecerom2011.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2011 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; The fall in prices has led a number of producers to reduce or stop altogether their activity, resulting in a reduction of the global supply of nickel by 6% compared to 2008.&lt;ref name=&quot;comptes&quot;/&gt;

This context, combined with bad weather, has forced the operators in the sector to revise downwards their production target.&lt;ref name=&quot;comptes&quot;/&gt; Thus, the activity of mineral extraction has declined by 8% in volume year on year.{{when|date=October 2017}}&lt;ref name=&quot;comptes&quot; /&gt; The share of the nickel sector as a percentage of GDP fell from 8% in 2008 to 5% in 2009.&lt;ref name=&quot;comptes&quot; /&gt; A trend reversal and a recovery in demand have been recorded early in the second half of 2009, allowing a 2.0% increase in the local metal production.&lt;ref name=&quot;comptes&quot;/&gt; A March 2020 report stated that &quot;New Caledonia is the world's fourth largest nickel producer, which has seen a 26% rally in prices in the past year&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc.com&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-56288781 |title=Tesla partners with nickel mine amid shortage fears |work=[[BBC News]] |date=5 March 2021 |access-date=9 March 2021 |archive-date=9 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309131304/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-56288781 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; According to industry sources however, the [[Goro mine]] has never met its potential capacity to produce &quot;60,000 tpy of nickel in the form of nickel oxide, due to design flaws and operational commissioning issues&quot; In 2019, it produced slightly over a third of its annual capacity&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;mining.com&quot;&gt;{{cite web| url = https://www.mining.com/tesla-gets-involved-in-new-caledonia-nickel-mine-to-secure-metal-supply/| title = Tesla gets involved in New Caledonia mine to secure nickel supply| date = 5 March 2021| access-date = 9 March 2021| archive-date = 8 March 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210308133905/https://www.mining.com/tesla-gets-involved-in-new-caledonia-nickel-mine-to-secure-metal-supply/| url-status = live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In March 2021, [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]] agreed to a partnership with the Goro Mine, a &quot;technical and industrial partnership to help with product and sustainability standards along with taking nickel for its battery production, according to the agreement&quot;, according to a [[BBC News]] report. The majority owner, Vale, said that the deal will be of long-term benefit in terms of jobs and the economy. Tesla is a heavy user of nickel for making the lithium-ion batteries and wanted to &quot;secure its long-term supply&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc.com&quot;/&gt;

Also in March 2021, a part of Vale's nickel business was sold &quot;to a consortium called Prony, which includes Swiss commodity trader [[Trafigura]]&quot;. Provincial authorities and businesses in New Caledonia would have a 51% stake in the Vale operation.&lt;ref name=&quot;mining.com&quot;/&gt;

[[زمرو:نيو ڪيليڊونيا| ]] 
[[زمرو:اوشينيا]]
[[زمرو:زيلينڊيا]] 
[[زمرو:ميلانيشيا ۾ منحصر علائقا]] 
[[زمرو:اوشينيا ۾ منحصر علائقا]]
[[زمرو:فرانس جا اوورسيز مجموعا]] 
[[زمرو:يورپي يونين جا خاص علائقا]]
[[زمرو:ترقي پذير ننڍا ٻيٽ رياستون]] 
[[زمرو:فرينچ سرڪاري ٻولي وارا ملڪ ۽ علائقا]] 
[[زمرو:اوشينيا ۾ آدم خوري]] 
[[زمرو:1853ع ۾ قائم ٿيل رياستون ۽ علائقا]] 
[[زمرو:اوشيانا ۾ 1853 ادارا]]</text>
      <sha1>awn3gq6kxpue5rnu1uwbrf7zhxj7ap0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399238</id>
      <parentid>399237</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T15:28:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* World War II */</comment>
      <origin>399238</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="176042" sha1="t5l4gcxvp3207oyc2j0e37ssx0n19df" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|French territory in the southwest Pacific Ocean}}
{{Infobox dependency
| name   = نيو ڪيليڊونيا&lt;br&gt; New Caledonia
| native_name                   = Nouvelle-Calédonie ([[فرانسيسي ٻولي|فرينچ]])
| settlement_type   = سمنڊ پار علائقن جو مجموعو&lt;br&gt; Sui generis collectivity
| image_flag    = Flag of New Caledonia.svg
| flag_size             = 200
| flag_type      = پرچم 
| flag_link = Flags of New Caledonia
| image_blank_emblem = Emblem of New Caledonia.svg
| blank_emblem_size     = 60
| blank_emblem_type  = رياستي نشان 
| blank_emblem_link  = Emblem of New Caledonia
| motto  = &quot;Terre de parole, terre de partage&quot;&lt;br/&gt;&quot;ڳالهه ٻول ۽ حصيداري جي سر زمين&quot;
| anthem  = &quot;لا مارسيلئ&quot;
&lt;br /&gt;{{Center|[[File:La_Marseillaise.ogg]]}}&quot;[[Soyons unis, devenons frères]]&quot;{{refn|1=&quot;Soyons unis, devenons frères&quot; is officially a national anthem but is generally used only on regal and viceregal occasions.|group=nb}}&lt;br /&gt;''اچو متحد ٿيو، اچو ڀاء بڻجي ونجهي&quot;
| image_map   = {{switcher|[[File:New Caledonia in France (zoomed).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:NewCaledonia2022OSM.png|frameless]]|Map of New Caledonia}}
| map_alt  = Location of New Caledonia
| map_caption   = نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي جاء 
| mapsize       = 290px
| subdivision_type   = [[ملڪ|خودمختيار رياست]]
| subdivision_name = {{Flag|France}}
| established_title = فرانس پاران شامل ڪيو ويو 
| established_date = 24 سيپٽمبر، 1853ع
| established_title2 = سمنڊ پار علائقو قرار ڏنو ويو
| established_date2  = 1946ع
| established_title3 = نوميا معاهدو
| established_date3  = 5 مئي، 1998ع
| official_languages  = [[فرانسيسي ٻولي|فرانسيسي]]
| regional_languages            = {{hlist|دريهو|پائسي|نينگونئ|اجيئي|35 ٻيون مقامي ٻوليون}}
| languages_type = غير مقامي ٻوليون
| languages = [[English language|English]]{{efn|English is widely used in the tourism industry due to tourism from Australia and New Zealand.}}
| ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list|
* ڪاناڪ (41.2%)
* يورپيئن (24.1%)
* مخلوط نسل (11.3%)
* پولينيشيئن (10.3%)
* ٻيا (13.1%)}}
| ethnic_groups_year = 2019&lt;ref name=&quot;Population Structure of Communities&quot;/&gt;
| capital   = [[نوميا]]
| coordinates                   = {{coord|22|16|S|166|28|E}}
| largest_city   = [[راڄڌاني]]
| demonym   = {{hlist|نيو ڪيليڊونيئن|فرانسيسي}}
| government_type   = پارلياماني آئيني طور شامل انحصار
| leader_title1  = صدر
| leader_name1 = [[ايمانوئل مئڪرون]]
| leader_title2  = هاء ڪمشنر 
| leader_name2   = زاڪ بلانت 
| leader_title3   = حڪومتي صدر
| leader_name3   = السيدئ پونگا 
| leader_title4    = ڪانگريس جو صدر
| leader_name4   = ويلما فئلايو 
| legislature       = ڪانگريس 
| national_representation  = فرانسيسي پارليامان
| national_representation_type1 = سينيٽ 
| national_representation1  = 2 سينيٽر
| national_representation_type2 = {{nowrap|قومي اسيمبلي}}
| national_representation2   = 2 نشستون 
| area_km2    = 18,575&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/new-caledonia/|title=New Caledonia|date=6 December 2023|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|via=CIA.gov|access-date=25 January 2021|archive-date=7 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407121006/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/new-caledonia/|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| area_land_km2                 = 18,275
| area_rank                     = 
| percent_water                 = 1.6
| elevation_max_m               = 1,628
| elevation_max_point           = مونٽ پئني
| population_census             = 2,64,596&lt;ref name=census2025&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/population/recensement |title=Recensement 2025 |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2026-01-30 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_census_year        = اپريل، 2025ع
| population_census_rank        = 184هون
| population_estimate           = 
| population_estimate_rank      = 
| population_estimate_year      = 
| population_density_km2        = 14.5
| population_density_sq_mi      = 
| population_density_rank       = 200هون
| GDP_PPP                       = 
| GDP_PPP_rank                  = 
| GDP_PPP_year                  = 
| GDP_PPP_per_capita            = 
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank       = 
| GDP_nominal                   = US$9.48 billion&lt;ref name=&quot;GDP&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/82-donnees?download=566:pib |title=Evolution du PIB et du PIB par habitant |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| GDP_nominal_year              = 2019
| GDP_nominal_per_capita        = US$34,939&lt;ref name=&quot;GDP&quot;/&gt;
| currency                      = [[CFP franc]] (₣)
| currency_code                 = XPF
| timezone                      = 
| utc_offset                    = +11:00
| drives_on                     = right
| calling_code                  = [[+687]]
| iso_code                      = {{hlist|[[ISO 3166-2:NC|NC]]|[[ISO 3166-2:FR|FR-NC]]|[[ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|NCL]]}}
| cctld                         = [[.nc]]
}}
نيو ڪيليڊونيا (&lt;small&gt;New&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Caledonia&lt;/small&gt;) [[وانوآتو|وانواتو]] کان &lt;small&gt;220&lt;/small&gt; ڪلوميٽر (&lt;small&gt;140&lt;/small&gt; ميل) ڏکڻ اولهه ۽ [[آسٽريليا]] کان &lt;small&gt;1,210&lt;/small&gt; ڪلوميٽر &lt;small&gt;(750 ميل)&lt;/small&gt; اوڀر ۾، هڪ فرانسيسي علائقو آهي جيڪو ڏکڻ اولهه [[پيسفڪ سمنڊ|پئسفڪ سمنڊ]] ۾ [[ٻيٽن جو ميڙ|ٻيٽن جي هڪ ميڙ]] تي مشتمل آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;enc-pres2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Presentation|title=Présentation|language=fr|website=Nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr|access-date=2013-01-30|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030174803/http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Presentation|archive-date=30 October 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; مکيه سر زمين [[فرانس]] کان &lt;small&gt;16,100&lt;/small&gt; ڪلوميٽر (&lt;small&gt;10,000&lt;/small&gt; ميل) جي مفاصلي تي واقع، اها فرانسيسي جمهوريه ۾، سمنڊ پار فرانس جي هڪ منفرد قانوني حيثيت، &quot;سوئي جينرس مجموعي&quot; طور تي وجود رکي ٿو ۽ نيو ڪيليڊونيا رياست جي حيثيت لاءِ هڪ جاري منصوبي سان، فرانسيسي آئين جي هڪ وقف باب ۾ شامل آهي.

ٻيٽن جو ميڙ ([[ميلئنيزيا|ميلينيشيا]] جي ذيلي علائقي جو حصو) ۾ گرانڊي ٽيري جو مکيه ٻيٽ، لائلٽي ٻيٽ، چيسٽر فيلڊ ٻيٽ، بيلپ ٻيٽ، آئل آف پائنز ۽ ڪجھ ڏورانهن ٻيٽ شامل آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;pres-om2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?presentation-nouvelle-caledonie.html|title=Présentation – L'Outre-Mer|website=Outre-mer.gouv.fr|access-date=2013-01-30|archive-date=9 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109131754/http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?presentation-nouvelle-caledonie.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; چيسٽر فيلڊ ٻيٽ [[ڪورل سمنڊ]] ۾ آهن. فرانسيسي ماڻهو، خاص طور تي مقامي ماڻهو، &quot;گرانڊي ٽيري لي ڪيلو&quot;  (Grande Terre {{lang|fr|le Caillou}}) سڏين ٿا، هڪ لقب جيڪو عام طور تي پوري نيو ڪيليڊونيا لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Stanley19892&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=David Stanley|title=South Pacific Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=unz2v_HT5q0C&amp;pg=PA549|year=1989|publisher=David Stanley|isbn=978-0-918373-29-8|page=549|access-date=18 October 2015|archive-date=13 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413093620/https://books.google.com/books?id=unz2v_HT5q0C&amp;pg=PA549|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; آزادي جي حامي ڪنڪ پارٽيون نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي حوالي سان نالو (لا) ڪنڪي (تلفظ) استعمال ڪن ٿيون، هڪ اصطلاح جيڪو 1980 جي ڏهاڪي ۾ مقامي ميلانيشين ڪنڪ ماڻهن جي نسلي نالي مان ٺاهيو ويو هو جيڪي نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي آبادي جو 41٪ ٺاهيندا آهن. نيو ڪيليڊونيا يورپي يونين سان هڪ اوورسيز ملڪ ۽ علائقي (OCT) جي طور تي لاڳاپيل آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=The European Union and New Caledonia {{!}} EEAS|url=https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/european-union-and-new-caledonia_en|access-date=2025-07-27|website=www.eeas.europa.eu|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

نيو ڪيليڊونيا جو زميني علائقو 18,575 چورس ڪلوميٽر (7,172 چورس ميل) آهي جيڪو ٽن صوبن ۾ ورهايل آهي. اتر ۽ ڏکڻ صوبا نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي مکيه زمين تي آهن. جڏهن ته لوئلٽي ٻيٽ صوبو مکيه زمين جي اوڀر ساحل کان پري چار آباد ٻيٽن جو هڪ سلسلو آهي (اتر کان ڏکڻ: اوويا، ليفو، ٽيگا، ۽ ماري). نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;,64,596&lt;/small&gt; (اپريل &lt;small&gt;2025&lt;/small&gt;ع جي مردم شماري) مختلف اصلن جي آهي ۽ جاگرافي جي لحاظ کان مختلف آهي. اتر ۽ لوئلٽي ٻيٽ صوبن ۾ مقامي ڪنڪ ماڻهو غالب آهن، جڏهن ته ڏکڻ صوبي ۾ يورپي (ڪالڊوچ ۽ فرينچ)، ڪنڪ ۽ پولينيشين (گهڻو ڪري واليسين) نسل جي اهم آبادي ۽ انهي سان گڏ ڏکڻ اوڀر ايشيائي، پائيڊ-نائر ۽ اتر آفريقي ورثي جا ننڍا گروپن جي آبادي شامل آهي. نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ [[نوميا]] آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;enc-pres3&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Presentation|title=Présentation|language=fr|website=Nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr|access-date=2013-01-30|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030174803/http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Presentation|archive-date=30 October 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== تاريخ ==
نيو ڪيليڊونيا براعظم [[زيلينڊيا]] جو حصو هو، جيڪو سپر براعظم [[گونڊوانا]] کان الڳ ٿي ويو ۽ 79 ملين ۽ 83 ملين سال اڳ ٻڏي ويو. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/lost-continent-zealandia-mapped.html|title=Hidden boundaries of lost continent 'Zealandia' revealed in incredible detail|website=LiveScience|last=Pappas|first=Stephanie|date=25 March 2021|access-date=30 December 2022|archive-date=20 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220141754/https://www.livescience.com/lost-continent-zealandia-mapped.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ انساني موجودگي جا ابتدائي نشان ان دور جا آهن جڏهن، سال 1600-500 ق.م يا 1300-200 ق.م.، ۾ لپيتا ڪلچر پئسفڪ جي وڏي حصن ۾ اثر انداز ٿيو. &lt;ref name=&quot;pres-hist2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Histoire/Histoire|title=Histoire / La Nouvelle-Calédonie|language=fr|website=Nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr|date=2012-11-20|access-date=2013-01-30|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030183849/http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Histoire/Histoire|archive-date=30 October 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; لپيتا انتهائي ماهر جهاز ران ۽ زراعت پيشا هئا. پهرين آباديون ساحل جي چوڌاري مرڪوز هيون ۽ تقريبن 1100 ق.م ۽ 200 عيسوي جي وچ واري دور جون هيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;pres-hist3&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Histoire/Histoire|title=Histoire / La Nouvelle-Calédonie|language=fr|website=Nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr|date=2012-11-20|access-date=2013-01-30|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030183849/http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Histoire/Histoire|archive-date=30 October 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Two Kanak (Canaque) warriors posing with penis gourds and spears, New Caledonia.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|[[File:Two Kanak (Canaque) warriors posing with penis gourds and spears, New Caledonia.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|Two [[Kanak people|Kanak]] warriors posing with [[Koteka|penis gourd]]s and spears, around 1880]]]]برطانوي سياح جيمس ڪڪ انهن پهرين يورپين مان هڪ هو جن پنهنجي سامونڊي سفر دوران &lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt; سيپٽمبر &lt;small&gt;1774&lt;/small&gt; ع تي نيو ڪيليڊونيا کي ڏٺو.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ieom.fr/IMG/pdf/ra2010_nouvelle-caledonie.pdf |title=Rapport annuel 2010 |publisher=IEOM Nouvelle-Calédonie |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=10 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310075134/https://www.ieom.fr/IMG/pdf/ra2010_nouvelle-caledonie.pdf |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ان جو نالو &quot;نيو ڪيليڊونيا&quot; رکيو ڇاڪاڻ ته ان ٻيٽ جو اتر-اوڀر وارو حصو کيس اسڪاٽلينڊ جي ياد ڏياري رهيو هو. ”گرانڊ ٽير“ (Grande Terre) جي اولهه واري ساحل تائين &quot;ڪومٽ ڊي لاپيروز&quot; &lt;small&gt;1788&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾، پنهنجي گم ٿيڻ کان ٿورو وقت اڳ پهتو هو؛ جڏهن ته &quot;لائلٽي ٻيٽن&quot; جو پهريون ڀيرو دورو 1793ع ۽ 1796ع جي وچ ۾ ڪيو ويو، جڏهن انگريز وهيل مڇي جي شڪاري &quot;وليم ريون“ مار (&lt;small&gt;Mare&lt;/small&gt;)، ليفائو (&lt;small&gt;Lifou&lt;/small&gt;)، ٽيگا (&lt;small&gt;Tiga&lt;/small&gt;) ۽ اوويئا (&lt;small&gt;Ouvea&lt;/small&gt;) جا نقشا تيار ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FUwDzM94jGUC&amp;pg=RA1-PA15|title=Historical Dictionary of the Discovery and Exploration of the Pacific Islands|last1=Quanchi|first1=Max|last2=Robson|first2=John|date=2005|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=9780810865280|access-date=30 December 2021|archive-date=31 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531052523/https://books.google.com/books?id=FUwDzM94jGUC&amp;pg=RA1-PA15|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; ريون نومبر 1793ع ۾ ان ٻيٽ سان روبرو ٿيو، جنهن جو نالو ان وقت &quot;برٽانيا&quot; هو ۽ اڄ اهو مار (&lt;small&gt;Maré&lt;/small&gt; - لائلٽي ٻيٽ) جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;maritimeheritage.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.maritimeheritage.org/ports/newCaledonia.html|title=New Caledonia and International Seaport History. The Maritime Heritage Project.|website=Maritimeheritage.org|access-date=2017-11-12|archive-date=13 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113112912/http://www.maritimeheritage.org/ports/newCaledonia.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; 1796ع کان 1840ع تائين، ان [[ٻيٽن جو ميڙ]] سان صرف ڪجهه ڇڙوڇڙ رابطن جو رڪارڊ ملي ٿو. تقريبن 50 آمريڪي وهيل شڪارين 1793ع ۽ 1887ع جي وچ ۾&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book| last= Langdon| first= Robert | year= 1983| title= Where the Whalers Went: An index of the Pacific Ports and Islands visited by American Whalers (and some other ships) in the 19th Century| place= Canberra| publisher= Pacific Manuscripts Bureau| page= 183 |isbn= 086784471X}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان علائقي (گرانڊ ٽير، لائلٽي ٻيٽ، والپول ۽ هنٽر) ۾ موجود هجڻ جا ثبوت ڇڏيا. &lt;small&gt;1840&lt;/small&gt;ع کان پوءِ ايندڙ جهازن سان رابطا وڌيڪ باقاعده ٿي ويا، جنهن جو سبب ”صندل جي ڪاٺ“ (&lt;small&gt;sandalwood&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ سندن دلچسپي هئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot; /&gt;

جيئن جيئن صندل جي ڪاٺ جي واپار ۾ گهٽتائي آئي، ان جي جاءِ هڪ نئين ڪاروباري سرگرمي ورتي، جنهن کي ”بليڪ برڊنگ“ (&lt;small&gt;blackbirding&lt;/small&gt;) چيو ويندو هو. هي اصطلاح ميلانيشين يا اولهه پئسفڪ ٻيٽن جي رهواسين (جن جو تعلق نيو ڪيليڊونيا، لائلٽي ٻيٽن، نيو هيبرائڊس، نيو گني ۽ سولومن ٻيٽن سان هو) کي مختلف قسمن جي چالاڪين ۽ دوکيبازين ذريعي غلامي، معاهدي تحت مزدوري يا زبردستي مزدوريءَ لاءِ فيجي ۽ ڪوئنزلينڊ جي گني جي فصلن ڏانهن کڻي وڃڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو هو. ”بليڪ برڊنگ“ جو عمل فرانسيسي ۽ آسٽريلين واپارين ٻنهي طرفان ڪيو ويندو هو، پر نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي حوالي سان، ويهين صديءَ جي شروعاتي ڏهاڪن ۾ هن واپار ۾ لائلٽي ٻيٽن مان ٻارن کي اغوا ڪري ”گرانڊ ٽير“ آڻڻ شامل هو، ته جيئن انهن کان زرعي فارمن ۾ زبردستي مزدوري ڪرائي سگهجي. نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ ”بليڪ برڊنگ“ جو بنيادي تجربو ”نيو هيبرائڊس“ (هاڻوڪو [[وانوآتو]]) کان ”گرانڊ ٽير“ تائين ٿيندڙ ان واپار تي ٻڌل هو، جنهن جو مقصد زرعي فارمن ۽ کاڻين ۾ مزدوري ڪرائڻ، گڏو جڏهن فرانسيسي غلامن جي واپار (جيڪو نيو هيبرائڊس ۽ نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي ميلانيشين نوآبادين جي وچ ۾ ٿيندو هو) جي ڳالهه اچي ٿي، ته ان سلسلي ۾ تمام گهٽ ضابطا لاڳو ڪيا ويا هئا. اهو عمل آسٽريليا ۾ ان دور جي ترقيات يا تبديلين کان مختلف هو، ڇاڪاڻ ته اتي ساحلي علائقن ۾ ”بليڪ برڊنگ“ (زبردستي يا ڌوڪي سان مزدورن کي کڻي وڃڻ) ۽ ”ڀرتي“ جي طريقن ذريعي ٿيندڙ زيادتين کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ وڌيڪ سخت ضابطا جوڙيا ويا هئا. 

لنڊن مشنري سوسائٽي ۽ ماريسٽ برادرز جا پهريان مشنري &lt;small&gt;1840&lt;/small&gt;ع واري ڏهاڪي ۾ اتي پهتا.&lt;ref name=&quot;abcau&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/ra/pacific/places/country/new_caledonia.htm |title=Charting the Pacific – Places |website=Abc.net.au |date=1998-10-13 |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=8 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171208231802/http://www.abc.net.au/ra/pacific/places/country/new_caledonia.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;small&gt;1849&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾، ”ڪٽر“ نالي آمريڪي جهاز جي عملي کي &quot;پوما&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Pouma&lt;/small&gt;) قبيلي پاران قتل ڪري کاڌو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;logan&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first1= Leanne |last1= Logan |first2= Geert |last2= Cole |title= New Caledonia |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA15 |year= 2001 |publisher= Lonely Planet |isbn= 978-1-86450-202-2 |page= 15 |via= Google Books |access-date= 18 October 2015 |archive-date= 12 April 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181115/https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA15 |url-status= live }}&lt;/ref&gt;     نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ انسانن جو گوشت کائڻ جو رواج (&lt;small&gt;cannibalism&lt;/small&gt;) عام هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Knauft1999&quot;&gt;{{cite book | first= Bruce M. | last= Knauft | title= From Primitive to Postcolonial in Melanesia and Anthropology | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=YM18gG16Z7YC&amp;pg=PA103 | year= 1999 | publisher= [[University of Michigan Press]] | isbn= 978-0-472-06687-2 | page= 103 | via= Google Books | access-date= 18 October 2015 | archive-date= 1 January 2016 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095349/https://books.google.com/books?id=YM18gG16Z7YC&amp;pg=PA103 | url-status= live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== فرانسيسي نوآباديات ===
24 سيپٽمبر &lt;small&gt;1853&lt;/small&gt;ع تي، شهنشاهه نيپولين ٽئين جي حڪم هيٺ، ايڊمرل فيبريئر ڊيسپوائنٽس نيو ڪيليڊونيا جو باضابطه قبضو حاصل ڪيو. ڪئپٽن لوئس-ميري-فرانسوا ٽارڊي ڊي مونٽراويل &lt;small&gt;25&lt;/small&gt; جون &lt;small&gt;1854&lt;/small&gt;ع تي &quot;پورٽ-ڊي-فرانس&quot; (نوميا) جو بنياد وڌو. &lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot; /&gt; ايندڙ سالن ۾، ڪجهه درجن آزاد آبادگار اولهه واري ساحل تي اچي آباد ٿيا. &lt;small&gt;1864&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ نيو ڪيليڊونيا هڪ ”قيدي ڪالوني“ (جتي سزا يافته قيدين کي موڪليو ويندو هو) بڻجي ويو؛ &lt;small&gt;1860&lt;/small&gt;ع واري ڏهاڪي کان وٺي &lt;small&gt;1897ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾ قيدين جي منتقلي جي عمل جي خاتمي تائين، فرانس تقريباً &lt;small&gt;22,000&lt;/small&gt; ڏوهارين ۽ سياسي قيدين کي نيو ڪيليڊونيا موڪليو. &quot;بليٽن&quot; &lt;small&gt;1888&lt;/small&gt;ع جي سوسائٽي جنرل ڊي لس پريزنز&quot; جي رپورٽ مان ظاهر ٿئي ٿو ته 1 مئي &lt;small&gt;1888&lt;/small&gt;ع تائين ان ٻيٽ تي &lt;small&gt;10,428&lt;/small&gt; سزا يافته قيدي موجود هئا, جن ۾ &lt;small&gt;2,329&lt;/small&gt; آزاد ٿيل قيدي به شامل هئا؛ اها فرانس جي ٻاهرين ملڪن ۾ قائم جيلن يا اصلاحي مرڪزن ۾ رکيل قيدين جي سڀ کان وڏي تعداد تي مشتمل هئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;gb-1&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first1=Robert |last1=Aldrich |first2=John |last2=Connell |title=France's Overseas Frontier: Départements et territoires d'outre-mer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vRB3woPa7LAC&amp;pg=PA46 |year=2006 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-03036-6 |page=46 |via=Google Books |access-date=18 October 2015 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806165048/https://books.google.com/books?id=vRB3woPa7LAC&amp;pg=PA46 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; انهن قيدين ۾ ڪيترائي &quot;ڪميونارڊ, &lt;small&gt;1871&lt;/small&gt; ع جي ناڪام پيرس ڪميون واري واقعي, کانپوءِ گرفتار ٿيل ماڻهو&quot; شامل هئا، جن ۾ هينري ڊي روشفورٽ ۽ لوئس مائیکل به شامل هئا. &lt;small&gt;1873&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;1876&lt;/small&gt;ع جي وچ ۾، &lt;small&gt;4,200&lt;/small&gt; سياسي قيدين کي نيو ڪيليڊونيا ڏانهن جلاوطن يا منتقل ڪيو ويو. انهن مان صرف &lt;small&gt;40&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهو اتي ڪالونيءَ ۾ آباد ٿيا، جڏهن ته باقي ماڻهو &lt;small&gt;1879&lt;/small&gt;ع ۽ &lt;small&gt;1880&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ عام معافي ملڻ کانپوءِ فرانس واپس هليا ويا.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot; /&gt;

[[File:King Jacques and his Queen.jpg|thumb|چيف ڪنگ جيڪس ۽ سندس راڻي، &quot;دي رومانس آف دي سائوٿ سيز&quot; مان؛ ليکڪ: ڪليمنٽ لنڊلي ريگ؛ ڇپائيندڙ: چاٽو اينڊ ونڊس، 1906ع ]]
&lt;small&gt;1864&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ ڊياھوٽ درياهه جي ڪناري تي [[نڪل|نڪل ڌاتوءَ]] جي دريافت ٿي. &lt;small&gt;1876&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ &quot;سوسائٽي لي نڪل&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Société Le Nickel&lt;/small&gt;) جي قيام سان گڏوگڏ، ڌاتوءَ جي کوٽائي جو ڪم زور شور سان شروع ٿيو. &lt;ref name=&quot;gb-1&quot; /&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;gb-2&quot; /&gt; کاڻين ۾ ڪم ڪرڻ لاءِ فرانسيسين ڀرپاسي وارن ٻيٽن ۽ نيو هيبرائڊس (&lt;small&gt;New Hebrides&lt;/small&gt;) مان مزدور گهرايا، ۽ بعد ۾ جاپان، ڊچ ايسٽ انڊيز ۽ فرينچ انڊو چائنا مان به مزدور آندا ويا. فرانسيسي حڪومت يورپي لڏپلاڻ (آبادڪاري) جي حوصلا افزائي ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش پڻ ڪئي، پر ان ۾ کين گهڻي ڪاميابي نه ملي.&lt;ref name=&quot;gb-1&quot; /&gt;

مقامي ڪانڪ ماڻهن کي فرانسيسي معيشت ۽ کاڻين جي ڪم کان الڳ رکيو ويو، ۽ آخرڪار کين مخصوص علائقن (&lt;small&gt;reservations&lt;/small&gt;) تائين محدود ڪيو ويو. ان صورتحال &lt;small&gt;1878&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ هڪ پرتشدد ردعمل کي جنم ڏنو، جڏهن &quot;لا فوا&quot; (&lt;small&gt;La Foa&lt;/small&gt;) جي اعليٰ سردار &quot;اٽائي&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Ataï&lt;/small&gt;) مرڪزي علائقن جي ڪيترن ئي قبيلن کي متحد ڪري گوريلا جنگ شروع ڪئي؛ ان جنگ ۾ &lt;small&gt;200&lt;/small&gt; فرانسيسي ۽ &lt;small&gt;1,000&lt;/small&gt; ڪانڪ ماڻهو مارجي ويا. &lt;small&gt;1917&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ ٻيو ڀيرو بغاوت ٿي، جنهن دوران مورس لينهارڊٽ جهڙا پروٽيسٽنٽ مشنري ان جنگ جي واقعن جا شاهد رهيا. لينهارڊٽ نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي ڪانڪ ماڻهن بابت ڪيترائي نسلياتي مطالعا ۽ تحريرون قلمبند ڪيون. &lt;small&gt;1917&lt;/small&gt;ع واري بغاوت جي اڳواڻي &quot;ٽيامو&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Tiamou&lt;/small&gt;) جي &quot;نوئل&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Noël&lt;/small&gt;) ڪئي؛ ان بغاوت جي نتيجي ۾ ڪيترائي ٻار يتيم ٿي پيا، جن مان هڪ کي پروٽيسٽنٽ مشنري الفونس روئل پنهنجي سرپرستي ۾ ورتو. اهو ٻار, وينسلاس ٿي (&lt;small&gt;Wenceslas Thi&lt;/small&gt;) اڳتي هلي جين-ميري ٽجيباؤ (&lt;small&gt;1936–1989&lt;/small&gt;) جو پيءُ بڻيو.&lt;ref&gt;Adrian Muckle&lt;/ref&gt;

يورپين پنهنجي گڏ نيون بيماريون، چيچڪ ۽ خسرہ، آنديون جن سبب ڪيترائي مقامي ماڻهو موت جو شڪار ٿيا.&lt;ref name=&quot;logan&quot; /&gt; ڪانڪ آبادي &lt;small&gt;1878&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ تقريباً &lt;small&gt;60,000&lt;/small&gt; هئي جيڪا گهٽجي &lt;small&gt;1921&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ &lt;small&gt;27,100&lt;/small&gt; ٿي وئي ۽ &lt;small&gt;1930&lt;/small&gt;ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين انهن جي انگ ۾ ٻيهر ڪو به اضافو نه ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;gb-2&quot; /&gt;

=== ٻي عالمي جنگ ===
جون &lt;small&gt;1940&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾، فرانس جي زوال کان پوءِ، نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي جنرل ڪائونسل ووٽ ذريعي &quot;وچي&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Vichy&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;of France&lt;/small&gt;) جي حڪومت  کي رد ڪري ڇڏيو ۽ جرمنيءَ خلاف اتحادي فوجي ڪوششن جي حمايت جاري رکڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو. تنهن هوندي به، نوآبادياتي گورنر جارج-مارڪ پيليسير وچي حڪومت جو آئيني قانون لاڳو ڪيو، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ عوامي ۽ هڪ قتل جي ڪوشش. هن وقت تائين ڪالڊوچ چارلس ڊي گال سان رابطي ۾ هو. جنهن انهن کي هڪ آزاد فرانسيسي ڪميٽي ٺاهڻ جي ترغيب ڏني ۽ هينري سوٽٽ کي گورنر مقرر ڪيو. وچي حڪومت پيليسيئر جي درخواست تي هڪ جنگي جهاز, ڊومونٽ ڊي ارول, موڪليو. پر جلد ئي هن کي نااهل سمجهيو ۽ هڪ قائم مقام گورنر مقرر ڪيو. هن وقت تائين آسٽريليا جي حڪومت مداخلت ڪرڻ تي راضي ٿي وئي هئي ۽ ايڇ ايم اي ايس ايڊيليڊ کي گورنر طور سوٽٽ جي تنصيب جي نگراني لاءِ موڪليو. ڊومونٽ ڊي ارول ۽ ايڊيليڊ جي وچ ۾ هڪ تڪرار پيدا ٿيو. پيليسيئر ۽ ٻين وچي نواز عملدارن کي آخرڪار فرينچ انڊوچائنا ڏانهن جلاوطن ڪيو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|url=https://www.isfar.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/49.I_DENISE-FISHER-Supporting-the-Free-French-in-New-Caledonia-First-Steps-in-Australian-Diplomacy.pdf|title=Supporting the Free French in New Caledonia: First Steps in Australian Diplomacy|first=Denise|last=Fisher|journal=Explorations: A Journal of French-Australian Connections|volume=49|issue=1|year=2010|pages=18–37|access-date=26 May 2024|archive-date=24 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324131228/https://www.isfar.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/49.I_DENISE-FISHER-Supporting-the-Free-French-in-New-Caledonia-First-Steps-in-Australian-Diplomacy.pdf|url-status=live}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324131228/https://www.isfar.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/49.I_DENISE-FISHER-Supporting-the-Free-French-in-New-Caledonia-First-Steps-in-Australian-Diplomacy.pdf |date=24 March 2024 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1941, some 300 men from the territory volunteered for service overseas. They were joined, in April, by 300 men from French Polynesia ('the Tahitians'), plus a handful from the French districts of the New Hebrides: together they formed the {{lang|fr|Bataillon du Pacifique}}. The Caledonians formed two of the companies, and the Polynesians the other two. In May 1941, they sailed to Australia and boarded the {{RMS|Queen Elizabeth}} for the onward voyage to Africa. They joined the other Free French (FF) battalions in [[Qastina]] in August, before moving to the Western Desert with the 1st FF Brigade ({{lang|fr|1&lt;sup&gt;re&lt;/sup&gt; BFL}}). There they were one of the four battalions who took part in the breakout after the [[Battle of Bir Hakeim]] in 1942. Their losses could not easily be replaced from the Pacific and they were therefore amalgamated with the Frenchmen of another battalion wearing the anchor of {{lang|fr|la Coloniale}}, the BIM, to form the {{lang|fr|Bataillon de l'infanterie de marine et du Pacifique}}. The combined battalion formed part of the {{lang|fr|Gaulliste 1&lt;sup&gt;re&lt;/sup&gt; Division Motorisée d'Infanterie}}/{{lang|fr|Division de Marche d'Infanterie}}, alongside three divisions from the French North African forces, in the French Expeditionary Corps during the Italian Campaign. They landed in Provence in 1944, when they were posted out and replaced by local French volunteers and résistants.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

Meanwhile, in March 1942, with the assistance of Australia,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Hasluck |first=Paul Meernaa Caedwalla |url=https://s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/awm-media/collection/RCDIG1070583/document/5519866.PDF |chapter=Chapter 6 – Clearing a Way to Total War, October 1940 – January 1941 |title=The Government and the People, 1939–1941 |volume=I |year=1952 |publisher=Australian War Memorial |place=Canberra |edition=1965 |access-date=6 August 2009 |archive-date=30 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530234827/https://s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/awm-media/collection/RCDIG1070583/document/5519866.PDF |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; New Caledonia became an important [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] base,&lt;ref name=&quot;gb-2&quot;/&gt; and the main South Pacific Fleet base of the [[United States Navy]] in the South Pacific moved to Nouméa in 1942–1943.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rottman2002&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first=Gordon L. |last=Rottman |title=World War 2 Pacific Island Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC&amp;pg=PA71 |year=2002 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-31395-0 |page=71 |quote=In October, the decision was made to relocate the main South Pacific Fleet base from Auckland to Nouméa (FPO SF 131). Unloading facilities were improved by February 1943 and construction immediately began on the naval operating base. |via=Google Books |access-date=18 October 2015 |archive-date=19 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319130955/http://books.google.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC&amp;pg=PA71 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The fleet that turned back the [[Imperial Japanese Navy|Japanese Navy]] in the [[Battle of the Coral Sea]] in May 1942 was based at Nouméa.&lt;ref name=&quot;gb-2&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first=David |last=Stanley |title=South Pacific Handbook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=unz2v_HT5q0C&amp;pg=PA549 |year=1989 |publisher=David Stanley |isbn=978-0-918373-29-8 |pages=549– |via=Google Books |access-date=18 October 2015 |archive-date=13 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413093620/https://books.google.com/books?id=unz2v_HT5q0C&amp;pg=PA549 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; American troops [[Pacific Islands home front during World War II#Employment|stationed on New Caledonia]] numbered as many as 50,000, matching the entire local population at the time.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot;/&gt;

=== French overseas territory ===
In 1946, New Caledonia became an overseas territory.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot;/&gt; By 1953, [[French citizenship]] had been granted to all New Caledonians, regardless of ethnicity.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncbrit&quot;/&gt;

During the late 1940s and early 1950s, New Caledonia strengthened its economic links with Australia, particularly as turmoil within France and its empire weakened New Caledonia's traditional economic links to metropolitan France; New Caledonia supplied nickel to Australia in exchange for coal vital for smelting nickel. New Caledonian exports of iron ore and timber to Australia also increased during this time period.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Henningham |first1=Stephen |date=December 2014 |title=Australia's Economic Ambitions in French New Caledonia, 1945–1955 |journal=The Journal of Pacific History |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=421–439 |doi=10.1080/00223344.2014.976915 |jstor=24644648 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The European and [[Polynesians|Polynesian]] populations gradually increased in the years leading to the nickel boom of 1969–1972, and the indigenous [[Kanak people|Kanak]] Melanesians became a minority, though they were still the largest ethnic group.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncbrit&quot;&gt;{{Britannica|411221|New Caledonia}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====The Events====
Between 1976 and 1988, a period referred to as &quot;the Events&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;lm-mdg-24&quot;&gt;{{cite news |last1=Mannevy |first1=Charlotte |last2=Derel |first2=Mathurin |last3=Guibert |first3=Nathalie |title=Second night of riots shakes New Caledonia: 'I didn't think it could come to this' |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/en/france/article/2024/05/15/second-night-of-riots-shakes-new-caledonia-i-didn-t-think-it-could-come-to-this_6671533_7.html |work=Le Monde |date=May 15, 2024 |access-date=16 May 2024 |archive-date=24 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240524043441/https://www.lemonde.fr/en/france/article/2024/05/15/second-night-of-riots-shakes-new-caledonia-i-didn-t-think-it-could-come-to-this_6671533_7.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;nyt-vb-caled-24&quot;&gt;{{cite news |last1=Vinograd |first1=Cassandra |last2=Breeden |first2=Aurelien |title=France Declares State of Emergency Amid Protests in New Caledonia |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/15/world/asia/new-caledonia-france-macron.html |work=The New York Times |date=May 15, 2024 |access-date=16 May 2024 |archive-date=24 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240524053018/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/15/world/asia/new-caledonia-france-macron.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; ({{langx|fr|Les Événements}}&lt;ref name=&quot;horowitz-may-2009-pol-geo&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Horowitz |first1=Leah S. |title=Environmental violence and crises of legitimacy in New Caledonia |journal=[[Political Geography]] |date=May 2009 |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=248–258 |doi=10.1016/j.polgeo.2009.07.001 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;fisher-anu-2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=Denise |title=France in the South Pacific: Power and Politics |date=2013 |doi=10.22459/FSP.05.2013 |doi-access=free |isbn=978-1-922144-95-9 }}{{pn|date=February 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;), conflicts between French government actions and the Kanak independence movement saw periods of serious violence and disorder.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot; /&gt; In 1983, a statute of &quot;enlarged autonomy&quot; for the territory proposed a five-year transition period and a referendum in 1989. In March 1984, the Front Indépendantiste, a Kanak resistance group, seized farms and the [[Kanak and Socialist National Liberation Front]] (FLNKS) formed a provisional government. In January 1985, the French Left-wing government offered sovereignty to the Kanaks and legal protection for European settlers. The plan faltered as violence escalated. The government declared a state of emergency; however, [[1985 New Caledonian legislative election|regional elections went ahead]], and the FLNKS won control of three out of four provinces. The centre-right government [[1986 French legislative election|elected in France in March 1986]] began eroding the arrangements established under the Socialists, redistributing lands mostly without consideration of native land claims, resulting in over two-thirds going to Europeans and less than a third to the Kanaks. By the end of 1987, roadblocks, gun battles and the destruction of property culminated in the [[Ouvéa cave hostage taking]], a dramatic hostage crisis just days before the [[1988 French presidential election]] began. Pro-independence militants on [[Ouvéa]] killed four gendarmes and took 27 hostage. The military assaulted the cave to rescue the hostages. Nineteen Kanak hostage takers were killed and another three died in custody, while two soldiers were killed during the assault.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news| url= https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/land-and-independence-new-caledonia| title= Land and Independence in New Caledonia| work= Cultural Survival Quarterly Magazine| last= Winslow| first= Donna| date= June 1991| via= culturalsurvival.org| access-date= 2021-02-11| language= en| archive-date= 13 November 2017| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171113112859/https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/land-and-independence-new-caledonia| url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== نوميا معاهدو ۽ آزاديءَ بابت ريفرنڊم ====

[[File:Two official flags of New Caledonia on same flagpole.png|thumb|left|هڪ ئي ٿنڀي تي گڏ لڳل ٻه جهنڊا (فرانس ۽ نيو ڪيليڊونيا)، نوميا، مارچ 2011.]]
ميٽيگنون معاهدا, جيڪا &lt;small&gt;26&lt;/small&gt; جون &lt;small&gt;1988&lt;/small&gt; تي ٿيا هئا, هڪ ڏهاڪي تائين استحڪام کي يقيني بڻايو. نوميا معاهدو, جيڪو &lt;small&gt;5&lt;/small&gt; مئي &lt;small&gt;1998&lt;/small&gt; تي ٿيو, &lt;small&gt;20&lt;/small&gt; سالن جي منتقلي واري عمل جو بنياد رکيو، جنهن تحت مقامي حڪومت کي تدريجي طور تي اختيار منتقل ڪيا ويا. 

نوميا معاهدي ۾ مقرر ڪيل وقت جي حد مطابق، جنهن ۾ &lt;small&gt;2018&lt;/small&gt; جي ​​​​آخر تائين ووٽ ڪرائڻ لازمي قرار ڏنو ويو هو، فرانس کان مڪمل آزاديءَ بابت ريفرنڊم ڪرائڻ جو بنياد رکيو ويو (هي فيصلو 2 نومبر &lt;small&gt;2017&lt;/small&gt; تي فرانسيسي وزيراعظم ايڊورڊ فلپ جي صدارت هيٺ ٿيل اجلاس ۾ ڪيو ويو) ته جيئن نومبر &lt;small&gt;2018&lt;/small&gt; تائين اهو عمل مڪمل ٿي سگهي. ووٽر لسٽ ۾ اهل هجڻ جو معاملو هڪ ڊگهي تڪرار جو سبب رهيو، پر ان جا تفصيل هڪ چونڊ لسٽ ذريعي حل ڪيا ويا؛ ان لسٽ ۾ ڪاناڪ (&lt;small&gt;Kanak&lt;/small&gt;) نسل جي ووٽرن کي خودڪار طريقي سان اهل قرار ڏنو ويو، پر ٻين نسلن سان تعلق رکندڙ انهن ماڻهن کي شامل نه ڪيو ويو جيڪي ان علائقي جا ڊگهي عرصي کان رهواسي نه هئا. ريفرنڊم &lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt; نومبر &lt;small&gt;2018&lt;/small&gt; تي منعقد ٿيو،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/19/new-caledonia-sets-date-independence-referendum-france|title=New Caledonia sets date for independence referendum|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=20 March 2018|access-date=25 March 2018|archive-date=13 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513011939/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/19/new-caledonia-sets-date-independence-referendum-france|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; جنهن ۾ آزاديءَ جي تجويز کي رد ڪيو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite magazine| url= http://time.com/5444523/new-caledonia-france-referendum/| title= New Caledonia Votes to Remain Part of France| magazine= [[Time (magazine)|Time.com]]| agency= Associated Press| date= 5 November 2018| place= Nouméa, New Caledonia| language= en| access-date= 2018-11-08| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181109010235/http://time.com/5444523/new-caledonia-france-referendum/| archive-date= 9 November 2018| url-status= dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

آڪٽوبر &lt;small&gt;2020&lt;/small&gt; ۾ هڪ ٻيو ريفرنڊم منعقد ٿيو، جنهن ۾ ووٽرن هڪ ڀيرو ٻيهر فرانس جو حصو رهڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite news| url= https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2020-10-04/new-caledonia-voters-choose-to-stay-part-of-france| title= New Caledonia voters choose to stay part of France| work= Los Angeles Times| agency= Associated Press| first= Charlotte| last= Antoine-Perron| date= 4 October 2020| place= Nouméa, New Caledonia| language= en| access-date= 11 February 2021| archive-date= 8 October 2020| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201008024613/https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2020-10-04/new-caledonia-voters-choose-to-stay-part-of-france| url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;small&gt;2018&lt;/small&gt; واري ريفرنڊم ۾، &lt;small&gt;56.7&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو ووٽرن فرانس سان گڏ رهڻ جو انتخاب ڪيو هو. &lt;small&gt;2020&lt;/small&gt; واري ريفرنڊم ۾، اهو تناسب گهٽجي ويو ۽ &lt;small&gt;53.4&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو ووٽرن فرانس جو حصو رهڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2020-10-04 |title=New Caledonia referendum: South Pacific territory rejects independence from France |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-54410059 |access-date=2021-07-08 |archive-date=4 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004210340/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-54410059 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

ٽيون ريفرنڊم &lt;small&gt;12&lt;/small&gt; ڊسمبر &lt;small&gt;2021&lt;/small&gt; تي منعقد ٿيو. آزاديءَ جي حامي ڌرين ان ريفرنڊم جو بائيڪاٽ ڪيو؛ &lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20210602-french-territory-of-new-caledonia-to-hold-third-independence-referendum |title=French territory of New Caledonia held its third and last independence referendum where 96.49 voted against independence |work=France24 |date=12 December 2021 |access-date=12 December 2021 |archive-date=13 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211213224234/https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20210602-french-territory-of-new-caledonia-to-hold-third-independence-referendum |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; انهن جو موقف هو ته [[ڪوروناوائرس روڳ 2019|ڪووڊ-&lt;small&gt;19&lt;/small&gt; جي وبا]] سبب پيدا ٿيل حالتن جي ڪري ووٽنگ ملتوي ڪئي وڃي. جڏهن فرانسيسي حڪومت ائين ڪرڻ کان انڪار ڪيو، ته انهن بائيڪاٽ جو سڏ ڏنو. نتيجي طور، &lt;small&gt;96&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو ووٽرن فرانس سان گڏ رهڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Antoine-Perron |first=Charlotte |title=New Caledonia votes to stay in France; separatists boycott |url=https://apnews.com/article/coronavirus-pandemic-health-boycotts-paris-storms-bcdf16be51e3bd94e0f332c405c2da8e |work=Associated Press |date=12 December 2021 |access-date=13 December 2021 |archive-date=1 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401010044/https://apnews.com/article/coronavirus-pandemic-health-boycotts-paris-storms-bcdf16be51e3bd94e0f332c405c2da8e |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

مئي &lt;small&gt;2024&lt;/small&gt; ۾، علائقي ۾ چونڊ سڌارن جي تجويز تي بحث دوران فساد ڀڙڪي پيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=New Caledonia: 'Shots fired' at police in French territory amid riots over voting reforms |url=https://www.france24.com/en/france/20240514-shots-fired-at-security-forces-in-new-caledonia-riots-over-constitutional-reform |access-date=May 14, 2024 |work=France 24 |archive-date=15 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515003829/https://www.france24.com/en/france/20240514-shots-fired-at-security-forces-in-new-caledonia-riots-over-constitutional-reform |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|date=2024-10-04 |title=New Caledonian independence leaders wary as France drops voting reform |url=https://www.rfi.fr/en/france/20241004-independence-leaders-wary-as-france-suspends-new-caledonia-voting-reform |access-date=2025-04-16 |work=[[Radio France Internationale]] |language=en|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20241231050937/https://www.rfi.fr/en/france/20241004-independence-leaders-wary-as-france-suspends-new-caledonia-voting-reform |archive-date=31 December 2024|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; آڪٽوبر &lt;small&gt;2024&lt;/small&gt; ۾، ان وقت جي فرانسيسي وزيراعظم مائيڪل بارنيئر اهو بل رد ڪري ڇڏيو. امن بحال ڪرڻ جي ضرورت ۽ &quot;وڌيڪ بدامني کان بچڻ&quot; کي اوليت ڏيڻ جو حوالو ڏنو ويو ۽ قومي اسيمبليءَ کي ان بابت آگاهه ڪيو ويو. فساد ختم ٿيڻ کانپوءِ، &lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt; ڊسمبر &lt;small&gt;2024&lt;/small&gt; تي سرڪاري طور تي ڪرفيو ختم ڪيو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |title=Curfew lifted in French overseas territory of New Caledonia over 6 months after violent riots |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/curfew-lifted-in-french-overseas-territory-of-new-caledonia-over-6-months-after-violent-riots/3411117 |access-date=2025-04-16 |work=[[Anadolu Agency]]|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20241202195528/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/curfew-lifted-in-french-overseas-territory-of-new-caledonia-over-6-months-after-violent-riots/3411117|archive-date=2 December 2024|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جولاءِ &lt;small&gt;2025&lt;/small&gt; ۾، فرانسيسي حڪومت ۽ نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي وچ ۾ &quot;هڪ نئين ڪيليڊونيا جي رياست&quot; (&lt;small&gt;État&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;de&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Nouvelle&lt;/small&gt;-&lt;small&gt;Calédonie&lt;/small&gt;) جي قيام لاءِ معاهدو طئي ٿيو،&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=http://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2017/11/03/referendum-d-autodetermination-en-nouvelle-caledonie-un-accord-politique-trouve_5209433_823448.html|title=Nouvelle-Calédonie : ce que contient l'&quot; accord politique &quot; sur le référendum d'autodétermination|newspaper=LeMonde.fr|date=3 November 2017|last1=Roger|first1=Patrick|language=fr|trans-title=New Caledonia: what is contained in the 'political agreement' on the self-determination referendum|access-date=17 July 2018|archive-date=22 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622081810/https://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2017/11/03/referendum-d-autodetermination-en-nouvelle-caledonie-un-accord-politique-trouve_5209433_823448.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; جنهن جي حيثيت کي فرانسيسي جمهوريه جي آئين ۾ شامل ڪيو ويندو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-07-12 |title=New Caledonia's political leaders sign historic agreement to shape territory's future |url=https://www.rfi.fr/en/france/20250712-new-caledonia-s-political-leaders-sign-historic-agreement-to-shape-territory-s-future |access-date=2025-07-12 |website=RFI |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي رهواسين, جيڪي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ ڏهن سالن کان اتي رهي رهيا آهن, کي ووٽ ڏيڻ جو حق ڏنو ويندو، جنهن جي شروعات &lt;small&gt;2031&lt;/small&gt; جي صوبائي چونڊن سان ٿيندي. هن معاهدي جي توثيق فرانسيسي پارليامينٽ پاران &lt;small&gt;2025&lt;/small&gt; جي آخري ٽه ماهي ۾ ڪئي ويندي، ۽ ان کانپوءِ &lt;small&gt;2026&lt;/small&gt; ۾ نيو ڪيليڊونيا جا رهواسي هڪ ريفرنڊم ذريعي ان معاهدي تي ووٽ ڏيندا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-07-12 |title=France, New Caledonia reach 'historic' statehood deal; citizens to remain French |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/world/europe/article/3317992/france-new-caledonia-reach-historic-statehood-deal-citizens-remain-french |access-date=2025-07-12 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== سياست ==
{{main|Politics of New Caledonia}}
نيو ڪيليڊونيا هڪ منفرد حيثيت رکندڙ علائقو (&lt;small&gt;sui generis&lt;/small&gt;) آهي جنهن کي فرانس آهستي آهستي ڪجهه اختيار منتقل ڪيا آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;jc&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?presentation-nouvelle-caledonie.html&amp;artpage=3-3 |title=Présentation – L'Outre-Mer |website=Outre-mer.gouv.fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=21 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521094530/http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?presentation-nouvelle-caledonie.html&amp;artpage=3-3 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; ان ڪري، اتان جي شهرين وٽ فرانسيسي شهريت آهي ۽ اهي فرانس جي صدر لاءِ ووٽ ڏين ٿا. انهن کي يورپي پارليامينٽ جي چونڊن ۾ ووٽ ڏيڻ جو حق حاصل آهي. ان جو انتظام 54 رڪني ”ٽيريٽوريل ڪانگريس“ (علائقائي ڪانگريس) ذريعي هلايو وڃي ٿو، جيڪو هڪ قانون ساز ادارو آهي ۽ ٽن صوبائي اسيمبلين جي ميمبرن تي مشتمل آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;undcol&quot; /&gt; هن علائقي ۾ فرانسيسي رياست جي نمائندگي هڪ &quot;هاءِ ڪمشنر&quot; ڪري ٿو. قومي سطح تي، ڪيليڊونيا جي نمائندگي فرانسيسي پارليامينٽ ۾ ٻه نمائندا ۽ ٻه سينيٽر ڪن ٿا. &lt;small&gt;2012&lt;/small&gt;ع جي فرانسيسي صدارتي چونڊن ۾، ڪيليڊونيا ۾ ووٽرن جي شرڪت جو تناسب &lt;small&gt;61.19&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web| url=http://www.interieur.gouv.fr/sections/a_votre_service/resultats-elections/PR2012/000/988/index.html| title=Resultats de l'election presidentielle – Nouvelle Caledonie| publisher=[[Cabinet of France|Government of France]]| website=[[Minister of the Interior (France)|Minister of the Interior]]| language=fr| access-date=2012-08-06| archive-date=26 June 2012| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626023248/http://www.interieur.gouv.fr/sections/a_votre_service/resultats-elections/PR2012/000/988/index.html| url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;small&gt;25&lt;/small&gt; سالن تائين، نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي پارٽي نظام تي آزادي جي مخالف پارٽي ”دي ريلي-يو ايم پي“ (&lt;small&gt;The Rally–UMP&lt;/small&gt;) جو غلبو رهيو. هي غلبو هڪ نئين پارٽي &quot;ايونير اينسامبل&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Avenir Ensemble&lt;/small&gt;) جي اڀار سان ختم ٿيو؛ اها پارٽي پڻ آزادي جي مخالف هئي پر &quot;ڪاناڪ تحريڪ&quot; سان ڳالهين لاءِ وڌيڪ کليل ذهن رکندڙ سمجهي ويندي هئي. ڪاناڪ تحريڪ، &quot;ڪاناڪ اينڊ سوشلسٽ نيشنل لبريشن فرنٽ&quot; (&lt;small&gt;FLNKS&lt;/small&gt;) جو حصو آهي، جيڪو آزادي جي حمايت ڪندڙ ڪيترن ئي گروهن جو اتحاد آهي. جنوري &lt;small&gt;2025&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾، السائيڊ پونگا (&lt;small&gt;Alcide Ponga&lt;/small&gt;) نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي حڪومت جي صدر طور حلف کنيو؛&lt;ref name=&quot;undcol&quot; /&gt; هن لوئس ماپو (&lt;small&gt;Louis Mapou&lt;/small&gt;) جي اڳواڻي واري آزادي جي حامي حڪومت جي خاتمي کانپوءِ نئين حڪومت جوڙي. سندس قيادت کي &lt;small&gt;2024&lt;/small&gt;ع جي بدامنيءَ کانپوءِ استحڪام آڻڻ ۽ ملڪ جي فرانسيسي جمهوريه ۾ شامل رهڻ واري عمل کي جاري رکڻ جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;:02&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |last=Mazzoni |first=Julien |date=2025-01-09 |title=New Caledonia Congress elects pro-France president after political crisis |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/jan/09/new-caledonia-congress-elects-alcide-ponga-president |access-date=2025-04-05 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}&lt;/ref&gt; آڪٽوبر &lt;small&gt;2025&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ اها خبر سامهون آئي ته فرانسيسي پارليامينٽ جا ميمبر ان بل تي اختلاف ڪري رهيا هئا جنهن تحت &quot;بوگيوال معاهدي&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Bougival Agreement&lt;/small&gt;) جي تحت نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي صوبائي چونڊن کي جون &lt;small&gt;2026&lt;/small&gt;ع تائين ملتوي ڪرڻو هو. ڪاناڪ فرنٽ (&lt;small&gt;FLNKS&lt;/small&gt;) ۽ کاٻي ڌر جي ميمبرن ان تي اعتراض ڪيو، تقريبن &lt;small&gt;1,600&lt;/small&gt; ترميمون داخل ڪيون ۽ معاملي کي گڏيل ڪميٽي ڏانهن موڪلڻ تي مجبور ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=editor |first=A. P. R. |date=2025-10-24 |title=French MPs clash over New Caledonia policy, debates further postponed {{!}} Asia Pacific Report |url=https://asiapacificreport.nz/2025/10/24/french-mps-clash-over-new-caledonia-policy-debates-further-postponed/ |access-date=2025-10-26 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-10-24 |title=Manoeuvring in Paris delays decision on New Caledonia elections {{!}} PINA |url=https://pina.com.fj/2025/10/24/manoeuvring-in-paris-delays-decision-on-new-caledonia-elections/ |access-date=2025-10-26 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== روايتي اختيار ===
ڪاناڪ سماج ۾ روايتي اختيارن جا ڪيترائي درجا موجود آهن، جن ۾ &lt;small&gt;4,000&lt;/small&gt; کان &lt;small&gt;5,000&lt;/small&gt; خاندانن تي ٻڌل &quot;ڪلان&quot; کان وٺي اٺ روايتي علائقا (&lt;small&gt;aires coutumières&lt;/small&gt;) شامل آهن جيڪي هن علائقي کي ٺاهين ٿا. ڪلانن جي اڳواڻي ڪلان جا سردار ڪن ٿا ۽ اهي &lt;small&gt;341&lt;/small&gt; قبيلن تي مشتمل آهن، جن مان هر هڪ جي سربراهي قبيلي جو سردار ڪري ٿو. قبيلن کي وڌيڪ &lt;small&gt;57&lt;/small&gt; روايتي سرداري علائقن (&lt;small&gt;chefferies&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي، جن مان هر هڪ جي سربراهي هڪ &quot;اعليٰ سردار&quot; (&lt;small&gt;head chief&lt;/small&gt;) ڪري ٿو ۽ اهي روايتي علائقن جا انتظامي ذيلي حصا ٺاهين ٿا.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=8}}
[[File:US Navy 090925-N-8721D-037 Capt. Thom Burke, commanding officer of the amphibious command ship USS Blue Ridge (LCC 19) receives a wreath to lay at the U.S. war memorial during a ceremony.jpg|thumb|[[Jean Lèques]] during a ceremony honouring U.S. service members who helped ensure the freedom of New Caledonia during World War II ]]
The Customary Senate is the assembly of the various traditional councils of the Kanaks, and has jurisdiction over the law proposals concerning the Kanak identity.&lt;ref name=&quot;cs-fra&quot;/&gt; The Customary Senate is composed of 16 members appointed by each traditional council, with two representatives per customary area.&lt;ref name=&quot;cs-fra&quot;/&gt; In its advisory role, the Customary Senate must be consulted on law proposals &quot;concerning the Kanak identity&quot; as defined in the Nouméa Accord.&lt;ref name=&quot;cs-fra&quot;/&gt; It also has a deliberative role on law proposals that would affect identity, the civil customary statute, and the land system.&lt;ref name=&quot;cs-fra&quot;/&gt; A new president is appointed each year in August or September, and the presidency rotates between the eight customary areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;cs-fra&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Les-Elus/Senat-coutumier |title=Sénat coutumier |language=fr |website=Nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030174915/http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Les-Elus/Senat-coutumier |archive-date=30 October 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Kanak people have recourse to customary authorities regarding civil matters such as marriage, adoption, inheritance, and some land issues.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=8}} The French administration typically respects decisions made in the customary system.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=8}} However, their jurisdiction is sharply limited in penal matters, as some matters relating to the customary justice system, including the use of [[judicial corporal punishment|corporal punishment]], are seen as clashing with the human rights obligations of France.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=8}}

===Military and gendarmerie===
The Armed Forces of New Caledonia ({{langx|fr|Forces armées de Nouvelle-Calédonie}}, or {{lang|fr|FANC|italic=no}}) include about 2,000 soldiers, mainly deployed in [[Koumac]], [[Nandaï, New Caledonia|Nandaï]], [[La Tontouta International Airport|Tontouta]], [[Plum, New Caledonia|Plum]], and [[Nouméa]].&lt;ref name=&quot;fanc&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.defense.gouv.fr/ema/forces-prepositionnees/nouvelle-caledonie/dossier/les-forces-armees-de-nouvelle-caledonie |title=Les Forces armées de Nouvelle-Calédonie |language=fr |website=Defense.gouv.fr |date=2012-12-20 |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=9 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109131917/http://www.defense.gouv.fr/ema/forces-prepositionnees/nouvelle-caledonie/dossier/les-forces-armees-de-nouvelle-caledonie |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The land forces consist of a regiment of the {{lang|fr|[[Troupes de marine]]}}, the {{lang|fr|Régiment d'infanterie de marine du Pacifique}}. About 80 percent of the 700-member regiment is composed of soldiers on short-term (four month) deployments from metropolitan France. As of 2018, only about 30 personnel in the regiment were locally recruited.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.opex360.com/2018/09/19/regiment-dinfanterie-de-marine-pacifique-nouvelle-caledonie-se-distingue-lors-dun-exercice-australie/ |title=Le Régiment d'Infanterie de Marine du Pacifique-Nouvelle Calédonie se distingue lors d'un exercice en Australie; Zone Militaire |last=Lagneau |first=Laurent |date=19 September 2018 |access-date=12 February 2023 |archive-date=12 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212160931/https://www.opex360.com/2018/09/19/regiment-dinfanterie-de-marine-pacifique-nouvelle-caledonie-se-distingue-lors-dun-exercice-australie/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The naval forces incorporate several vessels of the French Navy including: one {{sclass|Floréal|frigate|1}}, {{ship|French frigate|Vendémiaire||2}}, the patrol and support vessel {{lang|fr|[[D'Entrecasteaux-class patrol ship|D'Entrecasteaux]]}} and [[French patrol vessel Auguste Bénébig|''Auguste Benebig'']], the lead ship of the [[Patrouilleur Outre-mer|{{lang|fr|Félix Éboué|nocat=y}} class]] of patrol vessels. One EDA-S landing craft (''Sabre'') is also deployed to support operations in the territory,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://voixducaillou.nc/2025/01/23/la-marine-accueillera-prochainement-un-nouveau-bateau/ |title=La Marine accueillera prochainement un nouveau bateau |date=23 January 2025 |access-date=6 April 2025 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2021/11/first-two-eda-s-next-gen-amphibious-landing-crafts-delivered-to-french-dga/ |title=First Two EDA-S Next Gen Amphibious Landing Craft Delivered to French DGA |date=25 November 2021 |access-date=10 December 2021 |archive-date=26 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126153129/https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2021/11/first-two-eda-s-next-gen-amphibious-landing-crafts-delivered-to-french-dga/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; along with two ''RP10''-class harbour tugboats.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.meretmarine.com/fr/defense/merre-met-a-l-eau-le-dernier-remorqueur-pousseur-du-type-rp-10 |title=Merré met à l’eau le dernier remorqueur-pousseur du type RP 10 |website=Mer et Marine |date=13 October 2025 |access-date=13 October 2025 |last= Groizeleau  |first=Vincent |language=fr }}&lt;/ref&gt; The French Navy will further reinforce its offshore patrol capabilities in New Caledonia by deploying a second vessel of the {{lang|fr|Félix Éboué}} class ({{lang|fr|Jean Tranape}}) to the territory by 2026.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.defense.gouv.fr/marine/actualites/prise-darmement-essais-du-patrouilleur-outre-mer-jean-tranape |title=Prise d'armement pour essais du patrouilleur outre-mer Jean Tranape |work=French Navy |date=5 March 2025 |access-date=31 March 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.shephardmedia.com/news/naval-warfare/new-french-overseas-patrol-vessels-set-for-2023-service-entry/ |title=New French overseas patrol vessels set for 2023 service entry |work=Shepherd |last=Tanguy |first=Jean-Marc |date=4 August 2022 |access-date=30 December 2022 |archive-date=21 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121132746/https://www.shephardmedia.com/news/naval-warfare/new-french-overseas-patrol-vessels-set-for-2023-service-entry/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;brestboulogne&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.meretmarine.com/fr/defense/pom-le-premier-patrouilleur-reprend-ses-essais-a-brest-le-second-en-achevement-a-boulogne |title=POM : Le premier patrouilleur reprend ses essais à Brest, le second en achèvement à Boulogne |work=Mer et Marine |language=fr |last=Groizeleau |first=Vincent |date=21 September 2022 |access-date=3 November 2022 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=22 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922152111/https://www.meretmarine.com/fr/defense/pom-le-premier-patrouilleur-reprend-ses-essais-a-brest-le-second-en-achevement-a-boulogne |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

As of 2025/26, French naval aviation and air force elements in New Caledonia included two Navy [[Dassault Falcon 20|Falcon 200 Gardian maritime surveillance aircraft]] (drawn from Flotilla 25F), which, as of 2025/26 are being replaced, on an interim basis, by the more advanced [[Dassault Falcon 50|Falcon 50 aircraft]]. These aircraft will in turn be superseded by the new [[Dassault Falcon 2000|Falcon 2000 Albatros]] starting in about 2030.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.meretmarine.com/fr/defense/le-retrait-du-service-des-falcon-200-gardian-bases-a-tahiti-et-noumea-a-debute|title =Le retrait du service des Falcon 200 Gardian basés à Tahiti et Nouméa a débuté  |website=Mer et Marine |last=Groizeleau |first=Vincent |date=17 October 2025|access-date=17 October 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Two [[CASA/IPTN CN-235|Casa CN235]] transport aircraft and three [[Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma|Puma]] helicopters from the Air Force's 52 &quot;Tontouta&quot; Squadron are also deployed in New Caledonia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.defense.gouv.fr/operations/monde/asie-pacifique/forces-armees-nouvelle-caledonie |title=Forces armées en Nouvelle-Calédonie; Ministère des Armées |date=14 February 2022 |access-date=11 February 2023 |archive-date=5 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105110702/https://www.defense.gouv.fr/operations/monde/asie-pacifique/forces-armees-nouvelle-caledonie |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.defense.gouv.fr/operations/actualites/fanc-bilan-du-deploiement-du-bsaom-dentrecasteaux-pacifique-sud |title=FANC – Bilan du déploiement du BSAOM D'Entrecasteaux dans le Pacifique Sud; Ministère des Armées |date=10 February 2023 |access-date=11 February 2023 |archive-date=11 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211120443/https://www.defense.gouv.fr/operations/actualites/fanc-bilan-du-deploiement-du-bsaom-dentrecasteaux-pacifique-sud |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Prior to 2022, the frigate {{lang|fr|Vendémiaire}} operated the [[Aérospatiale Alouette III|Alouette III helicopter]]. However, with the retirement of the type in 2022, it is being replaced by the [[Eurocopter AS365 Dauphin|Eurocopter Dauphin N3]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=French Navy will receive first three Airbus Dauphin N3 at December 1 |url=https://aircosmosinternational.com/article/french-navy-will-receive-first-three-airbus-dauphin-n3-at-december-1-3005 |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=Air &amp; Cosmos |language=fr |archive-date=13 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221113231455/https://aircosmosinternational.com/article/french-navy-will-receive-first-three-airbus-dauphin-n3-at-december-1-3005 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Marine Nationale Dossier d'Information, p. 23 |url=https://www.colsbleus.fr/sites/default/files/2023-02/DIM%202023_PLANCHE_0.pdf |date=January 2023 |access-date=2023-03-04 |website=Cols Bleus |language=fr |archive-date=4 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230304112422/https://www.colsbleus.fr/sites/default/files/2023-02/DIM%202023_PLANCHE_0.pdf |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2022, the [[French Air Force]] demonstrated a capacity to reinforce the territory by deploying three [[Dassault Rafale|Rafale]] fighters, supported by [[Airbus A400M Atlas|A400M]] transport aircraft and [[Airbus A330 MRTT|A330 MRTT Phénix]] tankers, from France to New Caledonia for a three-week exercise.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last= |date=2022-08-27 |title=French Air and Space Force Rafales Train Alongside Royal Australian Air Force Growlers |url=https://militaryleak.com/2022/08/27/french-air-and-space-force-rafales-train-alongside-royal-australian-air-force-growlers/ |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=MilitaryLeak |archive-date=14 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114105036/https://militaryleak.com/2022/08/27/french-air-and-space-force-rafales-train-alongside-royal-australian-air-force-growlers/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=France successfully conducts long-range strategic deployment to Asian-Pacific region |url=https://ac.nato.int/archive/2022/FRA_deploy_PB22-2 |access-date=28 December 2023 |website=ac.nato.int |archive-date=3 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203040915/https://ac.nato.int/archive/2022/FRA_deploy_PB22-2 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In addition, some 855 personnel from the [[National Gendarmerie]] are stationed on the archipelago, divided into 4 companies, 27 brigades and several specialized, and mobile Gendarmerie units. During periods such the 2021 referendum on independence, these forces have been significantly reinforced with personnel deployed from metropolitan France.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |first=Julien |last=Sartre |date=2021-12-07 |title=Covid, mourning and the spectre of violence: New Caledonia prepares for blighted independence vote |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/dec/08/covid-mourning-and-the-fear-of-violence-new-caledonia-prepares-for-blighted-independence-vote |access-date=2022-11-18 |work=[[The Guardian]] }}&lt;/ref&gt; The air component includes two {{lang|fr|[[Eurocopter AS350 Écureuil|Écureuil]]|italic=no}} helicopters&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=COMGEND – Commandant de la gendarmerie pour la Nouvelle-Calédonie et les îles Wallis et Futuna / Sécurité / Services de l'État / Accueil – Les services de l'État en Nouvelle-Calédonie |url=https://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/Services-de-l-Etat/Securite/COMGEND-Commandant-de-la-gendarmerie-pour-la-Nouvelle-Caledonie-et-les-iles-Wallis-et-Futuna |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr |archive-date=7 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221107121810/https://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/Services-de-l-Etat/Securite/COMGEND-Commandant-de-la-gendarmerie-pour-la-Nouvelle-Caledonie-et-les-iles-Wallis-et-Futuna |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; while the {{lang|fr|[[Maritime Gendarmerie]]|italic=no}} deploys the patrol boat [[Vedette côtière de surveillance maritime|''Dumbea'']] in the territory.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.homelandsecurity-technology.com/projects/vedette-cotiere-de-surveillance-maritime-boats/ |title=Vedette Côtière de Surveillance Maritime (VCSM) Boats |publisher=Homelandsecurity Technology |date= |accessdate=2022-08-28 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207152543/https://www.homelandsecurity-technology.com/projects/vedette-cotiere-de-surveillance-maritime-boats/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;fanc&quot;/&gt;

=== Status ===
{{Further|Foreign relations of New Caledonia}}
New Caledonia has been a member of the [[Pacific Community]] since 1983 with Nouméa the home of the organization's regional headquarters. Since 1986, the [[United Nations Committee on Decolonization]] has included New Caledonia on the [[United Nations list of non-self-governing territories]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/decolonization/nonselfgov.shtml#1 |title=Trust and Non-Self-Governing Territories (1945–1999) |publisher=[[United Nations]] |access-date=29 June 2017 |archive-date=6 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006064439/http://www.un.org/en/decolonization/nonselfgov.shtml#1 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; An [[1987 New Caledonian independence referendum|independence referendum]] was held the following year, but independence was rejected by a large majority.[[File:Administrative divisions of New Caledonia.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|Pyramid graph illustrating the administration of New Caledonia]]

Under the [[Nouméa Accord]], signed in 1998 following a period of secessionist unrest in the 1980s and approved in [[1998 New Caledonian Nouméa Accord referendum|a referendum]], New Caledonia was granted special status. Twenty years after inception, the Nouméa Accord required an [[2018 New Caledonian independence referendum|referendum on independence]] which was held on 4 November 2018.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/19/new-caledonia-sets-date-independence-referendum-france|title=New Caledonia sets date for independence referendum|website=The Guardian|access-date=20 March 2018|date=19 March 2018|last=Willsher|first=Kim|archive-date=25 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025142615/https://amp.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/19/new-caledonia-sets-date-independence-referendum-france|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/programmes/datelinepacific/audio/201787812/paris-meeting-to-prepare-new-caledonia-independence-vote|title=Paris meeting to prepare New Caledonia independence vote|website=Radio New Zealand|access-date=2016-03-08|date=2016-02-02|archive-date=8 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308001209/http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/programmes/datelinepacific/audio/201787812/paris-meeting-to-prepare-new-caledonia-independence-vote|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The result was that 56.9% of voters chose to remain with France.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/nov/04/new-caledonia-votes-non-to-independence-from-france|title=New Caledonia votes 'non' to independence from France|agency=Reuters|date=2018-11-04|website=The Guardian|language=en|access-date=2018-11-04|archive-date=6 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206051007/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/nov/04/new-caledonia-votes-non-to-independence-from-france|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Nouméa Accord required [[2020 New Caledonian independence referendum|another independence referendum]], which was held on 4 October 2020. The result was that 53.26% of voters chose to remain with France.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/oct/04/new-caledonia-rejects-independence-from-france-for-second-time|title=New Caledonia rejects independence from France for second time|date=2020-10-05|website=The Guardian|language=en|access-date=2020-10-05|archive-date=20 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420065852/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/oct/04/new-caledonia-rejects-independence-from-france-for-second-time|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The third and last referendum permitted by the Nouméa Accord [[2021 New Caledonian independence referendum|was held on 12 December 2021]], confirming New Caledonia as part of the French Republic with 96% voting &quot;no&quot; to independence after the vote was boycotted by the bulk of the Kanak population.

The official name of the territory, {{lang|fr|Nouvelle-Calédonie}}, could be changed in the near future due to the accord, which states that &quot;a name, a flag, an anthem, a motto, and the design of banknotes will have to be sought by all parties together, to express the Kanak identity and the future shared by all parties.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://www.gouv.nc/static/pages/outils/telechargement/accordsNoumea.pdf| title=Les accords de Nouméa|author=Government of New Caledonia| access-date=11 August 2008|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080405032022/http://www.gouv.nc/static/pages/outils/telechargement/accordsNoumea.pdf |archive-date = 5 April 2008 |language=fr |author-link=Government of New Caledonia}}&lt;/ref&gt; To date, however, there has been no consensus on a new name for the territory, although ''Kanak Republic'' is popular among 40% of the population.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://nouvellecaledonie.rfo.fr/article424.html| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080627221108/http://nouvellecaledonie.rfo.fr/article424.html| url-status=dead| archive-date=27 June 2008| title=Société : La Nouvelle-Calédonie choisit un hymne et une devise| author=RFO| access-date=11 August 2008| author-link=Réseau France Outre-mer}}&lt;/ref&gt; New Caledonia has increasingly adopted its own symbols, choosing an anthem, a motto, and a new design for its banknotes.&lt;ref name=&quot;monde1&quot; /&gt; In July 2010, the [[Congress of New Caledonia]] voted in favour of a wish to fly the [[Kanak people|Kanak]] flag of the independence movement [[Kanak and Socialist National Liberation Front|FLNKS]] alongside the [[Flag of France|French tricolour]], as [[Flag of New Caledonia|dual flags of the territory]]. The wish, legally non-binding, proved controversial.&lt;ref name=&quot;congress&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/pacifique/ncal-voeu-drapeau2010.htm|title=Nouvelle-Calédonie: Voeu sur le drapeau Kanaky de 2010|website=axl.cefan.ulaval.ca|access-date=26 November 2021|archive-date=23 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023193014/http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/pacifique/ncal-voeu-drapeau2010.htm|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;voeux&quot;&gt;{{cite web| url = http://www.juridoc.gouv.nc/JuriDoc/jdJ201.nsf/JoncP/2010-06341/$File/2010-6341.pdf?OpenElement&amp;root=2010&amp;page=6341| title = Voeux n° 1 du treize juillet 2010| access-date = 26 November 2021| archive-date = 17 April 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210417013852/https://juridoc.gouv.nc/JuriDoc/jdJ201.nsf/JoncP/2010-06341/$File/2010-6341.pdf?OpenElement&amp;root=2010&amp;page=6341| url-status = live}}&lt;/ref&gt; A majority of New Caledonian communes, but not all, now fly both flags, the rest flying only the French Tricolour.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://la1ere.francetvinfo.fr/nouvellecaledonie/2014/05/09/roch-wamytan-descendre-le-drapeau-kanak-est-un-geste-ignoble-il-ne-faut-plus-parler-de-destin-commun-150319.html|title=Roch Wamytan: &quot;descendre le drapeau kanak est un geste ignoble, il ne faut plus parler de destin commun!&quot;|website=Nouvelle-Calédonie la 1ère|date=9 May 2014 |access-date=26 November 2021|archive-date=26 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126140755/https://la1ere.francetvinfo.fr/nouvellecaledonie/2014/05/09/roch-wamytan-descendre-le-drapeau-kanak-est-un-geste-ignoble-il-ne-faut-plus-parler-de-destin-commun-150319.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The non-official adoption made New Caledonia one of the few countries or territories in the world with two flags. The decision to wish for the use of two flags has been a constant battleground between the two sides and led the coalition government to collapse in February 2011.&lt;ref name=&quot;fr24&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.france24.com/en/20110826-france-sarkozy-urges-dialogue-over-violence-new-caledonia-airfare-protests |title=Sarkozy calls for dialogue over New Caledonia violence |publisher=France 24 |date=2011-08-26 |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=7 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110907145342/http://www.france24.com/en/20110826-france-sarkozy-urges-dialogue-over-violence-new-caledonia-airfare-protests |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 2025 political talks in Paris ===
{{Main|Bougival Accord}}

On 24 June 2025, [[President of France|President]] [[Emmanuel Macron]] extended an invitation to both pro‑ and anti‑independence leaders from New Caledonia to participate in talks in Paris starting 2 July 2025, aimed at negotiating the territory's future governance and status. Objectives of the talks include a revised political framework for New Caledonia, potentially including greater autonomy and redesigned electoral rules, socioeconomic challenges, such as the nickel-dependent economy, youth employment, and post‑unrest recovery.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-05-27 |title=Macron calls for June talks to break deadlock over New Caledonia's future |url=https://www.france24.com/en/france/20250527-france-new-caledonia |access-date=2025-07-13 |website=France 24 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2025-06-24 |title=Macron invites New Caledonian leaders to talks on territory's future |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/en/france/article/2025/06/24/new-caledonia-macron-invites-local-leaders-to-talks-on-the-territory-s-future_6742681_7.html |access-date=2025-07-13 |work=Le Monde |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 13 July 2025, weeks of negotiations concluded with an agreement between all parties that New Caledonia should remain within France, but with far greater levels of autonomy, the status of a state, and a dual citizenship arrangement for those that wish it.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=France-Presse |first=Agence |date=2025-07-13 |title=New Caledonia to be declared a state in 'historic' agreement – but will remain French |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/jul/13/new-caledonia-to-be-declared-a-state-in-historic-agreement-but-will-remain-french |access-date=2025-07-13 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}&lt;/ref&gt; The agreement will require ratification by both chambers of the French parliamentary system, followed by a referendum in New Caledonia in 2026. Initial thoughts on the deal suggest it is not what independence supporters hoped for, but statehood is a major concession by France.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-07-12 |title=France announces 'historic' deal creating New Caledonia state that stays French |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20250712-ncaledonia-politicians-agree-on-statehood-while-remaining-french |access-date=2025-07-13 |website=France 24 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 13 August 2025, the FLNKS stated in a press conference that they had voted to reject the agreement on the basis that an independence referendum prior to France's [[2027 French presidential election|2027 presidential election]] was absent from the deal.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-08-13 |title=New Caledonia independence bloc rejects deal giving powers but no referendum |url=https://www.rfi.fr/en/france/20250813-new-caledonia-independence-leaders-reject-bougival-accord-call-for-new-deal |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=RFI |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 16 September 2025, the New Caledonia Congress approved once again for the third time, another postponement, regarding the election within the territory. The votes were divided to 39 out of 52 Congress members (75%) voted in favor of the postponement, while the FLNKS pro-independence group cast 13 votes against (25%).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Decloitre |first1=Patrick |title=New Caledonia's Congress votes to postpone provincial elections |url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/573170/new-caledonia-s-congress-votes-to-postpone-provincial-elections |work=RNZ |date=16 September 2025 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== انتظامي ورهاست ==
ادارتي تنظيم ان بنيادي قانون (organic law) ۽ عام قانون جو نتيجو آهي جيڪي پارليامينٽ پاران 16 فيبروري 1999 تي منظور ڪيا ويا هئا.&lt;ref name=&quot;jc&quot; /&gt; هي ٻيٽن جو مجموعو (آرڪيپيلاگو) ٽن صوبن ۾ ورهايل آهي: 
* ڏکڻ صوبو (Province Sud): صوبائي گاديءَ جو هنڌ: نوميا رقبو: 9,407 چورس ڪلوميٽر. آبادي: 2,12,082 ماڻهو (2019)
* اتر صوبو (Province Nord): صوبائي گاديءَ جو هنڌ: ڪوني (Koné). رقبو: 7,348 چورس ڪلوميٽر. آبادي: 49,910 ماڻهو (2019). 
* لائلٽي آئلينڊز صوبو (Province des îles Loyauté): صوبائي گاديءَ جو هنڌ: ليفو (Lifou). رقبو: 1,981 چورس ڪلوميٽر. آبادي: 18,353 ماڻهو (2019).&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Populations légales des provinces de Nouvelle-Calédonie en 2019 − Populations légales de Nouvelle-Calédonie en 2019 {{!}} Insee |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/4464927?sommaire=2122859 |access-date=2023-09-11 |website=www.insee.fr |archive-date=25 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425125921/https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/4464927?sommaire=2122859 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

نيو ڪيليڊونيا کي وڌيڪ 33 ڪميونز (مقامي انتظامي علائقن) ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;jc&quot; /&gt; هڪ ڪميون پويا (Poya) ٻن صوبن جي وچ ۾ ورهايل آهي. پويا جو اتر وارو حصو, جتي مکيه آبادي ۽ اڪثر رهواسي موجود آهن, اتر صوبي جو حصو آهي، جڏهن ته ان ڪميون جو ڏکڻ وارو حصو, جتي 2019 ۾ صرف 210 رهواسي هئا, ڏکڻ صوبي جو حصو آهي. 


جاگرافي: ماحول:سياست 

== جاگرافي: ==
[[File:New Caledonia - S199828000484.jpg|thumb|New Caledonia from space]]
[[File:Reefs of New Caledonia from ISS, September 9, 2020.jpg|thumb|Coral reefs of New Caledonia from ISS, September 9, 2020]]

New Caledonia is part of [[Zealandia]], a fragment of the ancient [[Gondwana]] super-continent, which is part of [[Oceania]]. It is speculated that New Caledonia separated from Australia roughly 66 million years ago, subsequently drifting in a north-easterly direction, reaching its present position about 50 million years ago.&lt;ref&gt;Boyer &amp; Giribet 2007: 355{{full|date=February 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The mainland is divided in length by a central mountain range whose highest peaks are [[Mont Panié]] ({{cvt|1,629|m|disp=or}}) in the north and [[Mont Humboldt]] ({{cvt|1,618|m|disp=or}}) in the southeast.&lt;ref name=&quot;geo-jc&quot;/&gt; The east coast is covered by lush vegetation.&lt;ref name=&quot;geo-jc&quot;/&gt; The west coast, with its large savannahs and plains suitable for farming, is a drier area. Many ore-rich massifs are found along this coast.&lt;ref name=&quot;geo-jc&quot;/&gt;

The [[Diahot River]] is the longest river of New Caledonia, flowing for some {{convert|100|km}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;EB&quot;&gt;{{Britannica|161133|Diahot River}}&lt;/ref&gt; It has a catchment area of {{cvt|620|km2}} and opens north-westward into the [[Baie d'Harcourt]], flowing towards the northern point of the island along the western escarpment of the Mount Panié.&lt;ref name=&quot;EB&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;UNU&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.greenstone.org/greenstone3/nzdl;jsessionid=9C07FFA7400A6C3C823F1ACAF98A3D9D?a=d&amp;d=HASH01e0de34b153f45530bc1736.5.pp&amp;c=ccgi&amp;sib=1&amp;dt=&amp;ec=&amp;et=&amp;p.a=b&amp;p.s=ClassifierBrowse&amp;p.sa= |title=The impacts of opencast mining in New Caledonia |publisher=The [[United Nations University]] |access-date=9 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727215730/http://www.greenstone.org/greenstone3/nzdl;jsessionid=9C07FFA7400A6C3C823F1ACAF98A3D9D?a=d&amp;d=HASH01e0de34b153f45530bc1736.5.pp&amp;c=ccgi&amp;sib=1&amp;dt=&amp;ec=&amp;et=&amp;p.a=b&amp;p.s=ClassifierBrowse&amp;p.sa= |archive-date=27 July 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Most of the island is covered by wet evergreen forests, while savannahs dominate the lower elevations.&lt;ref name=&quot;gbrs&quot;/&gt; The New Caledonian lagoon, with a total area of {{convert|24000|km2}} is one of the largest lagoons in the world. The lagoon and the surrounding [[New Caledonia Barrier Reef]] was named a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] in 2008 for its exceptional beauty and marine biodiversity.&lt;ref name=&quot;geo-jc&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Donnees-Geographiques |title=Données Géographiques |language=fr |website=Nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030174815/http://www.nouvelle-caledonie.gouv.fr/site/La-Nouvelle-Caledonie/Donnees-Geographiques |archive-date=30 October 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name = &quot;unesco&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url = https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1115 |title = Lagoons of New Caledonia: Reef Diversity and Associated Ecosystems |website = UNESCO World Heritage Centre |publisher = United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization |access-date = 20 November 2021 |archive-date = 20 November 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211120223140/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1115/ |url-status = live }}&lt;/ref&gt; In May 2023, there was an earthquake and tsunami in New Caledonia. This triggered a tsunami warning here as well as in other nearby countries.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/australasia/loyalty-islands-south-pacific-earthquake-today-tsunami-b2341846.html |title=Earthquake triggers 3ft wave tsunami warnings across South Pacific |work=The Independent |first=Shweta |last=Sharma |date=19 May 2023 |access-date=29 May 2023 |archive-date=19 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519062421/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/australasia/loyalty-islands-south-pacific-earthquake-today-tsunami-b2341846.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Climate ===
The climate is [[tropical climate|tropical]], with a hot and humid season from November to March with temperatures between {{convert|27|and|30|C}},&lt;ref name=&quot;geo-jc&quot;/&gt; and a cooler, dry season from June to August with temperatures between {{cvt|20|and|23|C}},&lt;ref name=&quot;geo-jc&quot;/&gt; linked by two short interstices.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot;/&gt; The tropical climate is strongly moderated by the oceanic influence and the [[trade winds]] that attenuate humidity, which can be close to 80%.&lt;ref name=&quot;geo-jc&quot;/&gt; The average annual temperature is 23&amp;nbsp;°C, with historical extremes of {{cvt|2.3|and|39.1|C}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot;/&gt;

The rainfall records show that precipitation differs greatly within the island. The {{convert|3000|mm}} of rainfall recorded in [[Galarino]] are three times the average of the west coast. There are also dry periods, because of the effects of [[El Niño]].&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot;/&gt; Between December and April, [[tropical depressions]] and [[cyclones]] can cause winds to exceed a speed of {{convert|100|kph}}, with gusts of {{convert|250|kph}} and very abundant rainfall.&lt;ref name=&quot;ped&quot;/&gt; The last cyclone affecting New Caledonia was [[Cyclone Niran]], in March 2021.

== ماحول ==
{{See also|Biodiversity of New Caledonia}}
[[File:Landscape, south of New Caledonia.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Landscape in the south of New Caledonia]]
New Caledonia has many unique taxa, especially birds and plants.&lt;ref name=&quot;hjnc&quot;/&gt; It has the richest diversity in the world per square kilometre.&lt;ref name=&quot;hjnc&quot;/&gt; The biodiversity is caused by Grande Terre's central mountain range, which has created a variety of niches, landforms and micro-climates where [[Endemism|endemic]] species thrive.&lt;ref name=&quot;hjnc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Leanne Logan|author2=Geert Cole|title=New Caledonia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA26|year=2001|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=978-1-86450-202-2|page=26|access-date=18 October 2015|archive-date=26 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226010023/https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA26|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Largely due to its nickel industry, New Caledonia [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita|emits a high level of carbon dioxide per person]] compared to other countries. In 2019, it emitted 55.25 tons of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; per person, compared to 4.81 for France.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=EDGAR – The Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research|url=https://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/report_2020#emissions_table|access-date=2021-04-24|website=edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu|archive-date=31 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210531025125/https://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/report_2020#emissions_table|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The combination of the exceptional biodiversity of New Caledonia and its threatened status has made it one of the most critical [[biodiversity hotspots]] on Earth.&lt;ref name = &quot;myers&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Myers |first1=Norman |last2=Mittermeier |first2=Russell A. |last3=Mittermeier |first3=Cristina G. |last4=da Fonseca |first4=Gustavo A. B. |last5=Kent |first5=Jennifer |title=Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities |journal=Nature |date=February 2000 |volume=403 |issue=6772 |pages=853–858 |doi=10.1038/35002501 |pmid=10706275 |bibcode=2000Natur.403..853M }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2001, [[Bruno Van Peteghem]] was awarded the [[Goldman Environmental Prize]] for his efforts on behalf of the Caledonian ecological protection movement in the face of &quot;serious challenges&quot; from [[Jacques Lafleur]]'s [[Rally for Caledonia in the Republic|RPCR]] party.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Bruno Van Peteghem |url=http://www.goldmanprize.org/node/169 |website=Goldman Environmental Prize |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201050426/http://www.goldmanprize.org/node/169 |archive-date=1 February 2009 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Progress has been made in a few areas in addressing the protection of New Caledonia's ecological diversity from fire, industrial and residential development, unrestricted agricultural activity and mining (such as the judicial revocation of [[INCO]]'s mining licence in June 2006 owing to claimed abuses).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Indigenous Kanaks Take On Inco in New Caledonia |url=http://www.miningwatch.ca/index.php?%2FNew_Caledonia%2FGoro_Licence_Revoked |website=MiningWatch Canada |date=19 July 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013113126/http://www.miningwatch.ca/index.php?%2FNew_Caledonia%2FGoro_Licence_Revoked |archive-date=13 October 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2008, six lagoons of the [[New Caledonian barrier reef]], the world's longest continuous barrier reef system, were inscribed on the [[UNESCO World Heritage List]].

=== Flora ===
[[File:Amborella trichopoda (3065968016) fragment.jpg|thumb|''[[Amborella]]'', the world's oldest living lineage of flowering plant]]
[[File:0 Araucaria columnaris New Caledonia.jpg|thumb|''[[Araucaria columnaris]]'' on the [[Isle of Pines (New Caledonia)|Isle of Pines]]]]
New Caledonia's fauna and flora derive from ancestral species isolated in the region when it broke away from [[Gondwana]] many tens of millions of years ago.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |first1=Alan S. |last1=Collins |first2=Sergei A. |last2=Pisarevsky |title=Amalgamating eastern Gondwana: The evolution of the Circum-Indian Orogens |journal= Earth-Science Reviews |date= August 2005 |volume=71 |issue=3–4 |pages=229–270 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.02.004 |bibcode=2005ESRv...71..229C }}&lt;/ref&gt; Not only endemic species have evolved here, but entire [[Genus|genera]], [[Family (biology)|families]], and even [[Order (biology)|orders]] are unique to the islands.

More tropical [[gymnosperm]] species are endemic to New Caledonia than to any similar region on Earth. Of the 44 indigenous species of gymnosperms, 43 are endemic, including the only known parasitic gymnosperm (''[[Parasitaxus usta]]'').&lt;ref name=&quot;futura1&quot;/&gt; Also, of the 35 known species of ''[[Araucaria]]'', 13 are endemic to New Caledonia.&lt;ref name=&quot;hjnc&quot;/&gt; New Caledonia also has the world's most divergent lineage of [[flowering plant]], ''[[Amborella trichopoda]]'', which is at, or near, the base of the clade of all flowering plants.

The world's largest [[Neontology|extant]] species of [[fern]], ''[[Sphaeropteris intermedia]]'', also is endemic to New Caledonia. It is very common on acidic soil, usually found on fallow ground or in forest clearings, and grows about one metre per year on the east coast. There also are other species of [[tree fern]]s, notably ''[[Sphaeropteris novae-caledoniae]]''&lt;ref name=&quot;ncd2&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url= http://www.futura-sciences.com/fr/doc/t/zoologie-1/r/nouvelle-caledonie/d/la-faune-et-la-flore-de-nouvelle-caledonie_468/c3/221/p3/ |title= La flore de Nouvelle-Calédonie – Deuxième partie |website= Futura-sciences.com |date= 2004-08-18 |access-date= 2013-01-30 |archive-date= 11 March 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130311213816/http://www.futura-sciences.com/fr/doc/t/zoologie-1/r/nouvelle-caledonie/d/la-faune-et-la-flore-de-nouvelle-caledonie_468/c3/221/p3/ |url-status= live }}&lt;/ref&gt; and the New Caledonian fork fern, (Tmesipteris oblanceolata) which has the largest genome known in a eukaryotic organism.

New Caledonia also is one of five regions on the planet where species of southern beeches (''[[Nothofagus]]'') are indigenous; five species are known to occur here.&lt;ref name=&quot;futura1&quot;/&gt;

New Caledonia has its own version of [[maquis shrubland|maquis]] (''[[maquis minier]]'') occurring on metalliferous soils, mostly in the south.&lt;ref name=&quot;gbrs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=New Caledonia: a very old Darwinian island? |pmc=2607381 |year=2008 |last1=Grandcolas |first1=P |last2=Murienne |first2=J |last3=Robillard |first3=T |last4=Desutter-Grandcolas |first4=L |last5=Jourdan |first5=H |last6=Guilbert |first6=E |last7=Deharveng |first7=L |volume=363 |issue=1508 |pages=3309–3317 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2008.0122 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |pmid=18765357 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The soils of ultramafic rocks (mining terrains) have been a refuge for many native flora species which are adapted to the toxic mineral content of the soils, to which most foreign species of plants are poorly suited, which has therefore prevented invasion into the habitat or displacement of indigenous plants.&lt;ref name=&quot;futura1&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.futura-sciences.com/fr/doc/t/zoologie-1/r/nouvelle-caledonie/d/la-faune-et-la-flore-de-nouvelle-caledonie_468/c3/221/p2/ |title=La flore de Nouvelle-Calédonie – Première partie |website=Futura-sciences.com |date=2004-08-18 |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=11 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130311213828/http://www.futura-sciences.com/fr/doc/t/zoologie-1/r/nouvelle-caledonie/d/la-faune-et-la-flore-de-nouvelle-caledonie_468/c3/221/p2/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Two terrestrial ecoregions lie within New Caledonia's territory: [[New Caledonia rain forests]] and [[New Caledonia dry forests]].&lt;ref name=&quot;DinersteinOlson2017&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Dinerstein |first1=Eric |last2=Olson |first2=David |last3=Joshi |first3=Anup |last4=Vynne |first4=Carly |last5=Burgess |first5=Neil D. |last6=Wikramanayake |first6=Eric |last7=Hahn |first7=Nathan |last8=Palminteri |first8=Suzanne |last9=Hedao |first9=Prashant |last10=Noss |first10=Reed |last11=Hansen |first11=Matt |last12=Locke |first12=Harvey |last13=Ellis |first13=Erle C |last14=Jones |first14=Benjamin |last15=Barber |first15=Charles Victor |last16=Hayes |first16=Randy |last17=Kormos |first17=Cyril |last18=Martin |first18=Vance |last19=Crist |first19=Eileen |last20=Sechrest |first20=Wes |last21=Price |first21=Lori |last22=Baillie |first22=Jonathan E. M. |last23=Weeden |first23=Don |last24=Suckling |first24=Kierán |last25=Davis |first25=Crystal |last26=Sizer |first26=Nigel |last27=Moore |first27=Rebecca |last28=Thau |first28=David |last29=Birch |first29=Tanya |last30=Potapov |first30=Peter |last31=Turubanova |first31=Svetlana |last32=Tyukavina |first32=Alexandra |last33=de Souza |first33=Nadia |last34=Pintea |first34=Lilian |last35=Brito |first35=José C. |last36=Llewellyn |first36=Othman A. |last37=Miller |first37=Anthony G. |last38=Patzelt |first38=Annette |last39=Ghazanfar |first39=Shahina A. |last40=Timberlake |first40=Jonathan |last41=Klöser |first41=Heinz |last42=Shennan-Farpón |first42=Yara |last43=Kindt |first43=Roeland |last44=Lillesø |first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow |last45=van Breugel |first45=Paulo |last46=Graudal |first46=Lars |last47=Voge |first47=Maianna |last48=Al-Shammari |first48=Khalaf F. |last49=Saleem |first49=Muhammad |title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm |journal=BioScience |date=June 2017 |volume=67 |issue=6 |pages=534–545 |doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014 |pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{See also|List of endemic plants of New Caledonia}}

=== Fauna ===
In addition to its outstanding plant diversity and endemism, New Caledonia also provides habitat for a wide diversity of animals. Over 100 bird species live in New Caledonia, of which 24 are endemic.&lt;ref name = &quot;Palmas&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Palmas |first1=Pauline |last2=Jourdan |first2=Hervé |last3=Rigault |first3=Fredéric |last4=Debar |first4=Léo |last5=De Meringo |first5=Hélène |last6=Bourguet |first6=Edouard |last7=Mathivet |first7=Mathieu |last8=Lee |first8=Matthias |last9=Adjouhgniope |first9=Rachelle |last10=Papillon |first10=Yves |last11=Bonnaud |first11=Elsa |last12=Vidal |first12=Eric |title=Feral cats threaten the outstanding endemic fauna of the New Caledonia biodiversity hotspot |journal=Biological Conservation |date=1 October 2017 |volume=214 |pages=250–259 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2017.08.003 |bibcode=2017BCons.214..250P |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01793811 }}&lt;/ref&gt; One of these endemic bird species is the [[New Caledonian crow]], a bird noted for its [[tool use in animals|tool-making]] abilities, which rival those of primates.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Weir |first1=Alex A. S. |last2=Chappell |first2=Jackie |last3=Kacelnik |first3=Alex |title=Shaping of Hooks in New Caledonian Crows |journal=Science |date=9 August 2002 |volume=297 |issue=5583 |pages=981 |doi=10.1126/science.1073433 |pmid=12169726 }}&lt;/ref&gt; These crows are renowned for their extraordinary intelligence and ability to fashion tools to solve problems, and make the most complex tools of any animal yet studied apart from humans.&lt;ref name=&quot;nccbbc&quot;&gt;{{cite news |last=Walker |first=Matt |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_9125000/9125227.stm |title=Clever New Caledonian crows go to parents' tool school |work=[[BBC News]] |date=2010-10-26 |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=14 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111014003859/http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_9125000/9125227.stm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Cagou.jpg|thumb|left|The [[kagu]], an [[endemic]] flightless bird]]
The endemic [[kagu]],&lt;ref&gt;Attenborough, D. 1998 ''The Life of Birds'' BBC  {{ISBN|0563-38792-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; agile and able to run quickly, is a flightless bird, but it is able to use its wings to climb branches or glide. Its sound is similar to the bark of a dog. It is the surviving member of [[monotypic]] family [[Rhynochetidae]], order [[Eurypygiformes]].&lt;ref name=&quot;kagu&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.oiseaux-birds.com/card-kagu.html |title=Kagu |website=Oiseaux-birds.com |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=24 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124171207/http://www.oiseaux-birds.com/card-kagu.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

There are 11 endemic fish species and 14 endemic species of [[Decapoda|decapod]] [[crustaceans]] in the rivers and lakes of New Caledonia. Some, such as ''[[Neogalaxias]]'', exist only in small areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncnau&quot;/&gt; The [[nautilus]]—considered a living fossil and related to the extinct [[ammonite]]s—occurs in Pacific waters around New Caledonia.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncnau&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.endemia.nc/biodiversite.php |title=La Biodiversité |website=Endemia.nc |access-date=2013-01-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130106120416/http://www.endemia.nc/biodiversite.php |archive-date=6 January 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; There is a large diversity of [[List of fishes of the Coral Sea|marine fish]] in the surrounding waters, which are within the extents of the [[Coral Sea]].

Despite its large number of bird, reptile, and fish species, New Caledonia has remarkably few mammal species: nine, of which six are endemic.&lt;ref name = &quot;Palmas&quot; /&gt;

Several species of New Caledonia are remarkable for their size: ''[[Ducula goliath]]'' is the largest extant species of arboreal pigeon; ''[[Rhacodactylus leachianus]]'', the largest gecko in the world; ''[[Phoboscincus bocourti]]'', a large skink thought to be extinct until [[Lazarus taxon|rediscovered]] in 2003.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncnau&quot;/&gt;

Much of New Caledonia's fauna present before human settlement is now extinct, including ''[[Sylviornis]]'', a bird over a metre tall not closely related to any living species, and ''[[Meiolania]]'', a giant horned turtle that diverged from living turtles during the Jurassic period.

In January 2024, a court in the Capital Nouméa issued a ruling banning the culling of sharks citing it as disproportionate. The culls began after an Australian tourist was killed by a shark in the previous year.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=New Caledonia court bans shark culls amid environmental backlash |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/jan/09/new-caledonia-court-bans-shark-culls-amid-environmental-backlash |work=The Guardian |date=8 January 2024 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{See also|List of birds of New Caledonia}}

== آباديءَ جا انگ اکر ==
{{Historical populations
| title       = Historical populations
| footnote    = ISEE&lt;ref name=&quot;The Population at Different Censuses&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/195-donnees?download=764:la-population-aux-differents-recensements|title=The Population at Different Censuses |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411094321/https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/195-donnees?download=764:la-population-aux-differents-recensements|archive-date=11 April 2020 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=census2025 /&gt;
| percentages = pagr
| 1956.931693989 |68480
| 1963.334246575 |86519
| 1969.191780822 |100579
| 1976.31147541 |133233
| 1983.287671233 |145368
| 1989.257534247 |164173
| 1996.292349727 |196836
| 2009.569863014 |245580
| 2014.652055 |268767
| 2019.693151 |271407
| 2025.306849 |264596
}}
اپريل &lt;small&gt;2025&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ ٿيل آخري مردم شماري مطابق، نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي آبادي &lt;small&gt;264,596&lt;/small&gt; هئي. هي انگ سيپٽمبر &lt;small&gt;2019&lt;/small&gt;ع جي مردم شماري (&lt;small&gt;271,407&lt;/small&gt;) جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ هو، ڇاڪاڻ ته معاشي بحران ۽ &lt;small&gt;2024&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ ٿيل بدامنيءَ سبب ماڻهن اهو علائقو ڇڏي ڏنو هو. انهن &lt;small&gt;264,596&lt;/small&gt; ماڻهن مان، &lt;small&gt;18,671&lt;/small&gt; لائلٽي آئلينڊز صوبي ۾، &lt;small&gt;50,947&lt;/small&gt; اتر صوبي ۾، ۽ &lt;small&gt;194,978&lt;/small&gt; ڏکڻ صوبي ۾ رهندا هئا.  

&lt;small&gt;2019&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;2025&lt;/small&gt;ع جي مردم شمارين جي وچ واري عرصي ۾ اتر صوبي ۽ لائلٽي آئلينڊز ۾ آباديءَ ۾ ترتيبوار &lt;small&gt;2.1&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;1.7&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو اضافو رڪارڊ ڪيو ويو، جڏهن ته ڏکڻ صوبي ۾ آباديءَ ۾ &lt;small&gt;4.0&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو گهٽتائي ڏٺي وئي، جيتوڻيڪ تازو ئي گريٽر نوميا (&lt;small&gt;Greater&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Nouméa&lt;/small&gt;) واري علائقي ۾ نوان ماڻهو اچي آباد ٿيا آهن. خاص طور تي، &lt;small&gt;2024&lt;/small&gt;ع واري بدامني ۽ شهري فسادن کانپوءِ &quot;گريٽر نوميا&quot; واري علائقي ۾ معاشي صورتحال خراب ٿيڻ سبب، ڪانڪ (&lt;small&gt;Kanak&lt;/small&gt;) ماڻهن نوميا ڇڏي نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي ٻين علائقن ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/195-donnees?download=2291:les-populations-de-reference |title=Populations aux différents recensements|publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2026-01-30}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

آباديءَ جو &lt;small&gt;30&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو حصو &lt;small&gt;20&lt;/small&gt; سالن کان گهٽ عمر وارن ماڻهن تي مشتمل هو، جڏهن ته مجموعي آباديءَ ۾ بزرگن جو تناسب وڌي رهيو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;insee-1&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?ref_id=ip1338 |title=Recensement de la population en Nouvelle-Calédonie en 2009 – 50 000 habitants de plus en 13 ans |publisher=Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques ([[INSEE]].fr) |language=fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=31 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131233952/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?ref_id=ip1338 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; نيو ڪيليڊونيا جا ٽن مان ٻه رهواسي گريٽر نوميا ۾ رهن ٿا. &lt;small&gt;78&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو ماڻهو نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ ئي پيدا ٿيا هئا. ٻارن جي پيدائش جي مجموعي شرح (&lt;small&gt;Total fertility rate&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;small&gt;2014&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ في عورت &lt;small&gt;'''2.2'''&lt;/small&gt; ٻارن کان گهٽجي &lt;small&gt;2019&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ &lt;small&gt;'''1.9'''&lt;/small&gt; ٿي وئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/230-toutes-les-publications?download=1982:rp-2019-la-croissance-demographique-flechit-nettement-en-nc-entre-2014-et-2019 |title=La croissance démographique fléchit nettement en Nouvelle-Calédonie entre 2014 et 2019 |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2 November 2020 |archive-date=7 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107165152/https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/230-toutes-les-publications?download=1982:rp-2019-la-croissance-demographique-flechit-nettement-en-nc-entre-2014-et-2019 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== نسلي گروهه ===
{{bar box
|title=Ethnic Groups in New Caledonia (2019 Census)&lt;ref name=&quot;Population Structure of Communities&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/278-donnees?download=874:structure-de-la-population-des-communautes |title=Population Structure of Communities |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=29 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113144638/http://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/278-donnees?download=874:structure-de-la-population-des-communautes |archive-date=13 November 2019 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|titlebar=#ddd
|left1=Ethnic Groups
|right1=percent
|float=right
|bars=
{{bar percent|Kanak|darkgreen|41.2}}
{{bar percent|European|purple|24.1}}
{{bar percent|&quot;Caledonian&quot; or not stated|pink|7.5}}
{{bar percent|Mixed|red|11.3}}
{{bar percent|Wallisian/Futunian|black|8.3}}
{{bar percent|Tahitian|darkblue|2.0}}
{{bar percent|Javanese|Violet|1.4}}
{{bar percent|Ni-Vanuatu|maroon|0.9}}
{{bar percent|Vietnamese|darkgray|0.8}}
{{bar percent|Other Asian|gray|0.4}}
{{bar percent|Other|tan|2.1}}
}}
At the 2019 census,&lt;ref name=&quot;Population Structure of Communities&quot; /&gt; 41.2% of the population reported belonging to the [[Kanak people|Kanak]] community (up from 39.1% at the 2014 census&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://xt.isee.nc/xtc/tele.php?tableau=xt127001.xls&amp;base=rp09indcomap |title=Communauté d'appartenance – INSEE – ISEE / Recensement de la population de 2009 en Nouvelle-Calédonie |format=XLS |access-date=2015-08-24 |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |archive-date=31 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331120910/https://xt.isee.nc/xtc/tele.php?tableau=xt127001.xls&amp;base=rp09indcomap |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;) and 24.1% to the [[Europe]]an ([[Caldoche]] and [[Zoreilles|Zoreille]]) community (down from 27.2% at the 2014 census). A further 7.5% of the population either self-identified as &quot;Caledonian&quot; or refused to declare an ethnic group (down from 9.9% at the 2014 census). Most of the people who self-identify as &quot;Caledonian&quot; or refuse to declare an ethnic group are thought to be ethnically European.&lt;ref name=&quot;LoganCole2001b&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Leanne Logan|author2=Geert Cole|title=New Caledonia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA39|year=2001|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=978-1-86450-202-2|page=39|access-date=18 October 2015|archive-date=13 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413094632/https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA39|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The other self-reported communities were [[Wallis and Futuna|Wallisians and Futunians]] (8.3% of the total population, up from 8.2% at the 2014 census), [[Overseas Indonesian|Indonesians]] who are from the [[Javanese New Caledonians|Javanese ethnic group]] (1.4% of the total population, the same as in 2014),&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=New Caledonian Javanese, in New Caledonia |url=https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/13321/NC |website=joshuaproject.net |publisher=Joshua Project |access-date=14 December 2020 |archive-date=5 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205095432/https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/13321/NC |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Tahitians]] (2.0% of the total population, down from 2.1% at the 2014 census), [[Ni-Vanuatu]] (0.9%, down from 1.0% at the 2014 census), [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] (0.8%, down from 0.9% at the 2014 census), and other Asians (primarily [[Overseas Chinese|ethnic Chinese]]; 0.4% of the total population, the same as in 2014).

11.3% of the population reported belonging to multiple communities ([[Multiracial people|mixed race]]) (up from 8.6% at the 2014 census). The question on community belonging, which had been left out of the 2004 census, was reintroduced in 2009 under a new formulation, different from the 1996 census, allowing multiple choices (mixed race) and the possibility to clarify the choice &quot;other&quot; (which led many Europeans to self-identify as &quot;Caledonian&quot; in the category &quot;other&quot;, or to select several ethnic communities, such as both European and Kanak, thus appearing as mixed race, which is particularly the case for the Caldoches living in the bush, who often have mixed ancestry).&lt;ref name=&quot;eth09&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.isee.nc/population/telecharpdf/4%20page-rpnc09.pdf |title=Recensement de la population 2009 |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=13 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113151907/http://www.isee.nc/population/telecharpdf/4%20page-rpnc09.pdf |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Finally, 2.1% of the population reported belonging to other communities to the exclusion of &quot;Caledonian&quot; (up from 1.3% at the 2014 census).

The Kanak people, part of the ethnic [[Melanesians|Melanesian]] group, are indigenous to New Caledonia.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=5}} Their social organization is traditionally based on [[clan]]s, which identify as either &quot;land&quot; or &quot;sea&quot; clans, depending on their original location and the occupation of their ancestors.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=5}} According to the 2019 census, the Kanak constitute 95% of the population in the [[Loyalty Islands Province]], 72% in the North Province and 29% in the South Province.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=5}} The Kanak tend to be of lower socio-economic status than the Europeans and other settlers.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=5}}&lt;ref name=&quot;isee.nc&quot;&gt;{{cite magazine |magazine=Synthèse |issue=35 |url=http://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/197-analyse?download=1484:une-demographie-toujours-dynamique |format=PDF |title=Recensement de la population 2014 |lang=fr |trans-title=2014 population census |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=14 December 2019 |archive-date=14 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214213813/http://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/197-analyse%3Fdownload%3D1484:une-demographie-toujours-dynamique |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Europeans in Oceania|Europeans]] first settled in New Caledonia when France established a penal colony on the archipelago.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=5}} Once the prisoners had completed their sentences, they were given land to settle.{{sfn|Anaya|2011|p=5}} According to the 2014 census, of the 73,199 Europeans in New Caledonia, 30,484 were [[Caldoche|native-born]], 36,975 were born in [[Zoreilles|Metropolitan France]], 488 were born in [[French Polynesia]], 86 were born in [[Wallis and Futuna]], and 5,166 were born abroad.&lt;ref name=&quot;ridet&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=DONNEES DE CADRAGE |url=http://www.isee.nc/population/telecharxls/don.cadrage-rp-09.xls |format=XLS |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030182817/http://www.isee.nc/population/telecharxls/don.cadrage-rp-09.xls |archive-date=30 October 2012 |place=Nouméa}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Europeans are divided into several groups. The [[Caldoche]]s are usually defined as those born in New Caledonia who have ancestral ties that span back to the early French settlers.&lt;ref name=&quot;LoganCole2001b&quot;/&gt; They often settled in the rural areas of the western coast of Grande Terre, where many continue to run large cattle properties.&lt;ref name=&quot;LoganCole2001b&quot;/&gt;

Distinct from the Caldoches are those who were born in New Caledonia from families that had settled more recently, and are called simply Caledonians.&lt;ref name=&quot;LoganCole2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1= Leanne|last1= vLogan|first2= Geert|last2= Cole|title= New Caledonia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA13|year= 2001|publisher= Lonely Planet|isbn= 978-1-86450-202-2|page= 13|via= Google Books|access-date= 18 October 2015|archive-date= 13 April 2016|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160413093509/https://books.google.com/books?id=lly95WF8n-cC&amp;pg=PA13|url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Metropolitan France|Metropolitan French]]-born migrants who come to New Caledonia are called ''Métros'' or ''Zoreilles'', indicating their origins in metropolitan France.&lt;ref name=&quot;LoganCole2001&quot;/&gt; There is also a community of about 2,000&lt;ref name=&quot;LoganCole2001&quot;/&gt; [[Pied-Noir|pieds noirs]], descended from European settlers in France's former North African colonies;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Chappell |first1=David A. |title=New Caledonia |journal=The Contemporary Pacific |date=September 2005 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=435–448 |doi=10.1353/cp.2005.0043 }}&lt;/ref&gt; some of them are prominent in anti-independence politics, including [[Pierre Maresca]], a leader of the [[Rally for Caledonia in the Republic|RPCR]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE7DC1E3FF935A15754C0A96E948260&amp;sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=all|title=Noumea Journal; On an Island in the Pacific, but Far From at Peace|work=The New York Times|author=Henry Kamm|date=26 July 1988|author-link=Henry Kamm|access-date=11 February 2017|archive-date=23 April 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423052218/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE7DC1E3FF935A15754C0A96E948260&amp;sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=all|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A 2015 documentary by [[Al Jazeera English]] asserted that up to 10%{{dubious|date=September 2015}} of New Caledonia's population is descended from around 2,000 [[Arabs|Arab]]-[[Imazighen|Berber]] people deported from [[French Algeria]] in the late 19th century to [[Penal colony|prisons on the island]] in reprisal for the [[Mokrani Revolt]] in 1871. After serving their sentences, they were released and given land to own and cultivate as part of colonisation efforts on the island. As the overwhelming majority of the [[Algerians of the Pacific|Algerians imprisoned on New Caledonia]] were men, the community was continued through intermarriage with women of other ethnic groups, mainly French women from nearby women's prisons. Despite facing both assimilation into the Euro-French population and discrimination for their ethnic background, descendants of the deportees have succeeded in preserving a common identity as Algerians, including maintaining certain cultural practices (such as Arabic names) and in some cases [[Islam]]ic religion. Some travel to Algeria as a rite of passage, though obtaining Algerian citizenship is often a difficult process. The largest population of Algerian-Caledonians lives in the commune of [[Bourail]] (particularly in the {{ill|Nessadiou|fr|Nessadiou}} district, where there is an Islamic cultural centre and {{ill|Arabic cemetery of Nesssadiou|lt=cemetery|fr|Cimetière des Arabes de Nessadiou}}), with smaller communities in [[Nouméa]], [[Koné, New Caledonia|Koné]], [[Pouembout]], and [[Yaté]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/aljazeeraworld/2015/09/exile-caledonia-150914145540415.html|title=Exile in New Caledonia|last1=Mame|first1=Abdelkader|first2=Abdelaziz|last2=Abid|date=14 September 2015|publisher=Al Jazeera English|access-date=17 September 2015|archive-date=19 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919090331/http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/aljazeeraworld/2015/09/exile-caledonia-150914145540415.html|url-status=dead}} [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1qsr-FjZhEM video] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920034630/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1qsr-FjZhEM |date=20 September 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;gallery widths=&quot;200px&quot; heights=&quot;155px&quot;&gt;
Femmes kanak2.jpg|[[Kanak people|Kanak]] women
Rodéo cheval.JPG|[[Rodeo]]s (here at the annual fair of [[Bourail]]) are part of [[Caldoche]] culture.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=== Languages ===
{{Main|Languages of New Caledonia}}

The [[French language]] began to spread with the establishment of French settlements, and French is now spoken even in the most secluded villages. For a long time the level of fluency varied significantly across the population as a whole, primarily due to the absence of universal access to public education before 1953, and also due to immigration and ethnic diversity,&lt;ref name=&quot;rl-lang&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ac-noumea.nc/sitevr/spip.php?rubrique48 |title=Situation linguistique en Nouvelle-Calédonie |publisher=Vice-Rectorat de Nouvelle-Calédonie |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=18 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118021148/http://www.ac-noumea.nc/sitevr/spip.php?rubrique48 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; but the French language has now become universal among the younger generations as shown by the censuses of population. At the 2009 census, 97.3% of people aged 15 or older reported that they could speak, read and write French, whereas only 1.1% reported that they had no knowledge of French.&lt;ref name=&quot;cen-lang&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Principales caractéristiques des individus de 15 ans et plus, par province de résidence et sexe |format=XLS |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/193-recensement?download=1876:rp-09-population-menages-logement-par-commune |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030182817/http://www.isee.nc/population/telecharxls/don.cadrage-rp-09.xls |place=Nouméa |access-date=2013-02-28|archive-date=30 October 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt; No questions regarding the knowledge of French were asked in the 2014 and 2019 censuses, on account of the population's nearly universal understanding of it.

The 28 [[Kanak languages]] spoken in New Caledonia are part of the [[Oceanic languages|Oceanic]] group of the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] family.&lt;ref name=&quot;macc&quot;&gt;{{cite web |website=Académie des Langues Kanak |title=Langues |url=http://www.alk.gouv.nc/portal/page/portal/alk/langues |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109131824/http://www.alk.gouv.nc/portal/page/portal/alk/langues |archive-date=9 November 2017 |url-status=dead |access-date=15 October 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Eight of these can be chosen by parents as optional subjects for their children from kindergarten to high school (four languages are taught up to the bachelor's degree) and an academy is responsible for their promotion.&lt;ref name=&quot;maskan&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.maisonnouvellecaledonieparis.nc/site/population.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426023621/http://www.maisonnouvellecaledonieparis.nc/site/population.php |archive-date=2009-04-26 |title=La Population De Nouvelle-Caledonie |publisher=La maison de la Nouvelle-Calédonie |language=fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; The three most widely spoken indigenous languages are [[Drehu]] (spoken in [[Lifou]]), [[Nengone language|Nengone]] (spoken on [[Maré]]) and [[Paicî]] (northern part of Grande Terre).&lt;ref name=&quot;maskan&quot;/&gt; Others include [[Iaai language|Iaai]] (spoken on [[Ouvéa]]). At the 2019 census, 44.0% of people whose age was 15 or older reported that they had some form of knowledge of at least one Kanak language (up from 41.3% at the 2009 census), whereas 56.0% reported that they had no knowledge of any of the Kanak languages (down from 58.7% at the 2009 census).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/193-recensement?download=1980:rp2019-population-menages-logement-province |title=Population, ménages et logement par province, en 2019 – P20 Population de 15 ans et plus, selon le genre, la connaissance d'une langue kanak et la province de résidence par groupe d'âge décennal |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |language=fr |access-date=2023-03-06 |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101013043/https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/193-recensement?download=1980:rp2019-population-menages-logement-province |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;cen-lang&quot;/&gt;

Other significant language communities among immigrant populations include speakers of [[Wallisian]], [[Futunan language|Futunian]], [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]], [[Javanese language|Javanese]], [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], and [[Bislama]].

=== Religion ===
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Religion in New Caledonia according to the ''Global Religious Landscape'' survey by the [[Pew Research Center|Pew Forum]], 2012&lt;ref name=&quot;Survey&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.pewforum.org/files/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125173538/https://www.pewforum.org/files/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 January 2017|title=The Global Religious Landscape|publisher=Pewforum.org|access-date=2 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|label1 = [[Christianity]]
|value1 = 85.2
|color1 = Red
|label2 = No religion
|value2 = 10.4
|color2 = #FFFFFF
|label3 = [[Islam]]
|value3 = 2.8
|color3 = Green
|label4 = [[Buddhism]]
|value4 = 0.6
|color4 = Gold
|label5 = Folk religion
|value5 = 0.2
|color5 = Chartreuse
|label6 = Others
|value6 = 0.8
|color6 = Orange
}}
The predominant religion is [[Christianity]]; half of the population is [[Catholic]], including most of the Europeans, [[West Uvean]]s, and Vietnamese and half of the Melanesian and Polynesian minorities.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncbrit&quot;/&gt; Catholicism was introduced by French colonists. The island also has numerous [[Protestant]] churches, of which the [[Free Evangelical Church]] and the [[Evangelical Church in New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands]] have the largest number of adherents; their memberships are almost entirely Melanesian.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncbrit&quot;/&gt; Protestantism gained ground in the late 20th century and continues to expand. There are also numerous other Christian groups and more than 6,000 Muslims.&lt;ref name=&quot;ncbrit&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=R. G. Crocombe|title=Asia in the Pacific Islands: Replacing the West|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iDg9oAkwsXAC&amp;pg=PA375|access-date=24 August 2012|year=2007|publisher=editorips@usp.ac.fj|isbn=978-982-02-0388-4|pages=375–|archive-date=4 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604054847/http://books.google.com/books?id=iDg9oAkwsXAC&amp;pg=PA375|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; (See [[Islam in New Caledonia]] and [[Baháʼí Faith in New Caledonia]].) Nouméa is the seat of the [[Archdiocese of Nouméa]].

== تعليم ==
نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ تعليم فرانسيسي نصاب تي ٻڌل آهي ۽ اها فرانسيسي استادن توڙي فرانس ۾ تربيت يافته استادن ذريعي ڏني وڃي ٿي. 1998ع جي نوميا معاهدي (Nouméa Accord) جي شرطن تحت، پرائمري تعليم ٽن صوبن جي ذميواري آهي. 2010ع تائين، سيڪنڊري تعليم کي صوبن جي حوالي ڪرڻ جو عمل جاري هو. اڪثر اسڪول نوميا (Nouméa) ۾ واقع آهن، پر ڪجهه ٻيٽن ۽ نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي اترئين حصي ۾ پڻ موجود آهن. جڏهن شاگرد هاءِ اسڪول واري عمر کي پهچندا آهن، ته انهن مان گهڻن کي سيڪنڊري تعليم جاري رکڻ لاءِ نوميا موڪليو ويندو آهي. ڇهن سالن جي عمر کان تعليم لازمي آهي. 

نيو ڪيليڊونيا جو اعليٰ تعليم جو مکيه ادارو ”يونيورسٽي آف نيو ڪيليڊونيا“ (Université de la Nouvelle-Calédonie) آهي، جنهن جو بنياد 1993ع ۾ رکيو ويو ۽ اهو اعليٰ تعليم، تحقيق ۽ جدت واري وزارت جي نگرانيءَ هيٺ ڪم ڪري ٿو. هي يونيورسٽي نوميا ۾ واقع آهي ۽ مختلف قسم جا پيشه ورانه (وڪيشنل)، بيچلرز، ايم اي (MA) ۽ پي ايڇ ڊي (PhD) پروگرام ۽ ڪورس پيش ڪري ٿي. يونيورسٽي آف نيو ڪيليڊونيا ٽن تعليمي شعبن، هڪ ٽيڪنالاجي انسٽيٽيوٽ، هڪ پي ايڇ ڊي اسڪول ۽ هڪ ٽيچرز ڪاليج تي مشتمل آهي. 2013ع تائين، يونيورسٽي ۾ تقريبن 3,000 شاگرد، 107 تعليمي ماهر (استاد) ۽ 95 انتظامي توڙي لائبريري عملي جا ميمبر موجود هئا. نيو ڪيليڊونيا جا ڪيترائي شاگرد مرڪزي فرانس (Metropolitan France) ۾ تعليم حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ اسڪالرشپ پڻ حاصل ڪندا آهن. نوميا معاهدي واري عمل جي حصي طور، ”ڪيڊر ايونير“ (Cadre Avenir) پروگرام ڪانڪ (Kanak) پيشه ور ماڻهن کي فرانس ۾ تعليم حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ اسڪالرشپ فراهم ڪري ٿو. 

in New Caledonia is based on the [[Education in France|French curriculum]] and delivered by both French teachers and French-trained teachers. Under the terms of the 1998 [[Nouméa Accord]], primary education is the responsibility of the three provinces. As of 2010, secondary education was in the process of being transferred to the provinces.&lt;ref name=&quot;CSC Australia 2010&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Emerging Pacific Leaders Dialogue 2010 New Caledonia Report|url=http://www.cscaustralia.com/ep10/reports/Study%20Tour%20Report,%20New%20Caledonia%20April%20'10.pdf|publisher=Commonwealth Study Conferences Australia|access-date=1 March 2018|archive-date=18 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170918190058/http://www.cscaustralia.com/ep10/reports/Study%20Tour%20Report%2C%20New%20Caledonia%20April%20%2710.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; The majority of schools are located in [[Nouméa]] but some are found in the islands and the north of New Caledonia. When students reach high school age, most are sent to Nouméa to continue their secondary education. Education is compulsory from the age of six years.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=What is education like in New Caledonia?|url=https://newcaledoniatoday.wordpress.com/2013/02/28/what-is-education-like-in-new-caledonia/|website=New Caledonia Today|access-date=1 March 2018|date=2013-02-28|archive-date=1 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180301164416/https://newcaledoniatoday.wordpress.com/2013/02/28/what-is-education-like-in-new-caledonia/|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unreliable source?|date=March 2018}}

New Caledonia's main tertiary education institution is the [[University of New Caledonia]] (''Université de la Nouvelle-Calédonie''), which was founded in 1993 and comes under the supervision of the [[Ministry of Higher Education, Research and Innovation]]. It is based in Nouméa and offers a range of vocational, Bachelor, MA, and PhD programs and courses. The University of New Caledonia consists of three academic departments, one institute of technology, one PhD school, and one teachers' college. As of 2013, the university has approximately 3,000 students, 107 academics, and 95 administrative and library staff.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Presentation UNC en Anglais 2012|url=http://unc.nc/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/presentation-UNC-english-1.pdf|publisher=[[University of New Caledonia]]|access-date=1 March 2018|archive-date=25 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025024601/https://unc.nc/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/presentation-UNC-english-1.pdf|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CSC Australia 2010&quot; /&gt; Many New Caledonian students also pursue scholarships to study in metropolitan France. As part of the Nouméa Accord process, a ''Cadre Avenir'' provides scholarships for Kanak professionals to study in France.&lt;ref name=&quot;CSC Australia 2010&quot; /&gt;

== ثقافت ==
[[File:Foire chevaux.JPG|thumb|[[Caldoche]]s, [[European emigration|European]] people born in New Caledonia]]

[[Wood carving]], especially of the houp (''[[Montrouziera cauliflora]]''), is a contemporary reflection of the beliefs of the traditional tribal society, and includes [[totem]]s, masks, [[chambranle]]s, or [[flèche faîtière]],&lt;ref name=&quot;desc&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://fr.visitenouvellecaledonie.com/decouvrez/la-culture |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724075625/http://fr.visitenouvellecaledonie.com/decouvrez/la-culture |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-07-24 |title=La Culture |publisher=Tourisme Nouvelle-Calédonie |access-date=2013-01-30 }}&lt;/ref&gt; a kind of arrow that adorns the roofs of Kanak houses. [[Basketry]] is a craft widely practised by tribal women, creating objects of daily use.&lt;ref name=&quot;desc&quot;/&gt;

The [[Jean-Marie Tjibaou Cultural Centre]], designed by Italian architect [[Renzo Piano]] and opened in 1998, celebrates Kanak culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;desc&quot;/&gt;

The [[Kaneka (music)|Kaneka]] is a form of local music, inspired by [[reggae]] and originating in the 1980s.&lt;ref name=&quot;desc&quot;/&gt;

The [[Mwâ Ka]] is a {{convert|12|m|ft|adj=on}} [[totem pole]] commemorating the French annexation of New Caledonia, and was inaugurated in 2005.&lt;ref name=&quot;mka&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/new-caledonia/noumea/sights/monument/mwa-ka |title=Mwâ Ka in Noumea, New Caledonia |publisher=Lonely Planet |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=17 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130317231552/http://www.lonelyplanet.com/new-caledonia/noumea/sights/monument/mwa-ka |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ميڊيا ==
&quot;ليس نيوويلس ڪيليڊونينس&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Les&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Nouvelles&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Calédoniennes&lt;/small&gt;) هن ٻيٽن جي مجموعي (&lt;small&gt;archipelago&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ واحد روزاني اخبار آهي. &lt;ref&gt;The name is a pun, and can be read in English as &quot;The Caledonian News&quot; or &quot;Women of New Caledonia&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; هڪ ماهوار رسالو، ”لي چين بلو“ (&lt;small&gt;Le Chien bleu&lt;/small&gt;)، نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي خبرن تي طنزيه تبصرا يا پيروڊي (&lt;small&gt;parody&lt;/small&gt;) پيش ڪري ٿو.

هتي پنج ريڊيو اسٽيشنون: عوامي خدمت وارو نشرياتي ادارو ريڊيو نيوويل-ڪيليڊونيا (&lt;small&gt;RFO radio Nouvelle&lt;/small&gt;-&lt;small&gt;Calédonie&lt;/small&gt;)، اوشين ايف ايم (&lt;small&gt;Océane&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;FM&lt;/small&gt;) - جيڪا علائقي جي نئين ترين اسٽيشن آهي، نوجوانن لاءِ مخصوص اسٽيشن اين آر جي (&lt;small&gt;NRJ&lt;/small&gt;)، ريڊيو جيڊو (&lt;small&gt;Radio Djiido&lt;/small&gt;) جنهن جو بنياد جين-ميري جيباؤ رکيو هو، ۽ &quot;ريڊيو رٿمز بلوز&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Radio Rythmes Bleus&lt;/small&gt;) آهن. آخري ٻه اسٽيشنون بنيادي طور تي مختلف ڪنڪ گروپن کي نشانو بڻايون ويون آهن جيڪي نيو ڪيليڊونيا جا مقامي آهن. &quot;جيڊو&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Djiido&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;)&lt;/small&gt; فوائي ٻولي مان هڪ اصطلاح آهي، جيڪا اتر صوبي ۾ هينگين ۾ ڳالهائي ويندي آهي، هڪ ڌاتو جي اسپائڪ کي ظاهر ڪري ٿي جيڪا روايتي ڪنڪ گهر جي ڇت تي پٽي جي ڇل کي محفوظ ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي.

ٽيليويزن جي حوالي سان، فرانس ٽيليويزن هڪ مقامي چينل، ريسو آئوٽريمر 1ري، فرانس 2، فرانس 3، فرانس 4، فرانس 5، فرانس 24 ۽ آرٽ سان گڏ هلائي ٿو، جيڪي سڀئي پيرس کان نشر ٿين ٿا. ڪينال پلس ڪيليڊوني فرانسيسي ۾ 17 ڊجيٽل چينل کڻي ٿو، جن ۾ ڪينال+ ۽ TF1 شامل آهن. اينالاگ ٽيليويزن نشريات سيپٽمبر 2011 ۾ ختم ٿي ويون، نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ ڊجيٽل ٽيليويزن منتقلي کي مڪمل ڪيو. فرانسيسي نشريات اختيارين پاران ٻن نون مقامي ٽيليويزن اسٽيشنن، NCTV ۽ NC9 لاءِ بوليون تي غور ڪيو ويو. NCTV ڊسمبر 2013 ۾ شروع ڪيو ويو.

the only daily newspaper in the archipelago.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/WO1403/S00173/pff-stands-in-solidarity-with-les-nouvelles-caledoniennes.htm |title=PFF stands in solidarity with Les Nouvelles Calédoniennes |website=[[Scoop (website)|Scoop]] |date=11 March 2014 |access-date=25 April 2016 |archive-date=25 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425125050/http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/WO1403/S00173/pff-stands-in-solidarity-with-les-nouvelles-caledoniennes.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;vivmed&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.gitesnouvellecaledonie.nc/nouvelle-caledonie/vivre-en-nouvelle-caledonie |title=Vivre en Nouvelle-Calédonie |publisher=Gîtes Nouvelle Calédonie |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=19 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119144106/http://www.gitesnouvellecaledonie.nc/nouvelle-caledonie/vivre-en-nouvelle-caledonie |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; A monthly publication, ''{{lang|fr|Le Chien bleu}}'', parodies the news from New Caledonia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.lechienbleu.nc/|title=Le Chien bleu : Journal satirique de Nouvelle-Calédonie. Y en aura pour tout le monde!|website=Lechienbleu.nc|access-date=17 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726061552/http://www.lechienbleu.nc/|archive-date=26 July 2018|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

There are five radio stations: the public service broadcaster [[Outre-Mer 1ère|RFO radio Nouvelle-Calédonie]], [[Océane FM]] (the collectivity's newest station), the youth-oriented station [[NRJ]], [[Radio Djiido]] (established by [[Jean-Marie Tjibaou]]), and [[Radio Rythmes Bleus]].&lt;ref name=&quot;vivmed&quot;/&gt; The last two stations are primarily targeted to the various [[Kanak people|Kanak]] groups who are indigenous to New Caledonia (&quot;Djiido&quot; is a term from the [[Fwâi language]], spoken in [[Hienghène]] in the [[North Province, New Caledonia|North Province]], denoting a metal spike used to secure straw thatching to the roof of a traditional Kanak house).

As for television, the public service broadcaster [[France Télévisions]] operates a local channel, [[Réseau Outre-Mer 1re]], along with [[France 2]], [[France 3]], [[France 4]], [[France 5]], [[France 24]] and [[Arte TV|Arte]] which all broadcast from [[Paris]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.gouv.nc/portal/page/portal/gouv/tnt|title=Télévision Numérique Terrestre (TNT)|website=Gouv.nc|access-date=17 July 2018|date=2016-01-31|archive-date=29 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140629052143/http://www.gouv.nc/portal/page/portal/gouv/tnt|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[CanalSat Calédonie|Canal Plus Calédonie]] carries 17 digital channels in French, including [[Canal+ (French TV channel)|Canal+]] and [[TF1]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.canalplus-caledonie.com/grille-tv/toutes-les-chaines|title=Grille TV – Canal+ Calédonie|website=Canalplus-caledonie.com|access-date=17 July 2018|archive-date=18 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718001322/https://www.canalplus-caledonie.com/grille-tv/toutes-les-chaines|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Analogue television broadcasts ended in September 2011, completing the [[digital television transition]] in New Caledonia.&lt;ref name=&quot;tnt&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://nouvellecaledonie.la1ere.fr/infos/actualites/loutre-mer-dit-adieu-a-lanalogique_64703.html |title=L'Outre-mer dit adieu à l'analogique – Audiovisuel – Info – Nouvelle-Calédonie – La 1ère |website=nouvellecaledonie.la1ere.fr|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930124824/http://nouvellecaledonie.la1ere.fr/infos/actualites/loutre-mer-dit-adieu-a-lanalogique_64703.html |archive-date=30 September 2011 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Bids for two new local television stations, NCTV and NC9, were considered by the French broadcasting authorities.&lt;ref name=&quot;rnzitv&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&amp;id=63685 |title=Two new New Caledonia television channels proposed |website=Rnzi.com |date=2011-10-12 |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=5 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305034204/http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&amp;id=63685 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; NCTV was launched in December 2013.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.lnc.nc/article/pays/nctv-c-est-parti |title=NCTV, c'est parti! |language=fr |work=[[Les Nouvelles Calédoniennes]] |date=9 December 2013 |access-date=19 April 2016 |archive-date=27 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427112334/http://www.lnc.nc/article/pays/nctv-c-est-parti |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The media are considered to be able to operate freely, but [[Reporters Without Borders]] raised concerns in 2006 about &quot;threats and intimidation&quot; of RFO staff by members of a pro-independence group.&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc-cp&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-16740838 |title=Regions and territories: New Caledonia |work=[[BBC News]] |date=2013-01-16 |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=13 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013082759/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_profiles/3921323.stm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== رانديون ==
[[File:Christian_Karembeu_-_2014.jpg|thumb|upright|نيو ڪيليڊونيا جو فٽبالر ڪرسچن ڪيريمبيو، جيڪو فرانس سان گڏ 1998ع جو فيفا ورلڊ ڪپ کٽيندڙ رانديگر رهيو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Swaminathan |first1=Swaroop |title=Karembeu, France &amp; New Caledonia – a complex relationship |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/sport/football/fifa-u-17-world-cup-2017/2017/oct/12/karembeu-france--new-caledonia--a-complex-relationship-1672627.html |access-date=4 November 2018 |work=The New Indian Express |date=12 October 2018 |archive-date=5 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105062122/http://www.newindianexpress.com/sport/football/fifa-u-17-world-cup-2017/2017/oct/12/karembeu-france--new-caledonia--a-complex-relationship-1672627.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي فٽبال ٽيم &lt;small&gt;1950&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ راند شروع ڪئي ۽ &lt;small&gt;2004&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ ان کي فيفا (فٽبال ليگز جي عالمي تنظيم) ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو. فيفا ۾ شامل ٿيڻ کان اڳ، نيو ڪيليڊونيا کي اوشينيا فٽبال ڪنفيڊريشن (&lt;small&gt;OFC&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ مبصر جو درجو حاصل هو ۽ فيفا جي رڪنيت ملڻ سان گڏ ئي اها اوشينيا فٽبال ڪنفيڊريشن جي باضابطه ميمبر بڻجي وئي. هنن پنج ڀيرا &quot;ساوٿ پيسفڪ گيمز&quot; کٽيون آهن، جن ۾ تازو ترين ڪاميابي &lt;small&gt;2007&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ ملي؛&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/federation/news/newsid=92706.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070718153916/http://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/federation/news/newsid=92706.html|archive-date=2007-07-18 |title=New Caledonia joins the world football community |publisher=FIFA |date=24 May 2004 |access-date=6 August 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; ان کان علاوه، هنن اوشينيا فٽبال ڪنفيڊريشن نيشنز ڪپ ۾ ٻه ڀيرا ٽيون نمبر حاصل ڪيو آهي. ڪرسچن ڪيريمبيو نيو ڪيليڊونيا جو هڪ مشهور اڳوڻو فٽبالر آهي. انڊر-&lt;small&gt;17&lt;/small&gt; ٽيم &lt;small&gt;2017&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ فيفا انڊر-&lt;small&gt;17&lt;/small&gt; ورلڊ ڪپ لاءِ ڪواليفائي ڪيو هو.

نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ باسڪيٽ بال کي ميڊيا ۽ راند جي شوقينن طرفان تمام گهڻي اهميت ۽ توجه ڏني ويندي آهي. ڪيليڊونيا جي قومي ٽيم اوشينيا واري خطي ۾ ڪيترائي ميڊل کٽيا آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.visitnewcaledonia.com/new-caledonia-national-basketball-team-an-unknown-champion-bet365/ |title=New Caledonia National Basketball Team – An Unknown Champion |website=VisitNewCaledonia.com |date=13 November 2019 |access-date=30 September 2021 |archive-date=30 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930084118/https://www.visitnewcaledonia.com/new-caledonia-national-basketball-team-an-unknown-champion-bet365/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; ڪيليڊونيا جون نمايان باسڪيٽ بال ڪلب ٽيمون &quot;اي ايس 6 اي ڪلوميٽر&quot; (&lt;small&gt;AS 6e Km&lt;/small&gt;) ۽ &quot;اي ايس ڊمبيا&quot; (&lt;small&gt;AS&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Dumbea&lt;/small&gt;) آهن.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Beniela Adjouhgniope,le colosse de l'AS 6e Km |url=https://www.lnc.nc/article/sports/beniela-adjouhgniope-le-colosse-de-l-as-6e-km |accessdate=1 October 2021 |work=[[Les Nouvelles Calédoniennes]] |language=French |archive-date=1 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211001071450/https://www.lnc.nc/article/sports/beniela-adjouhgniope-le-colosse-de-l-as-6e-km |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ منعقد ٿيندڙ سڀ کان وڏو راندين جو مقابلو &quot;ايف آءِ اي ايشيا پيسفڪ ريلي چيمپيئن شپ&quot; (&lt;small&gt;APRC&lt;/small&gt;) جو هڪ مرحلو آهي.  &quot;ٽوئر سائيڪلسٽ ڊي نيوويل-ڪيليڊونيا&quot; (&lt;small&gt;Tour&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Cycliste&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;de&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Nouvelle-Calédonie&lt;/small&gt;) سائيڪلنگ جي هڪ گهڻ-ڏينهن واري اسٽيج ريس آهي، جيڪا عام طور تي آڪٽوبر ۾ منعقد ٿيندي آهي. هيءَ ريس &quot;ڪميٽي سائيڪلسٽ نيو ڪيليڊونيا&quot; (Comite Cycliste New Caledonia) پاران منعقد ڪئي ويندي آهي. هن ريس ۾ آسٽريليا، نيوزي لينڊ، فرانس، ري يونين (فرانس جو اوورسيز علائقو)، يورپ ۽ تاهيتي (فرانسيسي پولينيشيا) جا سائيڪل سوار حصو وٺندا آهن. آسٽريليا جي برينڊن واشنگٽن 2005ع ۽ 2009ع جي وچ ۾ هن ريس ۾ ٽي ڀيرا آخري نمبر حاصل ڪيو، ۽ کيس نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ &quot;دي لانٽرن روج“ (The Lanterne Rouge) جي نالي هنن فائنل ۾ آسٽريليا کي شڪست ڏني.

&quot;انٽرنيشنل ڊي نيو-ڪيليڊونيا&quot; (Internationaux de Nouvelle-Calédonie) هڪ ٽينس ٽورنامينٽ آهي جيڪا جنوري جي پهرين هفتي ۾ منعقد ٿيندي آهي. 2004ع کان وٺي، هي ٽورنامينٽ ”اي ٽي پي چيلينجر ٽوئر“ (ATP Challenger Tour) جو حصو رهي آهي، ۽ رانديگر عام طور تي ان ۾ ”آسٽريلين اوپن“ (جيڪو سال جو پهريون گرانڊ سليم هوندو آهي) جي تياريءَ طور حصو وٺندا آهن.

رگبي ليگ ٽيم &lt;small&gt;2004&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾ پيسفڪ ڪپ ۾ حصو ورتو. &lt;small&gt;2020&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾، نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ رگبي ليگ ٽيم (&lt;small&gt;Pacifique Trieze&lt;/small&gt;) ٺاهڻ جو منصوبا تيار ڪيا ويو ته جيئن اها مستقبل ۾ آسٽريليا جي ڪوئنزلينڊ ڪپ (&lt;small&gt;Queensland Cup&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ شامل ٿي سگهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Darbyshire |first=Drew |date=2020-05-08 |title=Pacifique Treize: The French-speaking Pacific team who want to join Queensland Cup |url=https://www.loverugbyleague.com/post/pacifique-treize-the-french-speaking-pacific-team-who-want-to-join-queensland-cup/ |access-date=2022-06-30 |website=LoveRugbyLeague |language=en-GB |archive-date=30 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630210006/https://www.loverugbyleague.com/post/pacifique-treize-the-french-speaking-pacific-team-who-want-to-join-queensland-cup/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

نيو ڪيليڊونيا ۾ گهوڙن جي ڊوڙ (Horse Racing) پڻ تمام گهڻي مقبول آهي ۽ ساڳئي طرح عورتن جا ڪرڪيٽ ميچ پڻ شوق سان ڏٺا وڃن ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/new-caledonia/noumea/activities/cricket/women-s-cricket |title=Women's Cricket |publisher=Lonely Planet |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=16 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516172954/http://www.lonelyplanet.com/new-caledonia/noumea/activities/cricket/women-s-cricket |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

نيو ڪيليڊونيا وٽ هڪ قومي ”سنڪرونائزڊ سوئمنگ“ (هم آهنگ ترڻ) ٽيم پڻ موجود آهي، جيڪا پرڏيهي دورا ڪندي آهي.

نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي عورتن جي قومي والي بال ٽيم ڪيترائي ڀيرا گولڊ ميڊل کٽيو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |author1=Shreya Kumar |title=Let's Go Local: The Sand Dunes And Café Planet For Drau |url=https://fijisun.com.fj/2021/03/20/lets-go-local-the-sand-dunes-and-cafe-planet-for-drau/ |accessdate=27 September 2021 |work=[[Fiji Sun]] |date=20 March 2021 |archive-date=27 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927060217/https://fijisun.com.fj/2021/03/20/lets-go-local-the-sand-dunes-and-cafe-planet-for-drau/ |url-status=live |archivedate=27 September 2021 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927060217/https://fijisun.com.fj/2021/03/20/lets-go-local-the-sand-dunes-and-cafe-planet-for-drau/ }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== کاڌا ==
گهريلو باغباني جي گهٽ سطح جي ڪري، تازو ٽراپيڪل ميوو نيو ڪيليڊونين کاڌي ۾ ٻين پئسفڪ قومن جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ اهميت رکي ٿو، ان جي بدران چانورن، مڇي ۽ جڙ ڀاڄين جهڙوڪ تارو تي ڀروسو ڪيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://newcaledoniatoday.wordpress.com/2013/01/30/what-do-people-eat-in-new-caledonia/|website=Newcaledoniatoday.wordpress.com|title=What Do People Eat in New Caledonia?|access-date=16 February 2014|date=2013-01-30|archive-date=14 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140214183037/http://newcaledoniatoday.wordpress.com/2013/01/30/what-do-people-eat-in-new-caledonia/|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; هڪ طريقو جيڪو اڪثر تيار ڪيو ويندو آهي اهو دفن ٿيل تندور جي طرز جي دعوت ۾ آهي، جنهن کي بوگنا سڏيو ويندو آهي. ڪيلي جي پنن ۾ ويڙهيل، مڇي، تارو، ڪيلا ۽ ٻيا سامونڊي کاڌ خوراڪ کي گرم پٿرن سان دفن ڪيو ويندو آهي، پوءِ کوٽيو ويندو آهي ۽ کائي ويندو آهي.

== ٽرانسپورٽ ==
لا ٽونٽائوٽا انٽرنيشنل ايئرپورٽ [[نوميا]] کان 50 ڪلوميٽر (31 ميل) اتر اولهه ۾ آهي ۽ نيو ڪيليڊونيا کي [[پيرس]]، [[ٽوڪيو]]، [[سڊني]]، [[آڪلينڊ]]، [[برسبين]]، [[ميلبورن]]، [[اوساڪا]]، [[پورٽ ولا]] پاپيٽي ۽ والس جي هوائي اڏن سان ڳنڍيندو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;tppdf&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.isee.nc/anglais/teca/productivesystem/telechargements/25-06-transport.pdf |title=Transport |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113170544/http://www.isee.nc/anglais/teca/productivesystem/telechargements/25-06-transport.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2011 |place=Nouméa}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;aport&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.tontouta-aeroport.nc/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=blogcategory&amp;id=17&amp;Itemid=107 |title=Présentation |publisher=Aéroport international de Nouméa la Tontouta |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118184638/http://www.tontouta-aeroport.nc/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=blogcategory&amp;id=17&amp;Itemid=107 |archive-date=18 January 2012 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;  گهڻيون اندروني هوائي خدمتون بين الاقوامي ڪمپني، &quot;ايئرڪلين&quot; پاران هلائيون وينديون آهن. ڪروز جهاز نوميا ۾ &quot;گيري ميري ٽائيم&quot; تي ڊاک ڪندا آهن. مسافر ۽ سامان کڻڻ واري ٻيڙي، &quot;هاوانا&quot; مهيني ۾ هڪ ڀيرو وانواتو ۾ پورٽ ويلا، ماليڪولو ۽ سينٽو ڏانهن ويندي آهي. نيو ڪيليڊونيا جي روڊ نيٽ ورڪ ۾ شامل آهن:&lt;ref name=&quot;lptra&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/new-caledonia/transport/getting-there-away |title=Transport in New Caledonia |publisher=Lonely Planet |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=25 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110825112035/http://www.lonelyplanet.com/new-caledonia/transport/getting-there-away |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; 
* روٽ ٽيريٽريل-1 (RT1): نوميا کان نڪرندڙ رستي کان نيهوئي ندي تائين، ڪوماڪ جي اتر ۾ وڃي ٿو.
* روٽ ٽيريٽريل-2، ليفو ٻيٽ تي ۽ ليفو ايئرپورٽ کان وي جي ڏکڻ ۾.
* روٽ ٽيريٽريل-3، نندي ۾ RT1 سان سنگم کان وٺي ٽيواڪا ندي تائين.
* روٽ ٽيريٽريل-4، مويو جي ويجهو RT1 سان سنگم کان پاور پلانٽ تائين.&lt;ref name=&quot;rtne&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.dittt.gouv.nc/portal/page/portal/dittt/infrastructures_routieres|title=Site de la DITTT – Infrastructures routières|website=Dittt.gouv.nc|access-date=17 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908082903/http://www.dittt.gouv.nc/portal/page/portal/dittt/infrastructures_routieres|archive-date=8 September 2015|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
==پڻ ڏسو==
{{Portal|جاگرافي|ٻيٽ|اوشينيا}}
* [[زيلينڊيا]]
* [[ٻيٽن جي فهرست]] 
* [[پئسفڪ ڪميونٽي]]
* [[نيو ڪيليڊونيا آزادي لاءِ ريفرينڊم، 2018ع]]

==نوٽ==
{{Reflist|group=nb}}
{{notelist}}

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}

==ذريعا==
* {{cite web |url=http://unsr.jamesanaya.org/docs/countries/2011-newcaledonia-a-hrc-18-35-add6_en.pdf |author-link=James Anaya |first=James |last=Anaya |date=23 November 2011 |title=Report of the Special Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples on the situation of Kanak people in New Caledonia, France |id=A/HRC/18/35/Add.6 |publisher=[[United Nations General Assembly]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109131805/http://unsr.jamesanaya.org/docs/countries/2011-newcaledonia-a-hrc-18-35-add6_en.pdf |archive-date=9 November 2017 |via=JamesAnaya.org |url-status=dead}}

==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Sister project links|New Caledonia|voy=New Caledonia}}
* {{cite web |title=Texte intégral de la Constitution du 4 octobre 1958 en vigueur {{!}} Conseil constitutionnel |url=https://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/le-bloc-de-constitutionnalite/texte-integral-de-la-constitution-du-4-octobre-1958-en-vigueur#article_76 |website=conseil-constitutionnel.fr |language=fr}}
* [https://gouv.nc Government of New Caledonia] {{in lang|fr}}.
* [http://www.visitnewcaledonia.com/ Tourism New Caledonia]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913032738/http://www.visitnewcaledonia.com/ |date=13 September 2016 }}.
* [https://endemia.nc Fauna and Flora of New Caledonia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250814084136/https://endemia.nc/ |date=2025-08-14 }}
* {{cite book |editor-first1=Matthias |editor-first2=Simon P. J. |editor-last1=Kowasch |editor-last2=Batterbury |title=Geographies of New Caledonia-Kanaky |date=2024 |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-49140-5 |isbn=978-3-031-49139-9 }}

{{Navboxes
 |title = Articles relating to New Caledonia's locale
 |list =
{{Melanesia}}
{{Countries and territories of Oceania}}
}}
{{United Nations list of non-self-governing territories}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Coord|-21.25|165.30|display=title|dim:200km}}

==Economy==
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable floatright&quot;  style=&quot;margin:20px 0px 20px 20px&quot;
|-
! Region
! style=&quot;width:6em;&quot; | Total GDP, nominal, 2019 &lt;br /&gt;(billion US$)
! style=&quot;width:6em;&quot; | GDP per capita, nominal, 2019 &lt;br /&gt;(US$)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Australia}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 1,388.09
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 54,391
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|New Zealand}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 210.76
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 42,274
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Hawaii}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 93.24
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; |  63,997
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Papua New Guinea}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 24.75
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 2,315
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|New Caledonia}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 9.48
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 34,939 
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Guam}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 6.36
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 37,794
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|French Polynesia}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 6.02
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 21,673
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Fiji}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 5.44
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 6,079
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Solomon Islands}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 1.62
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 2,278
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Northern Mariana Islands}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 1.18
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 24,670
|-
| style=&quot;t.ext-align:left;&quot;  | {{flagcountry|Vanuatu}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.93
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 3,187
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Samoa}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.91
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 4,472
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|American Samoa}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.65
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 13,352
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Tonga}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.45
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 4,435
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Micronesia}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.39
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 4,001
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Cook Islands}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.39
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 22,752 
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Palau}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.28
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 15,992
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Marshall Islands}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.23
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 5,275
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Kiribati}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.22
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 1,847
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Wallis and Futuna}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.21
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 18,360
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Nauru}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.13
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 10,567
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;   | {{flagcountry|Tuvalu}}
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 0.05 
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 5,277
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; colspan=3   | Sources:&lt;ref name=&quot;GDP&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;IMF&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=512,914,612,171,614,311,213,911,314,193,122,912,313,419,513,316,913,124,339,638,514,218,963,616,223,516,918,748,618,624,522,622,156,626,628,228,924,233,632,636,634,238,662,960,423,935,128,611,321,243,248,469,253,642,643,939,734,644,819,172,132,646,648,915,134,652,174,328,258,656,654,336,263,268,532,944,176,534,536,429,433,178,436,136,343,158,439,916,664,826,542,967,443,917,544,941,446,666,668,672,946,137,546,674,676,548,556,678,181,867,682,684,273,868,921,948,943,686,688,518,728,836,558,138,196,278,692,694,962,142,449,564,565,283,853,288,293,566,964,182,359,453,968,922,714,862,135,716,456,722,942,718,724,576,936,961,813,726,199,733,184,524,361,362,364,732,366,144,146,463,528,923,738,578,537,742,866,369,744,186,925,869,746,926,466,112,111,298,927,846,299,582,487,474,754,698,&amp;s=NGDPD,NGDPDPC,&amp;sy=2019&amp;ey=2019&amp;ssm=0&amp;scsm=1&amp;scc=0&amp;ssd=1&amp;ssc=0&amp;sic=0&amp;sort=country&amp;ds=.&amp;br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database – October 2024 |publisher=IMF |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ispf.pf/themes/pib |title=Les comptes économiques rapides de la Polynésie française |publisher=Institut de la statistique de la Polynésie française (ISPF) |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=SASUMMARY State annual summary statistics: personal income, GDP, consumer spending, price indexes, and employment |url=https://apps.bea.gov/itable/?ReqID=70&amp;step=1#eyJhcHBpZCI6NzAsInN0ZXBzIjpbMSwyOSwyNSwzMSwyNiwyNywzMF0sImRhdGEiOltbIlRhYmxlSWQiLCI2MDAiXSxbIk1ham9yX0FyZWEiLCIwIl0sWyJTdGF0ZSIsWyIwIl1dLFsiQXJlYSIsWyIxNTAwMCJdXSxbIlN0YXRpc3RpYyIsWyI0Il1dLFsiVW5pdF9vZl9tZWFzdXJlIiwiTGV2ZWxzIl0sWyJZZWFyIixbIjIwMTkiXV0sWyJZZWFyQmVnaW4iLCItMSJdLFsiWWVhcl9FbmQiLCItMSJdXX0=  |publisher=[[Bureau of Economic Analysis]] (BEA) |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://apps.bea.gov/itable/?ReqID=70&amp;step=1#eyJhcHBpZCI6NzAsInN0ZXBzIjpbMSwyOSwyNSwzMSwyNiwyNywzMF0sImRhdGEiOltbIlRhYmxlSWQiLCI4MDAiXSxbIk1ham9yX0FyZWEiLCIxNiJdLFsiU3RhdGUiLFsiMCJdXSxbIkFyZWEiLFsiNjAwMDAiLCI2NjAwMCIsIjY5MDAwIl1dLFsiU3RhdGlzdGljIixbIjEiXV0sWyJVbml0X29mX21lYXN1cmUiLCJMZXZlbHMiXSxbIlllYXIiLFsiMjAxOSJdXSxbIlllYXJCZWdpbiIsIi0xIl0sWyJZZWFyX0VuZCIsIi0xIl1dfQ== |title=TASUMMARY1 Summary of GDP and components for U.S. territories, current dollars |publisher=[[Bureau of Economic Analysis]] (BEA) |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://stats.gov.ck/download/476/2024/6494/gross-domestic-product-march-quarter-2024.xlsx |title=Table 1: Gross domestic product at current prices by industry – quarterly value |publisher=Cook Islands Statistics Office |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cerom-outremer.fr/wallis-et-futuna/publications/etudes-cerom/evaluation-du-pib-de-wallis-et-futuna-en-2019.html |title=Évaluation du PIB de Wallis-et-Futuna en 2019  |author=INSEE, CEROM |date=11 September 2024 |access-date=2025-02-22 |language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|}

New Caledonia has one of the largest economies in the South Pacific, with a GDP of US$9.48 billion in 2019.&lt;ref name=&quot;GDP&quot;/&gt; The nominal GDP per capita was US$34,939 (at market exchange rates) in 2019.&lt;ref name=&quot;GDP&quot;/&gt; It is lower than the nominal GDP per capita of [[Hawaii]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], and [[Guam]], but higher than all other independent and non-sovereign countries and territories in [[Oceania]], although there is significant inequality in income distribution,&lt;ref name=&quot;nzmin&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mfat.govt.nz/Countries/Pacific/New-Caledonia.php |title=New Caledonia – Information Paper |publisher=NZ Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade |access-date=2013-01-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128203127/http://www.mfat.govt.nz/Countries/Pacific/New-Caledonia.php |archive-date=28 January 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and long-standing structural imbalances between the economically dominant South Province and the less developed North Province and Loyalty Islands.&lt;ref name=&quot;undcol&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2008/gacol3181.doc.htm |title=Concluding session, Special Committee on Decolonization approves two texts on New Caledonia, Tokelau; hears appeals to heed criticism of its work |publisher=United Nations |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=23 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023045300/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2008/gacol3181.doc.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The currency in use in New Caledonia is the [[CFP franc]], as of May 2020, pegged to the euro at a rate of 119.3 CFP to 1.00 euros.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.xe.com/currencyconverter/convert/?Amount=1&amp;From=EUR&amp;To=XPF|title=XE: Convert EUR/XPF. Euro Member Countries to Comptoirs Français du Pacifique (CFP) Franc|website=xe.com|access-date=16 May 2020|archive-date=25 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125045100/https://www.xe.com/currencyconverter/convert/?Amount=1&amp;From=EUR&amp;To=XPF|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; It is issued by the Institut d'Émission d'Outre-Mer.&lt;ref name=&quot;viep&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?vie-pratique-nouvelle-caledonie.html |title=Vie pratique – L'Outre-Mer |website=Outre-mer.gouv.fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=30 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330070058/http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?vie-pratique-nouvelle-caledonie.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Real gross domestic product|Real GDP]] grew by an average of +3.3% per year in the first half of the 2010s, boosted by rising worldwide nickel prices and an increase in domestic demand due to rising employment, as well as strong business investments, but by only +0.2% per year in the second half of the 2010s, as the local nickel industry entered a period of crisis and the repeated independence referendums have generated economic uncertainty.&lt;ref name=&quot;GDP&quot;/&gt; In 2017, exports of goods and services from New Caledonia amounted to 1.93&amp;nbsp;billion US dollars, 77.5% of which were mineral products and alloys (mainly nickel ore and [[ferronickel]]) and 5.0% exports of hotel and restaurant services (i.e. international tourism in New Caledonia).&lt;ref name=&quot;trade&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/82-donnees?download=569:les-importations-et-exportations-de-biens-et-services |title=Importations et exportations de biens et services à prix courants |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Imports of goods and services amounted to 3.48&amp;nbsp;billion US dollars.&lt;ref name=&quot;trade&quot;/&gt; 40.9% of the imports of goods came from [[Metropolitan France]] and its [[overseas department]]s, 11.7% from Singapore (essentially fuel), 11.5% from Australia, 5.0% from other countries in the [[European Union]], 4.2% from China and Hong Kong, 4.1% from New Zealand, 3.7% from South Korea, 2.4% from Japan, 2.0% from the United States, 1.9% from Canada, and 12.6% from other countries.&lt;ref name=&quot;trade_partners&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.isee.nc/component/phocadownload/category/100-donnees?download=1606:les-principaux-partenaires-commerciaux |title=Principaux pays partenaires commerciaux de la Nouvelle-Calédonie |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2025-02-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The trade deficit in goods and services stood at 1.55 billion US dollars in 2017.&lt;ref name=&quot;trade&quot;/&gt;

Financial support from France is substantial, representing more than 15% of the GDP, and contributes to the health of the economy.&lt;ref name=&quot;cia&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/new-caledonia/ |title=New Caledonia |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |access-date=25 January 2021 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407121006/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/new-caledonia/ |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Tourism is underdeveloped, with 100,000 visitors a year, compared to 400,000 in the [[Cook Islands]] and 200,000 in [[Vanuatu]].&lt;ref name=&quot;monde1&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |url=http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2011/08/26/nouvelle-caledonie-ou-en-est-le-processus-d-independance_1564084_3216.html |title=Nouvelle-Calédonie: où en est le processus d'indépendance? |language=fr |newspaper=Le Monde.fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |date=2011-08-26 |last1=Bolis |first1=Angela |archive-date=19 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119211529/http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2011/08/26/nouvelle-caledonie-ou-en-est-le-processus-d-independance_1564084_3216.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Much of the land is unsuitable for agriculture, and food accounts for about 20% of imports.&lt;ref name=&quot;cia&quot;/&gt; According to [[FAOSTAT]], New Caledonia is a significant producer of: [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]] (33rd); [[taro]] (44th); [[Plantain (cooking)|plantains]] (50th); [[coconut]]s (52nd).&lt;ref name=&quot;FAOSTAT Production statistics 2008&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url= http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx |title= FAOSTAT 2008 by Production |website= Faostat.fao.org |access-date= 6 June 2008 |archive-date= 13 July 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110713020710/http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx |url-status= live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[exclusive economic zone]] of New Caledonia covers {{convert|1.4 |e6km2|e6sqmi |abbr=off}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;pres-om&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?presentation-nouvelle-caledonie.html |title=Présentation – L'Outre-Mer |website=Outre-mer.gouv.fr |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-date=9 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109131754/http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/?presentation-nouvelle-caledonie.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The construction sector accounts for roughly 12% of GDP, employing 9.9% of the salaried population in 2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;nzmin&quot;/&gt; Manufacturing is largely confined to small-scale activities such as the transformation of foodstuffs, textiles and plastics.&lt;ref name=&quot;nzmin&quot;/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+GDP (nominal) per capita in 2019 (US$)
|-
| {{Color box|#e43114|$0 – $5,000|white|border=darkgray|}}  {{Color box|#f57e00|$5,000 – $10,000|white|border=darkgray}}  {{Color box|#eea800|$10,000 – $20,000|white|border=darkgray}}  {{Color box|#22aaff|$20,000 – $30,000|white|border=darkgray}} {{Color box|#2259ff|$30,000 – $45,000|white|border=darkgray}}  {{Color box|#5222ff|$45,000 – $60,000|white|border=darkgray}}  {{Color box|#a522ff|$60,000 – $90,000|white|border=darkgray}}
|}
{{Image label begin|image=Oceania political map.png|width=662}}
{{Image label|x=0.15|y=0.55|scale=662|text=[[Australia|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#5222ff;color:white&quot;&gt;54,391&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.45|y=0.67|scale=662|text=[[New Zealand|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#2259ff;color:white&quot;&gt;42,274&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.7|y=0.07|scale=662|text=[[Hawaii|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#a522ff;color:white&quot;&gt; 63,997&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.3|y=0.43|scale=662|text=&lt;span style=&quot;background:#2259ff;color:white&quot;&gt;34,939&lt;/span&gt;}}
{{Image label|x=0.135|y=0.118|scale=662|text=[[Guam|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#2259ff;color:white&quot;&gt;37,794&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.18|y=0.31|scale=662|text=[[Papua New Guinea|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#e43114;color:white&quot;&gt;2,315&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.8|y=0.46|scale=662|text=[[French Polynesia|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#2af; color:white;&quot;&gt;21,673&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.36|y=0.39|scale=662|text=[[Vanuatu|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#e43114;color:white&quot;&gt;3,187&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.3|y=0.365|scale=662|text=[[Solomon Islands|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#e43114;color:white&quot;&gt;2,278&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.47|y=0.45|scale=662|text=[[Fiji|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#f57e00;color:white&quot;&gt;6,079&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.513|y=0.353|scale=662|text=[[Wallis and Futuna|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#eea800;color:white&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;18,360&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.566|y=0.388|scale=662|text=[[Samoa|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#e43114;color:white&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;4,472&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.611|y=0.395|scale=662|text=[[American Samoa|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#eea800;color:white&quot;&gt;13,352&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.67|y=0.43|scale=662|text=[[Cook Islands|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#22aaff;color:white&quot;&gt;22,752&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.55|y=0.44|scale=662|text=[[Tonga|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#e43114;color:white&quot;&gt;4,435&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.15|y=0.079|scale=662|text=[[Northern Mariana Islands|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#2af; color:white;&quot;&gt;24,670&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.02|y=0.165|scale=662|text=[[Palau|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#eea800;color:white&quot;&gt;15,992&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.22|y=0.18|scale=662|text=[[Federated States of Micronesia|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#e43114;color:white&quot;&gt;4,001&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.38|y=0.16|scale=662|text=[[Marshall Islands|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#f57e00;color:white&quot;&gt;5,275&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.434|y=0.262|scale=662|text=[[Kiribati|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#e43114;color:white&quot;&gt;1,847&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.348|y=0.262|scale=662|text=[[Nauru|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#eea800;color:white&quot;&gt;10,567&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label|x=0.48|y=0.325|scale=662|text=[[Tuvalu|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#f57e00;color:white&quot;&gt;5,277&lt;/span&gt;]]}}
{{Image label end}}

=== Nickel sector ===
{{main|Nickel mining in New Caledonia}}

{{see also|Geology of New Caledonia}}

[[File:Creek South New Caledonia.JPG|thumb|A creek in southern New Caledonia. Red colours reveal the richness of the ground in [[iron oxide]]s and nickel.]]

New Caledonian soils contain about 25% of the world's [[nickel]] resources.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.metalbulletin.com/Article/1446693/Nickel-gleams-again-in-New-Caledonia.html |title=Nickel gleams again in New Caledonia |work=Metal Bulletin |date=3 December 2001 |access-date=13 March 2009 |archive-date=9 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090909043855/http://www.metalbulletin.com/Article/1446693/Nickel-gleams-again-in-New-Caledonia.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Better source needed|reason=Citation is quite old, from 2001, also only for subscribers, world reserves vs resources should be distinguished)|date=July 2025}} The [[late-2000s recession]] has gravely affected the nickel industry, as the sector faced a significant drop in nickel prices (−31.0% year-on-year in 2009) for the second consecutive year.&lt;ref name=&quot;comptes&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.isee.nc/compteco/telechargement/4pagecerom2011.pdf |title=Les comptes économiques rapides de Nouvelle-Calédonie  |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies]] (ISEE-NC) |place=Nouméa |access-date=2013-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113144920/http://www.isee.nc/compteco/telechargement/4pagecerom2011.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2011 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; The fall in prices has led a number of producers to reduce or stop altogether their activity, resulting in a reduction of the global supply of nickel by 6% compared to 2008.&lt;ref name=&quot;comptes&quot;/&gt;

This context, combined with bad weather, has forced the operators in the sector to revise downwards their production target.&lt;ref name=&quot;comptes&quot;/&gt; Thus, the activity of mineral extraction has declined by 8% in volume year on year.{{when|date=October 2017}}&lt;ref name=&quot;comptes&quot; /&gt; The share of the nickel sector as a percentage of GDP fell from 8% in 2008 to 5% in 2009.&lt;ref name=&quot;comptes&quot; /&gt; A trend reversal and a recovery in demand have been recorded early in the second half of 2009, allowing a 2.0% increase in the local metal production.&lt;ref name=&quot;comptes&quot;/&gt; A March 2020 report stated that &quot;New Caledonia is the world's fourth largest nickel producer, which has seen a 26% rally in prices in the past year&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc.com&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-56288781 |title=Tesla partners with nickel mine amid shortage fears |work=[[BBC News]] |date=5 March 2021 |access-date=9 March 2021 |archive-date=9 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309131304/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-56288781 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; According to industry sources however, the [[Goro mine]] has never met its potential capacity to produce &quot;60,000 tpy of nickel in the form of nickel oxide, due to design flaws and operational commissioning issues&quot; In 2019, it produced slightly over a third of its annual capacity&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;mining.com&quot;&gt;{{cite web| url = https://www.mining.com/tesla-gets-involved-in-new-caledonia-nickel-mine-to-secure-metal-supply/| title = Tesla gets involved in New Caledonia mine to secure nickel supply| date = 5 March 2021| access-date = 9 March 2021| archive-date = 8 March 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210308133905/https://www.mining.com/tesla-gets-involved-in-new-caledonia-nickel-mine-to-secure-metal-supply/| url-status = live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In March 2021, [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]] agreed to a partnership with the Goro Mine, a &quot;technical and industrial partnership to help with product and sustainability standards along with taking nickel for its battery production, according to the agreement&quot;, according to a [[BBC News]] report. The majority owner, Vale, said that the deal will be of long-term benefit in terms of jobs and the economy. Tesla is a heavy user of nickel for making the lithium-ion batteries and wanted to &quot;secure its long-term supply&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc.com&quot;/&gt;

Also in March 2021, a part of Vale's nickel business was sold &quot;to a consortium called Prony, which includes Swiss commodity trader [[Trafigura]]&quot;. Provincial authorities and businesses in New Caledonia would have a 51% stake in the Vale operation.&lt;ref name=&quot;mining.com&quot;/&gt;

[[زمرو:نيو ڪيليڊونيا| ]] 
[[زمرو:اوشينيا]]
[[زمرو:زيلينڊيا]] 
[[زمرو:ميلانيشيا ۾ منحصر علائقا]] 
[[زمرو:اوشينيا ۾ منحصر علائقا]]
[[زمرو:فرانس جا اوورسيز مجموعا]] 
[[زمرو:يورپي يونين جا خاص علائقا]]
[[زمرو:ترقي پذير ننڍا ٻيٽ رياستون]] 
[[زمرو:فرينچ سرڪاري ٻولي وارا ملڪ ۽ علائقا]] 
[[زمرو:اوشينيا ۾ آدم خوري]] 
[[زمرو:1853ع ۾ قائم ٿيل رياستون ۽ علائقا]] 
[[زمرو:اوشيانا ۾ 1853 ادارا]]</text>
      <sha1>t5l4gcxvp3207oyc2j0e37ssx0n19df</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ڪوشت يونين ڪائونسل</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>97895</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399193</id>
      <parentid>383225</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:34:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* حوالا */</comment>
      <origin>399193</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3083" sha1="317f3bevm3uust350tytv4331qw3qfi" xml:space="preserve">
{{Short description|اپر چترال ضلعو، پاڪستان ۾ يونين ڪائونسل}}

'''يونين ڪائونسل ڪوشت''' [[اپر چترال ضلعو]]، [[خيبر پختونخوا]]، پاڪستان ۾ واقع هڪ انتظامي يونين ڪائونسل آهي۔ اها ضلعي جي مڪاني حڪومتي نظام جو حصو آهي ۽ مقامي سطح تي حڪمراني ۽ عوامي خدمتن لاءِ بنيادي انتظامي ايڪائي طور ڪم ڪري ٿي۔

== مقام ==
يونين ڪائونسل ڪوشت اپر چترال ضلعي جي وچئين علائقي ۾ واقع آهي۔ هي علائقو هڪ پاسي [[ملکو]] سان ڳنڍيل آهي، جڏهن ته ٻئي پاسي جبلن وارو علائقو قدرتي حد بڻائي ٿو۔ هڪ طرف [[ڪوراغ]] واقع آهي، جڏهن ته سامهون واري پاسي [[قاق لشٽ]] موجود آهي۔ دريائي نظام قاق لشٽ ۽ ڪوراغ جي ڀرسان وهي ٿو، جيڪو آس پاس جي علائقن ۾ آبپاشي ۽ زراعت کي سهارو ڏئي ٿو۔

== انتظام ==
يونين ڪائونسل طور، ڪوشت خيبر پختونخوا جي مڪاني حڪومتي ڍانچي تحت ڪم ڪري ٿي۔ اها ڪميونٽي سطح جي انتظام، ترقياتي هم آهنگي ۽ بنيادي عوامي خدمتن جي فراهمي ۾ ڪردار ادا ڪري ٿي۔

== آبادي ==
يونين ڪائونسل ڪوشت جي آبادي مڪمل طور ٻهراڙي تي مشتمل آهي۔ رهواسي مختلف نسلي پسمنظرن سان تعلق رکن ٿا ۽ سماجي هم آهنگي ۽ امن واري ماحول ۾ گڏجي رهن ٿا۔ زراعت، مال پالڻ ۽ سرڪاري ملازمت مقامي معيشت جا اهم حصا آهن۔

== تعليم ==
يونين ڪائونسل ڪوشت ۾ تعليم وقت سان گڏ ترقي ڪئي آهي۔ علائقي ۾ سرڪاري ۽ نجي اسڪول موجود آهن، ۽ ڪوشت جا شاگرد اپر چترال ۽ پاڪستان جي ٻين شهرن ۾ ثانوي ۽ اعليٰ تعليم حاصل ڪن ٿا۔

== رانديون ==
يونين ڪائونسل ڪوشت اپر چترال ضلعي ۾ راندين جي سرگرمين ۾ حصو وڌو آهي۔ علائقي جا رانديگر ضلعي سطح جي پولو مقابلن ۾ حصو وٺندا رهيا آهن، جڏهن ته ڪوشت جا فٽبال رانديگر قومي سطح تي به ٽيمن جي نمائندگي ڪري چڪا آهن.

== پڻ ڏسو ==

* [[اپر چترال ضلعو]]
* [[خيبر پختونخوا ۾ مڪاني حڪومت]]
* [[پاڪستان جي شهرن جي آبادي موجب فهرست]]

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:اپر چترال ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان جون يونين ڪائونسلون]]
[[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا جون يونين ڪاؤنسلون]]
[[زمرو:اپر چترال ضلعي جون يونين ڪاؤنسلون]]
[[زمرو:مالاڪنڊ ڊویزن جون يونين ڪائونسلون]]</text>
      <sha1>317f3bevm3uust350tytv4331qw3qfi</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا جون يونين ڪاؤنسلون</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>98367</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399194</id>
      <parentid>383229</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:35:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399194</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="136" sha1="6uuh9ily9isyapmbay8reyhcym7345f" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:پاڪستان جون يونين ڪائونسلون]]
[[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا جي انتظامي ورهاست]]</text>
      <sha1>6uuh9ily9isyapmbay8reyhcym7345f</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا جا ننڍا شهر</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>100297</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399170</id>
      <parentid>399167</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:00:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Ibne maryam صفحي [[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]] کي [[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا جا ننڍا شهر]] ڏانھن چوريو</comment>
      <origin>399167</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="71" sha1="3g1btwca407urqb2nxy7aoj7y2axez4" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جي انساني جاگرافي]]</text>
      <sha1>3g1btwca407urqb2nxy7aoj7y2axez4</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>مٿرا تعلقو</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>100621</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399359</id>
      <parentid>396563</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T07:43:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399359</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="569" sha1="6i3f45tffaa2n6nucylvzz2nae9ic1i" xml:space="preserve">'''مٿرا''' ([[اردو]]: تحصیل متھرا؛ [[پشتو ٻولي|پشتو]]: متھرا تحصیل‎) [[پاڪستان]] جي صوبي [[خيبر پختونخوا]] جي ضلعي [[پشاور ضلعو|پشاور]] جو هڪ [[تعلقو]] آهي.


مٿرا تعلقو	218	495,059	2,270.91	45.79%

پشاور شهر تعلقو	176	2,113,596	12,009.07	60.88%


==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:مٿرا تعلقو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>6i3f45tffaa2n6nucylvzz2nae9ic1i</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399360</id>
      <parentid>399359</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T07:49:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399360</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4707" sha1="6chzdw7wdh9l7qpzsbu28ik8wx986ne" xml:space="preserve">unit in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas|other uses|Peshawar (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name       = مٿرا تعلقو  
| native_name    = مٿرا تحصیل
| native_name_lang        = 
| other_name              = 
| settlement_type         = [[تعلقو]]
| image_skyline           = 
| image_alt               = 
| image_caption           = 
| image_flag              = 
| flag_alt                = 
| image_seal              = 
| seal_alt                = 
| image_shield            = 
| shield_alt              = 
| etymology               = 
| nickname                = 
| motto                   = 
| image_map               = FATA (8).jpg
| map_alt                 = 
| map_caption             = 
| pushpin_map             = 
| pushpin_label_position  = 
| pushpin_map_alt         = 
| pushpin_map_caption     = 
| coordinates             = &lt;!-- {{Coord}} --&gt;
| coor_pinpoint           = 
| coordinates_footnotes   = 
| subdivision_type        = [[ملڪ]]
| subdivision_name        = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| subdivision_type1       = [[صوبو]]
| subdivision_name1       = {{flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}
| subdivision_type2       =[[پاڪستان جون ڊويزنون|ڊويزن]] 
| subdivision_name2       =[[پشاور ڊويزن]] 
| subdivision_type3       =[[ضلعو]] 
| subdivision_name3       =[[پشاور ضلعو]] 
| established_title       = 
| established_date        = 
| founder                 = 
| seat_type               = 
| seat                    = مٿرا
| government_footnotes    = 
| government_type         = 
| governing_body          = 
| leader_party            = 
| leader_title            = 
| leader_name             = 
| leader_title1           = 
| leader_name1            = 
| leader_title2           = 
| leader_name2            = 
| leader_title3           = 
| leader_name3            = 
| leader_title4           = 
| leader_name4            = 
| legislature =
| upper_house =
| lower_house =
| unit_pref               = Metric
&lt;!-- ALL fields with measurements have automatic unit conversion --&gt;
&lt;!-- for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags --&gt;
| area_footnotes          = 
| area_urban_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_rural_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_metro_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_magnitude          = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_note               = 
| area_water_percent      = 
| area_rank               = 
| area_blank1_title       = 
| area_blank2_title       = 
&lt;!-- square kilometers --&gt;
| area_total_km2          =261 
| area_land_km2           = 
| area_water_km2          = 
| area_urban_km2          = 
| area_rural_km2          = 
| area_metro_km2          = 
| area_blank1_km2         = 
| area_blank2_km2         = 
&lt;!-- hectares --&gt;
| area_total_ha           = 
| area_land_ha            = 
| area_water_ha           = 
| area_urban_ha           = 
| area_rural_ha           = 
| area_metro_ha           = 
| area_blank1_ha          = 
| area_blank2_ha          = 
| length_km               = 
| width_km                = 
| dimensions_footnotes    = 
| elevation_footnotes     = 
| elevation_m             = 
| population_as_of        = 2017
| population_footnotes    = &lt;ref name=&quot;DISTRICT WISE CENSUS RESULTS CENSUS 2017&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/DISTRICT_WISE_CENSUS_RESULTS_CENSUS_2017.pdf|title=DISTRICT WISE CENSUS RESULTS CENSUS 2017|publisher=www.pbscensus.gov.pk|access-date=2017-12-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829164748/http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/DISTRICT_WISE_CENSUS_RESULTS_CENSUS_2017.pdf|archive-date=2017-08-29|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_total        = 72,557
| population_density_km2  = 278
| population_note         = 
| population_demonym      = 
| timezone1               = 
| utc_offset1             = 
| timezone1_DST           = 
| utc_offset1_DST         = 
| postal_code_type        = 
| postal_code             = 
| area_code_type          = 
| area_code               = 
| iso_code                = 
| website                 = &lt;!-- {{URL|example.com}} --&gt;
| footnotes               = 
|official_name=تحصیل متھرا}}
'''مٿرا تعلقو''' ([[اردو]]: تحصیل متھرا؛ [[پشتو ٻولي|پشتو]]: متھرا تحصیل‎) [[پاڪستان]] جي صوبي [[خيبر پختونخوا]] جي ضلعي [[پشاور ضلعو|پشاور]] جو هڪ [[تعلقو]] آهي.


پشاور شهر تعلقو	176	2,113,596	12,009.07	60.88%

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:مٿرا تعلقو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>6chzdw7wdh9l7qpzsbu28ik8wx986ne</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399361</id>
      <parentid>399360</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T07:54:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399361</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4564" sha1="ohhbl3hxmmslemdforvv3uto1clxaec" xml:space="preserve">
{{Infobox settlement
| name       = مٿرا تعلقو  
| native_name    = متھرا تحصیل
| native_name_lang        = 
| other_name              = 
| settlement_type         = [[تعلقو]]
| image_skyline           = 
| image_alt               = 
| image_caption           = 
| image_flag              = 
| flag_alt                = 
| image_seal              = 
| seal_alt                = 
| image_shield            = 
| shield_alt              = 
| etymology               = 
| nickname                = 
| motto                   = 
| image_map               = FATA (8).jpg
| map_alt                 = 
| map_caption             = 
| pushpin_map             = 
| pushpin_label_position  = 
| pushpin_map_alt         = 
| pushpin_map_caption     = 
| coordinates             = &lt;!-- {{Coord}} --&gt;
| coor_pinpoint           = 
| coordinates_footnotes   = 
| subdivision_type        = [[ملڪ]]
| subdivision_name        = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| subdivision_type1       = [[صوبو]]
| subdivision_name1       = {{flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}
| subdivision_type2       =[[پاڪستان جون ڊويزنون|ڊويزن]] 
| subdivision_name2       =[[پشاور ڊويزن]] 
| subdivision_type3       =[[ضلعو]] 
| subdivision_name3       =[[پشاور ضلعو]] 
| established_title       = 
| established_date        = 
| founder                 = 
| seat_type               = 
| seat                    = مٿرا
| government_footnotes    = 
| government_type         = 
| governing_body          = 
| leader_party            = 
| leader_title            = 
| leader_name             = 
| leader_title1           = 
| leader_name1            = 
| leader_title2           = 
| leader_name2            = 
| leader_title3           = 
| leader_name3            = 
| leader_title4           = 
| leader_name4            = 
| legislature =
| upper_house =
| lower_house =
| unit_pref               = Metric
&lt;!-- ALL fields with measurements have automatic unit conversion --&gt;
&lt;!-- for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags --&gt;
| area_footnotes          = 
| area_urban_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_rural_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_metro_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_magnitude          = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_note               = 
| area_water_percent      = 
| area_rank               = 
| area_blank1_title       = 
| area_blank2_title       = 
&lt;!-- square kilometers --&gt;
| area_total_km2          =218 
| area_land_km2           = 
| area_water_km2          = 
| area_urban_km2          = 
| area_rural_km2          = 
| area_metro_km2          = 
| area_blank1_km2         = 
| area_blank2_km2         = 
&lt;!-- hectares --&gt;
| area_total_ha           = 
| area_land_ha            = 
| area_water_ha           = 
| area_urban_ha           = 
| area_rural_ha           = 
| area_metro_ha           = 
| area_blank1_ha          = 
| area_blank2_ha          = 
| length_km               = 
| width_km                = 
| dimensions_footnotes    = 
| elevation_footnotes     = 
| elevation_m             = 
| population_as_of        = 2017
| population_footnotes    = &lt;ref name=&quot;DISTRICT WISE CENSUS RESULTS CENSUS 2017&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/DISTRICT_WISE_CENSUS_RESULTS_CENSUS_2017.pdf|title=DISTRICT WISE CENSUS RESULTS CENSUS 2017|publisher=www.pbscensus.gov.pk|access-date=2017-12-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829164748/http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/DISTRICT_WISE_CENSUS_RESULTS_CENSUS_2017.pdf|archive-date=2017-08-29|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_total        = 4,95,059
| population_density_km2  = 2,270.91
| population_note         = 
| population_demonym      = 
| timezone1               = 
| utc_offset1             = 
| timezone1_DST           = 
| utc_offset1_DST         = 
| postal_code_type        = 
| postal_code             = 
| area_code_type          = 
| area_code               = 
| iso_code                = 
| website                 = &lt;!-- {{URL|example.com}} --&gt;
| footnotes               = 
|official_name=تحصیل متھرا}}
'''مٿرا تعلقو''' ([[اردو]]: تحصیل متھرا؛ [[پشتو ٻولي|پشتو]]: متھرا تحصیل‎) [[پاڪستان]] جي صوبي [[خيبر پختونخوا]] جي ضلعي [[پشاور ضلعو|پشاور]] جو هڪ [[تعلقو]] آهي.
==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:مٿرا تعلقو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>ohhbl3hxmmslemdforvv3uto1clxaec</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ميرانشاهه تعلقو</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>101009</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399197</id>
      <parentid>399166</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:41:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* حوالا */</comment>
      <origin>399197</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2515" sha1="8ydhdfdj13bmyvdwyuouhaet1z19uzw" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement|official_name=تحصیل میران شاہ|name=ميرانشاهه تعلقو|native_name=میران شاه تحصیل|settlement_type=[[تعلقو]]|other_name=|image_skyline=|imagesize=|image_caption=|image_map=|pushpin_map=|pushpin_label_position=|pushpin_mapsize=|pushpin_map_caption=Location in Pakistan|subdivision_type=[[ملڪ]]|subdivision_name={{flag|Pakistan}}|subdivision_type1=[[صوبو]]|subdivision_name1={{Flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}|subdivision_type2=[[ضلعو]]|subdivision_name2=[[اتر وزيرستان ضلعو]]|subdivision_type3=|subdivision_name3=|subdivision_type4=هيڊ ڪوارٽر|subdivision_name4=[[ميرانشاهه]]|seat=|subdivision_type5=يونين ڪائونسلون|subdivision_name5=|government_footnotes=|government_type=|leader_title=ناظم|leader_title1=|leader_name1=|established_title=|established_date=|area_total_km2=|area_metro_km2=|population_as_of=[[2017 Census of Pakistan|2017]]|population_footnotes=|population_total=1,00,680|population_rural=96319&lt;ref name=&quot;census&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/bwpsr/fata/NOR_WAZIRISTAN_AGENCY_SUMMARY.pdf|title=DISTRICT AND TEHSIL LEVEL POPULATION SUMMARY WITH REGION BREAKUP [PDF]|publisher=www.pbscensus.gov.pk|date=2018-01-03|accessdate=2018-03-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180326141546/http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/bwpsr/fata/NOR_WAZIRISTAN_AGENCY_SUMMARY.pdf|archive-date=2018-03-26|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;|population_urban=4361|population_density_urban_km2=|coordinates=|elevation_footnotes=|elevation_m=|elevation_ft=|timezone=[[Pakistan Standard Time|PST]]|utc_offset=+5|timezone_DST=|utc_offset_DST=|postal_code_type=|postal_code=|area_code=|blank_name=|blank_info=|leader_party=[[Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam (F)|JUI(F)]]|leader_name=نيڪ زمان حقاني}}
'''ميران شاهه تعلقو''' (اردو، پشتو: تحصیل میران شاه) [[پاڪستان]] جي صوبي [[خيبر پختونخوا]] جي ضلعي [[اتر وزيرستان ضلعو|اتر وزيرستان]] ۾ واقع هڪ [[تعلقو]] آهي. [[آدمشماري پاڪستان، 2017ع|پاڪستان جي سال 2017ع جي مردم شماري]] جي مطابق تعلقي جي آبادي 1,00,680 آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:ميران شاهه تعلقو]]
[[زمرو:اتر وزيرستان ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:اتر وزيرستان ضلعي جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>8ydhdfdj13bmyvdwyuouhaet1z19uzw</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>غلام خان تعلقو</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>101010</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399198</id>
      <parentid>399164</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:42:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* حوالا */</comment>
      <origin>399198</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2132" sha1="2u2xlfr8tcqx8hy0rhxvwp74mum31r1" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement|official_name=تحصیل غلام خان|name=غلام خان تعلقو|native_name=غلام خان تحصیل|settlement_type=[[تعلقو]]|other_name=|image_skyline=|imagesize=|image_caption=|image_map=|pushpin_map=|pushpin_label_position=|pushpin_mapsize=|pushpin_map_caption=Location in Pakistan|subdivision_type=[[ملڪ]]|subdivision_name={{flag|Pakistan}}|subdivision_type1=[[صوبو]]|subdivision_name1={{Flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}|subdivision_type2=[[ضلعو]]|subdivision_name2=[[اتر وزيرستان ضلعو]]|subdivision_type3=|subdivision_name3=|subdivision_type4=هيڊ ڪوارٽر|subdivision_name4=غلام خان|subdivision_type5=Union councils|subdivision_name5=|government_footnotes=|government_type=|leader_title=|leader_name=|leader_title1=|leader_name1=|established_title=|established_date=|area_total_km2=|area_metro_km2=|population_as_of=[[2017 Census of Pakistan|2017]]|population_footnotes=|population_total=27,171|population_rural=|population_urban=|population_density_urban_km2=|coordinates=|elevation_footnotes=|elevation_m=|elevation_ft=|timezone=[[Pakistan Standard Time|PST]]|utc_offset=+5|timezone_DST=|utc_offset_DST=|postal_code_type=|postal_code=|area_code=|blank_name=|blank_info=}}
'''غلام خان تعلقو''' (اردو، پشتو: غلام خان تحصیل) [[پاڪستان]] جي صوبي [[خيبر پختونخوا]] جي [[اتر وزيرستان ضلعو|اتر وزيرستان ضلعي]] ۾ واقع هڪ [[تعلقو]] آهي. [[آدمشماري پاڪستان، 2017ع|پاڪستان جي سال 2017ع جي مردم شماري]] جي مطابق تعلقي جي آبادي 27,171 آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;census&quot;&gt;{{حوالو ويب|date=2018-01-03|archivedate=2018-03-26}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== پڻ ڏسو ==
* [[خيبرپختونخواه جي تعلقن جي فهرست|خيبر پختونخوا جي تعلقن جي فهرست]]

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:غلام خان تعلقو]]
[[زمرو:اتر وزيرستان ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:اتر وزيرستان ضلعي جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>2u2xlfr8tcqx8hy0rhxvwp74mum31r1</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>مير علي تعلقو</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>101012</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399199</id>
      <parentid>399165</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:43:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* حوالا */</comment>
      <origin>399199</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1960" sha1="75omhwvzffgabpnx5oh1baqo7bpmb2u" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement|official_name=تحصیل میر علی|name=مير علي تعلقو|native_name=مير علي تحصیل|settlement_type=[[تعلقو]]|other_name=|image_skyline=|imagesize=|image_caption=|image_map=|pushpin_map=|pushpin_label_position=|pushpin_mapsize=|pushpin_map_caption=Location in Pakistan|subdivision_type=[[ملڪ]]|subdivision_name={{flag|Pakistan}}|subdivision_type1=[[صوبو]]|subdivision_name1={{Flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}|subdivision_type2=[[ضلعو]]|subdivision_name2=[[اتر وزيرستان ضلعو]]|subdivision_type3=Capital|subdivision_name3=|subdivision_type4=Towns|subdivision_name4=|subdivision_type5=Union councils|subdivision_name5=|government_footnotes=|government_type=|leader_title=|leader_name=|leader_title1=|leader_name1=|established_title=|established_date=|area_total_km2=|area_metro_km2=|population_as_of=[[2017 Census of Pakistan|2017]]|population_footnotes=|population_total=1,85,525|population_rural=|population_urban=|population_density_urban_km2=|coordinates=|elevation_footnotes=|elevation_m=|elevation_ft=|timezone=[[Pakistan Standard Time|PST]]|utc_offset=+5|timezone_DST=|utc_offset_DST=|postal_code_type=|postal_code=|area_code=|blank_name=|blank_info=}}
'''مير علي تعلقو''' (اردو، پشتو: تحصیل میر علی) [[پاڪستان]] جي صوبي [[خيبر پختونخوا]] جي [[اتر وزيرستان ضلعو|اتر وزيرستان ضلعي]] ۾ واقع هڪ [[تعلقو]] آهي. [[آدمشماري پاڪستان، 2017ع|پاڪستان جي سال 2017ع جي مردم شماري]] جي مطابق تعلقي جي آبادي 1,85,525 آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;census&quot;&gt;{{حوالو ويب|date=2018-01-03|archivedate=2018-03-26}}&lt;/ref&gt;
==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:مير علي تعلقو]]
[[زمرو:اتر وزيرستان ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:اتر وزيرستان ضلعي جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>75omhwvzffgabpnx5oh1baqo7bpmb2u</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جي انساني جاگرافي</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>101034</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399169</id>
      <parentid>399168</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:00:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed [[Category:خیبر پختونخوا جي جاگرافي]]; added [[Category:خيبر پختونخوا جي جاگرافي]] [[وڪيپيڊيا:ھاٽ ڪيٽ|ھاٽ ڪيت]] جي مدد سان</comment>
      <origin>399169</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="58" sha1="p2voab8xl5gyw7j59m2mnd6b1ax8evb" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا جي جاگرافي]]</text>
      <sha1>p2voab8xl5gyw7j59m2mnd6b1ax8evb</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>101035</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399171</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:00:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Ibne maryam صفحي [[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]] کي [[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا جا ننڍا شهر]] ڏانھن چوريو</comment>
      <origin>399171</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="88" sha1="jd5pwtgnet9ag6v7qef7re0dk7brzsp" xml:space="preserve">{{واپس منتقل زمرو|زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا جا ننڍا شهر}}</text>
      <sha1>jd5pwtgnet9ag6v7qef7re0dk7brzsp</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399172</id>
      <parentid>399171</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:01:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399172</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="0" sha1="phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1" />
      <sha1>phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399173</id>
      <parentid>399172</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:03:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added [[Category:خالي زمرا]] [[وڪيپيڊيا:ھاٽ ڪيٽ|ھاٽ ڪيت]] جي مدد سان</comment>
      <origin>399173</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="30" sha1="t4w1dd3smcg6f93339nsxrnaj4rac3u" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:خالي زمرا]]</text>
      <sha1>t4w1dd3smcg6f93339nsxrnaj4rac3u</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399174</id>
      <parentid>399173</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:09:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added [[Category:خيبر پختونخوا جي انتظامي ورهاست]] [[وڪيپيڊيا:ھاٽ ڪيٽ|ھاٽ ڪيت]] جي مدد سان</comment>
      <origin>399174</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="102" sha1="oqf1yv9u8yf2d9fd41fb9to0oszwm4g" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:خالي زمرا]]
[[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا جي انتظامي ورهاست]]</text>
      <sha1>oqf1yv9u8yf2d9fd41fb9to0oszwm4g</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399175</id>
      <parentid>399174</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:09:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added [[Category:پاڪستان جا تعلقا]] [[وڪيپيڊيا:ھاٽ ڪيٽ|ھاٽ ڪيت]] جي مدد سان</comment>
      <origin>399175</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="146" sha1="98vm4529yal1samdsqqdgq3h47uvxnv" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:خالي زمرا]]
[[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا جي انتظامي ورهاست]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>98vm4529yal1samdsqqdgq3h47uvxnv</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399176</id>
      <parentid>399175</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:10:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399176</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="115" sha1="g1q8ajweipc062l3nbw3vqg9v1z41pr" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:پاڪستان جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خيبر پختونخوا جي انتظامي ورهاست]]</text>
      <sha1>g1q8ajweipc062l3nbw3vqg9v1z41pr</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:پاڪستان جون يونين ڪاؤنسلون</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>101036</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399188</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:28:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Ibne maryam صفحي [[زمرو:پاڪستان جون يونين ڪاؤنسلون]] کي [[زمرو:بلوچستان، پاڪستان جون يونين ڪاؤنسلون]] ڏانھن چوريو</comment>
      <origin>399188</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="110" sha1="bex8jhbsdjhu2qy46zdr2sl069cgvkc" xml:space="preserve">{{واپس منتقل زمرو|زمرو:بلوچستان، پاڪستان جون يونين ڪاؤنسلون}}</text>
      <sha1>bex8jhbsdjhu2qy46zdr2sl069cgvkc</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399192</id>
      <parentid>399188</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:33:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399192</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="64" sha1="jf5uw04r1rzoj9vxni6ohpfigu0p318" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:پاڪستان جون يونين ڪائونسلون]]</text>
      <sha1>jf5uw04r1rzoj9vxni6ohpfigu0p318</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:جھلم ضلعي جا قصبا</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>101037</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399196</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T12:38:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:جهلم ضلعو]] [[زمرو:پنجاب، پاڪستان جا قصبا]]</comment>
      <origin>399196</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="85" sha1="8yy0jgr6vfo1mcjv0goqo08ui8pdm7o" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:جهلم ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پنجاب، پاڪستان جا قصبا]]</text>
      <sha1>8yy0jgr6vfo1mcjv0goqo08ui8pdm7o</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>چمڪني تعلقو</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>101038</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399201</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T13:05:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>صفحي &quot;[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1322847436|Chamkani, Peshawar]]&quot; جي شروعاتي ڀاڱي جو ترجمو ڪندي سرجيو ويو</comment>
      <origin>399201</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1645" sha1="cmahzt1g0osbxifgkq9bknwwdltouuf" xml:space="preserve">


'''چمڪني''' (اردو: ؛ پشتو {{langx|ps|څمکنۍ}}) [[پاڪستان]] جي صوبي [[خيبر پختونخوا|خيبر پختونخواه]] ۾ [[پشاور]] ضلعي جي تعلقي چمڪني جو هڪ پاڙو آهي. ان جو نالو [[پٺاڻ|پشتونن]] جي چمڪني قبيلي جي نالي تي رکيو ويو آهي، جيڪو [[افغانستان|افغانستان جي]] [[پڪتیا صوبو|پڪتيا صوبي]] جي تسمڪني ضلعي ۽ پاڪستان جي خيبر پختونخواه جي [[ڪرم ضلعو|ڪرم ضلعي]] ۾ رهئي ٿو. پشاور بي آر ٽي ان کي ڪارخانو مارڪيٽ سان ڳنڍي ٿي. 
{{Infobox settlement|image_skyline=A|image_map1=C|map_caption=Location in Pakistan|name=چمڪني|official_name=چمڪني|native_name=چمڪني|native_name_lang=پشتو|settlement_type=شهر|type=قصبو|image_size=250px|image_caption=An old bridge in Chamkani|image_map=B|mapsize=250px|map_caption1=C|subdivision_name={{flag|Pakistan}}|subdivision_name1={{flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}|subdivision_name2=[[پشاور ضلعو]]|subdivision_name3=[[چمڪني تعلقو]]|population_total=150000|subdivision_type=[[ملڪ]]|subdivision_type1=[[صوبو]]|subdivision_type2=[[ضلعو]]|subdivision_type3=[[تعلقو]]|government_type=مقامي حڪومت|governing_body=يونين ڪائونسل|leader_name=چيئرمين|leader_name1=حمايت الله مايار|leader_party=عوامي نيشنل پارٽي|area_total_km2=100|area_total_sq_mi=40|population_as_of=200000|pop_est_as_of=2023ع|timezone=PST|postal_code_type=پوسٽل ڪوڊ|postal_code=A}}</text>
      <sha1>cmahzt1g0osbxifgkq9bknwwdltouuf</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399202</id>
      <parentid>399201</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T13:07:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399202</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1597" sha1="rzkk1cebkdtgkyn4zpp056wbsecx5ke" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement|image_skyline=A|image_map1=C|map_caption=Location in Pakistan|name=چمڪني|official_name=چمڪني|native_name=چمڪني|native_name_lang=پشتو|settlement_type=شهر|type=قصبو|image_size=250px|image_caption=An old bridge in Chamkani|image_map=B|mapsize=250px|map_caption1=C|subdivision_name={{flag|Pakistan}}|subdivision_name1={{flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}|subdivision_name2=[[پشاور ضلعو]]|subdivision_name3=[[چمڪني تعلقو]]|population_total=150000|subdivision_type=[[ملڪ]]|subdivision_type1=[[صوبو]]|subdivision_type2=[[ضلعو]]|subdivision_type3=[[تعلقو]]|government_type=مقامي حڪومت|governing_body=يونين ڪائونسل|leader_name=چيئرمين|leader_name1=حمايت الله مايار|leader_party=عوامي نيشنل پارٽي|area_total_km2=100|area_total_sq_mi=40|population_as_of=200000|pop_est_as_of=2023ع|timezone=PST|postal_code_type=پوسٽل ڪوڊ|postal_code=A}}
'''چمڪني''' (پشتو: څمکنۍ) [[پاڪستان]] جي صوبي [[خيبر پختونخوا|خيبر پختونخواه]] ۾ [[پشاور]] ضلعي جي تعلقي چمڪني جو هڪ پاڙو آهي. ان جو نالو [[پٺاڻ|پشتونن]] جي چمڪني قبيلي جي نالي تي رکيو ويو آهي، جيڪو [[افغانستان]] جي [[پڪتیا صوبو|پڪتيا صوبي]] جي تسمڪني ضلعي ۽ پاڪستان جي خيبر پختونخواه جي [[ڪرم ضلعو|ڪرم ضلعي]] ۾ رهئي ٿو. پشاور بي آر ٽي ان کي ڪارخانو مارڪيٽ سان ڳنڍي ٿي.</text>
      <sha1>rzkk1cebkdtgkyn4zpp056wbsecx5ke</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399203</id>
      <parentid>399202</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T13:10:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399203</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1635" sha1="6zeuq1jxeozwj5h235gm1xt2obvuecj" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement|image_skyline=Bridge in Peshawar at Inqilab Road..jpg|image_map1=C|map_caption=Location in Pakistan|name=چمڪني|official_name=چمکني|native_name=څمکنۍ|native_name_lang=پشتو|settlement_type=شهر|type=قصبو|image_size=250px|image_caption=An old bridge in Chamkani|image_map=B|mapsize=250px|map_caption1=C|subdivision_name={{flag|Pakistan}}|subdivision_name1={{flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}|subdivision_name2=[[پشاور ضلعو]]|subdivision_name3=[[چمڪني تعلقو]]|population_total=150000|subdivision_type=[[ملڪ]]|subdivision_type1=[[صوبو]]|subdivision_type2=[[ضلعو]]|subdivision_type3=[[تعلقو]]|government_type=مقامي حڪومت|governing_body=يونين ڪائونسل|leader_name=چيئرمين|leader_name1=حمايت الله مايار|leader_party=عوامي نيشنل پارٽي|area_total_km2=100|area_total_sq_mi=40|population_as_of=200000|pop_est_as_of=2023ع|timezone=PST|postal_code_type=پوسٽل ڪوڊ|postal_code=A}}
'''چمڪني''' (پشتو: څمکنۍ) [[پاڪستان]] جي صوبي [[خيبر پختونخوا|خيبر پختونخواه]] ۾ [[پشاور]] ضلعي جي تعلقي چمڪني جو هڪ پاڙو آهي. ان جو نالو [[پٺاڻ|پشتونن]] جي چمڪني قبيلي جي نالي تي رکيو ويو آهي، جيڪو [[افغانستان]] جي [[پڪتیا صوبو|پڪتيا صوبي]] جي تسمڪني ضلعي ۽ پاڪستان جي خيبر پختونخواه جي [[ڪرم ضلعو|ڪرم ضلعي]] ۾ رهئي ٿو. پشاور بي آر ٽي ان کي ڪارخانو مارڪيٽ سان ڳنڍي ٿي.</text>
      <sha1>6zeuq1jxeozwj5h235gm1xt2obvuecj</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399204</id>
      <parentid>399203</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T13:19:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399204</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1625" sha1="4quf8dg39yekv7vhee5re0jly1gwxz2" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement|image_skyline=Bridge in Peshawar at Inqilab Road..jpg|image_map1=|map_caption=|name=چمڪني|official_name=چمکني|native_name=څمکنۍ|native_name_lang=پشتو|settlement_type=[[قصبو]]|type=[[ڳوٺ]]|image_size=250px|image_caption=چمڪني ۾ هڪ پراڻو تاريخي پل|image_map=|mapsize=|map_caption1=|subdivision_name={{flag|Pakistan}}|subdivision_name1={{flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}|subdivision_name2=[[پشاور ضلعو]]|subdivision_name3=[[چمڪني تعلقو]]|population_total=150000|subdivision_type=[[ملڪ]]|subdivision_type1=[[صوبو]]|subdivision_type2=[[ضلعو]]|subdivision_type3=[[تعلقو]]|government_type=|governing_body=تعلقا ڪائونسل|leader_name=ارباب محمد عمر خان|leader_name1=|leader_party=[[عوامي نيشنل پارٽي|ANP]]|area_total_km2=100|area_total_sq_mi=40|population_as_of=2023ع|pop_est_as_of=|timezone=UTC+5 (PST)|postal_code_type=|postal_code=|leader_title=چيئرمين}}
'''چمڪني''' (پشتو: څمکنۍ) [[پاڪستان]] جي صوبي [[خيبر پختونخوا|خيبر پختونخواه]] ۾ [[پشاور]] ضلعي جي تعلقي چمڪني جو هڪ پاڙو آهي. ان جو نالو [[پٺاڻ|پشتونن]] جي چمڪني قبيلي جي نالي تي رکيو ويو آهي، جيڪو [[افغانستان]] جي [[پڪتیا صوبو|پڪتيا صوبي]] جي تسمڪني ضلعي ۽ پاڪستان جي خيبر پختونخواه جي [[ڪرم ضلعو|ڪرم ضلعي]] ۾ رهئي ٿو. پشاور بي آر ٽي ان کي ڪارخانو مارڪيٽ سان ڳنڍي ٿي.</text>
      <sha1>4quf8dg39yekv7vhee5re0jly1gwxz2</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399205</id>
      <parentid>399204</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T13:21:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Ibne maryam صفحي [[چمڪني، پشاور]] کي [[چمڪني تعلقو]] ڏانھن چوريو</comment>
      <origin>399204</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1625" sha1="4quf8dg39yekv7vhee5re0jly1gwxz2" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement|image_skyline=Bridge in Peshawar at Inqilab Road..jpg|image_map1=|map_caption=|name=چمڪني|official_name=چمکني|native_name=څمکنۍ|native_name_lang=پشتو|settlement_type=[[قصبو]]|type=[[ڳوٺ]]|image_size=250px|image_caption=چمڪني ۾ هڪ پراڻو تاريخي پل|image_map=|mapsize=|map_caption1=|subdivision_name={{flag|Pakistan}}|subdivision_name1={{flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}|subdivision_name2=[[پشاور ضلعو]]|subdivision_name3=[[چمڪني تعلقو]]|population_total=150000|subdivision_type=[[ملڪ]]|subdivision_type1=[[صوبو]]|subdivision_type2=[[ضلعو]]|subdivision_type3=[[تعلقو]]|government_type=|governing_body=تعلقا ڪائونسل|leader_name=ارباب محمد عمر خان|leader_name1=|leader_party=[[عوامي نيشنل پارٽي|ANP]]|area_total_km2=100|area_total_sq_mi=40|population_as_of=2023ع|pop_est_as_of=|timezone=UTC+5 (PST)|postal_code_type=|postal_code=|leader_title=چيئرمين}}
'''چمڪني''' (پشتو: څمکنۍ) [[پاڪستان]] جي صوبي [[خيبر پختونخوا|خيبر پختونخواه]] ۾ [[پشاور]] ضلعي جي تعلقي چمڪني جو هڪ پاڙو آهي. ان جو نالو [[پٺاڻ|پشتونن]] جي چمڪني قبيلي جي نالي تي رکيو ويو آهي، جيڪو [[افغانستان]] جي [[پڪتیا صوبو|پڪتيا صوبي]] جي تسمڪني ضلعي ۽ پاڪستان جي خيبر پختونخواه جي [[ڪرم ضلعو|ڪرم ضلعي]] ۾ رهئي ٿو. پشاور بي آر ٽي ان کي ڪارخانو مارڪيٽ سان ڳنڍي ٿي.</text>
      <sha1>4quf8dg39yekv7vhee5re0jly1gwxz2</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399207</id>
      <parentid>399205</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T13:23:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399207</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1593" sha1="cf8dqi9kftck3pgv1ribbb4gvf372py" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement|image_skyline=Bridge in Peshawar at Inqilab Road..jpg|image_map1=|map_caption=|name=چمڪني|official_name=چمکني|native_name=څمکنۍ|native_name_lang=پشتو|settlement_type=[[قصبو]]|type=[[ڳوٺ]]|image_size=250px|image_caption=چمڪني ۾ هڪ پراڻو تاريخي پل|image_map=|mapsize=|map_caption1=|subdivision_name={{flag|Pakistan}}|subdivision_name1={{flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}|subdivision_name2=[[پشاور ضلعو]]|subdivision_name3=[[چمڪني تعلقو]]|population_total=150000|subdivision_type=[[ملڪ]]|subdivision_type1=[[صوبو]]|subdivision_type2=[[ضلعو]]|subdivision_type3=[[تعلقو]]|government_type=|governing_body=تعلقا ڪائونسل|leader_name=ارباب محمد عمر خان|leader_name1=|leader_party=[[عوامي نيشنل پارٽي|ANP]]|area_total_km2=100|area_total_sq_mi=40|population_as_of=2023ع|pop_est_as_of=|timezone=UTC+5 (PST)|postal_code_type=|postal_code=|leader_title=چيئرمين}}
'''چمڪني''' (پشتو: څمکنۍ) [[پاڪستان]] جي [[خيبر پختونخوا|خيبر پختونخواه]] ۾ [[پشاور]] ضلعي جو تعلقو ۽ هڪ پاڙو آهي. نالو [[پٺاڻ|پشتونن]] جي چمڪني قبيلي جي نالي تي رکيو ويو آهي، جيڪو [[افغانستان]] جي [[پڪتیا صوبو|پڪتيا صوبي]] جي تسمڪني ضلعي ۽ پاڪستان جي خيبر پختونخواه جي [[ڪرم ضلعو|ڪرم ضلعي]] ۾ رهئي ٿو. پشاور بي آر ٽي ان کي ڪارخانو مارڪيٽ سان ڳنڍي ٿي.</text>
      <sha1>cf8dqi9kftck3pgv1ribbb4gvf372py</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399265</id>
      <parentid>399207</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T18:00:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added [[Category:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]] [[وڪيپيڊيا:ھاٽ ڪيٽ|ھاٽ ڪيت]] جي مدد سان</comment>
      <origin>399265</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1643" sha1="4o5fxi5as76n9jdmdq0l4g080bw0av4" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement|image_skyline=Bridge in Peshawar at Inqilab Road..jpg|image_map1=|map_caption=|name=چمڪني|official_name=چمکني|native_name=څمکنۍ|native_name_lang=پشتو|settlement_type=[[قصبو]]|type=[[ڳوٺ]]|image_size=250px|image_caption=چمڪني ۾ هڪ پراڻو تاريخي پل|image_map=|mapsize=|map_caption1=|subdivision_name={{flag|Pakistan}}|subdivision_name1={{flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}|subdivision_name2=[[پشاور ضلعو]]|subdivision_name3=[[چمڪني تعلقو]]|population_total=150000|subdivision_type=[[ملڪ]]|subdivision_type1=[[صوبو]]|subdivision_type2=[[ضلعو]]|subdivision_type3=[[تعلقو]]|government_type=|governing_body=تعلقا ڪائونسل|leader_name=ارباب محمد عمر خان|leader_name1=|leader_party=[[عوامي نيشنل پارٽي|ANP]]|area_total_km2=100|area_total_sq_mi=40|population_as_of=2023ع|pop_est_as_of=|timezone=UTC+5 (PST)|postal_code_type=|postal_code=|leader_title=چيئرمين}}
'''چمڪني''' (پشتو: څمکنۍ) [[پاڪستان]] جي [[خيبر پختونخوا|خيبر پختونخواه]] ۾ [[پشاور]] ضلعي جو تعلقو ۽ هڪ پاڙو آهي. نالو [[پٺاڻ|پشتونن]] جي چمڪني قبيلي جي نالي تي رکيو ويو آهي، جيڪو [[افغانستان]] جي [[پڪتیا صوبو|پڪتيا صوبي]] جي تسمڪني ضلعي ۽ پاڪستان جي خيبر پختونخواه جي [[ڪرم ضلعو|ڪرم ضلعي]] ۾ رهئي ٿو. پشاور بي آر ٽي ان کي ڪارخانو مارڪيٽ سان ڳنڍي ٿي.

[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>4o5fxi5as76n9jdmdq0l4g080bw0av4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399266</id>
      <parentid>399265</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T18:02:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399266</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1796" sha1="mtc8pq0ls26b8tyfib09nkmhwfdug30" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement|image_skyline=Bridge in Peshawar at Inqilab Road..jpg|image_map1=|map_caption=|name=چمڪني|official_name=چمکني|native_name=څمکنۍ|native_name_lang=پشتو|settlement_type=[[قصبو]]|type=[[ڳوٺ]]|image_size=250px|image_caption=چمڪني ۾ هڪ پراڻو تاريخي پل|image_map=|mapsize=|map_caption1=|subdivision_name={{flag|Pakistan}}|subdivision_name1={{flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}|subdivision_name2=[[پشاور ضلعو]]|subdivision_name3=[[چمڪني تعلقو]]|population_total=150000|subdivision_type=[[ملڪ]]|subdivision_type1=[[صوبو]]|subdivision_type2=[[ضلعو]]|subdivision_type3=[[تعلقو]]|government_type=|governing_body=تعلقا ڪائونسل|leader_name=ارباب محمد عمر خان|leader_name1=|leader_party=[[عوامي نيشنل پارٽي|ANP]]|area_total_km2=100|area_total_sq_mi=40|population_as_of=2023ع|pop_est_as_of=|timezone=UTC+5 (PST)|postal_code_type=|postal_code=|leader_title=چيئرمين}}
'''چمڪني''' (پشتو: څمکنۍ) [[پاڪستان]] جي [[خيبر پختونخوا|خيبر پختونخواه]] ۾ [[پشاور]] ضلعي جو تعلقو ۽ هڪ پاڙو آهي. نالو [[پٺاڻ|پشتونن]] جي چمڪني قبيلي جي نالي تي رکيو ويو آهي، جيڪو [[افغانستان]] جي [[پڪتیا صوبو|پڪتيا صوبي]] جي تسمڪني ضلعي ۽ پاڪستان جي خيبر پختونخواه جي [[ڪرم ضلعو|ڪرم ضلعي]] ۾ رهئي ٿو. پشاور بي آر ٽي ان کي ڪارخانو مارڪيٽ سان ڳنڍي ٿي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:چمڪني تعلقو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>mtc8pq0ls26b8tyfib09nkmhwfdug30</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399357</id>
      <parentid>399266</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T07:38:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399357</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1797" sha1="alckvddc6u7t2m4ovptz8ac4r32fcsc" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement|image_skyline=Bridge in Peshawar at Inqilab Road..jpg|image_map1=|map_caption=|name=چمڪني|official_name=چمکني|native_name=څمکنۍ|native_name_lang=پشتو|settlement_type=[[قصبو]] [[تعلقو]]|type=[[ڳوٺ]]|image_size=250px|image_caption=چمڪني ۾ هڪ پراڻو تاريخي پل|image_map=|mapsize=|map_caption1=|subdivision_name={{flag|Pakistan}}|subdivision_name1={{flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}|subdivision_name2=[[پشاور ضلعو]]|subdivision_name3=[[چمڪني تعلقو]]|population_total=6,24,354|subdivision_type=[[ملڪ]]|subdivision_type1=[[صوبو]]|subdivision_type2=[[ضلعو]]|subdivision_type3=|government_type=|governing_body=تعلقا ڪائونسل|leader_name=ارباب محمد عمر خان|leader_name1=|leader_party=[[عوامي نيشنل پارٽي|ANP]]|area_total_km2=226|area_total_sq_mi=|population_as_of=2017ع|pop_est_as_of=|timezone=UTC+5 (PST)|postal_code_type=|postal_code=|leader_title=چيئرمين}}
'''چمڪني''' (پشتو: څمکنۍ) [[پاڪستان]] جي [[خيبر پختونخوا|خيبر پختونخواه]] ۾ [[پشاور]] ضلعي جو تعلقو ۽ هڪ پاڙو آهي. نالو [[پٺاڻ|پشتونن]] جي چمڪني قبيلي جي نالي تي رکيو ويو آهي، جيڪو [[افغانستان]] جي [[پڪتیا صوبو|پڪتيا صوبي]] جي تسمڪني ضلعي ۽ پاڪستان جي خيبر پختونخواه جي [[ڪرم ضلعو|ڪرم ضلعي]] ۾ رهئي ٿو. پشاور بي آر ٽي ان کي ڪارخانو مارڪيٽ سان ڳنڍي ٿي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:چمڪني تعلقو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>alckvddc6u7t2m4ovptz8ac4r32fcsc</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>چمڪني، پشاور</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>101039</id>
    <redirect title="چمڪني تعلقو" />
    <revision>
      <id>399206</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T13:21:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Ibne maryam صفحي [[چمڪني، پشاور]] کي [[چمڪني تعلقو]] ڏانھن چوريو</comment>
      <origin>399206</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="37" sha1="rfdzxzuah2zxfmoave0sv84ed11t8fe" xml:space="preserve">#چوريو [[چمڪني تعلقو]]</text>
      <sha1>rfdzxzuah2zxfmoave0sv84ed11t8fe</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:چمڪني تعلقو</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>101040</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399267</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T18:02:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]</comment>
      <origin>399267</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="48" sha1="ooqqufifmujdhxusamrxklj93gpk3qy" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>ooqqufifmujdhxusamrxklj93gpk3qy</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>بڍبير تعلقو</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>101041</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399268</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T18:10:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: بڍبير تعلقو (اردو، پشتو:) پاڪستان جي صوبي خيبر پختونخوا جي پشاور ضلعي جو هڪ تعلقو آهي.  ==حوالا== {{حوالا}} [[زمرو:بڍبير تعلقو]] [[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]] [[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]</comment>
      <origin>399268</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="301" sha1="o3nja3ozf5u6am6j0dtzim6lkoi30bg" xml:space="preserve">بڍبير تعلقو (اردو، پشتو:) پاڪستان جي صوبي خيبر پختونخوا جي پشاور ضلعي جو هڪ تعلقو آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:بڍبير تعلقو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>o3nja3ozf5u6am6j0dtzim6lkoi30bg</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399269</id>
      <parentid>399268</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T18:11:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* حوالا */</comment>
      <origin>399269</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="356" sha1="25vy1b99c19hmogz8snkghkptfpjlel" xml:space="preserve">بڍبير تعلقو (اردو، پشتو:) پاڪستان جي صوبي خيبر پختونخوا جي پشاور ضلعي جو هڪ تعلقو آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:بڍبير تعلقو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>25vy1b99c19hmogz8snkghkptfpjlel</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399271</id>
      <parentid>399269</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T18:13:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399271</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="420" sha1="d46bdwn36dqayz1g1faekf4hh2e6d6s" xml:space="preserve">'''بڍبير تعلقو''' ([[اردو]]، [[پشتو ٻولي|پشتو]]:) [[پاڪستان]] جي [[خيبر پختونخوا]] صوبي جي [[پشاور ضلعو|پشاور]] ضلعي جو هڪ تعلقو آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:بڍبير تعلقو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>d46bdwn36dqayz1g1faekf4hh2e6d6s</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399272</id>
      <parentid>399271</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T18:14:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399272</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="424" sha1="q1qhzpvi3lwwcjjteaqbwys86iigvo4" xml:space="preserve">'''بڍبير تعلقو''' ([[اردو]]، [[پشتو ٻولي|پشتو]]:) [[پاڪستان]] جي [[خيبر پختونخوا]] صوبي جي [[پشاور ضلعو|پشاور]] ضلعي جو هڪ [[تعلقو]] آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:بڍبير تعلقو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>q1qhzpvi3lwwcjjteaqbwys86iigvo4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399274</id>
      <parentid>399272</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T19:48:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399274</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4551" sha1="mno9w3gw037gt01gcgb10q6xri866yp" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
| name     = بڍبير تعلقو
| native_name   =  بڍبير تحصیل (پشتو)
| native_name_lang        = 
| other_name              = 
| settlement_type         = [[تعلقو]]
| image_skyline           = 
| image_alt               = 
| image_caption           = 
| image_flag              = 
| flag_alt                = 
| image_seal              = 
| seal_alt                = 
| image_shield            = 
| shield_alt              = 
| etymology               = 
| nickname                = 
| motto                   = 
| image_map               = FATA (8).jpg
| map_alt                 = 
| map_caption             = 
| pushpin_map             = 
| pushpin_label_position  = 
| pushpin_map_alt         = 
| pushpin_map_caption     = 
| coordinates             = &lt;!-- {{Coord}} --&gt;
| coor_pinpoint           = 
| coordinates_footnotes   = 
| subdivision_type        = [[ملڪ]]
| subdivision_name        = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| subdivision_type1       = [[صوبو]]
| subdivision_name1       = {{flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}
| subdivision_type2       =[[پاڪستان جون ڊويزنون|ڊويزن]] 
| subdivision_name2       =[[پشاور ڊويزن]] 
| subdivision_type3       =[[ضلعو]] 
| subdivision_name3       =[[پشاور ضلعو]] 
| established_title       = 
| established_date        = 
| founder                 = 
| seat_type               = 
| seat                    = بڍبير
| government_footnotes    = 
| government_type         = 
| governing_body          = 
| leader_party            = 
| leader_title            = 
| leader_name             = 
| leader_title1           = 
| leader_name1            = 
| leader_title2           = 
| leader_name2            = 
| leader_title3           = 
| leader_name3            = 
| leader_title4           = 
| leader_name4            = 
| legislature =
| upper_house =
| lower_house =
| unit_pref               = Metric
&lt;!-- ALL fields with measurements have automatic unit conversion --&gt;
&lt;!-- for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags --&gt;
| area_footnotes          = 
| area_urban_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_rural_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_metro_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_magnitude          = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_note               = 
| area_water_percent      = 
| area_rank               = 
| area_blank1_title       = 
| area_blank2_title       = 
&lt;!-- square kilometers --&gt;
| area_total_km2          = 
| area_land_km2           = 
| area_water_km2          = 
| area_urban_km2          = 
| area_rural_km2          = 
| area_metro_km2          = 
| area_blank1_km2         = 
| area_blank2_km2         = 
&lt;!-- hectares --&gt;
| area_total_ha           = 
| area_land_ha            = 
| area_water_ha           = 
| area_urban_ha           = 
| area_rural_ha           = 
| area_metro_ha           = 
| area_blank1_ha          = 
| area_blank2_ha          = 
| length_km               = 
| width_km                = 
| dimensions_footnotes    = 
| elevation_footnotes     = 
| elevation_m             = 
| population_as_of        = [[2017 Census of Pakistan|2017]]
| population_footnotes    = &lt;ref name=&quot;DISTRICT WISE CENSUS RESULTS CENSUS 2017&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/DISTRICT_WISE_CENSUS_RESULTS_CENSUS_2017.pdf|title=DISTRICT WISE CENSUS RESULTS CENSUS 2017|publisher=www.pbscensus.gov.pk|access-date=2017-12-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829164748/http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/DISTRICT_WISE_CENSUS_RESULTS_CENSUS_2017.pdf|archive-date=2017-08-29|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_total        = 64,691
| population_density_km2  = auto
| population_note         = 
| population_demonym      = 
| timezone1               = 
| utc_offset1             = 
| timezone1_DST           = 
| utc_offset1_DST         = 
| postal_code_type        = 
| postal_code             = 
| area_code_type          = 
| area_code               = 
| iso_code                = 
| website                 = &lt;!-- {{URL|example.com}} --&gt;
| footnotes               = 
|official_name=تحصیل بڍبير}}

'''بڍبير تعلقو''' ([[اردو]]، [[پشتو ٻولي|پشتو]]:) [[پاڪستان]] جي [[خيبر پختونخوا]] صوبي جي [[پشاور ضلعو|پشاور]] ضلعي جو هڪ [[تعلقو]] آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:بڍبير تعلقو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>mno9w3gw037gt01gcgb10q6xri866yp</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399275</id>
      <parentid>399274</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T19:56:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399275</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4581" sha1="86rx68sath4nv96on7q6at6rfpnkhs8" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
| name     = بڍبير تعلقو
| native_name   = بڈھ بیر تحصیل (پشتو)
| native_name_lang        = 
| other_name              = 
| settlement_type         = [[تعلقو]]
| image_skyline           = 
| image_alt               = 
| image_caption           = 
| image_flag              = 
| flag_alt                = 
| image_seal              = 
| seal_alt                = 
| image_shield            = 
| shield_alt              = 
| etymology               = 
| nickname                = 
| motto                   = 
| image_map               = FATA (8).jpg
| map_alt                 = 
| map_caption             = 
| pushpin_map             = 
| pushpin_label_position  = 
| pushpin_map_alt         = 
| pushpin_map_caption     = 
| coordinates             = &lt;!-- {{Coord}} --&gt;
| coor_pinpoint           = 
| coordinates_footnotes   = 
| subdivision_type        = [[ملڪ]]
| subdivision_name        = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| subdivision_type1       = [[صوبو]]
| subdivision_name1       = {{flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}
| subdivision_type2       =[[پاڪستان جون ڊويزنون|ڊويزن]] 
| subdivision_name2       =[[پشاور ڊويزن]] 
| subdivision_type3       =[[ضلعو]] 
| subdivision_name3       =[[پشاور ضلعو]] 
| established_title       = 
| established_date        = 
| founder                 = 
| seat_type               = 
| seat                    = بڍبير
| government_footnotes    = 
| government_type         = 
| governing_body          = 
| leader_party            = 
| leader_title            = 
| leader_name             = 
| leader_title1           = 
| leader_name1            = 
| leader_title2           = 
| leader_name2            = 
| leader_title3           = 
| leader_name3            = 
| leader_title4           = 
| leader_name4            = 
| legislature =
| upper_house =
| lower_house =
| unit_pref               = Metric
&lt;!-- ALL fields with measurements have automatic unit conversion --&gt;
&lt;!-- for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags --&gt;
| area_footnotes          = 
| area_urban_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_rural_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_metro_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_magnitude          = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_note               = 
| area_water_percent      = 
| area_rank               = 
| area_blank1_title       = 
| area_blank2_title       = 
&lt;!-- square kilometers --&gt;
| area_total_km2          = 
| area_land_km2           = 
| area_water_km2          = 
| area_urban_km2          = 
| area_rural_km2          = 
| area_metro_km2          = 
| area_blank1_km2         = 
| area_blank2_km2         = 
&lt;!-- hectares --&gt;
| area_total_ha           = 
| area_land_ha            = 
| area_water_ha           = 
| area_urban_ha           = 
| area_rural_ha           = 
| area_metro_ha           = 
| area_blank1_ha          = 
| area_blank2_ha          = 
| length_km               = 
| width_km                = 
| dimensions_footnotes    = 
| elevation_footnotes     = 
| elevation_m             = 
| population_as_of        = [[2017 Census of Pakistan|2017]]
| population_footnotes    = &lt;ref name=&quot;DISTRICT WISE CENSUS RESULTS CENSUS 2017&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/DISTRICT_WISE_CENSUS_RESULTS_CENSUS_2017.pdf|title=DISTRICT WISE CENSUS RESULTS CENSUS 2017|publisher=www.pbscensus.gov.pk|access-date=2017-12-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829164748/http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/DISTRICT_WISE_CENSUS_RESULTS_CENSUS_2017.pdf|archive-date=2017-08-29|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_total        = 64,691
| population_density_km2  = auto
| population_note         = 
| population_demonym      = 
| timezone1               = 
| utc_offset1             = 
| timezone1_DST           = 
| utc_offset1_DST         = 
| postal_code_type        = 
| postal_code             = 
| area_code_type          = 
| area_code               = 
| iso_code                = 
| website                 = &lt;!-- {{URL|example.com}} --&gt;
| footnotes               = 
|official_name=تحصیل بڈھ بیر}}

'''بڍبير تعلقو''' ([[اردو]]، [[پشتو ٻولي|پشتو]]: بڈھ بیر تحصیل) [[پاڪستان]] جي [[خيبر پختونخوا]] صوبي جي [[پشاور ضلعو|پشاور]] ضلعي جو هڪ [[تعلقو]] آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:بڍبير تعلقو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>86rx68sath4nv96on7q6at6rfpnkhs8</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399355</id>
      <parentid>399275</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T07:29:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399355</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4550" sha1="7k07kmx6ap400f1sakfyzal6li0q9r0" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
| name     = بڍبير تعلقو
| native_name   = بڈھ بیر تحصیل
| native_name_lang        = 
| other_name              = 
| settlement_type         = [[تعلقو]]
| image_skyline           = 
| image_alt               = 
| image_caption           = 
| image_flag              = 
| flag_alt                = 
| image_seal              = 
| seal_alt                = 
| image_shield            = 
| shield_alt              = 
| etymology               = 
| nickname                = 
| motto                   = 
| image_map               = FATA (8).jpg
| map_alt                 = 
| map_caption             = 
| pushpin_map             = 
| pushpin_label_position  = 
| pushpin_map_alt         = 
| pushpin_map_caption     = 
| coordinates             = &lt;!-- {{Coord}} --&gt;
| coor_pinpoint           = 
| coordinates_footnotes   = 
| subdivision_type        = [[ملڪ]]
| subdivision_name        = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| subdivision_type1       = [[صوبو]]
| subdivision_name1       = {{flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}
| subdivision_type2       =[[پاڪستان جون ڊويزنون|ڊويزن]] 
| subdivision_name2       =[[پشاور ڊويزن]] 
| subdivision_type3       =[[ضلعو]] 
| subdivision_name3       =[[پشاور ضلعو]] 
| established_title       = 
| established_date        = 
| founder                 = 
| seat_type               = 
| seat                    = بڍبير
| government_footnotes    = 
| government_type         = 
| governing_body          = 
| leader_party            = 
| leader_title            = 
| leader_name             = 
| leader_title1           = 
| leader_name1            = 
| leader_title2           = 
| leader_name2            = 
| leader_title3           = 
| leader_name3            = 
| leader_title4           = 
| leader_name4            = 
| legislature =
| upper_house =
| lower_house =
| unit_pref               = Metric
&lt;!-- ALL fields with measurements have automatic unit conversion --&gt;
&lt;!-- for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags --&gt;
| area_footnotes          = 
| area_urban_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_rural_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_metro_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_magnitude          = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_note               = 
| area_water_percent      = 
| area_rank               = 
| area_blank1_title       = 
| area_blank2_title       = 
&lt;!-- square kilometers --&gt;
| area_total_km2          =357 
| area_land_km2           = 
| area_water_km2          = 
| area_urban_km2          = 
| area_rural_km2          = 
| area_metro_km2          = 
| area_blank1_km2         = 
| area_blank2_km2         = 
&lt;!-- hectares --&gt;
| area_total_ha           = 
| area_land_ha            = 
| area_water_ha           = 
| area_urban_ha           = 
| area_rural_ha           = 
| area_metro_ha           = 
| area_blank1_ha          = 
| area_blank2_ha          = 
| length_km               = 
| width_km                = 
| dimensions_footnotes    = 
| elevation_footnotes     = 
| elevation_m             = 
| population_as_of        = 2017
| population_footnotes    = &lt;ref name=&quot;DISTRICT WISE CENSUS RESULTS CENSUS 2017&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/DISTRICT_WISE_CENSUS_RESULTS_CENSUS_2017.pdf|title=DISTRICT WISE CENSUS RESULTS CENSUS 2017|publisher=www.pbscensus.gov.pk|access-date=2017-12-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829164748/http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/DISTRICT_WISE_CENSUS_RESULTS_CENSUS_2017.pdf|archive-date=2017-08-29|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_total        = 439,912
| population_density_km2  = 1,232.25
| population_note         = 
| population_demonym      = 
| timezone1               = 
| utc_offset1             = 
| timezone1_DST           = 
| utc_offset1_DST         = 
| postal_code_type        = 
| postal_code             = 
| area_code_type          = 
| area_code               = 
| iso_code                = 
| website                 = &lt;!-- {{URL|example.com}} --&gt;
| footnotes               = 
|official_name=تحصیل بڈھ بیر}}

'''بڍبير تعلقو''' ([[اردو]]، [[پشتو ٻولي|پشتو]]: بڈھ بیر تحصیل) [[پاڪستان]] جي [[خيبر پختونخوا]] صوبي جي [[پشاور ضلعو|پشاور]] ضلعي جو هڪ [[تعلقو]] آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:بڍبير تعلقو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>7k07kmx6ap400f1sakfyzal6li0q9r0</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:بڍبير تعلقو</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>101042</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399270</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T18:11:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]</comment>
      <origin>399270</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="48" sha1="ooqqufifmujdhxusamrxklj93gpk3qy" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>ooqqufifmujdhxusamrxklj93gpk3qy</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>پشتاخره تعلقو</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>101043</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399276</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:01:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: {{Infobox settlement | name     = پشتاخره تعلقو | native_name   = پشتاخره تحصیل (پشتو) | native_name_lang        =  | other_name              =  | settlement_type         = [[تعلقو]] | image_skyline           =  | image_alt               =  | image_caption           =  | image_flag              =  | flag_alt                =  | image_seal              =  | seal_alt                =  | image_shield            =  | shield_alt              =...</comment>
      <origin>399276</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4596" sha1="sl8kzmrkaa2bmr4hlne9zs0ulcnsxax" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
| name     = پشتاخره تعلقو
| native_name   = پشتاخره تحصیل (پشتو)
| native_name_lang        = 
| other_name              = 
| settlement_type         = [[تعلقو]]
| image_skyline           = 
| image_alt               = 
| image_caption           = 
| image_flag              = 
| flag_alt                = 
| image_seal              = 
| seal_alt                = 
| image_shield            = 
| shield_alt              = 
| etymology               = 
| nickname                = 
| motto                   = 
| image_map               = FATA (8).jpg
| map_alt                 = 
| map_caption             = 
| pushpin_map             = 
| pushpin_label_position  = 
| pushpin_map_alt         = 
| pushpin_map_caption     = 
| coordinates             = &lt;!-- {{Coord}} --&gt;
| coor_pinpoint           = 
| coordinates_footnotes   = 
| subdivision_type        = [[ملڪ]]
| subdivision_name        = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| subdivision_type1       = [[صوبو]]
| subdivision_name1       = {{flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}
| subdivision_type2       =[[پاڪستان جون ڊويزنون|ڊويزن]] 
| subdivision_name2       =[[پشاور ڊويزن]] 
| subdivision_type3       =[[ضلعو]] 
| subdivision_name3       =[[پشاور ضلعو]] 
| established_title       = 
| established_date        = 
| founder                 = 
| seat_type               = 
| seat                    = بڍبير
| government_footnotes    = 
| government_type         = 
| governing_body          = 
| leader_party            = 
| leader_title            = 
| leader_name             = 
| leader_title1           = 
| leader_name1            = 
| leader_title2           = 
| leader_name2            = 
| leader_title3           = 
| leader_name3            = 
| leader_title4           = 
| leader_name4            = 
| legislature =
| upper_house =
| lower_house =
| unit_pref               = Metric
&lt;!-- ALL fields with measurements have automatic unit conversion --&gt;
&lt;!-- for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags --&gt;
| area_footnotes          = 
| area_urban_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_rural_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_metro_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_magnitude          = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_note               = 
| area_water_percent      = 
| area_rank               = 
| area_blank1_title       = 
| area_blank2_title       = 
&lt;!-- square kilometers --&gt;
| area_total_km2          = 
| area_land_km2           = 
| area_water_km2          = 
| area_urban_km2          = 
| area_rural_km2          = 
| area_metro_km2          = 
| area_blank1_km2         = 
| area_blank2_km2         = 
&lt;!-- hectares --&gt;
| area_total_ha           = 
| area_land_ha            = 
| area_water_ha           = 
| area_urban_ha           = 
| area_rural_ha           = 
| area_metro_ha           = 
| area_blank1_ha          = 
| area_blank2_ha          = 
| length_km               = 
| width_km                = 
| dimensions_footnotes    = 
| elevation_footnotes     = 
| elevation_m             = 
| population_as_of        = [[2017 Census of Pakistan|2017]]
| population_footnotes    = &lt;ref name=&quot;DISTRICT WISE CENSUS RESULTS CENSUS 2017&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/DISTRICT_WISE_CENSUS_RESULTS_CENSUS_2017.pdf|title=DISTRICT WISE CENSUS RESULTS CENSUS 2017|publisher=www.pbscensus.gov.pk|access-date=2017-12-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829164748/http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/DISTRICT_WISE_CENSUS_RESULTS_CENSUS_2017.pdf|archive-date=2017-08-29|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_total        = 64,691
| population_density_km2  = auto
| population_note         = 
| population_demonym      = 
| timezone1               = 
| utc_offset1             = 
| timezone1_DST           = 
| utc_offset1_DST         = 
| postal_code_type        = 
| postal_code             = 
| area_code_type          = 
| area_code               = 
| iso_code                = 
| website                 = &lt;!-- {{URL|example.com}} --&gt;
| footnotes               = 
|official_name=تحصیل پشتاخره}}

'''پشتاخره تعلقو''' ([[اردو]]، [[پشتو ٻولي|پشتو]]: پشتاخره تحصیل) [[پاڪستان]] جي [[خيبر پختونخوا]] صوبي جي [[پشاور ضلعو|پشاور]] ضلعي جو هڪ [[تعلقو]] آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:پشتاخره تعلقو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>sl8kzmrkaa2bmr4hlne9zs0ulcnsxax</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399358</id>
      <parentid>399276</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T07:42:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399358</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4566" sha1="n7v7qjpmrqz7xxjjosazpykrc83k4da" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
| name     = پشتاخره تعلقو
| native_name   = پشتاخره تحصیل (پشتو)
| native_name_lang        = 
| other_name              = 
| settlement_type         = [[تعلقو]]
| image_skyline           = 
| image_alt               = 
| image_caption           = 
| image_flag              = 
| flag_alt                = 
| image_seal              = 
| seal_alt                = 
| image_shield            = 
| shield_alt              = 
| etymology               = 
| nickname                = 
| motto                   = 
| image_map               = FATA (8).jpg
| map_alt                 = 
| map_caption             = 
| pushpin_map             = 
| pushpin_label_position  = 
| pushpin_map_alt         = 
| pushpin_map_caption     = 
| coordinates             = &lt;!-- {{Coord}} --&gt;
| coor_pinpoint           = 
| coordinates_footnotes   = 
| subdivision_type        = [[ملڪ]]
| subdivision_name        = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| subdivision_type1       = [[صوبو]]
| subdivision_name1       = {{flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}
| subdivision_type2       =[[پاڪستان جون ڊويزنون|ڊويزن]] 
| subdivision_name2       =[[پشاور ڊويزن]] 
| subdivision_type3       =[[ضلعو]] 
| subdivision_name3       =[[پشاور ضلعو]] 
| established_title       = 
| established_date        = 
| founder                 = 
| seat_type               = 
| seat                    = 
| government_footnotes    = 
| government_type         = 
| governing_body          = 
| leader_party            = 
| leader_title            = 
| leader_name             = 
| leader_title1           = 
| leader_name1            = 
| leader_title2           = 
| leader_name2            = 
| leader_title3           = 
| leader_name3            = 
| leader_title4           = 
| leader_name4            = 
| legislature =
| upper_house =
| lower_house =
| unit_pref               = Metric
&lt;!-- ALL fields with measurements have automatic unit conversion --&gt;
&lt;!-- for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags --&gt;
| area_footnotes          = 
| area_urban_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_rural_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_metro_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_magnitude          = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_note               = 
| area_water_percent      = 
| area_rank               = 
| area_blank1_title       = 
| area_blank2_title       = 
&lt;!-- square kilometers --&gt;
| area_total_km2          = 
| area_land_km2           =135 
| area_water_km2          = 
| area_urban_km2          = 
| area_rural_km2          = 
| area_metro_km2          = 
| area_blank1_km2         = 
| area_blank2_km2         = 
&lt;!-- hectares --&gt;
| area_total_ha           = 
| area_land_ha            = 
| area_water_ha           = 
| area_urban_ha           = 
| area_rural_ha           = 
| area_metro_ha           = 
| area_blank1_ha          = 
| area_blank2_ha          = 
| length_km               = 
| width_km                = 
| dimensions_footnotes    = 
| elevation_footnotes     = 
| elevation_m             = 
| population_as_of        = 2017
| population_footnotes    = &lt;ref name=&quot;DISTRICT WISE CENSUS RESULTS CENSUS 2017&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/DISTRICT_WISE_CENSUS_RESULTS_CENSUS_2017.pdf|title=DISTRICT WISE CENSUS RESULTS CENSUS 2017|publisher=www.pbscensus.gov.pk|access-date=2017-12-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829164748/http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/DISTRICT_WISE_CENSUS_RESULTS_CENSUS_2017.pdf|archive-date=2017-08-29|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_total        = 480,436
| population_density_km2  = 3,558.79
| population_note         = 
| population_demonym      = 
| timezone1               = 
| utc_offset1             = 
| timezone1_DST           = 
| utc_offset1_DST         = 
| postal_code_type        = 
| postal_code             = 
| area_code_type          = 
| area_code               = 
| iso_code                = 
| website                 = &lt;!-- {{URL|example.com}} --&gt;
| footnotes               = 
|official_name=تحصیل پشتاخره}}

'''پشتاخره تعلقو''' ([[اردو]]، [[پشتو ٻولي|پشتو]]: پشتاخره تحصیل) [[پاڪستان]] جي [[خيبر پختونخوا]] صوبي جي [[پشاور ضلعو|پشاور]] ضلعي جو هڪ [[تعلقو]] آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:پشتاخره تعلقو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>n7v7qjpmrqz7xxjjosazpykrc83k4da</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:پشتاخره تعلقو</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>101044</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399277</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:02:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added [[Category:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]] [[وڪيپيڊيا:ھاٽ ڪيٽ|ھاٽ ڪيت]] جي مدد سان</comment>
      <origin>399277</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="48" sha1="ooqqufifmujdhxusamrxklj93gpk3qy" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>ooqqufifmujdhxusamrxklj93gpk3qy</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>شاهه عالم تعلقو</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>101045</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399278</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:04:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: '''شاهه عالم تعلقو''' پاڪستان جي صوبي خيبر پختونخوا جي ضلعي پشاور جو هڪ تعلقو آهي.</comment>
      <origin>399278</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="143" sha1="p6sha0v75j8rndj1xb7nevlp71ewavt" xml:space="preserve">'''شاهه عالم تعلقو''' پاڪستان جي صوبي خيبر پختونخوا جي ضلعي پشاور جو هڪ تعلقو آهي.</text>
      <sha1>p6sha0v75j8rndj1xb7nevlp71ewavt</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399279</id>
      <parentid>399278</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:04:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added [[Category:پشاور ضلعو]] [[وڪيپيڊيا:ھاٽ ڪيٽ|ھاٽ ڪيت]] جي مدد سان</comment>
      <origin>399279</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="177" sha1="qs67swd3splv3llsddgs9suzpacmk9i" xml:space="preserve">'''شاهه عالم تعلقو''' پاڪستان جي صوبي خيبر پختونخوا جي ضلعي پشاور جو هڪ تعلقو آهي.

[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]</text>
      <sha1>qs67swd3splv3llsddgs9suzpacmk9i</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399280</id>
      <parentid>399279</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:06:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399280</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="297" sha1="1iu808vsza60pubpmyhar5oplrq7wkr" xml:space="preserve">'''شاهه عالم تعلقو''' پاڪستان جي صوبي خيبر پختونخوا جي ضلعي پشاور جو هڪ تعلقو آهي.
==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:شاهه عالم تعلقو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>1iu808vsza60pubpmyhar5oplrq7wkr</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399283</id>
      <parentid>399280</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:07:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* حوالا */</comment>
      <origin>399283</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="352" sha1="2iiwj6isvjgvxikovuy6tvhwfeztyq4" xml:space="preserve">'''شاهه عالم تعلقو''' پاڪستان جي صوبي خيبر پختونخوا جي ضلعي پشاور جو هڪ تعلقو آهي.
==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:شاهه عالم تعلقو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>2iiwj6isvjgvxikovuy6tvhwfeztyq4</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:شاهه عالم تعلقو</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>101046</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399281</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-29T20:06:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]</comment>
      <origin>399281</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="48" sha1="ooqqufifmujdhxusamrxklj93gpk3qy" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>ooqqufifmujdhxusamrxklj93gpk3qy</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>پشاور شهر تعلقو</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>101047</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399364</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T08:11:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: پشاور شهر تعلقو (Peshawar City Tehsil)</comment>
      <origin>399364</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="51" sha1="1l7hkc8ktoqn2m6kei26c6qzalh2353" xml:space="preserve">پشاور شهر تعلقو (Peshawar City Tehsil)</text>
      <sha1>1l7hkc8ktoqn2m6kei26c6qzalh2353</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399366</id>
      <parentid>399364</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T08:38:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399366</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4527" sha1="m0ctdfrdnvhy1gjp55kz2i6hfz0t0ej" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
| name       = پشاور شهر تعلقو 
| native_name    = پشاور شهر تحصیل
| native_name_lang        = 
| other_name              = 
| settlement_type         = [[تعلقو]]
| image_skyline           = 
| image_alt               = 
| image_caption           = 
| image_flag              = 
| flag_alt                = 
| image_seal              = 
| seal_alt                = 
| image_shield            = 
| shield_alt              = 
| etymology               = 
| nickname                = 
| motto                   = 
| image_map               = FATA (8).jpg
| map_alt                 = 
| map_caption             = 
| pushpin_map             = 
| pushpin_label_position  = 
| pushpin_map_alt         = 
| pushpin_map_caption     = 
| coordinates             = &lt;!-- {{Coord}} --&gt;
| coor_pinpoint           = 
| coordinates_footnotes   = 
| subdivision_type        = [[ملڪ]]
| subdivision_name        = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| subdivision_type1       = [[صوبو]]
| subdivision_name1       = {{flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}}
| subdivision_type2  =[[پاڪستان جون ڊويزنون|ڊويزن]] 
| subdivision_name2       =[[پشاور ڊويزن]] 
| subdivision_type3       =[[ضلعو]] 
| subdivision_name3       =[[پشاور ضلعو]] 
| established_title       = 
| established_date        = 
| founder                 = 
| seat_type               = 
| seat           = [[پشاور|پشاور شهر]]
| government_footnotes    = 
| government_type         = 
| governing_body          = 
| leader_party            = 
| leader_title            = 
| leader_name             = 
| leader_title1           = 
| leader_name1            = 
| leader_title2           = 
| leader_name2            = 
| leader_title3           = 
| leader_name3            = 
| leader_title4           = 
| leader_name4            = 
| legislature =
| upper_house =
| lower_house =
| unit_pref               = Metric
&lt;!-- ALL fields with measurements have automatic unit conversion --&gt;
&lt;!-- for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags --&gt;
| area_footnotes          = 
| area_urban_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_rural_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_metro_footnotes    = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_magnitude          = &lt;!-- &lt;ref&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;
| area_note               = 
| area_water_percent      = 
| area_rank               = 
| area_blank1_title       = 
| area_blank2_title       = 
&lt;!-- square kilometers --&gt;
| area_total_km2   =176
| area_land_km2           = 
| area_water_km2          = 
| area_urban_km2          = 
| area_rural_km2          = 
| area_metro_km2          = 
| area_blank1_km2         = 
| area_blank2_km2         = 
&lt;!-- hectares --&gt;
| area_total_ha           = 
| area_land_ha            = 
| area_water_ha           = 
| area_urban_ha           = 
| area_rural_ha           = 
| area_metro_ha           = 
| area_blank1_ha          = 
| area_blank2_ha          = 
| length_km               = 
| width_km                = 
| dimensions_footnotes    = 
| elevation_footnotes     = 
| elevation_m             = 
| population_as_of        = 2017
| population_footnotes    = &lt;ref name=&quot;DISTRICT WISE CENSUS RESULTS CENSUS 2017&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/DISTRICT_WISE_CENSUS_RESULTS_CENSUS_2017.pdf|title=DISTRICT WISE CENSUS RESULTS CENSUS 2017|publisher=www.pbscensus.gov.pk|access-date=2017-12-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829164748/http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/DISTRICT_WISE_CENSUS_RESULTS_CENSUS_2017.pdf|archive-date=2017-08-29|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_total  = 2,113,596
| population_density_km2  = 12,009.07
| population_note         = 
| population_demonym      = 
| timezone1               = 
| utc_offset1             = 
| timezone1_DST           = 
| utc_offset1_DST         = 
| postal_code_type        = 
| postal_code             = 
| area_code_type          = 
| area_code               = 
| iso_code                = 
| website                 = &lt;!-- {{URL|example.com}} --&gt;
| footnotes               = 
|official_name=تحصیل پشاور شهر}}
'''پشاور شهر تعلقو''' (Peshawar City Tehsil) [[پاڪستان]] جي صوبي [[خيبر پختونخوا]] جي ضلعي [[پشاور ضلعو|پشاور]] جو هڪ [[تعلقو]] آهي.
==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:پشاور شهر تعلقو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعو]]
[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]
[[زمرو:خیبر پختونخوا جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>m0ctdfrdnvhy1gjp55kz2i6hfz0t0ej</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:پشاور شهر تعلقو</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>101048</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399367</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T08:39:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]</comment>
      <origin>399367</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="48" sha1="ooqqufifmujdhxusamrxklj93gpk3qy" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:پشاور ضلعي جا تعلقا]]</text>
      <sha1>ooqqufifmujdhxusamrxklj93gpk3qy</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:آمدنيءَ جي عدم مساوات جا ماپا</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>101049</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399372</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T09:05:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:شماريات]] [[زمرو:انساني ترقي]]</comment>
      <origin>399372</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="62" sha1="cyj8wh3mtj2t3i28aicgdze4ibgqn11" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:شماريات]]
[[زمرو:انساني ترقي]]</text>
      <sha1>cyj8wh3mtj2t3i28aicgdze4ibgqn11</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:1912ع جي معاشي تاريخ</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>101050</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399373</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T09:06:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:1912ع]] [[زمرو:معاشيات]]</comment>
      <origin>399373</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="47" sha1="gd7g76od8tuxh8w2anhm9rddjirpm4n" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:1912ع]]
[[زمرو:معاشيات]]</text>
      <sha1>gd7g76od8tuxh8w2anhm9rddjirpm4n</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:1912ع ۾ متعارف ٿيل شيون</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>101051</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399374</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T09:07:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:1912ع]]</comment>
      <origin>399374</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="19" sha1="38uzvle7g4zhohq85oliax9gxt9ihaf" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:1912ع]]</text>
      <sha1>38uzvle7g4zhohq85oliax9gxt9ihaf</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:سماجي ڀلائي جي معاشيات</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>101052</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399375</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T09:09:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:معاشيات]] [[زمرو:آبادي جي ڀلائي]]</comment>
      <origin>399375</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="67" sha1="cb7uxo2c93pq2qtut2yd3q10u3qspwf" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:معاشيات]]
[[زمرو:آبادي جي ڀلائي]]</text>
      <sha1>cb7uxo2c93pq2qtut2yd3q10u3qspwf</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:بغير بُعد وارا انگ</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>101053</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399376</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T09:11:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:شماريات]]</comment>
      <origin>399376</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="27" sha1="0qyuif5724tisg9qo247z5mh23omqup" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:شماريات]]</text>
      <sha1>0qyuif5724tisg9qo247z5mh23omqup</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399381</id>
      <parentid>399376</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T09:19:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399381</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="47" sha1="mcnqidi4bat516868o6wi0q54cwodzx" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:انگ]]
[[زمرو:شماريات]]</text>
      <sha1>mcnqidi4bat516868o6wi0q54cwodzx</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:ارتڪاز جا اشارا</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>101054</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399377</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T09:12:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:شماريات]] [[زمرو:انساني ترقي]]   [[زمرو:آبادي جي ڀلائي]] [[زمرو:معاشيات]] [[زمرو:ڀلائي]]  [[زمرو:شماريات]]</comment>
      <origin>399377</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="185" sha1="prn93x1sgzegye29z6rn85e6yotftg6" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:شماريات]]
[[زمرو:انساني ترقي]]


[[زمرو:آبادي جي ڀلائي]]
[[زمرو:معاشيات]]
[[زمرو:ڀلائي]] 
[[زمرو:شماريات]]</text>
      <sha1>prn93x1sgzegye29z6rn85e6yotftg6</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399378</id>
      <parentid>399377</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T09:14:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399378</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="25" sha1="6m7cts97qbrh1vceclxqd61rkzq5acw" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:انڊيڪس]]</text>
      <sha1>6m7cts97qbrh1vceclxqd61rkzq5acw</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399380</id>
      <parentid>399378</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T09:17:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>399380</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="89" sha1="7sptubhwm5v5fmhyc600iseozfwgv19" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:انڊيڪس]]
[[زمرو:آبادي جي ڀلائي]]
[[زمرو:ڀلائي]]</text>
      <sha1>7sptubhwm5v5fmhyc600iseozfwgv19</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399382</id>
      <parentid>399380</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T09:20:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399382</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="51" sha1="o2uigqz24i58h3p8srotw5az12l6y2y" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:ارتڪاز]]
[[زمرو:انڊيڪس]]</text>
      <sha1>o2uigqz24i58h3p8srotw5az12l6y2y</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:آبادياتي معاشيات</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>101055</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399379</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T09:16:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:آباديات]] [[زمرو:معاشيات]]</comment>
      <origin>399379</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="55" sha1="obst9v9znmwqsns1vofxhuciv53k1nb" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:آباديات]]
[[زمرو:معاشيات]]</text>
      <sha1>obst9v9znmwqsns1vofxhuciv53k1nb</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:ارتڪاز</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>101056</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399383</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T09:21:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:آبادي جي ڀلائي]] [[زمرو:ڀلائي]]</comment>
      <origin>399383</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="63" sha1="jlbsfomb926mjev0svtzp0rgua5hodq" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:آبادي جي ڀلائي]]
[[زمرو:ڀلائي]]</text>
      <sha1>jlbsfomb926mjev0svtzp0rgua5hodq</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>399384</id>
      <parentid>399383</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T09:22:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
      <origin>399384</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="41" sha1="4qf8ccm932w0o77eeny2m96gtyszthm" xml:space="preserve">
[[زمرو:سماجي نابرابري]]</text>
      <sha1>4qf8ccm932w0o77eeny2m96gtyszthm</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>سانچو:Erfurt-Weimar weatherbox</title>
    <ns>10</ns>
    <id>101057</id>
    <revision>
      <id>399402</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-30T11:10:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intisar Ali</username>
        <id>8681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: {{{Weather box |width = auto |location = [[ارفرٽ–ويمار هوائي اڏو]]، 1991–2020ع جا موسمي اوسط، 1951ع کان موجوده وقت تائين رڪارڊ |metric first = Y |single line = Y |Jan record high C = 15.8 |Feb record high C = 19.0 |Mar record high C = 24.2 |Apr record high C = 29.6 |May record high C = 31.4 |Jun record high C = 37.9 |Jul record high C = 37.6 |Aug record high C = 36.3 |Sep record high C = 32.2 |Oct record high C =...</comment>
      <origin>399402</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5334" sha1="r7cuxzd97x25tx3i3fafmq15p8fippn" xml:space="preserve">{{{Weather box
|width = auto
|location = [[ارفرٽ–ويمار هوائي اڏو]]، 1991–2020ع جا موسمي اوسط، 1951ع کان موجوده وقت تائين رڪارڊ
|metric first = Y
|single line = Y
|Jan record high C = 15.8
|Feb record high C = 19.0
|Mar record high C = 24.2
|Apr record high C = 29.6
|May record high C = 31.4
|Jun record high C = 37.9
|Jul record high C = 37.6
|Aug record high C = 36.3
|Sep record high C = 32.2
|Oct record high C = 26.6
|Nov record high C = 20.8
|Dec record high C = 17.4
|year record high C = 37.9
|Jan avg record high C = 10.5
|Feb avg record high C = 12.3
|Mar avg record high C = 17.3
|Apr avg record high C = 22.6
|May avg record high C = 26.5
|Jun avg record high C = 29.8
|Jul avg record high C = 31.5
|Aug avg record high C = 31.5
|Sep avg record high C = 26.2
|Oct avg record high C = 21.2
|Nov avg record high C = 14.9
|Dec avg record high C = 11.4
|year avg record high C = 33.4
|Jan high C = 2.7
|Feb high C = 4.1
|Mar high C = 8.4
|Apr high C = 13.8
|May high C = 17.7
|Jun high C = 21.1
|Jul high C = 23.6
|Aug high C = 23.6
|Sep high C = 18.7
|Oct high C = 13.1
|Nov high C = 7.2
|Dec high C = 3.6
|year high C = 13.1
|Jan mean C = 0.2
|Feb mean C = 0.9
|Mar mean C = 4.3
|Apr mean C = 8.8
|May mean C = 12.9
|Jun mean C = 16.1
|Jul mean C = 18.3
|Aug mean C = 18.1
|Sep mean C = 13.8
|Oct mean C = 9.1
|Nov mean C = 4.4
|Dec mean C = 1.2
|year mean C = 9.0
|Jan low C = -2.5
|Feb low C = -2.3
|Mar low C = 0.3
|Apr low C = 3.5
|May low C = 7.4
|Jun low C = 10.8
|Jul low C = 12.8
|Aug low C = 12.7
|Sep low C = 9.1
|Oct low C = 5.4
|Nov low C = 1.6
|Dec low C = -1.4
|year low C = 4.8
|Jan avg record low C = -12.4
|Feb avg record low C = -10.7
|Mar avg record low C = -5.9
|Apr avg record low C = -3.2
|May avg record low C = 1.0
|Jun avg record low C = 5.1
|Jul avg record low C = 7.8
|Aug avg record low C = 6.8
|Sep avg record low C = 3.1
|Oct avg record low C = -1.4
|Nov avg record low C = -5.4
|Dec avg record low C = -10.1
|year avg record low C = -14.8
|Jan record low C = -25.0
|Feb record low C = -24.6
|Mar record low C = -20.2
|Apr record low C = -10.4
|May record low C = -2.9
|Jun record low C = 0.0
|Jul record low C = 3.3
|Aug record low C = 3.7
|Sep record low C = -0.6
|Oct record low C = -7.6
|Nov record low C = -18.6
|Dec record low C = -23.5
|year record low C = -25.0
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm = 25.0
|Feb precipitation mm = 22.9
|Mar precipitation mm = 36.3
|Apr precipitation mm = 34.2
|May precipitation mm = 63.9
|Jun precipitation mm = 55.7
|Jul precipitation mm = 80.8
|Aug precipitation mm = 58.7
|Sep precipitation mm = 45.8
|Oct precipitation mm = 37.6
|Nov precipitation mm = 41.1
|Dec precipitation mm = 32.6
|year precipitation mm = 534.7
|unit precipitation days = 0.1 mm
|Jan precipitation days = 15.0
|Feb precipitation days = 13.1
|Mar precipitation days = 14.8
|Apr precipitation days = 11.8
|May precipitation days = 13.8
|Jun precipitation days = 13.2
|Jul precipitation days = 14.9
|Aug precipitation days = 13.0
|Sep precipitation days = 12.0
|Oct precipitation days = 13.9
|Nov precipitation days = 14.3
|Dec precipitation days = 15.3
|year precipitation days = 165.0
|Jan snow depth cm = 7.4
|Feb snow depth cm = 6.6
|Mar snow depth cm = 4.3
|Apr snow depth cm = 0.8
|May snow depth cm = 0
|Jun snow depth cm = 0
|Jul snow depth cm = 0
|Aug snow depth cm = 0
|Sep snow depth cm = 0
|Oct snow depth cm = 0.4
|Nov snow depth cm = 1.7
|Dec snow depth cm = 6.7
|year snow depth cm = 13.1
|unit snow days = 1.0 cm
|Jan snow days = 11.7
|Feb snow days = 9.5
|Mar snow days = 4.3
|Apr snow days = 0.3
|May snow days = 0
|Jun snow days = 0
|Jul snow days = 0
|Aug snow days = 0
|Sep snow days = 0
|Oct snow days = 0.2
|Nov snow days = 2.0
|Dec snow days = 7.3
|year snow days = 35.4
|Jan sun = 59.7
|Feb sun = 80.6
|Mar sun = 128.7
|Apr sun = 184.8
|May sun = 211.9
|Jun sun = 219.8
|Jul sun = 224.7
|Aug sun = 210.4
|Sep sun = 159.3
|Oct sun = 112.4
|Nov sun = 60.7
|Dec sun = 47.0
|year sun = 1706.5
|humidity colour = green
|Jan humidity = 85.7
|Feb humidity = 82.4
|Mar humidity = 77.7
|Apr humidity = 70.7
|May humidity = 72.1
|Jun humidity = 72.4
|Jul humidity = 70.1
|Aug humidity = 69.2
|Sep humidity = 76.2
|Oct humidity = 82.8
|Nov humidity = 87.0
|Dec humidity = 87.2
|year humidity = 77.8
|source 1 = [[NOAA]]&lt;ref name=NCEI9120normals&gt;
{{cite web 
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230916130052/https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/1.1/data/0-data/Region-6-WMO-Normals-9120/Germany/CSV/Erfurt-Weimar_10554.csv 
|archive-date = 16 September 2023 
|url = https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/1.1/data/0-data/Region-6-WMO-Normals-9120/Germany/CSV/Erfurt-Weimar_10554.csv 
|title = Erfurt-Weimar Climate Normals 1991–2020 
|publisher = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] 
|access-date = 16 September 2023
}}
&lt;/ref&gt;
|source 2 = [[Deutscher Wetterdienst]] / SKlima.de&lt;ref name=sklima&gt;
{{cite web 
|url = http://sklima.de/datenbank_auswertung.php?tab=2
|title = Monatsauswertung 
|website = sklima.de 
|publisher = SKlima 
|language = de 
|access-date = 17 October 2024
}}
&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

&lt;noinclude&gt;
==Notes==
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}
{{NoteFoot}}
{{template reference list}}
[[Category:Germany weatherbox templates]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
      <sha1>r7cuxzd97x25tx3i3fafmq15p8fippn</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
</mediawiki>