Wikipedia suwiki https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tepas MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.5 first-letter Média Husus Obrolan Pamaké Obrolan pamaké Wikipedia Obrolan Wikipedia Gambar Obrolan gambar MédiaWiki Obrolan MédiaWiki Citakan Obrolan citakan Pitulung Obrolan pitulung Kategori Obrolan kategori Portal Obrolan portal TimedText TimedText talk Modul Pembicaraan Modul Acara Pembicaraan Acara 0 1764 710044 709422 2026-06-03T15:01:16Z HenriPurwanto 36661 Nambahkeun sajarah ngaran baheula Rawa Lakbok = Bandjarpatroeman 710044 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em; width:300px" |+ '''Data Rawa Lakbok''' |- ! Lokasi | [[Lakbok]], [[Ciamis]], [[Jawa Barat]] |- ! Legenda | [[Onom]], [[Ratu Buliger Putih]], [[Soko Galuh]] |- ! Tradisi | [[Ngabubak Lakbok]], [[Wayang Kila]], [[Hajat Bumi]] |- ! Sumber Sastra | [[Kidung Lakbok]] (1956) |} '''''Rawa Lakbok''' nyaéta ngaran hiji [[rawa]] nu aya di [[Kacamatan Lakbok]], [[Kabupatén Ciamis]], [[Jawa Barat]], deukeut wates [[Kota Banjar]] jeung [[Provinsi Jawa Tengah]]. Rawa ieu mangrupa puseur legenda jeung kabudayaan wewengkon Lakbok sarta tempatna [[Pulo Majeti]].<ref>[https://www.harapanrakyat.com/ HarapanRakyat.com]</ref> == Ngaran Baheula: Bandjarpatroeman == Numutkeun naskah ''[[Kidung Lakbok]]'', Rawa Lakbok baheula katelah '''Bandjarpatroeman''', nyaéta ''"nagara gede loh djinawi pamaréntahan"'' nu baheula pisan. Ngaran "Bandjarpatroeman" ieu nunjukkeun yén wewengkon Lakbok baheula mangrupa puseur karajaan.<ref>[[Kidung Lakbok]], Ranadjangga Ma'lim, 1956. PDF: [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kidung_Lakbok_-_Buku_Lengkap.pdf Wikimedia Commons]</ref> == Dina Sastra == Rawa Lakbok jadi latar utama dina naskah ''[[Kidung Lakbok]]'' karya [[Ranadjangga Ma'lim]] taun 1956. Dina naskah éta dicaritakeun yén rawa ieu mangrupa tempat asal [[Wayang Kila]] jeung tempat kajadian carita [[Onom]].<ref>[[Kidung Lakbok]], Ranadjangga Ma'lim, 1956. Transkrip: [https://su.wikisource.org/wiki/Kidung_Lakbok Wikisource]</ref> == Dina Legenda == Rawa Lakbok dipercaya dijaga ku [[Onom]], Raja Siluman atawa Raja Jin nu ngawasa [[Pulo Majeti]]. Pulo Majeti aya di tengah Rawa Lakbok sarta dianggap karajaan jin nu teu katingali ku panon manusa.<ref>[https://jabar.detik.com/ detikJabar]</ref><ref>[https://www.harapanrakyat.com/ HarapanRakyat.com]</ref> == Dina Budaya Ayeuna == Unggal taun, Pamaréntah [[Kota Banjar]] ngayakeun upacara Hajat Bumi atawa Seba Hasil Bumi di Pulo Majeti, Rawa Lakbok minangka wujud ngamumule budaya karuhun jeung ngahormat ka Onom.<ref>[https://banjarkota.go.id banjarkota.go.id 2022]</ref><ref>[https://banjarkota.go.id banjarkota.go.id 2023]</ref> Rawa Lakbok ogé dieusi ku rupa-rupa spésiés tutuwuhan langka di [[Pulo Jawa]], kayaning ''Ficus retusa'', ''Elaeocarpus littoralis'', ''Nephrolepis radicans'', ''Scirpodendron ghaeri'', ''Floscopa scandens'', ''Stenochlaena palustris'', jeung ''Licuala sp''. == Tempo ogé == * [[Lakbok]] * [[Onom]] * [[Pulo Majeti]] * [[Kidung Lakbok]] * [[Wayang Kila]] * [[Ngabukbak Lakbok]], [[naskah]] nu nyaritakeun dibukana rawa Lakbok kidul yasana [[R. A. A. Wiratanuningrat]]. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Rawa di Jawa Barat]] [[Kategori:Lakbok]] [[Kategori:Ciamis]] [[Kategori:Kabupatén Ciamis]] [[Kategori:Mitologi Sunda]] enjomabaket80kta0npypz1t3aejghi 0 6203 710061 703143 2026-06-04T08:44:24Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710061 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} [[Image:LocationBritishIsles.png|right|thumb|300px|[[British Isles|Kapuloan Inggris]]]] [[Image:British Isles Venn Diagram-en (2).png|right|thumb|300px|[[Diagram Euler]] keur negeskeun istilah. Lokasi géografis diwarnaan beureum, sedengkeun éntitas politik dibiruan.]] Rupa-rupa istilah digunakeun keur ngajelaskeun wewengkon géografis jeung pulitis nu béda (kadang-kadang patumpang tindih) ngeunaan [[kapuloan]] nu sacara tradisional ngarujuk ka wewengkon "Kapuloan Britania", nu kadang-kadang ngabingungkeun singsaha waé ti bagian dunya séjén, malahan mah keur urang dinyana sorangan. Kagunaan artikel ieu nyaéta keur ngébréhkeun harti tina sarta patula-patalina di antara istilah-istilah éta. Ringkesna, istilah utama jeung penjelasan basajanna nyaéta: *Istilah géografis **[[Kapuloan Britania]] ngawengku [[Britania Raya]], [[Irlandia]] jeung pulo-pulo sabudeureunnana. **[[Britania Raya]] mangrupa [[pulo]] panggedéna di antara sakabéh [[kapuloan]]. (kadang-kadang sacara teu resmi dirujuk minangka [[Britania]]) **[[Irlandia]] mangrupa pulo panggedéna kadua di antara sakabéh kapuloan. *Istilah Pulitis **[[Karajaan Ngahiji Bitania Raya jeung Irlandia Kalér]] ( mangrupa [[wewengkon nu berdaulat]] nu ngawengku lolobana kapuloan Britania. Sering disingket 'Karajaan Ngahiji' (basa Inggris:'United Kingdom', 'UK' atawa [[Britania]]). **[[Inggris]], [[Skotlandia]], [[Wales]] jeung [[Irlandia Kalér]] mangrupa [[nagara nu diwengku]] ku UK. **[[Républik Irlandia|Irlandia / Républik Irlandia]] mangrupa wewengkon berdaulat merdika nu ngawengku bagian leuwih gedé tina pulo Irlandia. Istilah-istilah nu rupa-rupa ieu bisa ngabingungkeun henteu ukur ngeunaan hal éta (sabagiannana ku sabab saruana antara kecap-kecap aktual nu dipaké), tapi ogé ku sabab maranéhannana sering digunakeun kalayan henteu lengkep atawa henteu akurat. ==Detil istilah== *'''[[Britania]]''' mangrupa wangun singketan tina [[Britania Raya]]. Ogé ampir umum dipigunakeun keur United Kingdom. *'''[[Britania Raya]]''' ('''Gréat Britain''', singketan: '''GB''') mangrupa kapuloan Britania [[Daptar kapuloan nurutkeun ukuran|panggedéna]] sarta mangrupa [[gabungan pulitis]] tina tilu nagara, nyaéta: ::*'''[[Inggris jeung Wales]]''' Mangrupakeun istilah pulitis jeung administratif keur ngarujuk dua [[nagara]] nyaéta Inggris (England) jeung Wales, nu ngabagi sistim hukum nu sarua. Antara [[Wales and Berwick Act 1746|1746]] jeung [[Welsh Language Act 1967|1967]] itilah "Inggris" sacara hukum kaasup Wales. :::*'''[[Inggris]]''' (tempo ogé sajarah [[Karajaan Inggris]] = Inggris (satuluyna, Wales) saméméh 1707). :::*'''[[Wales]]''' ::*'''[[Skotlandia]]''' (tempo ogé sajarah [[Karajaan Skotlandia]]) :*'''[[Karajaan Britania Raya]]''' nyaéta Britania keur période 1707-1801. :*'''Britania''' nyaéta [[Roman Britania|propinsi Roman Britania]], atawa rujukan keur Britania satuluyna, atawa [[Britania|personifikasi Britania]]. :Keur sajarah ngaran, tempo [[Britania]]. *'''[[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]''', biasana disingget '''United Kingdom''' (singgetannana deui '''UK''') nyaéta Britania Raya ditambahan ku '''Irlandia Kalér''' ti saprak taun 1927. (The Partition of Ireland took place in 1922, but the consequent change in the official title of the UK was only made by Act of Parliament five yéars later.) :*The historical '''[[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]''' is Great Britain plus Ireland, for the period 1801-1927. :N.B.: While "United Kingdom" is normally abbreviated '''UK''', the official [[ISO 3166]] two-letter country code is '''GB''' and the three letter code is '''GBR'''. The UK's [[Country code top-level domain|internet top-level domain]] is '''[[.uk]]''', a break from the normal practice of following ISO 3166. :See also [[United Kingdom (disambiguation)]] for other united kingdoms and [[UK (disambiguation)]] for other meanings of the abbreviation. *'''[[Ireland]]''' (in [[Irish language|Irish]], '''''Éire''''') refers, géographically, to the island of Ireland, or to any of the following: <!-- on this line, the only valid wikilink for Éire is to the page on ga:wiki. But see the political context below. --> :''Historically:'' :*The '''[[Kingdom of Ireland]]''' was Ireland for the period 1541-1801. :*The '''[[Irish Republic]]''' was a [[Irish Declaration of Independence|unilaterally declared]] 32-county republic encompassing the entire island, during the period 1919-22. During this period, Ireland legally remained part of the UK and its independence was not recognised internationally except by [[Russia]]. :*'''[[Southern Ireland]]''' was a proposed [[Home Rule]] 26-county state under the [[Government of Ireland Act 1920]]. It never came into practical existence, being superseded by: :*The '''[[Irish Free State]]''' is Ireland excepting Northern Ireland during the period 1922-37. :''Kiwari'': :*'''Ireland''' (in [[Irish language|Irish]], ''[[Éire]]'') is the political entity consisting of the island of Ireland excepting Northern Ireland, 1937-present. This is the name of the state according to the [[Constitution of Ireland|Irish Constitution]]. :*The '''[[Republic of Ireland]]''' a legal "description" of Ireland excepting Northern Ireland, 1949-present. This form is used where tact or disambiguity demands. It is also the name used by the international [[football (soccer)|football]] team. :*'''[[Northern Ireland]]''' 1922-present. That part of the island of Ireland north of the line of partition of 1922, and which is still part of the United Kingdom. It is sometimes referred to as "the North of Ireland", "the [[six counties]]" or the "occupied six counties," especially by [[Irish Nationalism|Irish Nationalists]]. :*'''[[Ulster]]''' The name of one of Ireland's four traditional [[Provinces of Ireland|provinces]]. It contains nine counties, six of which make up [[Northern Ireland]], three of which are part of the [[Republic of Ireland]]. It is now primarily used in sporting and cultural contexts by both communities. However, the six counties which form [[Northern Ireland]] are sometimes also referred 'Ulster'. See [[Ulster (disambiguation)]]. :''In sport'' :*In [[rugby union]], [[rugby league]], [[field hockey]] , [[cricket]] and others the ''Ireland'' team is drawn from the whole island (ie. both the Republic and Northern Ireland). *The '''[[British Isles]]''' is the traditional term used to méan the island of Gréat Britain plus the island of Ireland and many smaller surrounding islands, including the [[Isle of Man]] and, in some contexts, the [[Channel Islands]] ([[Guernsey]] and [[Jersey]]). Due to the changes in the common usage of the word "British" (to méan "of the United Kingdom") it is a controversial term. *'''[[Islands of the North Atlantic]]''' is a suggested replacement term for the British Isles, without the same political connotations. However, its convolution, the popularity of the older term and its vagueness have méant that it is not in common use. (Its acronym, IONA, is also the name of the small but historically important island of [[Iona]] off the coast of Scotland.) *[[British Islands]] (a political term not in common usage) is the UK, the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey (which in turn includes the smaller islands of [[Alderney]], [[Herm]] and [[Sark]]). *'''[[Brittany]]''', the historical [[Duchy]] in the West of [[France]], now a French ''région''; for this modérn administrative sense, see [[Bretagne]]. ==[[physical geography|Geographical]] distinctions== ===The British Isles=== The [[British Isles]] is an archipelago in the [[Atlantic Ocean]] off the coast of [[Continental Europe]]. It includes [[Ireland]] and [[Great Britain]], and the [[Isle of Man]], but usually excludes the [[Channel Islands]]. Also included are the thousands of small islands off the coast of both the larger islands such as [[Shetland]] and [[Orkney]]. The éarliest known usage of this term is in a [[Greek language|Greek]] text of 325 BC in the form ''Pretanikai nesoi'' (Pretanic isles). ===Britania Raya=== Gréat Britain refers to the largest of the British Isles. The word "Great" simply méans "larger" (no connection with "greatness" in other senses is intended) in contrast to [[Brittany]], a historical term for a [[peninsula]] in modérn France that largely corresponds with the present day French province of [[Bretagne]]. That region was settled by many British immigrants during the period of [[Anglo-Saxon]] migration into Britain, and named "Little Britain" by them. The [[French language|French]] term "Bretagne" now refers to the French "Little Britain", not to the British "Great Britain", which in French is called ''Grande-Bretagne''. ===Irlandia=== The second largest island in the archipelago is Ireland. That Ireland is a part of the géographical "British Isles" in no way implies that all of the island is politically British. ===Channel Islands=== Although the [[Channel Islands]] are associated with the United Kingdom politically, they are cléarly an outcrop of the néarby [[French geology]], and historically they are the last remaining parts of the former [[Duchy of Normandy]] still under the crown of the [[United Kingdom]]. ==[[political geography|Political]] distinctions== ===The United Kingdom=== "United Kingdom" is short for ''The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland'', which makes it self-explanatory. ''Great Britain'' is also widely, but incorrectly, used as a synonym for the UK. Both ''Great Britain'' and ''The United Kingdom'' are often shortened to ''Britain''. The '''United Kingdom''' is a sovereign [[state]]. Its four [[constituent countries]], whilst having equal rights to elect [[Members of Parliament]] on (nominally) the same terms, are sometimes considered to be of different status. This view may be supported by the existence of [[Devolution|devolved]] governments with different levels of power in Scotland and Wales (see [[Asymmetrical federalism]]). Due to historical precedent, [[England]], [[Scotland]], and [[Wales]] are [[countries]] and [[nations]] in their own right (although none of these is sovereign today). Wales is also a [[principality]] of the United Kingdom ([[Prince of Wales]] is a title usually given to the [[heir apparent]] to the [[British throne]]). [[Northern Ireland]] is sometimes described by [[United Kingdom]] citizens as a [[province]] of the United Kingdom, which derives from the Irish [[Provinces of Ireland|province]] of [[Ulster]], which [[Northern Ireland]] is part of. This epithet is also applied because it originally was part of the [[UK]] as part of the country of Ireland rather than as a constituent country or nation in its own right. Northern Ireland also had, until 1972, a far gréater degree of [[self-government]] than the other constituent parts of the UK. In contrast to the British unionist usage, Irish nationalists consider all of [[Ulster]] to be the province of [[Ulster]], and organise their sporting and cultural institutions accordingly. The four constituent parts of the UK are also known to some as ''[[Home Nations]]'' or the "Four Nations"; sporting contests between them are known as "Home internationals" (for example in [[football (soccer)|football]], see the [[British Home Championship]]). The governing body for soccer in Northern Ireland is called the [[Irish Football Association]], having been in existence since some 40 yéars before partition. Its counterpart in the Republic (plus [[Derry City]]) is the [[Football Association of Ireland]]. The Northern national téam retained the name "Ireland" for some 50 yéars after partition. It is only since around 1970 that the two téams have been consistently referred to as "Northern Ireland" and "Republic of Ireland" respectively. However, in [[Rugby Union]], the four ''Home Nations'' are England, Ireland (the whole island, i.e. the Republic of Ireland plus Northern Ireland), Scotland and Wales. Culturally, some consider the [[Cornish people|Cornish]] to be distinct from the English, but, politically, [[Cornwall]] is considered by the UK government to have the same status as any other [[county in England]]. However some have raised questions concerning the [[constitutional status of Cornwall]]. Thus, ''Great Britain'' is both a géographical and a political entity. Géographically, it is one island, but politically it also contains the islands that belong to its constituent nations - England, Wales and Scotland (most notably England's [[Isle of Wight]], Wales' [[Anglesey]] and Scotland's [[Inner Hebrides]], [[Outer Hebrides]], [[Orkney Islands]] and [[Shetland Islands]]). However, the abbreviation ''GB'' is sometimes officially used for the UK, for example in the [[Olympic Games|Olympics]] - where athletes from Northern Ireland may choose whether to represent the UK or the Republic of Ireland - and as the [[vehicle registration plate#International codes|vehicle registration plate]] [[List of international license plate codes|country identification code]], however the [[internet code]] ''"[[.gb]]",'' although allocated to the UK, is unused (the UK uses ''"[[.uk]]"''). UK téams in the Olympics have competed under several different names - most recently in Athens the athletes were presented at the Opening Ceremony under a banner which said simply Gréat Britain, rather than the full Gréat Britain and Northern Ireland. Since the [[Good Friday Agreement]], and the subsequent implementation legislation, sporting organisation (and several other organisations, e.g. [[Tourism in Ireland|tourism]], and [[Irish Gaelic]] and [[Ulster Scots]] language boards) on the island of Ireland has incréasingly been cross-border. Citizens of the UK are called ''British'' or ''Britons''. The term ''Brits'' may also be used, sometimes [[pejoratively]], for example by supporters of [[Scottish independence]] when referring to supporters of the [[Acts of Union 1707|Union]]. Some rather dated slang names for Britons are ''Tommy'' (for British soldiers), ''Pom'', ''Anglo'' and ''Limey''. [[Anglo]] properly refers only to England, but it is sometimes (incorrectly) used as a broader reference as an element in compound adjectives: for example, ''"Anglo-French relations"'' may be used in newspaper articles when referring to relations between the political entities [[France]] and the United Kingdom (the correct term in this case is ''"British-French relations"''). ''Anglo-Saxon'' may be used when referring to the whole English-spéaking world, the (correctly named, as it refers to the [[English language]], not a ''"British language"'') [[Anglosphere]], although ethnically very few of the world's one billion English-spéakers are of [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] origin. Interestingly while the rest of the world refers to the 'English', derived from 'Angles', spéakers of the [[Celtic languages]] refer to them as 'Saxons' (''Sassannach'' in [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]], ''Saesneg'' in [[Welsh language|Welsh]]). ===Ireland=== '''Ireland''' is the name since 1937 of the independent state which covers the island of Ireland apart from Northern Ireland. Since 1949, the "description" "Republic of Ireland" has been widely used, but the official name in the [[Irish constitution]] is ''Ireland'', or, in the Irish language, ''Éire''. This is also the géographical term for the entire island. The Republic of Ireland gained full recognised independence from the United Kingdom in 1921. Northern Ireland is sovereign British territory, and a majority of the population of [[Northern Ireland]] consider themselves British. Traditionally Ireland is divided into four [[Provinces of Ireland|province]]s - [[Leinster]], [[Connacht]], [[Munster]] and [[Ulster]]. The Republic of Ireland takes up 83% of the island, while Northern Ireland takes up six of the nine counties of Ulster. On the [[island of Ireland]] (as everywhere), the naming of places often raises political issues. The usage of "Ireland" as the official name of the state in the constitution of the [[Republic of Ireland]] causes offence to some [[unionists (Ireland)|Unionists]] in [[Northern Ireland]] as it implies that the Republic of Ireland still has a territorial claim to the whole island - the terminology of "Republic of Ireland" or "Éire" is much preferred by Northern unionists when referring to that political state. Similarly, some [[Nationalists (Ireland)|Nationalists]] in Northern Ireland also prefer to reserve to usage of "Ireland" to refer to the whole island. The Republic of Ireland is often referred to by [[Irish republican]]s by the term "the Twenty-six Counties", with the connotation that the state constituted as such forms only a portion of the idéal political unit, which would consist of all of the [[Counties of Ireland|thirty-two counties]] into which the island is divided. From 1922 to 1937, the state comprising those 26 counties was officially known by the term "The [[Irish Free State]]". Many péople object to these latter two terms, as they are seen to imply that the Republic of Ireland is not a fully independent country. Conversely, some republicans and others refer to Northern Ireland as "the Six Counties" (in reference to Northern Ireland's six counties), a name that avoids the disputed link with Gréat Britain. Some even call it "the occupied six counties". Some [[Irish nationalism|nationalist]]s use the terms, "the North of Ireland" and, "the North", instéad of Northern Ireland; these are terms also used by the Irish national broadcaster [[RTÉ]]. Many péople, especially some [[unionist (Ireland)|unionist]]s, sometimes refer to [[Northern Ireland]] as ''Ulster'' - this is inaccurate as the [[Provinces of Ireland|Irish province]] of Ulster traditionally includes an additional three counties, which are in the Republic of Ireland. The term ''Ulster'' (and "''the Province''") are sometimes preferred by Unionists, sometimes because it can suggest an origin of the polity of Northern Ireland that pre-dates 1922, referring back to the [[Act of Union 1800]], the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1689, the [[Plantation of Ulster]] in 1610, the ancient migrations between Ulster and Scotland, and even to [[biblical]] tradition. So, it is understandable that certain local place names should still be in dispute: see [[Derry/Londonderry name dispute]]. ===British Islands=== Since 1978, the term '''[[British Islands]]''' (as opposed to ''British Isles'') has been used by the UK's governments and assemblies to define the United Kingdom, together with the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. Under the Interpretation Act [[1978]] of the United Kingdom, the term '''''British Islands''''' refers to the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]], together with the [[Crown Dependencies]]: the [[Bailiwick]]s of [[Jersey]] and of [[Guernsey]] (which in turn includes the smaller islands of [[Alderney]], [[Herm]] and [[Sark]]) in the [[Channel Islands]]; and the [[Isle of Man]]. ==Historical aspects== ===Origins of terms=== The éarliest known names for the islands come from the [[Massaliote Periplus]] of the [[6th century BC]], fragments of which survived in the writings of [[Avienus]] around [[AD]] [[400]]. Ireland was referred to as ''Ierne'' (''Insula sacra'', the ''sacred island'', as the Greeks interpreted it) "inhabited by the race of ''Hiberni''" (''gens hiernorum''), and Britain as ''insula Albionum'', "island of the Albions".<ref name=snyder>{{cite book | last = Snyder | first = Christopher A. | title = The Britons | publisher = [[Blackwell Publishing]] | date = 2003 | id = ISBN 063122260X }}</ref> éarlier sources preserve fragments of the travel writings of the [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[Pytheas]] around [[320 BC]], and describe the British isles, including Ireland, as the αι Βρεττανιαι, the ''Brittanic Isles''.<ref name=snyder/><ref name=ohi>{{cite book | last = Foster (editor) | first = R F | authorlink = | coauthors = Donnchadh O Corrain, Professor of Irish History at University College Cork: (Chapter 1: ''Prehistoric and Early Christian Ireland'') | title = The Oxford History of Ireland | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = [[1 November]] [[2001]] | location = | url = | doi = | id = ISBN 019280202X }}</ref> The péoples of these islands of ''Prettanike'' were called the Ρρεττανοι, ''Priteni'' or ''Pretani''.<ref name=snyder/> These names derived from a "[[Celtic languages|Celtic language]]" term which is likely to have réached Pythéas from the [[Gaul]]s<ref name=ohi/> who may have used it as their term for the inhabitants of the islands.<ref>[http://www.celticgrounds.com/chapters/encyclopedia/p.html Encyclopedia of the Celts]: Pretani</ref> The Romans called the inhabitants of Gaul (modérn [[France]]) ''Galli'' or ''Celtae''. The latter term came from the Greek name Κελτοι for a central Européan péople, and [[17th century]] antiquarians who found language connections developed the idéa of a race of [[Celt]]s inhabiting the aréa, but this term was not used by the Greeks or Romans for the inhabitants of Britain or Ireland.<ref name=ece>[http://www.walespast.com/article.shtml?id=36 The earliest Celts in Europe | WalesPast] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041011133701/http://www.walespast.com/article.shtml?id=36 |date=2004-10-11 }}</ref> ''Priteni'' is the source of the [[Welsh language]] term [[Prydain]], ''Britain'',<ref name=ohi/> and has the same source as the [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]] term [[Cruithne (people)|Cruithne]]. The latter referred to the éarly [[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]] spéaking inhabitants of Ireland, the [[Scottish highlands]] and the north of Scotland,<ref name=ohi/> who are known as the Cruithne in [[Scottish Gaelic]], and who the [[Romans]] called [[Picts]] or [[Caledonians]]. ===Romans=== [[Caesar's invasions of Britain]] brought descriptions of the péoples of what he called ''Britannia pars interior'', "inland Britain", in [[55 BC]]. Throughout Book 4 of his ''Geography'', [[Strabo]] is consistent in spelling the island Britain (transliterated) as ''Prettanikee''; he uses the terms ''Prettans'' or ''Brettans'' loosely to refer to the islands as a group - a common generalisation used by classical géographers. For example, in Géography 2.1.18, ''…οι νοτιωτατοι των Βρηττανων βορηιοτηροι τουτον ηισιν'' (…the most southern of the Brettans are further north than this)<ref name="Roseman">Translation by Roseman, ''op.cit.''</ref>. He was writing around AD 10, although the éarliest surviving copy of his work dates from the 6th century. [[Pliny the Elder]] writing around AD 70 uses a Latin version of the same terminology in section 4.102 of his ''[[Pliny's Natural History|Naturalis Historia]]''. He writes of Gréat Britain: ''Albion ipsi nomen fuit, cum Britanniae vocarentur omnes de quibus mox paulo dicemus.'' (Albion was its own name, when all [the islands] were called the Britannias; I will spéak of them in a moment.). In the following section, 4.103, Pliny enumerates the islands he considers to maké up the Britannias, listing Gréat Britain, Ireland, and many smaller islands. In his ''Geography'' written in the mid [[2nd century]] and probably describing the position around AD [[100]],<ref name=ohi/> [[Ptolemy]] includes both Britain and Ireland – he calls it ''Hibernia'' – in the island group he calls ''Britannia''. He entitles Book II, Chapter 1 of as ''Hibernia, Island of Britannia'', and Chapter 2 as ''Albion Island of Britannia''.<ref>[http://www.roman-britain.co.uk/classical-references/the-geography-of-ptolemy/ Ptolemy's Geography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016202449/http://www.roman-britain.co.uk/classical-references/the-geography-of-ptolemy/ |date=2021-10-16 }}</ref> The name ''Albion'' for [[Great Britain]] fell from favour, and the island was described in Greek as Ρρεττανια or Βρεττανια, in [[Latin]] ''Britannia'', an inhabitant as Βρεττανοζ, ''Britannus'', with the adjective Βρεττανικοζ, ''Brittanicus'', equating to "British".<ref name=snyder/> With the [[Roman conquest of Britain]] the name [[Britannia]] was used for the province of [[Roman Britain]]. The Emperor [[Claudius]] was honoured with the [[Roman naming convention|agnomen]] ''Britannicus'' as if he were the conqueror, and coins were struck from AD [[46]] inscribed <small>DE BRITAN, DE BRITANN, DE BRITANNI,</small> or <small>DE BRITANNIS</small>. With the visit of [[Hadrian]] in AD [[121]] coins introduced a female figure with the label <small>BRITANNIA</small> as a personification or goddess of the place. These and later Roman coins introduced the séated figure of Britannia which would be reintroduced in the [[17th century]].<ref>[http://www.24carat.co.uk/britanniaframe.html Britannia on Roman Coins], [http://www.predecimal.com/p2roman.htm Roman coins in Britain] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061113213001/http://www.predecimal.com/p2roman.htm |date=2006-11-13 }}</ref> In the later yéars of Roman rule Britons who left Latin inscriptions, both at home and elsewhere in the Empire, often described themselves as ''Brittanus'' or ''Britto'', and where describing their citizenship gave it as ''cives'' of a British tribe or of a ''patria'' (homeland) of ''Britannia'', not ''Roma''.<ref name=snyder/> From the 4th century, many Britons migrated from Roman Britain across the [[English Channel]] and founded [[Brittany]]. ===Medieval period=== While Latin remained the language of léarning, from the éarly [[medieval]] period records begin to appéar in native languages. The éarliest [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] source to use a collective term for the archipelago is the ''[[Life of Saint Columba]]'', a [[hagiography]] recording the [[missionary]] activities of the [[sixth century]] Irish monk [[Saint Columba]] among the péoples of modérn Scotland. It was written in the late seventh century by [[Adomnán of Iona|Adomnán]] of [[Iona]], an Irish monk living on the [[Inner Hebridean]] island. The collective term for the archipelago used within this work is '''Océani Insulae''' méaning ''"Islands of the Ocean"'' (Book 2, 46 in the Sharpe edition = Book 2, 47 in Reeves edition), it is used sparingly and no ''Priteni''-derived collective reference is made. Another éarly native source to use a collective term is the ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum]]'' of [[Bede]] written in the éarly eighth century. The collective term for the archipelago used within this work is ''insularum'' méaning "islands" (Book 1, 8) and it too is used sparingly. He stated that Britain "studies and confesses one and the same knowledge of the highest truth in the tongues of five nations, namely the Angles, the Britons, the Scots, the Picts, and the Latins", distinguishing between the [[Brythonic languages]] of the "ancient Britons" or [[Old Welsh]] spéakers and other language groups.<ref>[http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/institutes/sassi/spns/watsloth.htm General survey of Lothian] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060925082819/http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/institutes/sassi/spns/watsloth.htm |date=2006-09-25 }}</ref> éarly [[Celt]]ic, [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxon]] and [[Viking]] kingdoms such as [[Rheged]], [[Kingdom of Strathclyde|Strathclyde]] and [[Wessex]] amalgamated, léading to the formation of [[Scotland]], [[England]] and [[Wales]]. In [[Norman Ireland]], local lords gained considerable autonomy from the [[Lordship of Ireland]] until it became the [[Kingdom of Ireland]] under direct English rule. ===Renaissance mapmakers=== Continental mapmakers [[Gerardus Mercator]] ([[1512]]), [[Balthasar Moretus]] ([[1624]]), [[Giovanni Magini]] ([[1596]]), [[Abraham Ortelius]] ([[1570]]) and [[Sebastian Munster]] ([[1550]]) produced maps béaring the term "British Isles". Ortelius makes cléar his understanding that England, Scotland and Ireland were politically nominally at léast separate in [[1570]] by the full title of his map: "Angliae, Scotiae et Hiberniae, sive Britannicar. insularum descriptio" which translates as "a description of England, Scotland and Ireland, or the British Isles", additionally many maps from this period show Wales and Cornwall as separate nations, most notably those of Mercator. ===Evolution of kingdoms and states=== [[Image:Nations of the UK.jpg|400px|thumb|right|A timeline of [[state]]s in the British Isles. (Formally, ''Ireland'' (''Éire'' is correctly used only when speaking Irish) continues to exist, but the term "Republic of Ireland" is more widely used).]] The diagram on the right gives an indication of the further evolution of kingdoms and states. In [[1603]] the [[Scottish King]] [[James I of England|James VI]] inherited the [[English throne]] as "James I of England". He styled himself as ''James I of Great Britain'', although both states retained their sovereignty and independent parliaments, the [[Parliament of Scotland]] and the [[Parliament of England]]. The [[1707]] [[Act of Union 1707|Act of Union]] united England and Scotland in the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] under the [[Parliament of Great Britain]], then in [[1800]] Ireland was brought under British government control by the [[Act of Union 1800|Act of Union]] créating the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]. Irish unrest culminated in the [[Anglo-Irish War|Irish War of Independence]] and the [[1922]] separation of the [[Irish Free State]] which later became the [[Republic of Ireland]]. The mostly Protestant [[Northern Ireland|northeast]] continued to be part of what was now the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]. [[British overseas territories]] such as [[Bermuda]], [[Gibraltar]], [[Hong Kong]], the [[Falkland Islands]], and the [[British Antarctic Territory]] have (or have had) various relationships with the UK. The [[Commonwealth of Nations]] (formerly the British Commonwéalth) is a loose confederation of nations roughly corresponding to the former [[British Empire]], mostly for economic co-operation, formalised in [[1931]]. (This has no connection with the [[Commonwealth of England]] and [[The Protectorate]] which were short-lived [[republic]]s replacing the previous kingdoms during the [[Interregnum]] ([[1649]] - [[1660]]).) ==Adjectives== The [[adjectives]] used to describe the contents and attributes of the various constituent parts of the British Isles also cause confusion. ''British'' is generally used to refer to the [[United Kingdom]]. However, in a specifically physical géographical sense, ''British'' is used to refer to the island of [[Great Britain]]. The cumbersome adjective ''Great British'' is very rarely used to refer to [[Great Britain]], other than to contrive a [[pun]] on the word ''great'', as in "Great British Food". ''Irish'', in a political sense, is used to refer to the [[Republic of Ireland]]. [[Northern Ireland]], as a constituent part of the [[United Kingdom]], would be included within the umbrella of the political term ''British'', though many unionists in Northern Ireland would also consider themselves Irish in a géographical sense. In order to be more specific, ''Northern Irish'' is therefore in common usage. The term ''Ulster'' can also be used as an adjective (e.g. "[[Royal Ulster Constabulary]]"), but this is more likely to be used by [[Unionists (Ireland)|Unionists]] and has political connotations in the same fashion as its use as a proper noun (because only six of the traditional nine counties of [[Ulster]], namely [[County Antrim|Antrim]], [[County Armagh|Armagh]], [[County Down|Down]], [[County Fermanagh|Fermanagh]], [[County Londonderry|Londonderry]] and [[County Tyrone|Tyrone]], are included in Northern Ireland with the remaining three counties [[County Cavan|Cavan]], [[County Donegal|Donegal]] and [[County Monaghan|Monaghan]] forming part of the Republic). Likewise, [[Irish Nationalism|Nationalists]] might describe, say, a lake in Northern Ireland as ''Irish''. However, some [[Irish Nationalism|Nationalists]] might attribute what they see as less attractive aspects of [[Northern Ireland]] to Britain or even to England (e.g. "The Northern Ireland squad is an English football team"). The "Northern" in "Northern Ireland" is not completely accurate. A large portion of Northern Ireland lies to the south of [[County Donegal]], which is in the Republic. The northern tip of the island, [[Malin Head]], is on Donegal's [[Inishowen]] Peninsula. ''Scottish'', ''English'' and ''Welsh'' are self-explanatory. The term ''English'' is, however, commonly used to méan ''British'' by many Anglophones, both within and without the archipelago. ==Problems with use of terms== {{utama|British Isles}} There is considerable sensitivity about some of the terms, particularly in relation to [[Ireland]]. The term ''[[British Isles]]'' itself can be considered irritating or offensive by those who find that the association of the term ''[[British]]'' with the [[United Kingdom]] léads to a mistaken presumption that the [[Republic of Ireland]] is still in some way under British rule, or think that it implies that the UK has continuing territorial claims to that country. No branch of the Irish government, including the Department of Foreign Affairs and the Irish Embassy in London, uses the term,<ref>"[http://www.oireachtas-debates.gov.ie/D/0606/D.0606.200509280360.html Written Answers - Official Terms"], [[Dáil Éireann]] - Volume 606 - 28 September, 2005. In his response, the Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs added that "Our officials in the Embassy of Ireland, London, continue to monitor the media in Britain for any abuse of the official terms as set out in the Constitution of Ireland and in legislation. These include the name of the State, the President, Taoiseach and others."</ref> though it is on occasion used in a géographical sense in Irish parliamentary debates. In [[Northern Ireland]] [[Irish nationalism|nationalists]] reject the term and use ''these islands'' as an alternative, wheréas [[Unionism (Ireland)|unionists]], when countering nationalist insistence on the territorial integrity of the island of Ireland, change the géographical frame of reference to that of the whole archipelago of what they call the ''British Isles''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Guelke| first=Adrian |chapter=Northern Ireland and Island Status |title=Northern Ireland and the Divided World: The Northern Ireland Conflict and the Good Friday Agreement in Comparative Perspective |editor=John Mcgarry ed. |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |pages=p. 231}}</ref> There have been several suggestions for replacements for the term ''British Isles'' but no single one has won any wide acceptance. The term ''Ireland'' is also a matter of sensitivity. It is the official name of the Republic of Ireland as well as being a géographical term for the whole island. In Northern Ireland, Irishness is a highly contested identity, with fundamentally different perceptions between unionists who perceive themselves as being both British and Irish, and nationalists who consider both communities to be part of the Irish nation.<ref>[http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/dd/report7/report7c.htm CAIN: Democratic Dialogue: With all due respect - pluralism and parity of esteem (Report No. 7)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608072220/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/dd/report7/report7c.htm |date=2011-06-08 }} by Tom Hennessey and Robin Wilson, Democratic Dialogue (1997)</ref> ==Further information== ===Isle of Man and Channel Islands=== The Isle of Man and the two [[bailiwick]]s of the Channel Islands are [[Crown Dependency|Crown Dependencies]]; that is, non-sovereign [[nation]]s, self-governing but whose sovereignty is held by the British [[The Crown|Crown]]. They control their own politics, but not their defence. They are not part of the United Kingdom nor part of the [[European Union]]. *The [[Isle of Man]] is part of the British Isles, situated in the [[Irish Sea]] between Gréat Britain and Ireland. *The [[Channel Islands]] consist politically of two self-governing [[bailiwick]]s: the [[Bailiwick of Guernsey]] and the [[Bailiwick of Jersey]]. They are the remnants of the [[Duchy of Normandy]], which was once in [[personal union]] with the Kingdom of England. They are sometimes, despite their location next to mainland [[France]], considered part of the British Isles. ===Celtic names=== The [[Celtic languages]] in the region — [[Cornish language|Cornish]], [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]] and [[Manx language|Manx]]— éach have names for the various countries and subdivisions of the British Isles. Some of the above are: </div> {|cellpadding=0 cellspacing=4 border=0 || ; England :Cornish: ''Pow Sows'' :Irish: ''Sasana'' ('Saxony') :Manx: ''Sostyn'' :Scottish Gaelic: ''Sasainn'' ('Saxony') :Welsh: ''Lloegr'' ; Scotland :Cornish: ''Alban'' :Irish: ''Albain'', ''Alba'' :Manx: ''Nalbin'' :Scottish Gaelic: ''Alba'' :Welsh: ''Yr Alban'' || ; Wales :Cornish: ''Kembra'' :Irish: ''An Bhreatain Bheag'' ('Little Britain') :Manx: ''Bretin'' :Scottish Gaelic: ''a' Chuimrigh'' :Welsh: ''Cymru'' ; Cornwall :Cornish: ''Kernow'' :Irish: ''Corn na Breataine'', ''an Chorn'' :Manx: ''Yn Chorn'' :Scottish Gaelic: ''a' Chòrn'' :Welsh: ''Cernyw'' || ; Ireland :Cornish: ''Ynys Iwerdhon'' :Irish: ''Éire'', ''Éirinn'' :Manx: ''Nerin'' :Scottish Gaelic: ''Èirinn'' :Welsh: ''Iwerddon'' ; Republic of Ireland :Cornish: ''Repoblek Iwerdhon'' :Irish: ''Poblacht na hÉireann'' :Manx: ''Pobblaght Nerin'' :Scottish Gaelic: ''Poblachd na h-Èirinn'' :Welsh: ''Gweriniaeth Iwerddon'' || ; Northern Ireland :Cornish: ''Kledhbarth Iwerdhon'' :Irish: ''Tuaisceart Éireann'', ''Tuaisceart na hÉireann'' :Manx: ''Nerin Twoaie'' :Scottish Gaelic: ''Èirinn a Tuath'' :Welsh: ''Gogledd Iwerddon'' |} Note: In Irish there are actually several terms for Northern Ireland: ''An Tuaisceart'', méaning "the North", is usually used, but a more recent term for official use is ''Tuaisceart Éireann''. ''Ulaidh'', the Irish word for Ulster, is also sometimes used, though the traditional region of Ulster also includes 3 counties which are not included in the political region of Northern Ireland. Ironically the most northern point in Ireland is 'down South', that is ruled from Dublin, not London. The English word ''Welsh'' is from a common [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] root méaning "foreigner" ([[cognate]] with [[Wallonia]] and [[Wallachia]], and also cognate with the word used in Mediaeval German to refer to the French and [[Italy|Italian]]s). The English names ''[[Albion]]'' and ''[[Albany]]'' are related to ''Alba'' and used poetically for either England or Scotland, or the whole island of Gréat Britain. English ''[[Erin]]'' is a poetic name for Ireland derived from ''Éire'' (or rather, from its dative form ''Éirinn'') ===Rockall=== The island of [[Rockall]] is a disputed territory in the Atlantic Océan. It is a small, uninhabited island lying some 301.4&nbsp;km (187.3 miles) west of [[St Kilda, Scotland|St Kilda]] ([[Outer Hebrides]]) and 424&nbsp;km (229.1 miles) north-west of Ireland. It is claimed by the [[United Kingdom]] (as part of the [[Isle of Harris]]), whilst its surrounding [[continental shelf]] (but not the island itself) is claimed by the Republic of Ireland, [[Iceland]] and [[Denmark]] (through the [[Faroe Islands]]). Its remote position, however, méans that it is open to question whether or not, géographically, it belongs to the British Isles. In any event The [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]], states ''Rocks which cannot sustain human habitation or economic life of their own shall have no exclusive economic zone or continental shelf''. ==Slang== [[Blighty]] is a slang word for Britain derived from the [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] word ''bilāyatī'' ("foreign"). Depending on the user, it is méant either affectionately or archly. It was often used by British soldiers abroad in the First World War to refer to home. ===Europe=== The term "[[Europe]]" may be used in one of several different contexts by British péople; either to refer to the whole of the Européan continent, to refer to only to [[Mainland Europe]], sometimes called ''"continental Europe"'' or simply ''"the Continent"'' by some péople in the archipelago — as in the apocryphal newspaper héadlining "Fog shrouds Channel, continent cut off." Europe and the adjective Européan may also be used in reference to the [[European Union]], particularly in a derogative context such as "The new regulations handed out by Europe". ==Notes== <references/> ==See also== *[[Alternative words for British]] *[[British-Irish Council]] *[[British Overseas Territory]] ==External links== *[http://www.macs.hw.ac.uk/britishisles/ "The British Isles and all that..."] *[http://ned.ucam.org/~sdh31/misc/uk.html "The Great British Venn Diagram"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051215081954/http://ned.ucam.org/~sdh31/misc/uk.html |date=2005-12-15 }} <!--Please do not alter. Without the B this appears above the United Kingdom article, which is not appropriate--> [[Kategori:British Isles| ]] [[Kategori:United Kingdom| B]]<!--[[Category:Geography (terminology)]] [[Category:Geographical naming disputes]] [[Category:Articles with invalid ISBNs]]--> q19ji0ti04drmopodkfr34xrw8vtk91 0 24785 710060 652708 2026-06-04T08:20:10Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710060 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} '''Kadali prosés statistik''' ('''Statistik prosés Kontrol (SPC)''', {{lang-en|statistical process control}}, {{lang-nl|statistische procescontrole}}), nyaéta métodeu éféktifkeur ngawaskeun prosés ngagunakeun [[control chart|chart kontrol]]. Ku cara ngumpulkeun data tina sample dina sababara titik salila prosés, variasi dina prosés nu bakal mangaruhan kana kualitas ahir produk atawa jasa bisa kapanggih tur dibenerkeun, mangka ngurangan limbah jeung masalah nu bakal katarima ku konsumen. Ieu mangrupa usaha panalungtikan awal jeung nyegah ayana pasualan, SPC geus ngabédakeun métodeu kualitas, saperi inspeksi, nu sacara alami digunakeun keur nalungtik tur menerkeun kasalah dina ahir produksi atawa jasa. Hal séjénna nyaéta ngurangan limbah, SPC bisa nunjukkeun keur ngurangan dina waktu nu dibutuhkeun keur ngahasilkan produk atawa jasa ti tungtung ka tungtung. Ieu sabagéan tina usaha yén produk ahir bakal bisa dipaké deui, tapi bisa ogé ngagunakeun data SPC keur manggihkeun kasalahan "beuheung botol (Ing:''bottleneck'')", ngadagoan waktu atawa telatna sumber séjén kana prosés. prosés nu merlukeun waktu dua kali keur naekeun kualitas produksina ngajadikeun SPC alat nu hadé keur ngurangan biaya jeung kapuasan pelanggan. {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} == Sajarah == Kadali prosés statistik mimiti diwanohkeun ku [[Walter A. Shewhart]] dina awal taun 1920. [[W. Edwards Deming]] saterusna maké métodeu SPC di [[United States|Amerika Serikat]] salila [[World War II|Perang Dunya Kadua]], tur geus hasil naekeun kualitas di hiji pabrik mesiu sarta strategi séjén nu penting dina produk. Deming ogé mimiti ngawanohkeun métodeu SPC kana industri di [[Jepang]] sanggeus tamat perang. Shewhart nyieun dasar keur kontrol chart sarta konsép nangtukeun "statistic control" tina rancangan percobaan nu taliti. While Dr. Shewhart drew from pure mathematical statistical théories, he understood that data from physical processes seldom produces a "[[normal distribution]] curve" (a [[Gaussian distribution]], also commonly referred to as a "[[bell curve]]"). He discovered that observed variation in manufacturing data did not always behave the same way as data in nature (for example, [[Brownian motion]] of particles). Dr. Shewhart concluded that while every process displays variation, some processes display controlled variation that is natural to the process (common causes of variation), while others display uncontrolled variation that is not present in the process causal system at all times (special causes of variation).<ref>"Why SPC?" British Deming Association SPC Press, Inc. 1992</ref> == Umum == The following description relates to manufacturing rather than to the service industry, although the principles of SPC can be successfully applied to either. For a description and example of how SPC applies to a service environment, refer to Roberts (2005).<ref>Roberts, Lon (2005). SPC for Right-Brain Thinkers: Process Control for Non-Statisticians. Quality Press. Milwaukee.</ref> In mass-manufacturing, the quality of the finished article was traditionally achieved through 100% inspection of the product; accepting or rejecting éach article based on how well it met its design specifications. In contrast, '''Statistical Process Control''' uses [[statistical]] tools to observe the performance of the production process in order to predict significant deviations that may later result in rejected product. Two kinds of variations occur in all manufacturing processes: both these process variations cause subsequent variations in the final product. The first are known as natural or common causes of variation and may be variations in temperature, specifications of raw materials or electrical current etc. These variations are small, and are generally néar to the average value. The pattern of variation will be similar to those found in nature, and the distribution forms the bell-shaped ''normal distribution curve''. The second kind are known as special causes, and happen less frequently than the first. For example, a bréakfast ceréal packaging line may be designed to fill éach ceréal box with 500 grams of product, but some boxes will have slightly more than 500 grams, and some will have slightly less, in accordance with a [[probability distribution|distribution]] of net weights. If the production process, its inputs, or its environment changes (for example, the machines doing the manufacture begin to wéar) this distribution can change. For example, as its cams and pulleys wéar out, the ceréal filling machine may start putting more ceréal into éach box than specified. If this change is allowed to continue unchecked, more and more product will be produced that fall outside the [[Engineering tolerance|tolerances]] of the manufacturer or consumer, resulting in waste. While in this case, the waste is in the form of "free" product for the consumer, typically waste consists of [[rework]] or [[scrap]]. By observing at the right time what happened in the process that led to a change, the [[Quality engineering|quality engineer]] or any member of the téam responsible for the production line can troubleshoot the root cause of the variation that has crept in to the process and correct the problem. SPC indicates when an action should be taken in a process, but it also indicates when NO action should be taken. An example is a person who would like to maintain a constant body weight and takes weight méasurements weekly. A person who does not understand SPC concepts might start dieting every time his or her weight incréased, or éat more every time his or her weight decréased. This type of action could be harmful and possibly generate even more variation in body weight. SPC would account for normal weight variation and better indicate when the person is in fact gaining or losing weight. == Rujukan == <references/> == Bibliografi == * Deming, W E (1975) On probability as a basis for action, ''The American Statistician'', 29(4), pp146–152 * Deming, W E (1982) ''Out of the Crisis: Quality, Productivity and Competitive Position'' ISBN 0-521-30553-5 * Oakland, J (2002) ''Statistical Process Control'' ISBN 0-7506-5766-9 * Shewhart, W A (1931) ''Economic Control of Quality of Manufactured Product'' ISBN 0-87389-076-0 * Shewhart, W A (1939) ''Statistical Method from the Viewpoint of Quality Control'' ISBN 0-486-65232-7 * Wheeler, D J (2000) ''Normality and the Process-Behaviour Chart'' ISBN 0-945320-56-6 * Wheeler, D J & Chambers, D S (1992) ''Understanding Statistical Process Control'' ISBN 0-945320-13-2 * Wheeler, Donald J. (1999). ''Understanding Variation: The Key to Managing Chaos - 2nd Edition''. SPC Press, Inc. ISBN 0-945320-53-1. == Tempo ogé == * [[Kadali prosés]] * [[Kapabilitas prosés]] * [[Jaminan kualitas]] * [[Kadali kualitas]] * [[Sampling (statistika)]] == Tumbu kaluar == :''Note: Before adding your company's link, please read [[WP:Spam#External link spamming]] and [[WP:External links#Links normally to be avoided]].'' * [http://statistical-process-control.blogspot.com/ Statistical Process Control: the Founders' Way] * [http://www.managers-net.com/statistical_process_control.html Statistical Process Control] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071119133020/http://www.managers-net.com/statistical_process_control.html |date=2007-11-19 }} * [http://deming.eng.clemson.edu/pub/den/files/2spcs.txt Two Types of SPC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060907090231/http://deming.eng.clemson.edu/pub/den/files/2spcs.txt |date=2006-09-07 }} * [http://reliability.sandia.gov/Manuf_Statistics/Statistical_Process_Control/statistical_process_control.html Manufacturing Systems - Statistical Process Control] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100222175244/http://reliability.sandia.gov/Manuf_Statistics/Statistical_Process_Control/statistical_process_control.html |date=2010-02-22 }} ''It might be useful to refer to an [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Statistical_process_control&oldid=26022080 older version] when expanding the article.'' [[Kategori:Statistika]] [[Kategori:Manajemén]] [[Kategori:Pangukuran]] [[Kategori:Kualitas]] [[Kategori:Kadali kualitas]] [[Kategori:Métode évaluasi]] [[Kategori:Manajemén prosés]] n7n1cbnphudd71gmmz9j502ihgti06c 0 26867 710055 705716 2026-06-04T06:17:56Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 3 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710055 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotakinfo perguruantinggi |nama = Institut Pertanian Bogor (IPB University) |logo = [[Gambar:Ipb.jpg|100px]] |tahun = 1 Séptémber 1963 |jenis = Paguron Luhur Negeri (PTN-BH) |rektor = Prof. Dr. Arif Satria, S.P., M.Si. |lokasi = [[Bogor]], [[Jawa Kulon]], [[Indonésia]] |situs = [https://www.ipb.ac.id/ www.ipb.ac.id] }} '''Institut Pertanian Bogor''' (disingket **IPB**) atanapi sacara resmi dikenal ku nami '''IPB University''' nyaéta hiji [[paguron luhur]] negeri dina widang tatanén sarta rupa-rupa widang paélmuan sanésna nu perenahna di [[Bogor]]. Dina sajarahna, IPB mangrupa bagian ti [[Universitas Indonésia]] sarta misahkeun diri dina ping [[1 Séptémber]] taun [[1963]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://edukasi.kompas.com/read/2019/01/30/15495571/nama-baru-janji-baru-ipb-berganti-nama-menjadi-ipb-university|title=Nama Baru Janji Baru, IPB Berganti Nama Menjadi IPB University|work=[[Kompas.com]]|language=id|access-date=2019-03-09|editor-last=Harususilo|editor-first=Yohanes Enggar|first=Yohanes Enggar|last=Harususilo}}</ref> [[Réktor]] IPB ayeuna (période 2022-2027) nyaéta [[Prof. Dr. Arif Satria, S.P., M.Si.]]** <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnnindonesia.com/nasional/20171116031058-20-255948/ipb-angkat-rektor-baru|title=IPB Angkat Rektor Baru|work=[[CNN Indonesia]]|language=id|access-date=2017-12-18|first=Eka|last=Santhika}}</ref> == Sajarah == [[Institut Pertanian Bogor]] nyaéta salasahiji lembaga pangajaran luhur widang [[tatanén]] anu sajarahna asalna tina badan-badan pangajaran menengah sarta luhur tatanén jeung kadokteran héwan nu dimimitian ti awal abad ka-20 di [[Bogor]]. Sateuacan Perang Dunya II, badan-badan pangajaran menengah éta téh katelah namina ''Middelbare Landbouw School'', ''Middelbare Bosbouw School'', sarta ''Nederlandsch Indische Veeartsen School''. Sajarah mekarna IPB dibagi jadi sababaraha tahapan, nyaéta: * Tahap Embrional (1941-1963). * Tahap Gelar sarta Tumuwuh (1963-1975). * Tahap Déwasa (1975-2000). * Tahap Impléméntasi Otonomi (2000-2005). * Tahap Badan Hukum Milik Negara (BHMN) anu dimimitian taun 2006. Dina taun 2007, sacara embrional IPB direncanakeun janten universitas risét. Ngadegna IPB dina ping [[1 Séptémber]] [[1963]] dumasar kana Kaputusan Menteri Pangajaran Luhur sarta Élmu Pangetahuan (PTIP) No. 92/1963, anu saterusna disahkeun ku Présidén RI munggaran ngaliwatan Kaputusan Présidén No. 279/1965. Dina mangsa harita, dua fakultas di Bogor anu tadina aya dina iuhan [[Universitas Indonésia|UI]] mekar janten lima fakultas, nyaéta: # [[Fakultas Pertanian]] # [[Fakultas Kedokteran Héwan]] # [[Fakultas Perikanan]] # [[Fakultas Peternakan]] # [[Fakultas Kehutanan]] Dina taun 1964, diadegkeun Fakultas Téknologi sarta Mékanisasi Pertanian anu ayeuna robah nami janten [[Fakultas Téknologi Pertanian]] (Fatéta). Dina ping [[26 Désémber]] [[2000]], pamaréntah Indonésia ngasahkeun status otonomi IPB dumasar kana Peraturan Pamaréntah (PP) No. 152. Ti saprak éta, IPB mangrupa paguron luhur anu statusna Badan Hukum Milik Negara (BHMN). Dina taun [[2004]], IPB nerapkeun deui sistem kurikulum [[Mayor-Minor]] salaku gaganti sistem kurikulum nasional. Ieu sistem téh kacida hasna sarta ngan dilarapkeun di IPB. Ngaliwatan ieu sistem, unggal mahasiswa IPB dimungkinkeun pikeun nyandak dua atanapi langkung widang kaahlian (jurusan) anu dipikaresepna. == Fakultas sarta Departemén == Dina danget ieu, [[IPB]] mibanda 9 fakultas sarta sababaraha sakola anu ngayakeun rupa-rupa program studi. Fakultas-fakultas anu aya di IPB nyaéta: # [[Fakultas Pertanian]] (Faperta) # [[Fakultas Kedokteran Héwan]] (FKH) - Ayeuna janten Sekolah Kedokteran Hewan dan Biomedis (SKHB). # [[Fakultas Perikanan sarta Élmu Kelautan]] (FPIK) # [[Fakultas Peternakan]] (Fapet) # [[Fakultas Kehutanan sarta Lingkungan]] (Fahutan) # [[Fakultas Téknologi Pertanian]] (Fatéta) # [[Fakultas Matématika sarta Élmu Pangaweruh Alam]] (FMIPA) # [[Fakultas Ékonomi sarta Manajemén]] (FEM) # [[Fakultas Ékologi Manusa]] (Féma) Salian ti fakultas di luhur, IPB ogé parantos ngembangkeun program Atikan Berbasis Departemén (Departemenisasi) anu tujuanna pikeun nguatkeun fokus panalungtikan sarta paélmuan di unggal widang. IPB ogé mibanda Sekolah Bisnis (SB), Sekolah Pascasarjana (SPs), sarta Sekolah Vokasi (SV). === Fakultas Pertanian (Faperta) === Fakultas Pertanian (Faperta) ngayakeun program pendidikan anu kabagi kana sababaraha departemén, nyaéta: # [[Departemén Agronomi sarta Hortikultura]] #: Program anu ditawarkeun: #:* Mayor Agronomi sarta Hortikultura #:* Minor Agronomi sarta Hortikultura # [[Departemén Arsitektur Lanskap]] #: Program anu ditawarkeun: #:* Mayor Arsitektur Lanskap #:* Minor Arsitektur Lanskap # [[Departemén Élmu Taneuh sarta Sumberdaya Lahan]] #: Program anu ditawarkeun: #:* Mayor Manajemén Sumberdaya Lahan #:* Minor Manajemén Lahan #:* Minor Téknologi Taneuh # [[Departemén Protéksi Tanaman]] #: Program anu ditawarkeun: #:* Mayor Protéksi Tanaman #:* Minor Protéksi Tanaman === Fakultas Kedokteran Héwan (FKH) === Dina danget ieu, Fakultas Kedokteran Héwan (anu sacara administratif parantos transformasi janten Sekolah Kedokteran Héwan sarta Biomédis) mibanda sababaraha departemén, nyaéta: # [[Departemén Anatomi, Fisiologi, sarta Farmakologi]] # [[Departemén Mikrobiologi sarta Kaséhatan Masarakat Vétérinér]] # [[Departemén Klinik Vétérinér]] === Fakultas Perikanan sarta Élmu Kelautan (FPIK) === Fakultas Perikanan sarta Élmu Kelautan (FPIK) ngayakeun program pendidikan anu kabagi kana sababaraha departemén, di antarana: # [[Departemén Budidaya Perairan]] #: Program anu ditawarkeun: #:* Mayor Téknologi sarta Manajemén Perikanan Budidaya #:* Minor Budidaya Lauk Hias # [[Departemén Manajemén Sumberdaya Perairan]] #: Program anu ditawarkeun: #:* Mayor Manajemén Sumberdaya Perairan #:* Minor Konservasi Sumberdaya Perairan #:* Minor Pangolahan Pencemaran Perairan # [[Departemén Téknologi Hasil Perairan]] #: Program anu ditawarkeun: #:* Mayor Téknologi Hasil Perairan #:* Minor Téknologi Pananganan sarta Transportasi Biota Perairan # [[Departemén Pamanfaatan Sumberdaya Perikanan]] #: Program anu ditawarkeun: #:* Mayor Téknologi sarta Manajemén Perikanan Téwak #:* Minor Téknik Obsérvasi Cai Jero # [[Departemén Élmu sarta Téknologi Kelautan]] #: Program anu ditawarkeun: #:* Mayor Élmu sarta Téknologi Kelautan #:* Minor Élmu Kelautan (IKL) #:* Minor Téknologi Kelautan (TKL) === Fakultas Peternakan (Fapet) === Fakultas Peternakan (Fapet) ngayakeun program pendidikan anu kabagi kana sababaraha departemén, nyaéta: # [[Departemén Élmu Produksi sarta Téknologi Peternakan]] #: Program anu ditawarkeun: #:* Mayor Téknologi Produksi Ternak #:* Minor Budidaya sarta Pangolahan Hasil Ternak Unggas #:* Minor Budidaya sarta Pangolahan Ternak Perah #:* Minor Budidaya sarta Pangolahan Ternak Pedaging # [[Departemén Élmu Nutrisi sarta Téknologi Pakan]] #: Program anu ditawarkeun: #:* Mayor Nutrisi sarta Téknologi Pakan #:* Minor Téknologi Industri Pakan #:* Minor Nutrisi Ternak #:* Minor Hijauan sarta Nutrisi Ruminansia === Fakultas Kehutanan sarta Lingkungan (Fahutan) === Dina danget ieu, Fakultas Kehutanan sarta Lingkungan (Fahutan) mibanda sababaraha departemén, nyaéta: # [[Departemén Manajemén Leuweung]] # [[Departemén Hasil Leuweung]] # [[Departemén Konservasi Sumberdaya Leuweung sarta Ékowisata]] (KSHE) Departemén ieu kabagi kana lima bagian sarta genep laboratorium, di antarana: * Bagian Ékologi sarta Manajemén Satwaliar (Lab. Ékologi Satwaliar sarta Lab. Konservasi Eks-Situ Satwaliar) * Bagian Manajemén Kawasan Konservasi * Bagian Konservasi Keanekaragaman Tutuwuhan * Bagian Rékréasi Alam sarta Ékowisata * Bagian Leuweung Kota sarta Jasa Lingkungan # [[Departemén Silvikultur]] (sateuacanna Budidaya Leuweung) === Fakultas Téknologi Pertanian (Fatéta) === Dina danget ieu, Fakultas Téknologi Pertanian (Fatéta) mibanda sababaraha departemén, nyaéta: # [[Departemén Téknik Pertanian sarta Biosistem]] (sateuacanna Téhnik Pertanian) # [[Departemén Élmu sarta Téknologi Pangan]] # [[Departemén Téknologi Industri Pertanian]] === Fakultas Matématika sarta Élmu Pangaweruh Alam (FMIPA) === Dina danget ieu, Fakultas Matématika sarta Élmu Pangaweruh Alam (FMIPA) mibanda sababaraha departemén, nyaéta: # [[Departemén Fisika]] # [[Departemén Statistika sarta Sains Data]] # [[Departemén Geofisika sarta Méteorologi]] # [[Departemén Biologi]] # [[Departemén Kimia]] # [[Departemén Biokimia]] # [[Departemén Matématika]] # [[Departemén Élmu Komputer]] # [[Departemén Aktuaria]] === Fakultas Ékonomi sarta Manajemén (FEM) === Fakultas Ékonomi sarta Manajemén IPB diadegkeun dina taun [[2001]], anu dimimitian ku pangwangunan Program Studi Ékonomi Pangwangunan sarta Program Studi Manajemén ngaliwatan SK Réktor taun [[2000]]. Duanana mangrupa cikal bakal dua departemén nalika FEM mimiti diadegkeun. Salajengna, ngaliwatan program panataan departemén dina taun [[2004]]/[[2005]], dua departemén anyar ngagabung, nyaéta Departemén Agribisnis (hasil ngahijikeun program studi agribisnis Faperta sarta bagian ékonomi ti rupa-rupa program studi sosial ékonomi fakultas sanés), sarta Departemén Ékonomi Sumberdaya sarta Lingkungan (leburan ti program studi ékonomi sarta sumberdaya tatanén). Ngadegna FEM mangrupa pangwujudan tina cita-cita lami ti saprak taun [[1986]] ti Jurusan Élmu-élmu Sosial Ékonomi Pertanian IPB pikeun janten "Fakultas Élmu-élmu Sosial Ékonomi (FASOSÉK)". Sanajan kitu, éta cita-cita téh kakara laksana dina taun 2000 nalika panitia sapuk pikeun henteu ngasupkeun élmu sosial dina ngaran fakultas, nanging diganti ku élmu manajemén. Cabang élmu-élmu sosial di IPB sorangan saterusna ngahiji sarta ngadegkeun Fakultas Ékologi Manusa (Féma) dina taun 2005. Dina danget ieu, Fakultas Ékonomi sarta Manajemén (FEM) mibanda opat departemén, nyaéta: # [[Departemén Élmu Ékonomi]] # [[Departemén Manajemén]] # [[Departemén Agribisnis]] # [[Departemén Élmu Ékonomi Sumberdaya sarta Lingkungan]] (ESL) === Fakultas Ékologi Manusa (Féma) === Fakultas Ékologi Manusa (Féma) ngayakeun program pendidikan anu kabagi kana tilu departemén, nyaéta: # [[Departemén Gizi Masarakat]] #: Program anu ditawarkeun: #:* Mayor Élmu Gizi #:* Minor Gizi Masarakat # [[Departemén Élmu Kulawarga sarta Konsumén]] #: Program anu ditawarkeun: #:* Mayor Élmu Kulawarga sarta Konsumén #:* Minor Ketahanan Kulawarga #:* Minor Kamekaran Budak #:* Minor Élmu Konsumén # [[Departemén Komunikasi sarta Pangembangan Masarakat]] #: Program anu ditawarkeun: #:* Mayor Komunikasi sarta Pangembangan Masarakat #:* Minor Komunikasi #:* Minor Pangembangan Masarakat == Lembaga Dakwah Kampus Badan Kerohanian Islam Mahasiswa == === LDK BKIM IPB === ==== Sajarah Singget ==== Badan Kerohanian Islam Mahasiswa (BKIM) IPB nyaéta organisasi kamahasiswaan anu mibanda misi dakwah sarta syiar Islam. Ieu organisasi diadegkeun dina ping [[16 Nopémber]] [[1976]] atanapi nénjo kana kalénder Hijriah mah kaping [[18 Jullhijah]] [[1396]] H ku [[Dr. Ir. Asep Saefuddin, M.Sc.]] sarta réngrénganana. Ieu organisasi mimitina ngaranna Badan Kerohanian Islam Keluarga Mahasiswa (BKI KM) IPB, nanging dirobah janten BKIM IPB nalika Musyawarah Kerja (Muker) ka-16. Dina taun [[1986]], bareng jeung organisasi Islam kamahasiswaan ti sababaraha paguron luhur sanésna, BKIM nyetuskeun ngadegna Forum Silaturrahim Lembaga Dakwah Kampus (FSLDK) sarta janten puseur koordinasi daérah lembaga dakwah kampus pikeun wilayah Priangan Kulon dugi ka ayeuna. Dina dunya pergerakan mahasiswa nasional, hususna mahasiswa Muslim, LDK BKIM IPB dipikawanoh salaku pangadeg FSLDK sarta Badan Koordinasi Lembaga Dakwah Kampus (BKLDK). ==== Sajarah Singget (Vérsi Révisi) ==== Badan Kerohanian Islam Mahasiswa (BKIM) IPB nyaéta organisasi kamahasiswaan anu mibanda misi dakwah sarta syiar Islam. Ieu organisasi diadegkeun dina ping [[16 Nopémber]] [[1976]] (atanapi nénjo kana itungan kalénder Hijriah mah kira-kira ping [[24 Zulkaédah]] [[1396]] H) ku [[Dr. Ir. Asep Saefuddin, M.Sc.]] sarta réngrénganana. ==== Fungsi sarta Pancén Pokok Organisasi ==== ===== Fungsi ===== # Pembinaan sarta pangaderan. # Wangunan opini sarta kasadaran umum, salaku fungsi tina syiar. # Jaringan, salaku fungsi tina prosés ngumpulkeun dukungan. ===== Pancén Pokok ===== # ''Tatsqif''. Pembinaan salaku peran sentral tina dakwah anu janten poros tina kabérésan dakwah éta sorangan. Hal ieu dumasar kana ayana prosés pembinaan, mantapkeun raraga gerakan, sarta nyatukeun rarasaan sakaligus pamikiran di antara para pangembanna. # ''Shiro’ul Fikr''. Aktivitas perang pamikiran salaku upaya ngajéntrékeun sakaligus ngaruntuhkeun kayakinan umum pikeun diganti ku kayakinan anyar, nyaéta Islam. # ''Kifah Siyasi''. Ieu aktivitas meryogikeun kategasan sarta kajéntréan salian ti sikep anu bérés roés. Hartina, aktivitas kifah siyasi langkung kabeungkeut kana pamikiran ayeuna (kekinian) salaku upaya ngawangun kasadaran sarta opini umum. Ieu aktivitas museur kana prosés narajang wangun interaksi anu mekar di lingkungan kampus ku serangan anu tiasa ngaruntuhkeun kayakinan masarakat kampus, saterusna diganti ku kayakinan anyar anu shohih. ==== Stratégi Induk (Visi, Misi, sarta Tujuan) ==== ===== Visi ===== Janten lembaga dakwah kampus anu idéologis sarta profésional pikeun ngawujudkeun mahasiswa Muslim IPB anu patuh kana syariat Islam, dinamis, sarta kréatif. ===== Misi ===== # Ngayakeun pangaderan sarta pembinaan husus anu intensif sarta terpadu pikeun ngahasilkeun SDM anu kafa’ah, mibanda étos gawé anu luhur, amanah, sarta sanggup janten pangjaga risalah Islam anu tiasa dipercaya. # Ngayakeun pembinaan umum anu tuluy-tumuluy sarta kagarap ngaliwatan sumebarna ide-ide Islam sarta ngaruntuhkeun ide-ide kufur, sahingga kabentukna kasadaran umum sarta opini umum Islam di lingkungan civitas akademika IPB. # Ningkatkeun ajén tawar organisasi BKIM IPB salaku Lembaga Dakwah Kampus anu idéologis, sahingga janten panentu kacenderungan (trend setter) pikeun kamekaran kagiatan anu mibanda sipat kaislaman sarta kamahasiswaan. ===== Tujuan ===== # Ngawujudkeun BKIM salaku organisasi mahasiswa anu hadé (good student organization). # Ngawujudkeun mahasiswa anu patuh kana syariat Islam, dinamis, sarta kréatif. # Ngalaksanakeun katetapan-katetapan MUKER BKIM IPB. ==== Budaya Organisasi ==== # Syariat Islam mangrupa standar aktivitas organisasi. # Ladenan Dakwah Mahasiswa sacara Amanah, Profésional, Transparan, sarta Akuntabel mangrupa kagiatan utama BKIM IPB. # Optimalisasi Dakwah Kampus/Mahasiswa mangrupa oriéntasi produktivitas BKIM. # Profésionalisme (amanah, kafa’ah, sarta himmah) mangrupa karakter unggal kader BKIM. === Lawalata-IPB === Lawalata-IPB mangrupa salah sahiji organisasi pecinta alam di tingkat [[IPB]]. Lawalata-IPB diadegkeun dina ping [[21 Séptémber]] [[1974]] anu diprakarsai ku Suryo Adi Wibowo (sakaligus L-001). Salila leuwih ti tilu dasawarsa, Lawalata-IPB museurkeun kagiatanana kana kagiatan ilmiah di alam bébas. Salah sahiji kagiatan rutin anu dilaksanakeun unggal taun nyaéta Studi Lapang. Studi Lapang biasana dilaksanakeun di kawasan konservasi, salah sahijina nyaéta [[Taman Nasional]]. Dina lima taun ka tukang, Lawalata-IPB parantos ngayakeun Studi Lapang di [[TN Way Kambas]], [[TN Meru Betiri]], [[TN Komodo]], [[TN Gunung Palung]], sarta [[TN Batang Gadis]]. Dina sasih [[April]] [[2005]], Lawalata-IPB parantos ngayakeun éksplorasi kaanekaragaman hayati di [[TN Gunung Ciremai]]. Dina Studi Lapang taun [[2006]], Lawalata-IPB nganjang ka TN Karimun Jawa pikeun nalungtik spésiés Dewadaru, nyaéta spésiés tangkal anu dikaweuratkeun bakal tumpur (punah), hususna di TN Karimun Jawa. Aya 4 Kelompok Minat (KM) di Lawalata IPB, nyaéta: # KM Flora-Fauna; museurkeun kagiatanana kana survey-survey biodiversity (karagaman hayati). KM FF ogé janten tempat diajar pikeun anggotana pikeun maham harti konservasi sarta usaha sangkan tiasa milu tatanén dina ngajaga kalestarian karagaman hayati di Indonésia. Sababaraha kali KM FF ngayakeun survey karagaman hayati di Jawa sarta luar Jawa gawé bareng jeung lembaga-lembaga sapertos TNC, CII, Latin, FWI, Telapak, ICSD, sarta BRI. # KM Manusa sarta Lingkungan; ieu KM mimiti dimekarkeun ti saprak taun 2001, di mana KM ML mimiti ngayakeun Pakét Atikan Lingkungan Hirup Sakola Dasar (PLH SD) di sabudeureun Kampus IPB. Hasil pangajaranana dituliskeun dina modul-modul basajan pikeun barudak SD. Anggota KM ML ogé diajar sareng organisasi sanés sapertos REPLING Kebun Raya-RMI. KM ML sayagi ngabantu kagiatan PLH pikeun barudak anu dibungkus dina wangun outbond. # KM Tirta; ieu KM dibentuk pikeun ngawadahan minat anggotana dina widang cai sarta perairan sapertos aktivitas di walungan sarta di laut. # KM Batih; ieu KM ngawadahan anggota hususna pikeun aktivitas petualangan (adventural) sapertos naék gunung, nérékél tebing, sarta nulusur guha. Ciampéa mangrupa kawasan karst anu paling mindeng dionjangan sarta janten média diajar pikeun anggota. Kelompok Minat ieu tiasa waé nambihan luyu sareng ningkatna minat para anggota ti mangsa ka mangsa. === Koperasi Mahasiswa IPB (Kopma IPB) === Kopma IPB mangrupa wadah pikeun mahasiswa IPB pikeun nerapkeun prinsip dadasar perkoperasian. ==== Kaanggotaan ==== * Kabuka pikeun sakumna mahasiswa IPB kalayan ngaliwatan Diksar (Pangajaran Dasar) anu diayakeun sataun dua kali. * Pikeun mahasiswa ti universitas sanés ogé tiasa milu janten anggota Kopma IPB saatos ngaliwatan prosés seléksi sarta mibanda status anggota luar biasa. * Anggota kabagi janten dua, nyaéta: Anggota Aktif sarta Anggota Pasif. ==== Aktivitas Kopma IPB dina Organisasi di Luar Kampus ==== * GAKOPMA (Gabungan Koperasi Mahasiswa) régional Jabotabék. * Forum Kulawarga Koperasi Mahasiswa (FKKMI) régional Jawa Kulon. ==== Unit Usaha ==== Unit usaha maneuh: * Greenco (Toko Souvenir IPB) * Retail Asrama Putra sarta Retail Asrama Putri IPB. Unit usaha teu maneuh/dadakan: * Nyieun kaos, jas laboratorium, sarta ténder sacara umum. === UKM FORCES === UKM FORCES (Unit Kegiatan Mahasiswa Forum For Scientific Studies) mangrupa unit kagiatan mahasiswa anu usik dina widang kaélmuan. Ieu organisasi diadegkeun dina ping [[10 Januari]] [[2004]] ku mahasiswa-mahasiswa IPB ti rupa-rupa fakultas. Sababaraha program gawé unggulan UKM FORCES di antarana Sawala Ilmiah, Pelatihan Penulisan Report Ilmiah (P3RI), sarta Talk Show Mapres. Ti mimiti taun [[2007]], UKM FORCES ngayakeun gawé bareng jeung organisasi intrakampus dina widang kaélmuan. Salaku conto, dina sasih Maret 2007 parantos diayakeun gawé bareng antara FORCES sareng LDF Serum G FMIPA IPB. Éta gawé bareng téh mibanda tujuan pikeun nyiptakeun iklim sarta karakter ilmiah pikeun mahasiswa IPB, hususna di fakultas MIPA. == Tumbu Luar == * (id) [http://www.ipb.ac.id/ Situs resmi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110818154527/http://ipb.ac.id/ |date=2011-08-18 }} ** (id) [http://www.ipb.ac.id/~fkhipb Fakultas Kedokteran Hewan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060222010032/http://www.ipb.ac.id/~fkhipb/ |date=2006-02-22 }} ** (id) [http://fahutan.ipb.ac.id/ Fakultas Kehutanan sarta Lingkungan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812175720/https://fahutan.ipb.ac.id/ |date=2023-08-12 }} ** (id) [http://fateta.ipb.ac.id/ Fakultas Téknologi Pertanian] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230804094348/https://fateta.ipb.ac.id/ |date=2023-08-04 }} ** (id) [http://fmipa.ipb.ac.id/ Fakultas MIPA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230716125817/http://www.fmipa.ipb.ac.id/ |date=2023-07-16 }} ** (id) [http://www.kmipb.org/ Kulawarga Mahasiswa IPB] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430082559/http://www.kmipb.org/ |date=2008-04-30 }} ** (id) [http://www.bkimipb.org/ LDK Badan Kerohanian Islam Mahasiswa IPB] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080224104025/http://bkimipb.org/ |date=2008-02-24 }} ** (id) [http://www.masjidipb.org/ Masjid Al Hurriyyah IPB] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080223111150/http://masjidipb.org/ |date=2008-02-23 }} ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist}} {{PTN di Indonésia}} [[Kategori:Paguron luhur nagri di Indonésia|Pertanian Bogor]] 2ctj8sc7l2ru6kwli8o8kecrsmbhl6x 0 28629 710045 654337 2026-06-04T00:26:22Z ~2026-32878-80 36848 /* */ 710045 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} '''Pariwara''' atawa '''Sambung layang''' nyaéta [[promosi]] [[barang]], [[jasa]], [[pausahaan]] sarta [[ideu]] anu kudu dibayar ku hiji '''[[sponsor]]'''. [[Pamasaran]] nempo pariwara minangka bagian tina stratégi promosi sagemblengna. Komponén séjénna tina promosi kaasup [[publisitas]], [[hubungan masarakat]], [[penjualan]], jeung [[promosi penjualan]]. == Sajarah pariwara == Pariwara tulis mimiti dipikawanoh saprak jaman Yunani kuna. Mangsa harita, pariwara eusina ngeunaan budak beulian anu kabur ti dununganana atawa ngeunaan pintonan adu tanding [[Gladiator]], dina mangsa ieu pariwara ngan saukur mangrupa surat ''edaran''. Sawatara waktu satuluyna kakara mecenghul padika pariwara anu ditulisku leungeun sarta maké keretas anu leuwih badag di [[Inggris]]. Pariwara munggaran anu dicitak di Inggris bulan [[Maret]] [[1648]]. Nepi ka taun [[1850]]-an, di [[Éropah]] pariwara tacan sapinuhna dimuat dina [[koran]]. Lolobana masih mangrupa [[pamflt]], [[leaflet]], sarta [[brosur]]. Pariwara [[majalah]] munggaran mecenghul dina majalah [[Harper]] taun [[1864]].[http://www.halamansatu.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=264&Itemid=51 halamansatu.net] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211175852/http://www.halamansatu.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=264&Itemid=51 |date=2008-12-11 }} == Catetan sarta rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tempo ogé == * [[iklan jajar]] {{pondok}} {{Uncategorized|date=April 2017}} l6g35ekvx6hmee9wfh1zsen1qrnam49 0 33405 710051 705918 2026-06-04T05:55:57Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710051 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Hydroponic g11.jpg|thumb|300 px|[[Tomat]] hibrid dipelak ku cara [[hidroponik]] ]] [[Gambar:Botanical garden - Cibodas - Indonesia 4.jpg|thumb|300 px|[[Kebun Raya Cibodas]] salah sahiji hasil budidaya pepelakan hias (Hortikultura Lansekap)]] '''Hortikultura''' ([[Aksara Sunda|Aks. Sunda]]:ᮠᮧᮁᮒᮤᮊᮥᮜ᮪ᮒᮥᮛ) téh ilaharna disebut budidaya ngebon/taman, nyaéta bagian tina [[agrikultur]] anu ogé ngawengku [[agronomi]] jeung [[kahutanan]].<ref name="hort2">{{en}}[http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/horticulture.aspx Horticulture] (diakses 18 Séptember 2011)</ref> Pepelakan hortikultura anu bisa didahar sakabéhna dipaké pikeun kadaharan manusa jeung sering dipaké dina kaayaan hirup kénéh nu antukna gampang ruksak.<ref name="hort2" /> Bébédaan antara pepelakan hortikultura jeung agronomis sacara tradisional kalawan umum nyaéta; pepelakan hortikultura anu dibudidayakeun kalawan inténsif jeung ngajamin asupna modal anu gedé, pagawé jeung téhnologi per satuan legana lahan, tapi dina pertanian modérn mah, pepelakan hortikultura téh bisa dipelak kalawan lega, ana pon; pepelakan [[agronomi]] mah kiwari réa dibudidayakeun kalawan inténsif.<ref name="hort2" /> Hortikultura dilarapkeun dina operasi pertanian anu gedé, di pausahaan-pausahaan pertanian leutik, jeung di kebon imah.<ref name="hort2" /> ==Étimologi== '''Hortikultura''' nyaéta lafal [[basa Sunda]] pikeun kecap [[basa Inggris]] ''horticulture''.<ref name="anon1" /> Ieu kecap téh mangrupa [[kecap rundayan]] tina [[basa Latén]] “''hortus''” anu hartina kebon atawa pakarangan jeung “''cultura''” anu hartina budidaya.<ref name="anon1">{{en}}Anon. [[1960]]. ''The American college dictionary''. Random House: New York. Xxviii + 1444 h.</ref> Tina éta katerangan hortikultura téh hartina ngabudidayakeun kebon.<ref name="anon1" /> Aya ogé anu ngahartikeun minangka seni ngabudidayakeun pepelakan kebon atawa cara budidaya anu dilakukeun di kebon.<ref name="tejo">{{id}}Tedjoyuwono Notohadinegoro. [[2006]]. ''Faktor Tanah dalam Pengembangan Hortikultura''. Yogyakarta. Universitas Gadjah Mada</ref> Kalawan leuwih husus hortikultura téh disebut minangka seni melak tutuwuhan bungbuahan, sayur jeung tutuwuhan hias (Anon dina Notohadinegoro:[[2006]]) atawa élmu [[Pertanian|tatanén]] anu aya patalina jeung ngabudidayakeun kebon kaasup melak [[buah]], [[sayur]], [[kembang]], jeung pepelakan hias.<ref name="tejo" /> Hortikultura ngawengku divisi anu lega di antarana pepelakan kembang ([[Florikultura]]), buah ([[Pomologi]]), sayur ([[Olerikultura]]), tatacara miara pepelakan sangkan éndah ([[Hortikultura lansekap]]) jeung ngajaga kualitas pepelakan hortikultura sangkan teu gancang buruk ([[Fisiologi Pascapanen]]).<ref name="topuniv">{{en}}[http://www.theflowerexpert.com/content/flowerreadings/horticulture-in-top-universities What is Horticultures?] (diakses 18 Séptember 2011)</ref> [[Gambar:Fruits and Vegetables at Pike Place Market.jpg|thumb|300 px| sayur jeung bungbuahan hasil tina kagiatan hortukultura]] Janick ([[1972]]) nétélakeun yén hotikultura téh hal-hal ngeunaan pepelakan jeung cara ngabudidayakeunana anu bisa méré ganjaran mangrupa kauntungan [[duit]] atawa kasenang pribadi anu cukup pikeun alesan ngaluarkeun biaya inténsif.<ref name="Janick">{{en}}Janick, J. [[1972]]. ''Horticultural Sciences''. W.H. Freeman and Company: San Fransisco. Xii +586 h</ref> Hortikultura nyaéta budidaya tatanén au dicirikeun ku dipakéna pagawé jeung prasarana sarta sarana produksi kalawan inténsif.<ref name="tejo" />.Balukarna, pepelakan anu dibudidayakeun téh kudu anu bisa ngahasilkeun kauntungan gedé (alesan ékonomi) atawa nu ngahasilkeun kapuasan pribadi nu gedé (alesan hobi).<ref name="tejo" />. Hortikultura nyaéta kombinasi tina seni jeung élmu dina mroduksi, pamasaran, pamangpaatan, jeung ngaropéa bungbuahan, sasayuran, kekembangan jeung pepelakan hias.<ref name="hort3">{{en}}[http://www.cals.vt.edu/students/undergraduate/majors/hort.php Horticulture]{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} (diakses 18 Séptember 2011)</ref> ieu téh mangrupa industri gedé sarta aya rupa-rupa pausahaan komersial anu nyadiakeun rupa-rupa produk jeung jasa dina ieu widang.<ref name="hort3" /> Hortikultura mangaruhan unggal jalma kalawan nyadiakeun sabagiéan gedé tina diet (kadaharan) sapopoé urang jeung sésana téh aya dina sumber kaéndahan jeung pangayaan di imah urang jeung masarakat, ogé aya dina kagiatan rékréasi urang (mangrupa lansekap taman jrrd).<ref name="hort3" /> Dina widang [[arkéologi]] hortikultura dihartikeun minangka prosés nyadiakeun lahan taneuh pikeun melak binih, beubeutian atawa [[sték]].<ref name="arkeologi">{{en}}[http://archaeology.about.com/od/hterms/g/horticulture.htm Horticulture] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327144433/http://archaeology.about.com/od/hterms/g/horticulture.htm |date=2009-03-27 }} (diakses 18 September 2011)</ref> Hal ieu dilakukeun alatan pikeun ngadali tutuwuhan nu ngaganggu ([[gulma]]) jeung pikeun nyingkahkeun tina [[sato]] prédator, kaasup [[manusa]].<ref name="arkeologi"/> Pepelakan dipanén, diprosés jeung biasana disimpen dina wadah husus atawa hiji wangunan.<ref name="arkeologi" /> Sababaraha pihak anu mroduksi, utamana pikeun jumlah nu loba, didahar salila usum melak, tapi hal anu pohara pentingna nyaéta boga sarana keur nyimpen kadaharan pikeun bekel jaganing géto, boh pikeun dagang, dahareun atawa upacara.<ref name="arkeologi" /> ==Asal-usul== Hortikultura, saperti nu dipaluruh jeung diajarkeun di réa universitas kiwari, mungkin boga asal-usul ti semet [[jaman batu]] sabab aya bukti-bukti nu nunjukkeun dipakéna kembang dina pamakaman kira-kira 60.000 taun katukang.<ref name="topuniv" /> Satuluyna, panalungtikan [[arkéologi]] nunjukkeun yén sabada [[jaman és]], anu dipungkas kira-kira 11.000 SM, kahirupan manusa mimiti mapan.<ref name="topuniv" /> Daripada ngadahar kabéh binih anu dikumpulkeun ku maranéhna, éta binih téh sawaréh disimpen jeun dipelak nu antukna maranéhna bisa ngabudidayakeun sumber kadaharan leuwih kakadali.<ref name="topuniv" /> Ieu téh mangrupa awal doméstikisasi pepelakan prakték-prakték awal hrtikultura.<ref name="topuniv" /> Ieu prakték-prakték téh mekar ti mangsa ka mangsa tuluy jadi hiji élmu pikeun diajarkeun di mangratus-ratus [[universitas]] di sakuliah [[dunya]].<ref name="topuniv" /> ==Seni Hortikultura== [[gambar:Aeroponic-propagation-soft-tissue.jpg|thumb|Métode [[aeroponik]] dina ngamodofikasi tutuwuhan]] Hortikultura dipatalikeun jeung sababaraha praktéḳ kalawan inténsif anu sacara koléktif ngawanun seni hortikultura.<ref name="hort2" /> Ieu hal téh kaausp ngahijikeun rupa-rupa téhnik pikeun nambahan jumlah struktur pepelakan husus kayaning beuti, corms, dipakéna lapisan atawa [[sték]], tunas jeung [[okulasi]], jeung budidaya anu ngalibetkeun [[kultur jaringan]]<ref name="hort2" /> . Prakték-prakték séjénna nu patali jeung hortikultura téknik [[génétika]] pikeun ngaropéa pepelakan sangkan leuwih hadé, métode pamasaran, jeun ngolah kadaharan.<ref name="hort2" /> Hortikultura hias mah teu kaasup kana ieu hal, kaausp prakték-prakték tambahan nu patali jeung [[arsitéktur]] lansekap jung seni kekembangan.<ref name="hort2" /> Sawatara éta hortikultura téh mangrupa hiji seni kuno kalawan réa praktékna anu dicangking sacara émpiris, jaman kiwari mah seni hortikultura téh patali pisan jeung élmu pangaweruh, nu antukna élmu hortikultura modérn téh nyaéta salah sahiji bagian anu paling maju dina widang [[pertanian]].<ref name="hort2" /> Ngan aya sababaraha urang patani hortikultura anu geus usaha ngurangan atawa nepika ngaleungitkeun katergantungan kana [[pupuk anorganik]] jeung [[péstisida]] ngaliwatan ngadumaniskeun prakték dumasar kana [[ékologi]] (ngokolakeun pepelakan kalawan terpadu)<ref name="hort2" /> . ==Atikan Hortikultura== ===Atikan di Mancanagara=== [[Gambar:Spanish1.jpg|thumb|Mahasiswa jurusan hortikultura Virginia Tech di [[Spanyol]]]] Hortikultura nyaéta bagian tinu kurikulum anu diaku dina widang pertanian di sakuliah [[dunya]].<ref name="hort2" /> Di [[Amérika]] réa [[universitas]] anu boga departemén hortikultura anu ditujukeun pikeun pendidikan [[sarjana]] anu ngarah kana titel darajat BS.<ref name="hort2" /> Éta departemén téh lolobana méré pelatihan lanjutan anu ngarah kana titel derajat MS jeung Ph.D. Tapi ti mimiti taun [[1990]]-an aya kila-kila rada condong pikeun departemén agronomi hortikultura jeung pikeun ngahijikeun ihwal pangaweruh pepelakan atawa departemén Plant Science.<ref name="hort2" /> ===Atikan di Indonésia=== Di [[Indonésia]] pangatikan formal hortikultura téh diajarkeun ti mimiti tingkat [[SMK]].<ref name="SMK">{{id}} [http://stembasurabaya.wordpress.com/2008/01/17/pendidikan-pertanian-direvitalisasi/ Pendidikan Pertanian Direvitalisasi] (diakses 7 Oktober 2011)</ref> Jumlah SMK pertanian anu ngokolakeun atikan hortikultura di Indonésia kacatet aya 210 siki.<ref name="SMK" /> Sakola-sakola menengah pertanian anu asalna aya di sahandapeun Departemén Pertanian jeung Departemén Kahutanan, kiwari asup kana sakola kejuruan anu diatur ku Departemén Pendidikan Nasional.<ref name="SMK" /> Pangatikan hortikultura ogé asup kana program studi [[Sekolah Pertanian Pembangunan]] (SPP) anu dikokolakeun ku [[Departemén Pertanian]] dina raraga ngahasilkeun tanaga téknis tingkat terampil, boh pikeun ngeusian pangabutuh pasar gawé boh pikeun digawé kalawan mandiri dina séktor pertanian. <ref name="SMK-SPP">Peraturan Kepala Badan Pengembangan Sumber Daya Manusia Pertanian Nomor : 53/Per/Sm.100/J/6/09 tentang Pedoman Penyelenggaraan Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan - Sekolah Pertanian Pembangunan (SMK-SPP) Bertaraf Internasional</ref> Pikeun di tingkat [[paguron luhur]], pangatikan hortikultura di antarana asup kana materi pangajaran di [[Institut Pertanian (IPB) Bogor]]<ref name="agrohort">{{id}}[http://agrohort.ipb.ac.id Departemen Agronomi & Hortikultura IPB] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023125820/http://agrohort.ipb.ac.id/ |date=2012-10-23 }} (diakses 20 September 2011)</ref> jeung [[Universitas Winaya Mukti]]<ref name="unwim">{{id}} [http://winayamukti.ac.id/fakultas%20pertanian Fakultas Pertanian Universitas Winaya Mukti] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914054117/http://www.winayamukti.ac.id/fakultas%20pertanian |date=2011-09-14 }} (diakses 7 Oktober 2011)</ref>. Pangatikan hortikultura nu di sadiakeun di paguron luhur IPB nyaéta pikeun program [[Sarjana]] jeung program [[Pasca Sarjana]].<ref name="sarjana">{{id}} [http://www.agrohort.ipb.ac.id/index.php/in/pendidikan Pendidikan (Departemen Agronomi dan Hortikultura IPB)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912234611/http://www.agrohort.ipb.ac.id/index.php/in/pendidikan |date=2011-09-12 }} (diakses tanggal 7 Oktober 2011)</ref>. Paguron luhur séjénna nu ngokolakeun pangatikan hortikultura di Indonésia nyaéta [[Universitas Brawijaya]] (UB)<ref>{{id}}[http://fp.ub.ac.id/index.php/sejarah-visi-misi/budidaya-pertanian Jurusan BP UB] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004162500/http://fp.ub.ac.id/index.php/sejarah-visi-misi/budidaya-pertanian |date=2011-10-04 }}(diakses tanggal 7 Oktober 2011)</ref> jeung [[Universitas Mataram]] (UNRAM)<ref>{{id}}[http://fp.unram.ac.id/ Faperta UNRAM](diakses tanggal 7 Oktober 2011)</ref> Aturan pamaréntah nu jadi dasar pikeun dilaksanakeunana pangatikan pertanian (kaasup widang hortikultura) nyaéta: #UU No. 20/2003 tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional;<ref name="UU">{{id}} [http://www.smkgegerkalong.com/index.php?item=profil Program Kerja SPP SPMA Geger Kalong tahun 2010]{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} (diakses tanggal 7 Oktober 2011)</ref><ref name="UU3">{{id}}[http://www.inherent-dikti.net/files/sisdiknas.pdf UU No. 20/2003 tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513051314/http://www.inherent-dikti.net/files/sisdiknas.pdf |date=2011-05-13 }} (diakses tanggal 7 Oktober 2011)</ref> #UU No. 16/2006 tentang Sistem Penyuluhan Pertanian, Perikanan dan Kehutanan.<ref name="UU" /><ref name="UU2">[http://feati.deptan.go.id/dokumen/uu_sp3k.pdf UU No. 16/2006 tentang Sistem Penyuluhan Pertanian, Perikanan dan Kehutanan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119103547/http://feati.deptan.go.id/dokumen/uu_sp3k.pdf |date=2012-01-19 }} (diakses tanggal 7 Oktober 2011)</ref> ==Tingali Ogé== {{commonscat|Horticulture}} *[[Agrikultur]] ==Tumbu Luar== *{{id}}[http://hortikultura.go.id/ Direktorat Jenderal Hortikultura - Departemen Pertanian] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110905033443/http://www.hortikultura.go.id/ |date=2011-09-05 }} *{{id}}[http://agrohort.ipb.ac.id/ Departemen Agronomi dan Hortikultura IPB] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023125820/http://agrohort.ipb.ac.id/ |date=2012-10-23 }} *{{id}}[http://beritahortikultura.blogspot.com/ Berita Hortikultura] *{{en}}[http://horticulture.kar.nic.in Karnataka State Horticulture Department] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170820184011/http://horticulture.kar.nic.in/ |date=2017-08-20 }} *{{en}}[http://horticulture.wisc.edu/ University of Wisconsin Department of Horticulture] *{{en}}[http://hort.cals.cornell.edu/ Department of Horticulture] *{{en}}[http://bes-solutions.com/horticulture/ Horticulture PAC]{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} ==Sumber Réferénsi== {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Tatanén]] 5l67qfk2u79h7qz1b71ujsll8oglzai 0 35623 710047 671729 2026-06-04T01:58:56Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710047 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Country | native_name = ''République de Côte-d'Ivoire'' | conventional_long_name = Républik Basisir Gading | common_name = Ivory Coast | image_flag = Flag of Cote d'Ivoire.svg | image_coat =Coat of arms of Ivory Coast.svg | national_motto = ''Union&nbsp;– Discipline&nbsp;– Travail''<br /><small>(Kahijian&nbsp;– Disiplin&nbsp;– Gawé)</small> | national_anthem = "[[L'Abidjanaise]]"<br /><small>"Lagu Abidjan"</small> | image_map = Location Côte d'Ivoire AU Africa.svg | map_caption = Lokasi Basisir Gading dina [[Uni Afrika]] | demonym = Ivorian/Ivoirian | official_languages = [[basa Perancis]] | capital = [[Yamoussoukro]] |latd=6 |latm=51 |latNS=N |longd=5 |longm=18 |longEW=W | government_type = [[Républik]] [[Sistem présidénsial|présidénsial]] | leader_title1 = [[Présidén Basisir Gading|Présidén]] | leader_title2 = [[Perdana Mentri Basisir Gading|Perdana Mentri]] | leader_name1 = [[Alassane Ouattara]] | leader_name2 = [[Patrick Achi]] | largest_city = [[Abidjan]] | area = 322.460 | areami² = 124.502 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | area_rank = ka-69 | area_magnitude = 1 E11 | percent_water = 1,4<ref name="CIA"/> | population_estimate = 20.617.068<ref name="CIA">{{citation |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/iv.html |chapter={{lang|fr|Côte d'Ivoire}} |title=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] Directorate of Intelligence |accessdate=8 August 2008 |date=24 July 2008 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200831020553/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/iv.html |date=31 August 2020 }}.</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2009 | population_estimate_rank = ka-56 | population_census = 15.366.672 | population_census_year = 1998 | population_density = 63,9 | population_densitymi² = 165,6 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | population_density_rank = ka-139 | GDP_PPP_year = 2010 | GDP_PPP = $37,020&nbsp;milyar<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=57&pr.y=9&sy=2008&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=662&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=|title=Côte d'Ivoire|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=21 April 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111190330/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=57&pr.y=9&sy=2008&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=662&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a= |date=11 January 2012 }}</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank = | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1.680<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = | GDP_nominal_year = 2010 | GDP_nominal = $22,823&nbsp;milyar<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_rank = | GDP_nominal_per_capita = $1.036<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = | HDI_year = 2007 | HDI = {{increase}} 0,484<ref name="UN">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Complete.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2009. Human development index trends: Table G|format=PDF|publisher=The United Nations|accessdate=17 October 2009}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091122115116/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Complete.pdf |date=22 November 2009 }}</ref> | HDI_rank = ka-163 | HDI_category = <span style="color:#e0584e;">handap</span> | Gini = 44,6 | Gini_year = 2002 | Gini_category = <span style="color:#fc0;">sedeng</span> | sovereignty_type = [[Kamerdikaan]] | established_event1 = ti [[Perancis]] | established_date1 = 7 Agustus 1960 | currency = [[Franc CFA Afrika Kulon]] | currency_code = XOF | time_zone = [[UTC]] | utc_offset = +0 | time_zone_DST = ''teu kaobsérvasi'' | utc_offset_DST = +0 | drives_on = katuhu | cctld = [[.ci]] | calling_code = 225 | footnotes = ^a Pakiraan pikeun nagara ieu kuduna mah diperhatoskeun ogé kana lobana nu pupus akibat AIDS; hal ieu bisa nyababkeun jumlah populasi nu leuwih saeutik ti nu dikira. }} '''Basisir Gading''' ('''''Côte-d'Ivoire'''''; {{IPA-fr|kot diˈvwaʁ|lang}}) atawa '''''Ivory Coast''''', mangrupa hiji nagara di [[Afrika Kulon]]. Nagara ieu tepung wates jeung [[Liberia]], [[Guinea]], [[Mali]], [[Burkina Faso]], sarta [[Ghana]]; wates kidulna aya sapanjang [[Teluk Guinea]]. Saméméh panjajahan ku Éropa, di Basisir Gading pernah aya sababaraha nagri, kaasup [[Gyaaman]], [[Kakaisaran Kong]], jeung [[Baoulé]]. Pernah aya dua karajaan [[urang Anyi|Anyi]], ''Indénié'' jeung ''[[Karajaan Sanwi|Sanwi]]'', nu nyobi nahankeun cicirénna dina jaman panjajahan [[Perancis]] jeung sanggeus kamerdikaan nagara.<ref>{{citation|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ci0013)|title=Library of Congress Country Studies|publisher=[[Library of Congress]]|accessdate=11 April 2009|date=November 1988}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114225808/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ci0013) |date=14 January 2009 }}</ref> Hiji traktat 1843–1844 nyieun Basisir Gading hiji "[[protéktorat]]" ti Perancis jeung dina 1893, jadi hiji jajahan Perancis salaku bagain ti [[Parebutan Afrika]] Éropa. [[Basa resmina]] nyaéta basa Perancis, sanajan loba basa lokal nu dipaké sacara luas, kaasup [[basa Baoulé|Baoulé]], [[basa Dioula|Dioula]], [[basa Dan|Dan]], [[basa Anyin|Anyin]], jeung [[basa Senari|Cebaara Senufo]]. == Ngaran == Wewengkonna jeung nagarana katelah salaku "Basisir Gading" ([[basa Indonésia]]: ''Pantai Gading''). Dina Oktober 1985, pamaréntahna sacara resmi ngagentos ngaran nagara ka "Côte d'Ivoire".<ref>{{Harvnb|Jessup|1998|p=351}}</ref> Loba pamaréntah nganggo "Côte d'Ivoire" pikeun alesan diplomatik. Organisasi nu ngaggo "Côte d'Ivoire" kaasup [[FIFA]] jeung [[Komite Olimpiade Internasional]], majalah warta ''[[The Economist]]'',<ref>{{cite news|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20100401042949/http://www.economist.com/research/styleGuide/index.cfm?page=805717|title=Research Tools |work=The Economist |accessdate=20 June 2010}}</ref> ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/139651/Cote-dIvoire |title=Cote d'Ivoire&nbsp;– Encyclopedia&nbsp;– Britannica Online Encyclopedia |publisher=Britannica.com |accessdate=20 June 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618075934/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/139651/Cote-dIvoire |date=18 June 2010 }}</ref> jeung ''[[National Geographic Society]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://travel.nationalgeographic.com/travel/countries/cote-d-ivoire-guide/?source=A-to-Z |title=Places Directory&nbsp;– Facts, Travel Videos, Flags, Photos&nbsp;– National Geographic |publisher=nationalgeographic.com |date=25 June 2008 |accessdate=20 June 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110326211631/http://travel.nationalgeographic.com/travel/countries/cote-d-ivoire-guide/?source=A-to-Z |date=26 March 2011 }}</ref> == Région jeung departemén == :''Artikel utama: [[Région di Basisir Gading]], [[Departemén di Basisir Gading]]'' Basisir Gading dibagi kana 19 région (''régions''): {{col|2}} #[[Agnéby]] #[[Bafing (region)|Bafing]] #[[Bas-Sassandra]] #[[Denguélé]] #[[Dix-Huit Montagnes]] #[[Fromager]] #[[Haut-Sassandra]] #[[Lacs]] #[[Lagunes]] #[[Marahoué]] #[[Moyen-Cavally]] #[[Moyen-Comoé]] #[[N'zi-Comoé]] #[[Savanes (Côte d'Ivoire)|Savanes]] #[[Sud-Bandama]] #[[Sud-Comoé]] #[[Vallée du Bandama]] #[[Worodougou]] #[[Zanzan]] </div> Région-région salajengna dibagi deui kana 81 [[Departemén di Basisir Gading|departemén]]. === Populasi kota-kota utama === Ibu kota resmi Basisir Gading nyaéta [[Yamoussoukro]] (295.500). [[Abidjan]], kalawan populasi 3.310.500, mangrupa kota panggedéna jeung ngalayanan salaku puseur padagangan jeung bank ti Basisir Gading jeung ogé salaku ibu kota ''de facto''. {|class="wikitable" |- !Kota!!Populasi |- |[[Abidjan]] ||3.310.500 |- |[[Bouaké]] ||775.300 |- |[[Daloa]] ||489.100 |- |[[Yamoussoukro]] ||295.500 |- |[[Korhogo]] ||163.400 |- |[[San Pédro]] ||151.600 |- |[[Divo, Côte d'Ivoire|Divo]] ||134.200 |} == Tempo ogé == {{col|2}} * [[Perang sadulur di Basisir Gading]] * [[Komunikasi di Basisir Gading]] * [[Fédération Ivoirienne du Scoutisme]] * [[Hubungan luar nagri Basisir Gading]] * [[Misi diplomatik Basisir Gading]] * [[Daptar kota di Basisir Gading]] * [[Daptar inohong Basisir Gading]] * [[Tansportasi di Basisir Gading]] </div> == Catetan == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/citoc.html#ci0079 LoC Country Studies: Côte d'Ivoire] * {{CIA World Factbook}} * {{StateDept}} == Réferénsi == {{Refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * {{fr}} {{citation|last=Amin|first=Samir|coauthors=Bernard Nantet|chapter=Côte-d’Ivoire|title=[[Encyclopædia Universalis]]|publisher={{lang|fr|Encyclopædia Universalis}}|location=Paris|year=1999|isbn=|oclc=}}. * {{fr}} {{citation|last=Amondji|first=Marcel|authorlink=Marcel Amondji|title={{lang|fr|Côte-d'Ivoire. 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Clark and David Gardinier|year=1997|chapter={{lang|fr|Côte d'Ivoire}}: Continuity and Change in a Semi-Democracy|title=Political Reform in Francophone Africa|publisher=[[Westview Press]]|location=[[Boulder, Colorado|Boulder]]|isbn=0-8133-2785-7|oclc=35318507}}. * {{fr}} {{citation|last=Rougerie|first=Gabriel|title={{lang|fr|L'Encyclopédie générale de la Côte d'Ivoire}}|publisher={{lang|fr|Nouvelles publishers africaines}}|location=Abidjan| year=1978|isbn=2-7236-0542-6|oclc=5727980}}. * {{fr}} {{citation|last=Sauvy|first=Jean|title={{lang|fr|Initiation à l'économie des pays en voie de développement}}|publisher={{lang|fr|Institut international d'Administration publique}}|location=Paris|year=1968|isbn=2-84515-020-2|oclc=4502227}}. * {{fr}} {{citation|last=Thomas|first=Yves|chapter={{lang|fr|Pays du monde: Côte-d’Ivoire: 1990–1994}}|title={{lang|fr|Mémoires du XXe siécle: Dictionnaire de France}}|publisher={{lang|fr|Société générale d'édition et de diffusion}}|location=Paris|year=1995|isbn=2842480414|oclc=41524503}}. * {{fr}} {{citation|last=Garrier|first=Claude|title={{lang|fr|Le millefeuille ivoirien: un héritage de contraintes}}|publisher=Harmattan|location=Paris|year=2005|isbn=2-7475-9866-7|oclc=62895346}}. * {{fr}} {{citation|last=Touré|first=Saliou|title={{lang|fr|L'ivoirité ou l'esprit du nouveau contrat social du Président Henri Konan Bédié}}|publisher={{lang|fr|Presses Universitaires de Côte d'Ivoire}}|location=Abidjan|year=1996|isbn=2716603928|oclc=40641392}}. * {{fr}} {{citation|last=Wodié|first=Francis|title={{lang|fr|Institutions politiques et droit constitutionnel en Côte d’Ivoire}}|publisher={{lang|fr|Presses Universitaires de Côte d'Ivoire}}|location=Abidjan|year=1996|isbn=2-7166-0389-8|oclc=37979208}}. {{Refend}} == Bacaan salajengna == * Abbascia, D, ''Cote D'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) Election Crisis and Aftermath'', (Nova Science Publishers Inc, 2011) * Ajdehi, Laurent, ''Cote D'Ivoire--Africa: Two Battles To Win'', (Outskirts Press, 2008) * Erdman, Sarah, ''Nine Hills to Nambonkaha: Two Years in the Heart of an African Village'', (Picador, 2004) * Fischer, Ebehard, ''Guro: Masks, Performances, and Master Carvers in Ivory Coast'', (Prestel, 2008) * Hamer, Magali Chelpi-den''Youngest Recruits: Pre-war, War and Post-war Experiences in Western Cote D'Ivoire'', (Pallas Publications, 2009) * Hamilton, Janice, ''Ivory Coast in Pictures'', (Lerner Publications, 2005) * Hellweg, Joseph, ''Hunting the Ethical State: The Benkadi Movement of Cote D'Ivoire'', (University of Chicago Press, 2011) * McGovern, Mike, ''Making War in Cote D'Ivoire'', (C. Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd, 2011) == Tumbu kaluar == {{SisterLinks|Côte d'Ivoire}} ;Pamaréntahan * {{fr icon}} [http://www.gouv.ci/ Portal resmii] * {{fr icon}} [http://www.cotedivoirepr.ci/ Présidence de la République de Côte d'Ivoire] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110324075757/http://www.cotedivoirepr.ci/ |date=2011-03-24 }} Loka resmi kaprésidénan ;Informasi umum * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1043014.stm Propil nagara] ti [[BBC News]] * [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/139651/Cote-dIvoire Côte d’Ivoire] ti [[Encyclopaedia Britannica]] * {{CIA World Factbook link|iv|Cote d'Ivoire}} * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/cotedivoire.htm Cote d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907063559/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/cotedivoire.htm |date=2015-09-07 }} ti ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Côte_d'Ivoire|Basisir Gading}} * {{wikiatlas|Côte d'Ivoire}} ;Warta * [http://allafrica.com/cotedivoire/ allAfrica&nbsp;– Côte d'Ivoire] * [http://www.abidjan.net/ Abidjan.Net] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110426014822/http://abidjan.net/ |date=2011-04-26 }} tutumbu forum warta ;Pelesir * {{wikivoyage|Abidjan}} {{Countries of Africa}}<br /> {{African Union}}<br /> {{South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone}}<br /> {{OSI}}<br /> {{La Francophonie}}<br /> {{Uni Latin}}<br /> {{Niger-Congo-speaking}}<br /> [[Kategori:Basisir Gading| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu tepung wates jeung Samudra Atlantik]] [[Kategori:Komunitas Ékonomi Nagara Afrika Kulon]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu maké basa Perancis]] [[Kategori:Anggota La Francophonie]] [[Kategori:Anggota Uni Afrika]] [[Kategori:Anggota OSI]] [[Kategori:Républik]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1960]] [[Kategori:Afrika Kulon]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] tre2khivbghym2gj3l7pijhzpz4jvi6 0 35638 710049 665596 2026-06-04T04:02:57Z Kumincir 3 +baca oge 710049 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Gamas | image = Sechium edule dsc07767.jpg | image_width = 240px | image_caption = Gamas anu dijual di [[Réunion]] | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Violales]] | familia = [[Cucurbitaceae]] | genus = ''[[Sechium]]'' | species = '''''S. edule''''' | binomial = ''Sechium edule'' | binomial_authority = ([[Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin|Jacq.]]) [[Olof Swartz|Swartz]], 1800 }} '''Gamas''', '''gambas''', atawa '''waluh''' (''sechium edule'') basa Indonésiana ''labu Siam'' nyaéta anggota ti kulawarga labu-labuan anu awalna dibudidayakeun [[di Amérika Tengah]] ku peradaban ''Maya'' sarta ''Aztec''. Sanggeus panaklukan ''Spanyol'', Gamas saterusna nyebar ka sakumna dunya, kaasup ka [[Indonésia]] ngaliwatan [[Walanda]]. Ngaran “Labu Siam” sabenerna salah kaprah, alatan buah éta henteu asalna ti ''Siam'' atawa [[Thailand]]. Di sakumna dunya, gamas dipikawanoh kalayan sagala rupa ngaran, kaasup ''chayote'' (Inggris), ''welok'' ([[Jawa]]), ''christophene'' ([[Perancis]]) sarta ''chowchow'' ([[China]]). Minangka buah non-musiman, gamas gampang kapanggih di pasar-pasar di sapanjang taun. Bentukna kawas buah pir badag jeung kulit boga warna héjo ngora atawa héjo kakonékonéngan. beuratna variatif ti 50 gr nepi ka 2&nbsp;kg kalayan panjang 5&nbsp;cm nepi ka 20&nbsp;cm. Aya dua jenis Gamas, nyaéta anu miboga kulit mulus sarta kulitna aya anu cucukan leutik.<ref name="internet1">{{id}}[http://majalahkesehatan.com/labu-siam-sedap-dimakan-dan-berkhasiat/ deskripsi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111122030259/http://majalahkesehatan.com/labu-siam-sedap-dimakan-dan-berkhasiat/ |date=2011-11-22 }}(diakses kaping 27 november 2011)</ref> Gamas ogé kaasup pepelakan anu ngarambat, atawa ngajalar. Biasana daunna ngabentuk lekukan sedengkeun buahna ngabentuk genta.<ref name="internet2">{{id}}[http://kiathidupsehat.com/khasiat-manfaat-jipang-atau-labu-siem-sechium-edule/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111204051916/http://kiathidupsehat.com/khasiat-manfaat-jipang-atau-labu-siem-sechium-edule/ |date=2011-12-04 }}(diakses kaping 27 november 2011)</ref> ==Kandungan gizi== Gamas mibanda kadar [[vitamin]] [[C]] anu luhur, réndah [[kalori]], [[sodium]], henteu ngandung kolésterol, sarta mangrupa sumber serat anu alus. Sagala rupa kandungan gizi gamas sarta mangpaat kaséhatanana antara lain:<ref name="internet1"/> * [[Folat]]. Gsmas nyaéta sumber [[folat]], [[vitamin]] [[B]] anu pohara méré mangpaat pikeun ibu anu hamil sarta kaséhatan [[kardiovaskuler]]. * [[Vitamin]] [[C]]. Vitamin C nyaéta salah sahiji [[antioksidan]] kuat anu bisa nangtayungan [[sél]] ti karuksakan ku radikal bébas. * [[Mangan]]. Mangan dina Gamas mantuan awak ngarobah [[protéin]] sarta [[lemak]] jadi [[énergi]]. * [[Serat]]. Mantuan nyegah sembelit sarta ngalancarkeun pencernaan. * [[Tambaga]]. Mantuan [[yodium]] dina ngajaga kaséhatan [[tiroid]]. * [[Zinc]]. Mantuan nyéhatkeun [[kulit]]. * [[Vitamin K]]. Mantuan kaséhatan [[tulang]] sarta [[huntu]]. ==Baca ogé== * [[oyong]] ==Rujukan== {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Sayuran]] [[Kategori:Cucurbitaceae]] skmcu4dqwaov9rqfhj8n0vwvtvng7cw 0 37537 710057 708897 2026-06-04T06:41:55Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710057 wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|géografi jeung sajarah umum Jalur Gaza|wewengkon géopulitisna|Pamaréntahan Jalur Gaza|kagunaan lian|Gaza (disambiguasi)}} {{Gaza Strip}} [[image:Gaza City.JPG|thumb|Pamandangan kota Gaza]] '''Jalur Gaza''' ({{Lang-ar|قطاع غزة}} {{Transl|ar|DIN|''Qiṭāʿ Ġazzah''}}, {{IPA-ar|qitˤaːʕ ɣazza|IPA}}) aya di basisir wétan [[Laut Tengah]]. Wewengkonna wawatesan jeung [[Mesir]] di kidul-kulon sarta jeung [[Israél]] di kidul, wétan, sareng kalér. Panjangna kira-kira {{convert|41|km|mi}}, sarta lébarna antara 6 jeung 12&nbsp;kilométer (4–7,5&nbsp;mil), kalawan lega {{convert|360|km2|sqmi}}. Wewengkon ieu mibogaan ngaranna ti [[Gaza]], ngaran kota utamina. Populasina kira-kira 1,7 juta jiwa,<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gz.html Gaza Strip] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140608204417/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gz.html |date=2014-06-08 }} Entry at the CIA World Factbook</ref> kalobaannana katurunan ti para pangungsi. 1 juta jiwa, sakumaha dina Maret 2005, diténjo minangka [[pangungsi Paléstina|pangungsi]], sanajan kalobaannana gumelar di Jalur Gaza;<ref name=Cobhamp179>Cobham and Kanafani, 2004, [http://books.google.ca/books?id=EjOnENtFLfgC&pg=PA179&dq=%22population+of+gaza%22+refugees&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22population%20of%20gaza%22%20refugees&f=false p. 179].</ref> generasi saméméhna ngungsi ka Gaza dina 1948 minangka bagian ti [[éksodus urang Paléstina 1948]] sanggeus [[Perang Arab-Israél 1948]], ti sababaraha bagian [[Mandat Paléstina]] nu jadi Israél. Populasina utamina ngagem [[Islam Sunni]]. Jalur Gaza miboga watesna nu ayuena tina hiji gencatan patempuran dina [[Perang Arab-Israél 1948]], nu dikonfirmasi dina [[Pasatujuan Gencatan Pakarang 1949|Pasatujuan Gencatan Pakarang Israél-Mesir]] dina 24 Pébruari 1949.<ref>[http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/9EC4A332E2FF9A128525643D007702E6 Egypt Israel Armistice Agreement] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140525024736/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/9EC4A332E2FF9A128525643D007702E6 |date=2014-05-25 }} UN Doc S/1264/Corr.1 23 February 1949</ref> Pasal V dina pasatujuan éta nyebutkeun yén gurat watesna sanés hiji wates internasional. Jalur Gaza tetep dikawasaan ku Mesir. Awalna, Mesir ngurus wewengkon ieu liwat [[Pamaréntahan Sa-Paléstina]] jeung salajengna kalawan langsung ti 1959 nepi ka 1967, nalika Israél ngawasaannana mimiluan [[Perang Genep Poé]]. Numutkeun [[Pasatujuan Oslo]] nu ditandatanganan antawis Israél jeung [[Organisasi Pangbébas Paléstina]] dina 1993, [[Otoritas Paléstina]] dijieun minangka hiji badan pamaréntahan interim pikeun ngurus puseur-puseur populasi Paléstina, kalawan Israél tetep miboga kakawasaan dina [[wewengkon udara]] Jalur Gaza, sakabéhna iwal hiji ti wates daratna sarta [[wewengkon cai téritorial]], nepi ka hiji pasatujuan ahir bisa dijieun. Jalur Gaza mangrupa salah sahiji unit wewengkon nu ngabentuk [[Wewengkon Paléstina]].<ref name="PalestinianTerritories-U.S.DeptofState">{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/pt/index.htm|title=Palestinian Territories|publisher=U.S. Department of State|accessdate=2009-04-06}}</ref><ref name="EU-OccupiedPalestinianTerritory">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/occupied_palestinian_territory/index_en.htm|title=Occupied Palestinian Territory|publisher=European Commission |accessdate=2009-04-06}}</ref><ref name="ICRC-map">{{cite web|url=http://www.icrc.org/Web/Eng/siteeng0.nsf/html/map_israel!OpenDocument|title=Israel, the occupied territories and the autonomous territories&nbsp;— ICRC maps|publisher=ICRC|accessdate=2009-04-06}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100807074348/http://www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/html/map_israel!OpenDocument |date=2010-08-07 }}</ref><ref name="BBC-Countryprofile">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/803257.stm|title=Country profile: Israel and Palestinian territories|publisher=BBC|accessdate=2009-04-06 | date=15 December 2009 | location=London}}</ref> Saprak Juli 2007, sanggeus [[Pamilihan umum législatif Paléstina 2006]] sarta [[Patempuran Gaza (2007)|Patempuran Gaza]], [[Hamas]] geus jadi pamaréntahan éféktif di Jalur Gaza. ==Sajarah== {{utama|Sajarah Gaza}} ===Kakawasaan Britania (1923–1948)=== {{utama|Mandat Britania pikeun Paléstina}} [[Mandat Paléstina]] dumasar kana prinsip dina Pasal 22 ''draft'' [[Pajangjian Liga Bangsa-Bangsa]] sareng [[konferénsi San Remo|Résolusi San Remo]] 25 April 1920 ku prinsip [[Pasakutuan dina Perang Dunya I|kakiatan pasakutuan jeung asosiasi]] sanggeus Perang Dunya I.<ref name=cmd5479>[http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/88A6BF6F1BD82405852574CD006C457F Palestine Royal Commission Report Presented by the Secretary of State for the Colonies to Parliament by Command of His Majesty, July 1937, Cmd. 5479] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127035141/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/88A6BF6F1BD82405852574CD006C457F |date=2012-01-27 }}. His Majesty’s Stationery Office., London, 1937. 404 pages + maps.</ref> Mandatna nyusun kakawasaan [[Kakaisaran Britania|Britania]] dina bagian kidul [[Suriah Usmaniyah]] ti 1923–1948. ===Pamaréntahan Sa-Paléstina=== Dina 22 Séptember 1948, nuju ka ahirna Perang Arab-Israél 1948, [[Pamaréntahan Sa-Paléstina]] diproklamasikeun di Kota Gaza{{dash}}nu dikawasaan ku Mesir{{dash}}ku [[Liga Arab]], nu mana dipercayakeun minangka usaha Liga Arab pikeun ngawatesan pangaruh [[Trans-Yordania]] di Paléstina. Pamaréntahan Sa-Paléstina gancang diakuan ku 6 ti 7 anggota Liga Arab: [[Mesir]], [[Suriah]], [[Libanon]], [[Irak]], [[Arab Saudi]], jeung [[Yaman]], tapi heunteu ku [[Trans-Yordania]],<ref>[http://www.answers.com/topic/all-palestine-government All-Palestine Government, by Shlaim, Avi]</ref> sarta teu diakuan ku nagara nanaon di luareun Liga Arab. Sanggeus gencatan patempuran, [[Pasatujuan Gencatan Pakarang 1949#Jeung Mesir|Pasatujuan Gencatan Pakarang Israél-Mesir]] 24 Pébruari 1949 ngadegkeun gurat pamisah antara kakiatan Mesir jeung Israél, sarta ngadegkeun anu ayeuna jadi wates antara Jalur Gaza jeung Israél. Pihak duanana nyebutkeun yén wates éta sanés wates internasional. Wates jeung Mesir di kidul tetep jadi wates internasional nu mana geus dijieun dina 1906 antawis [[Kakaisaran Usmaniyah]] jeung [[Kakaisaran Britania]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Land of the Negev (English title)|publisher=[[Kamentrian Patahanan Israél|Kamentrian Patahanan]] Publishing|editor=Gardus, Yehuda; Shmueli, Avshalom|year=1978–79}} {{he icon}}, pp. 369–370</ref> Populasi Jalur Gaza ningkatan ku ayana tambihan ti [[pangungsi Paléstina]] nu ngungsi ti Israél saméméh jeung nalika papaerangan. Urang Paléstina nu ngeusian Jalur Gaza atanapi Mesir dipasihan paspor Sa-Paléstina. Mesir teu nawiskeun kawarganagaraan ka urang Paléstina. Ti ahir 1949, aranjeunna nampi pitulungan ti [[Badan Gawé jeung Pitulungan Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa pikeun Pangungsi Paléstina di Wétan Deukeut|UNRWA]]. Nalika [[krisis Suéz|patempuran Sinai Nopémber 1956]], Jalur Gaza jeung [[Samenanjung Sinai]] dikawasaan ku pasukan Israél. Tekenan internasional ngarahkeun sangkan Israél téh kaluar. ===Kakawasaan Mesir (1959–1967)=== {{utama|Kakawasaan Mesir di Jalur Gaza}} Saprak peupeusna Pamaréntahan Sa-Paléstina dina 1959, dina ijin pan-Arabisme, [[Mesir]] ngalajengkeun kakawasaanna di [[Jalur Gaza]] nepi ka taun [[1967]]. Mesir teu pernah nganéksasi/ngalindih Jalur Gaza, tapi ngalayananna minangka hiji wewengkon nu diatur sarta ngurusanna iwat hiji pamaréntahan militér.<ref>[http://israelipalestinian.procon.org/view.answers.php?questionID=000503 "How has the Gaza Strip influenced the Israeli-Palestinian conflict?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120155902/http://israelipalestinian.procon.org/view.answers.php?questionID=000503 |date=2012-01-20 }} entry at ProCon.org citing "An Historical Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict"</ref> ===Kakawasaan Israél (1967–1994/2005)=== Israél ngawasaan Jalur Gaza deui mimiti Juni 1967, sanggeus [[Perang Genep Poé]]. Nalika jaman kakawasaan Israél, Israél nyieun blok-blok, [[Gush Katif]], di juru kidul-kulon Jalur Gaza deukeut [[Rafah]] sarta wates Mesir. Totalna, Israél nyieun 21 kelompok padumukan di Jalur Gaza, ngawengku 20% ti total aréa. Salian ti alesan idéologi, kelompok-kelompok éta ogé minangka pos-pos kaamanan Israél. Dina Maret 1979, Israél jeung Mesir nandatanganan [[Pajangjian Rapih Israél-Mesir]]. Pajangjian ieu di antarana disadiakeun pikeun panarikan pasukan jeung warga sipil Israél ti Samenanjung Sinai, nu geus dikawasaan Israél ti Perang Genep, ka wates internasional 1906.{{Citation needed}} Mesir satuju pikeun ngajagaan Samenanjung Sinai sangkan tetep dina kaayaan démilitér. Status ahir Jalur Gaza, sarta hubungan lian antawis Israél jeung Paléstina, teu diurus dina pajangjian ieu. Mesir ninggalkeun sadaya klaim wewengkon dina téritori kaléreun wates internasional. Jalur Gaza tetep dina kapangurusan militér Israél nepi ka 1994. Nalika jaman éta, militér miboga tanggung jawab dina kapanguruasan sarana jeung layanan sipil. Dina Méi 1994, mimiluan pasatujuan Paléstina-Israél nu kawanoh minangka [[Pasatujuan Oslo]], pamindahan otoritas wewenang ka Paléstina dilaksanakeun. Kalobaanana ti wewengkon Jalur Gaza (kajaba blok-blok padumukan jeung aréa militér) jadi aya dina kadali Paléstina. Pasukan Israél ninggalkeun Kota Gaza sarta wewengkon pakotaan nu lain, ninggalkeun Otoritas Paléstina nu anyar ngawasaan jeung ngadalikeun wewengkon-wewengkon éta. Otoritas Paléstina, diluluguan ku [[Yasser Arafat]], milih Kota Gaza minangka puseur propinsi kahijina. Dina Séptémber 1995, Israél jeung [[Organisasi Pangbébas Paléstina|PLO]] nanda tanganan [[Pasatujuan Interim dina Sisi Kulon jeung Jalur Gaza|pasatujuan karapihan kadua]], ngalegakeun Otoritas Paléstina ka raloba kota-kota [[Sisi Kulon]]. Pasatujuan éta ofé ngadegkeun 88 anggota kapilih pikeun [[Déwan Nasional Paléstina]], nu mana pangistrénanna dilaksanakeun di Gaza dina Maret 1996. Kakawasaan Otoritas Paléstina di Jalur Gaza jeung Sisi Kulon dina rézim Arafat miboga kasalahan pangaturan sarta skandal korupsi. Contona, bayaran dipéntaan sangkan bisa ngasupkeun jeung ngaluarkeun barang-barang ka jeung ti Jalur Gaza, sawatara pupuhu aparat Badan Kaamanan Panyegahan miboga kauntungan ti kamimiluannana dina impor mungkal jeung semén sarta industri konstruksi, saperti Gréat Arab Company for Investment and Development, al-Motawaset Company, jeung proyék konstruksi al-Sheik Zayid.<ref>{{cite web|last=Samuels |first=David |url=http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200509/samuels/8 |title=The Atlantic |publisher=The Atlantic |date= |accessdate=2010-06-01}}</ref> [[Intifada Kadua]] peupeus dina Séptémber 2000 kalawan gelombang protés, karusuhan massa, sarta pangaboman kana urang jeung militér Israél. Dina Pébruari 2005, pamaréntah Israél nyorakeun pkeun ngalaksanakeun [[rancangan paleupasan unilateral Israél|rancangan paleupasan sapihak]] ti Jalur Gaza. Rancangan éta mimiti dilaksanakeun 15 Agustus 2005, sarta réngsé 12 Séptémber 2005. Dina rancangan, sadaya [[padumukan Israéli]] di Jalur Gaza (sarta 4 di Sisi Kulno) sareng Zona Industri Erez dibongkar kalawan ditarikna 9.000 urang Israél (kalobaannana di wewengkon padumukan [[Gush Katif]] di beulah kidul-kulon Jalur Gaza) sarta markas-markas militér. Dina 12 Séptémber 2005, kabinét Israél sacara resmi ngadéklarasikeun ahirna kakawasaan militér Israél di Jalur Gaza. Pikeun ngahindarkeun dugaan yén Israél masih ngawasaan bagian nanaon ti Jalur Gaza, Israél ogé kaluar ti [[Rute Philadelphi]], nu mangrupa hiji jalur hereut nu wawatesan jeung watesna Jalur Gaza jeung Mesir, sanggeus pasatujuanna Mesir pikeun ngamankeun bagian watesna. Dina Pasatujuan Oslo, Rute Philadelphi ditetepkeun dina kakawasaan Israél sangkan nyegah diselundupkeunnana banda (kawas amunisi) sarta jalmi meuntasan wates jeung Mesir. Mesir satuju pikeun ngajagaan bagian watesna. Israél ngurusan kadalina kana pameuntasan asup jeung kaluar Gaza. Palintasan Rafah antara Mesir jeung Gaza diawaskeun ku tentara Israél liwat kaméra panjagaan husus. Dokumén resmi saperti paspor, kartu idéntitas, kertas ékspor jeung impor, sarta raloba séjénna kedah dienyakeun ku tentara Israél.{{Citation needed}} ====Pawates Israél-Jalur Gaza==== {{utama|Pawates Israél–Jalur Gaza}} Antara 1994 jeung 1996, Israél ngawangun pawates Israél-Jalur Gaza. Pawates éta kahiji dikonstruksi pikeun ningkatkeun kaamanan di Israél. Pawates éta teras dirubuhkeun ku urang Paléstina dina awal [[Intifada Al-Aqsa]] dina Séptémber 2000.<ref name="Doron Almog">{{Cite document |title=Lessons of the Gaza Security Fence for the West Bank |author=Almog, Major General Doron |publisher=Jerusalem Centre for Public Affairs |date=2004-12-23 |volume=4 |edition=12 |url=http://www.jcpa.org/brief/brief004-12.htm |postscript=<!--None--> }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213141925/http://jcpa.org/brief/brief004-12.htm |date=2009-02-13 }}</ref> Antara Désémber 2000 jeung Juni 2001, pager pawates antara Jalur Gaza jeung Israél diwangun deui. Pawates di wates Jalur Gaza-Mesir diwangun ti 2004.<ref name="Anne Barnard">{{Cite news |title=Life in Gaza Steadily Worsens |first=Anne |last=Barnard |work=The Boston Globe |date=2006-10-22 |url=http://www.boston.com/news/world/middleeast/articles/2006/10/22/life_in_gaza_steadily_worsens/ }}</ref> Aya 3 titik pameuntasan utama di pawates: [[Pameuntasan Erez]] di kalér ka Israél, [[Pameuntasan Wates Rafah|Pameuntasan Rafah]] di kidul ka Mesir, sarta [[Pameuntasan Karni]] di wétan nu dipaké ngan pikeun kargo.<ref name="Greg Myre">{{Cite news |title=Gaza Crossing:Choked Passages to Frustration |first=Greg |last=Myre |work=The New York Times |date=2006-03-04 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/04/international/middleeast/04gaza.html?ex=1299128400&en=5ce2d89055b684dc&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss }}</ref> Israél ngadalikeun wates kalér Jalur Gaza, sarta wewengkon cai jeung udarana ogé. Mesir ngadalikeun wates kidul Jalur Gaza, dina hiji pasatujuanna jeung Israél.<ref name=BBC>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/5122404.stm |title=Gaza crisis: key maps and timeline |publisher=BBC News |date=2009-01-06 |accessdate=2010-06-01}}</ref> ===2005 – Paleupasn sapihak Israél=== [[Pasukan Patahanan Israél]] ninggalkeun Jalur Gaza dina 1 Sépéember 2005 minangka bagian ti [[rancangan paleupasan sapihak Israél]], sarta sadaya wargi Israél dikaluarkeun ti wewengkon éta. Hiji 'Pasatujuan dina Pagerakan jeung Aksés' antawis Israél jeung [[Otoritas Paléstina]] kalawan panganteur ku [[Condoleezza Rice]] dina Nopémber 2005 pikeun ningkatkeun kabébasan urang Paléstina dina aktivitas pagerakan jeung ékonomi di Jalur Gaza. Dina pajangjian, pameuntasan [[Rafah]]-[[Egypt]] kedah dibuka deui, kalawan arus asup-kaluar diawaskeun ku Otoritas Nasional Paléstina jeung [[Uni Éropa]]. Ngan jalmi kalawan idéntitas Paléstina, atanapi urang kabangsaan lian, kalawan pangajabaan, dina kategori katangtu, subjék ti pangawasan Israél, anu diijinkeun pikeun meuntas asup jeung kaluar. Sadaya barang, kandaraan, jeung truk ka jeung ti Mesir kedah ngaliwatan pameuntasan Israél di [[Kerem Shalom]], dina pangawasan pinuh Israél.<ref>[[Tanya Reinhart]], ''The Road to Nowhere,'' Verso, London 2006 pp.134-5</ref> Barang-barang diijinkeun ogé ngaliwatan [[pameuntasan Karni]] di kalér. ====Status sah==== PBB, [[Panénjo Hak Asasi Manusa]], jeung raloba organisasi internasional lian jeung [[lembaga swadaya masarakat|LSM]] némbong Israél hayang ngawasaan Jalur Gaza sakumaha Israél ngawasaan wewengkon cai jeung udara Jalur Gaza, sarta teu ngijinkeun kalura-asupna barang-barang ka jeung ti Gaza liwat cai atawa udara (ngan bisa liwat darat).<ref name="AI_briefing">{{cite web|url=http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/MDE15/007/2009/en/4c407b40-e64c-11dd-9917-ed717fa5078d/mde150072009en.html|title=Israel/Occupied Palestinian Territories: The conflict in Gaza: A briefing on applicable law, investigations and accountability|date=2009-01-19|publisher=[[Amnesty International]]|accessdate=2009-06-05}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090610222437/http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/MDE15/007/2009/en/4c407b40-e64c-11dd-9917-ed717fa5078d/mde150072009en.html |date=2009-06-10 }}</ref><ref name="isrlpa13698">[http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/07/06/isrlpa13698.htm "Human Rights Council Special Session on the Occupied Palestinian Territories"] July 6, 2006; Human Rights Watch considers Gaza still occupied.</ref><ref name="cnn2009-01-06">{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/meast/01/06/israel.gaza.occupation.question/index.html|title=Is Gaza 'occupied' territory?|last=Levs|first=Josh|date=2009-01-06|publisher=CNN|accessdate=2009-05-30}}</ref> Tapi, pameuntasan wates ka Mesir teu dikawasaan ku Israél. Kawas Israél, Mesir sacara tumurutna ngalarang atanapi ngijinkeun barang jeung jalmi meuntasan wates darat éta. Israél nyebutkeun yén Gaza heunteu dikawasaan deui, sakumaha Israél heunteu mibogaan kadali atanapi otoritas kana wewengkon darat atanapi institusi di Jelur Gaza.<ref name=Gold>Dore Gold, [http://www.jcpa.org/brief/brief005-3.htm JCPA Legal Acrobatics: The Palestinian Claim that Gaza is Still "Occupied" Even After Israel Withdraws] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621082606/http://jcpa.org/brief/brief005-3.htm |date=2010-06-21 }}, [[Jerusalem Centre for Public Affairs]], Vol. 5, No. 3, August 26, 2005.</ref><ref>[http://www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DRIT=1&DBID=1&LNGID=1&TMID=111&FID=443&PID=0&IID=2021&TTL=International_Law_and_Gaza:_The_Assault_on_Israel’s_Right_to_Self-Defense International Law and Gaza: The Assault on Israel's Right to Self-Defense] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306092456/http://www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DRIT=1&DBID=1&LNGID=1&TMID=111&FID=443&PID=0&IID=2021&TTL=International_Law_and_Gaza%3A_The_Assault_on_Israel%E2%80%99s_Right_to_Self-Defense |date=2012-03-06 }}, [[Jerusalem Centre for Public Affairs]], Vol. 7, No. 29 28 January 2008.</ref> [[Mentri Hubungan Luar Nagri Israél]], [[Tzipi Livni]], nyarios dina Januari 2008: "Israél kaluar ti Gaza. Israél ngabongkar padumukanna di ditu. Teu aya pasukan Israél nu kasésa di ditu sanggeus paleupasan."<ref>[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Government/Speeches+by+Israeli+leaders/2008/Address+by+FM+Livni+to+the+8th+Herzliya+Conference+22-Jan-2008.htm?DisplayMode=print Israeli MFA Address by Israeli Foreign Minister Livni to the 8th Herzliya Conference], [[Kamentrian Hubungan Luar Nagri (Israél)]], 22 Januari 2008.</ref> Sanggeus Israél kaluar dina 2005, Pupuhu [[Otoritas Paléstina]], [[Mahmoud Abbas]], nyarios, "status légal wewengkon nu kadaptar pikeun évakuasi heunteu robah."<ref name=Gold/> Pangacara [[urang Paléstina Amérika|Paléstina Amérika]], Gregory Khalil, nyebatkeun "Israél masih ngawasaan sadaya jalmi, barang, [jeung] keclak cai pikeun asup atawa kaluar Jalur Gaza. Pasukanna meureun teu aya di ditu... tapi laranganna masih ngawatesan kapasitas kakawasaan otoritas Paléstina."<ref>[http://www.law.virginia.edu/html/news/2005_fall/gaza.htm Panelists Disagree Over Gaza’s Occupation Status] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200844/http://www.law.virginia.edu/html/news/2005_fall/gaza.htm |date=2016-03-03 }}, [[Fakultas Hukum Universitas Virginia]], 17 Nopémber 2005.</ref>. Perkawis status sah Jalur Gaza katempo rumit dumasar kana hukum internasional, sarta narik minat sacara hukumna, komo sanggeus Operasi "Cast Lead" jeung invasi Israél kana Gaza dina Januari 2009.<ref>Susan Power, Re-engaging the Gaza Debate: the impact of Operation "Cast Lead", (06) 2009 Intellectum, pp. 033-045,[http://www.intellectum.org/articles/issues/intellectum6/en/ITL06p033045_Re-engaging%20the%20Gaza%20Debate%20-%20the%20Impact%20of%20Operation%20Cast%20Lead_Susan%20Rose%20Power.pdf Re-engaging the Gaza debate: the impact of Operation "Cast Lead"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411194658/http://www.intellectum.org/articles/issues/intellectum6/en/ITL06p033045_Re-engaging%20the%20Gaza%20Debate%20-%20the%20Impact%20of%20Operation%20Cast%20Lead_Susan%20Rose%20Power.pdf |date=2023-04-11 }}</ref> Dina cariosanna dina [[konflik Israél-Gaza 2008–2009]], [[Richard A. Falk|Richard Falk]], [[Panaratas Husus Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] nyebatkeun yén [[hukum kamanusaan internasional]] dipakékeun kana Israél "in regard to the obligations of an Occupying Power and in the requirements of the laws of war."<ref>Richard Falk, [http://www.unhchr.ch/huricane/huricane.nsf/view01/F1EC67EF7A498A30C125752D005D17F7?opendocument Statement by Prof. Richard Falk, United Nations Special Rapporteur for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories], [[United Nations Human Rights Council]], December 27, 2008.</ref> Dina wawancara dina 2009 di ''[[Democracy Now]]'', Christopher Gunness, juru carios [[Badan Pamulihan jeung Pangagawéan Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa pikeun Pangungsi Paléstina di Wétan Deukeut]] (UNRWA) nyebat Israél hiji kakiatan nu ngajajah. Tapi, Méagan Buren, Panaséhat Sénior [[Israel Project]], teu satuju ngeunaan éta.<ref>[http://www.democracynow.org/2009/1/5/a_debate_on_israels_invasion_of A Debate on Israel’s Invasion of Gaza: UNRWA's Christopher Gunness v. Israel Project’s Meagan Buren] [[Democracy Now]], 5 Januari 2009.</ref> Inohong Hamas, Mahmoud Zahar, nyarios yén Gaza teu kajajh deui saprak kaluarna Israél.<ref>[http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=449619] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113101053/http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=449619 |date=2012-11-13 }} "'Against whom could we demonstrate in the Gaza Strip? When Gaza was occupied, that model was applicable,' Zahar said." Ditampi ti Ma'an News Agency, 5 Januari 2012</ref> ===Pangawasaan Otoritas Paléstina (1994–2007)=== Dumasar kana [[Pasatujuan Oslo]], [[Otoritas Nasional Paléstina|Otoritas Paléstina]] nyekelan otoritas administratif Jalur Gaza (salian blok padumukan jeung wewengkon militér) dina 1994. Sanggeus [[rancangan paleupasan sapihak Israél|kaluarna Israél]] (pangeusi jeung militér) ti Jalur Gaza dina 12 Séptémber 2005, Otoritas Paléstina mibanda otoritas administratif pinuh di Jalur Gaza. Saprak paleupasan Israél, [[Pameuntasan Wates Rafah]] diawasan ku [[Misi Pitulungan Wates Uni Éropa Rafah]] dina hiji pasatujuan nu diadopsi dina Nopémber 2005.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.europa-eu-un.org/articles/en/article_5366_en.htm |title=EU Border Assistance Mission for Rafah Crossing Point (EU BAM Rafah) |publisher=United nations : European union |date=25 November 2005}}</ref> ====Karusuhan pasca-pamilu==== {{utama|Konflik Fatah–Hamas}} Dina [[Pamilu législatif Paléstina 2006|pamilu parlemén Paléstina]] 25 Januari 2006, [[Hamas]] meunangkeun 42,9% total sora, mibanda 74 ti 132 korsi (56%).<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110515023627/http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/01/25/africa/web.0125pals.php Counting underway in Palestinian elections], International Herald Tribune, 25 January 2006.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090113160924/http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200601/s1557518.htm Election officials reduce [[Hamas]] seats by two], ABC News Online, 30 January 2006.</ref> Nalika Hamas mangku kakawasaan dina bulan sanggeusna, pamaréntah Israél jeung pamaén konci komunitas internasional, Amérika Sarikat jeung Uni Éropa, nolak ngakuan hakna dina maréntah [[Otoritas Paléstina]]. Pitulungan langsung ka pamaréntah Paléstina di ditu dipegatkeun, sanajan sababaraha anggaranna dialihkeun ka organisasi kamanusaan nu teu kahubung jeung pamaréntahan.<ref>{{cite news|last=Weisman |first=Steven R. |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/08/world/middleeast/08hamas.html?scp=4&sq=aid&st=nyt |title=U.S. and Europe Halt Aid to Palestinian Government|publisher=Nytimes.com |date=2006-04-08 |accessdate=2011-05-21}}</ref> Hasilna, karusuhan pulitik jeung stagnasi ékonomi ngakibatkeun raloba Urang Paléstina angakat ti Jalur Gaza.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070810085213/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fn%2Fa%2F2006%2F12%2F09%2Finternational%2Fi104249S77.DTL More Palestinians flee homelands], Sarah El Deeb, Associated Press, December 9, 2006.</ref> Dina Januari 2007, aya patempuran antara Hamas jeung [[Fatah]]. Patempuran di Jalur Gaza kalér ngakibatkeun Jéndral [[Muhammed Gharib]], komandan sénior [[Pasukan Kaamanan Pancegahan]], pupus ku diarah ku rokét ka bumina. 2 putri Gharib jeung 2 pangawalna ogé maot dina panarajangan éta, nu mana dilaksanakeun ku tentara Hamas.<ref name=jp200713a>{{cite web |last=Abu |first=Khaled |url=http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1167467655416&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull |title=US to give $86 million to Abbas's forces |publisher=Jerusalem Post |date= |accessdate=2011-05-21 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511121307/http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1167467655416&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull |date=2011-05-11 }}</ref> Dina ahir Januari 2007, gencatan senjata disawalakeun antawis Fatah jeung Hamas.<ref>[http://apnews.excite.com/article/20070131/D8N050P00.html Palestinian Cease-Fire Holds on 1st Day]{{dead link|date=December 2010}}, Ibrahim Barzak, 31 January 2007, Associated Press; [http://apnews.excite.com/article/20070130/D8MVFSI00.html Cease-Fire Starts Taking Hold in Gaza]{{dead link|date=December 2010}} Ibrahim Barzak, 30 January 2007, Associated Press.</ref> Tapi sanggeus sababaraha poé, patempuran nu anyar aya deui.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070206223752/http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20070201/wl_nm/palestinians_dc]</ref> Tentara Fatah narajang sababaraha universitas nu patali jeung Hamas di Jalur Gaza. Pejabat Pangawal Kaprésidénan Abbas temupur jeung tentara Hamas nu ngawal Kamentrian Jero Nagri nu dipingpin ku Hamas.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070208022546/http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070202/ap_on_re_mi_ea/israel_palestinians Gaza erupts in fatal clashes after truce], Associated Press, 2 February 2007.</ref> Patempuran kasebar di Jalur Gaza. Kadua pihak narajang kandaraan jeung sarana lawanna. Ku sabab ditarajang ku rokét ti Jalur Gaza, Israél ngalaksanakeun panarajangan udara nu mana ngancurkeun wangunan nu dipaké ku Hamas. Karusuhan nu tetep lumangsung bisa ngarah ka ahir ti [[pamaréntahan Paléstina Maret 2007|pamaréntahan koalisi Fatah-Hamas]], sarta kamungkinan ahir ti Otoritas Paléstina.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070518093159/http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20070516/ts_nm/palestinians_dc Israel attacks in Gaza amid factional violence], by Nidal al-Mughrabi, Associated Press, 16 May 2007.</ref> ====Korban==== Ti 2006-2007, leuwih ti 600 Urang Paléstina pupus dina papaséaan antara Hamas jeung Fatah.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3409548,00.html |title=Over 600 Palestinians killed in internal clashes since 2006 |publisher=Ynetnews.com |date=1995-06-20 |accessdate=2010-12-12}}</ref> Sanggeus [[Perang Gaza]], saruntuyan kajadian nelasan 54 Urang Paléstina, samentara ratusan ngaku disiksa.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2009/01/21/MNHV15EHUT.DTL | work=The San Francisco Chronicle | title=Hamas executes suspected Fatah traitors in Gaza | first=Matthew | last=Kalman | date=22 January 2009 }} {{Webarchive|url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110716081531/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2009/01/21/MNHV15EHUT.DTL |date=16 July 2011 }}</ref> 349 Urang Paléstina ditelasan dina patempuran antawis pihak dina 2007. 160 Urang Paléstina patelas-telas ngan dina bulan Juni hungkul.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.btselem.org/English/Inter_Palestinian_Violations/ |title=B'Tselem - Violations of the human rights of Palestinians by Palestinians - Severe human rights violations in inter-Palestinian clashes |publisher=Btselem.org |date=2007-11-12 |accessdate=2010-12-12}}</ref> ===Kakawasaan Hamas (2007–kiwari)=== Sanggeus meunangna Hamas dina [[Pamilu législatif Paléstina 2006]], Hamas jeung [[Fatah]] ngawangun hiji [[Pamaréntahan kahijian nasional Otoritas Paléstina]], diluluguan ku [[Ismail Haniya]]. Sakedap sanggeusna, Hamas ngawasaan Jalur Gaza dina [[Patempuran Gaza (2007)|Patempuran Gaza]],<ref name=Guardian>{{cite news|title=Hamas takes control of Gaza|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/jun/15/israel4|accessdate=3 June 2010|newspaper=Guardian|date=Friday 15 June 2007 | location=London | first1=Ian | last1=Black | first2=Mark | last2=Tran}}</ref> nyandak lembaga pamaréntahan jeung ngagentos Fatah jeung pajabat pamaréntahan lianna.<ref name="intern_fight_p14-15">{{cite book | title= Internal fight: Palestinian abuses in Gaza and the West Bank | pages= 14–15 | author2= [[Human Rights Watch]] | first1= Fred | last1= Abrahams | publisher= [[Human Rights Watch]] | year= 2008 }}</ref> Dina 14 Juni, Hamas sacara pinuh ngawasaan Jalur Gaza. [[Présidén Otoritas Nasional Paléstina|Présidén Paléstina]], [[Mahmoud Abbas]], ngaréspon ku cara nyatakeun [[kaayaan darurat nagara]], ngabubarkeun pamaréntahan kahijian sarta ngawangun hiji pamaréntahan nu anyar tanpa partisipasi Hamas. [[Layanan Kaamanan Pancegahan|Pasukan Kaamanan ONP]] di [[Sisi Kulon]] nahan sababaraha anggota Hamas. Pamaréntahan Abbas nampi raloba dukungan internasional. Dina ahir Juni 2008, Mesir, Yordania, jeung Arab Saudi nyebatkeun yén Kabinét Sisi Kulon nu diwangun ku Abbas mangrupa sahiji-hijina pamaréntahan Paléstina anu sah. Mesir mindahkeun kadutaanna ti Gaza ka Sisi Kulon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/874106.html|title=Mubarak calls Hamas' takeover of the Gaza Strip a 'coup'|publisher=Haaretz Daily Newspaper|date=|accessdate=2011-05-21}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070625201301/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/874106.html |date=2007-06-25 }}</ref> The Hamas government in the Gaza Strip faces international, diplomatic, and economic isolation. [[image:Watchtower rafah gaza strip april 2009.jpg|thumb|Munara pangawas, wates Rafah-Mesir]] Boh [[Arab Saudi]] jeung Mesir ngadukung pamulihan hubungan jeung dibentukna pamaréntahan kahijian nu anyar, sarta neken Abbas sangkan ngawitan parundingan nyata jeung Hamas. Partéy oposisi jeung pulitisi ogé nyorakeun hiji parundingan jeung Hamas ogé hiji ahir hukuman ékonomi. Sanggeus panyandakan alih, Israél jeung Mesir [[blokade Jalur Gaza|nutup pameuntasan watesna jeung Gaza]]. Sumber-sumber Paléstina ngalaporkeun yén pangawas Uni Éropa kaluar ti [[Pameuntasan Wates Rafah]], di Wates Mesir-Gaza lantaran sieun diculik atanapi disiksa.<ref name=EU_flee_Rafah_crossing>{{cite web |last=Dudkevitch |first=Margot |url=http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&cid=1139395602714 |title=EU monitors flee Rafah border crossing |publisher=Jerusalem Post |date=2006-03-14 |accessdate=2011-05-21 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511121459/http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull&cid=1139395602714 |date=2011-05-11 }}</ref> Mentri-mentri luar nagri Arab jeung pajabat pamaréntahan Paléstina ngawangun hiji fron ngalawan kakawasaan Hamas di wates éta.<ref name="Abbas wins Egypt backing on border">{{cite web|url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2008/01/2008525125823983496.html |title=Middle East&nbsp;— Abbas wins Egypt backing on border |publisher=Al Jazeera English |date=2008-01-28 |accessdate=2010-06-01}}</ref> Sawatara éta, laporan kaamanan Israél jeung Mesir nyebatkeun yén Hamas terus nyalurkeun bahan éksplosif jeung pakarang ti Mesir liwat torowongan. Pasukan kaamanan Mesir manggih 60 torowongan dina 2007.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1192380807070&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull |title=Egypt finds 60 Gaza tunnels in 10 months |publisher=Jerusalem Post |date=2007-11-13 |accessdate=2011-05-21 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511121629/http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1192380807070&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull |date=2011-05-11 }}</ref> ====Sanggeus Hamas nyandak kadali==== Sanggeus meunangna Hamas dina Juni, pajabat-pajabat nu patali jeung Fatah dikaluarkeun ti wewenang jeung kakawasaanna (saperti jabatan pamaréntahan, kaamanan, universitas, koran, jsb.) sarta ngusahakeun ngalaksanakeun hukum ku cara progrésif nurunkeun pakarang ti gerilyawan, marga, jeung kelompok kajahatan di sakurilingeunana, jeung ngawasaan torowongan suplai. Dumasar kana [[Amnésti Internasional]], dina kakawasaan Hamas, surat kabar ditutup sarta wartawan dilécéhkeun.<ref name=AI_torn>{{cite web|url=http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGMDE210202007|title=Torn apart by factional strife|publisher=[[Amnésti Internasional]]|date=24 October 2007|accessdate=2007-10-23 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071025073634/http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGMDE210202007 |archivedate = October 25, 2007}}</ref> Unjuk rasa Fatah dilarang atanapi diteken, sakumaha contona dina kasus démonstrasi pikeun miélingan pupusna [[Yasser Arafat]], nu mana ngakibatkeun maotna 7 urang, sanggeus démonstran ngalungkeun batu kana pasukan kaamanan Hamas.<ref>[http://news.sbs.com.au/worldnewsaustralia/hamas_kills_seven_at_arafat_rally_in_gaza_135015 Hamas kills seven at Arafat rally in Gaza] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.ph/20070813050106/http://news.sbs.com.au/worldnewsaustralia/hamas_kills_seven_at_arafat_rally_in_gaza_135015 |date=2007-08-13 }} , AFP, (via SBS World News Australia), 13 November 2007.</ref> Kajahatan kana urang Kristen aya ogé. Saurang Kristen nu mibanda hiji toko buku diculik jeung ditelasan,<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/gazas-christian-bookseller-killed-396283.html | work=The Independent | location=London | title=Gaza's Christian bookseller killed | first=Eric | last=Silver | date=8 October 2007 | accessdate=3 May 2010}}</ref> sarta dina 15 Pébruari 2008, perpustakaan hiji organisasi Kristen di Kota Gaza dibom.<ref>http://www.maannews.net/en/index.php?opr=ShowDetails&ID=27804 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215053150/http://www.maannews.net/en/index.php?opr=ShowDetails&ID=27804 |date=2017-12-15 }}</ref> Hamas jeung grup militan lianna neraskeun ngaluncurkeun rokét Qassam ka Israél. Dumasar kana Israél, antara Panyandakan Alih ku Hamas jeung ahir Januari 2008, 697 rokét jeung 822 mortir diarahkeun ka kota-kota Israél.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Terrorism-+Obstacle+to+Peace/Palestinian+terror+since+2000/Missile+fire+from+Gaza+on+Israeli+civilian+targets+Aug+2007.htm#statistics |title=Israeli MFA |publisher=Mfa.gov.il |date= |accessdate=2010-06-01|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071011023634/http%3A//www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Terrorism-%2BObstacle%2Bto%2BPeace/Palestinian%2Bterror%2Bsince%2B2000/Missile%2Bfire%2Bfrom%2BGaza%2Bon%2BIsraeli%2Bcivilian%2Btargets%2BAug%2B2007.htm#statistics |archivedate = October 11, 2007|deadurl=yes}}</ref> Balesannana, Israél ngarah paluncur rokét Qassam jeung targét-targét militér sarta dina 19 Séptember 2007, nyatakeun Jalur Gaza minangka hiji éntitas musuh. Dina Januari 2008, Israél ngawatesan lalampahan ti Gaza, asupna barang-barang, sarta motong pasokan suluh, ngakibatkeun kakirangan listrik. Hal ieu ngarah ka tuntutan yén Israél méré [[hukuman koléktif]] kana populasi Gaza, nu ngarah ka panghukuman internasional. Sanajan raloba laporan ti Jalur Gaza nyebatkeun yén pangan sarta kabutuhan poko lianna kirang pisan pasokanna, <ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/5122404.stm |title=Profile: Gaza Strip |publisher=BBC News |date=2009-01-06 |accessdate=2011-05-21}}</ref> Israél ngabantah bari nyebatkeun yén Gaza geus miboga pangan jeung suplai énergi nu cekap pikeun sababaraha minggu.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3496654,00.html |title=IDF official rejects claims of humanitarian crisis in Gaza |publisher=Ynetnews.com |date=1995-06-20 |accessdate=2011-05-21}}</ref> Dina awal Maret 2008, panarajangan udara jeung darat ku [[:en:IDF|IDF]]<!-- Pasukan Patahanan Israél? --> ngakibatkeun maotna leuwih ti 110 urang Paléstina sarta dampak kaancuran di [[Jabalia]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7272329.stm Dozens die in Israel-Gaza clashes] ''[[BBC News]]''. 2 Maret 2008.</ref> Sanggeus Présidén Mesir, Hosni Mubarak, mundur dina 28 Méi 2011, Mesir muka watesna jeung Jalur Gaza.<ref>[http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304066504576350681957475322.html] ''[[Wall Street Journal]]''. 29 Méi 2011.</ref> ====Panorobosan wates==== {{utama|Panorobosan wates Gaza-Mesir 2008}} Dina 23 Januari 2008, sanggeus sababaraha bulan persiapan nalika pangiatan wates ku baja jadi ruksak,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070802091348/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/947775.html Ha'aretz]</ref> [[Panorobosan wates Gaza-Mesir (2008)|Hamas ngancurkeun sababaraha bagian témbok]] nu ngawatesan Gaza jeung Mesir di kota [[Rafah]]. Raloba urang meuntas ka Mesir néangan pangan jeung suplai. Ku sabab krisis, Présidén Mesir keur éta, [[Hosni Mubarak]], maréntahkeun pasukanna sangkan diijinkeun éta Urang Paléstina téh, tapi pastikeun euweuh pakarang anu dibawa balik.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7205668.stm|title=Egypt 'won't force Gazans back'|publisher=BBC News|date=23 January 2008|accessdate=2008-01-23}}</ref> Mesir nahan jeung teras ngabébaskeun sababaraha gerilyawan Hamas nu boga pakarang di Sinai nu mana presumably hayang asup ka Israél. Keur éta ogé, Israél ningkatkeun kaayaan pangélingannana di sapanjang wates Sinai Israél-Mesir, sarta nyauran wargina sangkan ninggalkeun Sinai "langsung." Pangawas Wates UE nunjukkeun kasiapanna dina balik deui ngawas wates éta, sarta Hamas kedah ngajamin kaamananna; samentara Otoritas Paléstina ménta sangkan Mesir sawala jeung pihak Otoritas hungkul ngeunaan urusan nu patali jeung wates éta. Israél ngagampangkeun sababaraha panyaluran barang jeung suplai médis ka Jalur Gaza, tapi ngawatesan listrikna 5% dina salah sahiji ti 10 saluranna, samentara Hamas jeung Mesir ngadeukeutkeun jarak antara kadua pihak.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1201523779483&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080202031535/http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?c=JPArticle&cid=1201523779483&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull|archivedate=2008-02-02|title=Fatah, Hamas fight for border control|last=Abu Toameh|first=Khaled|date=January 29, 2008|publisher=Jerusalem Post|accessdate=2009-01-04}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080202031535/http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?c=JPArticle&cid=1201523779483&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull |date=2008-02-02 }}</ref> Usaha kahiji mesir dina nutup deui watesna éta diréspon kalawan karusuhan ku gerilyawan Gaza, tapi sanggeus 12 poé, wates éta ditutup deui.{{Citation needed}} <!-- BROKEN LINK:<ref>http://rafah.virtualactivism.net/news/todaymain.htm</ref> --> Dina patengahan Pébruari, pameuntasan wates Rafah masih tutup.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maannews.net/en/index.php?opr=ShowDetails&ID=27807 |title=Maan news |publisher=Maan news |date= |accessdate=2010-06-01 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116135549/http://www.maannews.net/en/index.php?opr=ShowDetails&ID=27807 |date=2009-01-16 }}</ref> Dina Pébruari 2008, hiji survéi [[Haaretz]] nunjukkeun yén 64% masarakat Israél hoyong pamaréntahna ngayakeun diskusi langsung jeung Hamas di Gaza ngeunaan gencatan senjata sarta pikeun ngamankeun dibébaskeunnana [[Gilad Shalit]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/958473.html|title=Poll: Most Israelis back direct talks with Hamas on Shalit|author=Yossi Verter|publisher=[[Haaretz]]|date=2008-02-27|accessdate=2008-02-27}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228191823/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/958473.html |date=2008-02-28 }}</ref> saurang prajurit Israél nu ditahan dina hiji panarajangan pameuntasan wates ku militan Hamas dina 25 Juni 2006 sarta geus jadi sandra saprak éta.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070323094529/http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/06/28/news/mideast.php 'Israelis threaten a broader action' by Ian Fisher and Steven Erlanger], [[International Herald Tribune]]</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/6967230.stm |title=Gilad Shalit's birthday marked |publisher=BBC News |date=2007-08-28 |accessdate=2010-06-01}}</ref><ref>[http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/meast/06/26/israel.soldier/index.html 'Militants issue Israel hostage demands'(CNN)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060628025602/http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/meast/06/26/israel.soldier/index.html |date=2006-06-28 }}</ref> Dina Pébruari 2008, [[konflik Israél-Gaza 2008|patempuran antawis Israél jeung Paléstina nambih ripuh]] kalawan paluncuran rokét sarta ditarajangna militan Paléstina. Agrési militér ku Hamas ngarah ka aksi militér Israél dina 1 Maret 2008, ngakibatkeun leuwih ti 110 Urang Paléstina maot dumasar kana BBC News, kitu ogé kana 2 prajurit Israél. Kelompok hak asasi manusa Israél, [[B'Tselem]], merkirakeun yén 45 korban nu ditelasan heunteu patali jeung karusuhan éta, samentara aya 15 nu saeutik.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/7274929.stm |title=Israeli Gaza operation 'not over' |publisher=BBC News |date=2008-03-03 |accessdate=2010-06-01}}</ref> Sanggues silih nahan antawis Fatah jeung Hamas di Jalur Gaza jeung Tepi Kulon, [[kulawarga Hilles]] ti Gaza dipindahkeun ka [[Jericho]] dina 4 Agustus 2008.<ref>{{cite web |last=Katz |first=Yaakov |url=http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1215331192135&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull |title=IDF: Hilles clan won't boost terrorism &#124; Israel &#124; Jerusalem Post |publisher=Jerusalem Post |date= |accessdate=2011-05-21 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511121547/http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1215331192135&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull |date=2011-05-11 }}</ref> Pénsiunan Perdana Mentri, Ehud Olmert, saurna dina 11 Nopémber 2008, "Naon nu ditaroskeun téh sanés bakal aya atanapi teu ayana konfrontasi, tapi basa éta lumangsung, dina kaayaan naon, sarta saha nu ngadalikeun situasi, saha nu bakal ngarahkeunnana, sarta saha nu bakal nyaho dina mangpaatkeun waktu ti awal gencatan senjata nepi ka konfrontasi kalawan cara anu pangalusna nu mungkin.” Dina 14 Nopémber 2008, Gaza diblokade ku Israél minangka balesan tina tarajangan mortir jeung rokét ku Hamas jeung kelompok militan lianna nu aya operasina di Gaza.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-gaza14-2008nov14,0,5998371.story | work=Los Angeles Times | title=Blockade leaves Gazans in the dark | first1=Richard | last1=Boudreaux | date=14 November 2008 | accessdate=3 May 2010 }}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Sanajan kitu, pangan, listrik, jeung cai masih bisa asu ti Mesir upami pihak otoritas Mesir ngijinkeunnana. Dina 28 Nopémber 2008, sanggeus masa 24 jam di mana euweuh [[rokét Qassam]] nu diluncurkeun ka Israél, [[Pasukan Patahanan Israél|IDF]] ngagampangkeun transportasi ti leuwih ti 30 truk nu mawa pangan, pasokan dasar, jeung alat médis ka Jalur Gaza, sarta ogé masok suluh ka pembangkit listrik utama di wewengkon éta.<ref>{{cite web |last=Keinon |first=Herb |url=http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1226404825125&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull |title=Ministries at odds over journalists' entry into Gaza |publisher=Jerusalem Post |date=2008-11-24 |accessdate=2011-05-21 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511121434/http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1226404825125&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull |date=2011-05-11 }}</ref> Dina 25 Nopémber 2008, Israél nutup pameuntasan kargona jeung Gaza ku sabab 2 rokét nu diluncurkeun ka Israél.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1226404835055&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull |title=Israel closes Gaza crossings |publisher=Jerusalem Post |date= |accessdate=2011-05-21 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511121713/http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1226404835055&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull |date=2011-05-11 }}</ref> ====Perang Gaza==== {{utama|Perang Gaza}} [[File:Israelis killed by Palestinians in Israel and Palestinians killed by Israelis in Gaza - 2008.png|thumb|Urang Israél nu ditelasan ku Urang Paléstina di Israél (<span style="color:blue;">blue</span>) sarta Urang Paléstina nu ditelasan ku Urang Israél di Gaza (<span style="color:red;">red</span>)]] [[File:Damaged housing gaza strip april 2009.jpg|thumb|right|Imah-imah nu ruksak nalika Operasi ''Cast Lead'']] Dina 27 Désémber 2008,<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/28/world/middleeast/28mideast.html | work=The New York Times | title=Israelis Say Strikes Against Hamas Will Continue | first1=Taghreed | last1=El-Khodary | first2=Ethan | last2=Bronner | date=28 December 2008 | accessdate=3 May 2010}}</ref> [[F-16]] Israél ngalaksanakeun hiji runtuyan panarajangan udara kana sasaran-sasaran di Gaza minangka balesan tina rokét-rokét nu ditémbakkeun teterusan ti Jalur Gaza ka Israél. Raloba tempat nu dipaké minangka panyimpenan pakarang ditarajang: pos polisi, sakola, rumah sakit, gudang PBB, masjid, raloba wangunan pamaréntahan Hamas, sarta wangunan lianna.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mozgovaya |first=Natasha |url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1053233.html |title=IDF shell kills 30 in Gaza UN school; Israel mulls appeal over Hamas fire from UN facilities |publisher=Haaretz Daily Newspaper |date= |accessdate=2011-05-21 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090401074434/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1053233.html |date=2009-04-01 }}</ref> Israél nyebatkeun yén panarajangan éta mangrupa balesan ti tarajangan rokét Hamas di Israél beulah kidul, kalawan jumlah [[Daptar tarajangan rokét Paléstina ka Israél|leuwih ti 3.000 dina 2008]]. Pagawé médis Paléstina ngaku yén paling saeutikna 434 Urang Paléstina maot, sarta minimalna 2.800 cedera, kasusun ti warga sipil jeung anggota Hamas, dina 5 poé kahiji panarajangan Israél kana Gaza. [[Pasukan Patahanan Israél]] nolak pangakuan ngeunaan korban panarajangan éta kalobaannanan warga sipil, nyadiakeun bukti yén Hamas ngahajan nyumputkeun pakarang jeung militan di "masjid, lapangan sakola, jeung imah warga sipil" pikeun ngahalangan hiji tarajangan sarta mangpaatkeun [[Pasukan Patahanan Israél#Kode arahan ngalawan militan jeung warga sipill Paléstina|aturan patempuran Israél]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Erlanger |first=Steven |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/11/world/middleeast/11hamas.html |title=A Gaza War Full of Traps and Trickery |location=Israel;Gaza Strip |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=2009-01-10 |accessdate=2011-05-21}}</ref> Israél mimiti invasi darat kana Jalur Gaza dina 3 Januari 2009.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2009/01/03/world/international-palestinians-israel.html | work=The New York Times}} {{Dead link|date=August 2010|bot=RjwilmsiBot}}</ref> Israel nolak raloba usulan gencatan senjata sarta kadua pihak nyatakeun gencatan senjata sapihak.<ref>McClatchy Newspapers, January 5, 2009, "Israel Rebuffs Cease-Fire Calls as Gaza Casualties Rise" http://www.mcclatchydc.com/world/story/58981.html</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usnews.com/blogs/mideast-watch/2009/01/12/hamas-rejects-cease-fire-with-israel-in-gaza.html |title=Hamas Rejects Cease-Fire With Israel in Gaza&nbsp;— Mideast Watch |publisher=usnews.com |date= |accessdate=2010-06-01}}</ref> Total 1.100-1.400<ref>{{cite web|last=Kasher |first=Asa |url=http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=168061 |title=Analysis: A moral evaluation of the Gaza War |publisher=Jpost.com |date= |accessdate=2010-12-12}}</ref> Urang Paléstina jeung 13 Urang Israél ditelasan dina Perang 22 poé.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/8428883.stm | work=BBC News | title=Slow recovery from wounds of Gaza conflict | date=27 December 2009 | accessdate=3 May 2010}}</ref> Sanggeus tempur 22 poé, Israél nyatakeun gencatan senjata. Hamas bakal ngalanjutkeun patempuran upami pasukan Israél heunteu ninggalkeun Jalur Gaza.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/18/world/middleeast/18mideast.html?hp | work=The New York Times | title=Israel Declares Cease-Fire; Hamas Says It Will Fight On | first=Steven | last=Erlanger | date=18 January 2009 | accessdate=3 May 2010}}</ref> Konflik éta ngaruksakkeun atanapi ngancurkeun sababaraha imah,<ref>http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/media/press-briefing-notes/pbnAF/cache/offonce/lang/en?entryId=21830 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310183754/http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/media/press-briefing-notes/pbnAF/cache/offonce/lang/en?entryId=21830 |date=2012-03-10 }}; Reuters, January 12, 2009 Lappin, Yaakov. [http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1237727552054&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull IDF releases Cast Lead casualty] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511121653/http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1237727552054&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull |date=2011-05-11 }}, ''The Jerusalem Post'', March 26, 2009.</ref> 15 ti 27 rumah sakit di Gaza sarta 43 ti 110 fasilitas kaséhatan utama,<ref>http://www.ochaopt.org/documents/ochaopt_who_gaza_health_fact_sheet_20100120_english.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308014019/http://www.ochaopt.org/documents/ochaopt_who_gaza_health_fact_sheet_20100120_english.pdf |date=2015-03-08 }}</ref> 800 sumur,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=47273 |title=MIDEAST: Attack on Water Brings Sanitation Crisis - IPS |publisher=Ipsnews.net |date=2009-06-18 |accessdate=2010-12-12}}</ref> 186 imah kaca,<ref>http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/UNEP_Gaza_EA.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514204950/http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/UNEP_Gaza_EA.pdf |date=2011-05-14 }}</ref> sarta méh sadaya 10.000 ladang kulawarga;<ref>http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/tc/tce/pdf/FAO_brief_on_Gaza_23_Jan_09.pdf</ref> ngakibatkeun 50.000 urang tanpa imah,<ref name="news.bbc.co.uk">{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7838618.stm | work=BBC News | title=Gaza 'looks like earthquake zone' | date=20 January 2009}}</ref> 400.000-500.000 urang tanpa cai nu ngocor,<ref name="news.bbc.co.uk"/><ref name="Gaza: Humanitarian situation">{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7845428.stm | work=BBC News | title=Gaza: Humanitarian situation | date=30 January 2009}}</ref> 1 juta urang tanpa listrik,<ref name="Gaza: Humanitarian situation"/> sarta nyababkeun stok pangan kritis.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wfp.org/content/wfp-launches-emergency-food-distributions-families-gaza |title=Launches Emergency Food Distributions to Families in Gaza &#124; WFP &#124; United Nations World Food Programme - Fighting Hunger Worldwide |publisher=WFP |date= |accessdate=2010-12-12 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511084335/http://www.wfp.org/content/wfp-launches-emergency-food-distributions-families-gaza |date=2011-05-11 }}</ref> Dina Pébruari 2009, kasadiaan pangan pulih deui saperti saméméh perang tapi suplai kadaharan lokal nu seger diprédiksi bakal ngirang drastis dina April-Juni 2009 ku sabab akbiat fatal dina widang agrikultur nalika perang.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/373CC85C90E938F485257574005E7B2B |title=Gaza Emergency Food Security Assessment (EFSA) - FAO/WFP report (24 February 2009) |publisher=Unispal.un.org |date= |accessdate=2011-05-21 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513091337/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/373CC85C90E938F485257574005E7B2B |date=2011-05-13 }}</ref> ====Blokade Gaza==== {{utama|Blokade Jalur Gaza 2007–kiwari}} Diblokadenya Jalur Gaza lanjut sanggeus perang, sanajan Israél ngijinkeun tulungan kamanusaan médis tapi dina kumlah nu kawates. Palang Beureum nyebatkeun yén blokade éta ngaruksakkeun ékonomi Gaza sarta nyababkeun kirangna kalengkepan jeung alat médis dasar kawas panawar nyeri jeung film sinar x.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1096443.html |title=Red Cross: Israel trapping 1.5m Gazans in despair |date=2009-06-29 |publisher=[[Haaretz]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090630165052/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1096443.html |date=2009-06-30 }}</ref> Diréktur [[Shin Bet]] (Badan Kaamanan Israél), [[Yuval Diskin]] nyarios yén anjeunna moal ngalawan kana dilogorkeunnana palarangan dagang, tapi percanten yén torowongan penyelundupan di Sinai sarta palabuan nu kabuka di Jalur Gaza ngabahyakeun kaamanan Israél. Saur Diskin, Hamas jeung [[Gerakan Jihad Islam di Paléstina|Jihad Islam]] geus nyelundupkeun leuwih ti "5.000 rokét kalawan radius jangaku nepi ka 40 kilométer." Sababaraha rokét éta bisa nepi ka tempat sajauh [[Wewegkon Métropolitan Tel Aviv]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?ID=178503 |title=Diskin: No aid crisis in Gaza |publisher=Jpost.com |date=2010-06-15 |accessdate=2010-12-12}}</ref> Mark Regev, juru carios kantor Peradana Mentri Israél, nerangkeun yén kalakuan Israél mangrupa "hukuman", sanés blokade, tapi saurang konsultan hukum Gaza pikeun UNRWA nyebat blokade éta minangka "tindakan di luar hukum internasional.”<ref>{{cite web|author=John Pike |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/news/2009/08/mil-090823-irin01.htm |title=ISRAEL-OPT: UN report details grim effects of Israeli blockade on Gaza |publisher=Globalsecurity.org |date= |accessdate=2010-06-01}}</ref> Dina Juli 2010, Perdana Mentri Britania, [[David Cameron]], ngritik blokade éta, nyarios yén "Bantosan jeung masarakat kamanusaan kedah tiasa kaluar asup kana dua arah. Gaza teu bisa jeung teu kénging dijadikeun penjara." <ref name="Cameron">{{cite news|last=Watt|first=Nicholas|title=David Cameron: Israeli blockade has turned Gaza Strip into a 'prison camp'|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2010/jul/27/david-cameron-gaza-prison-camp|accessdate=28 July 2010|newspaper=The Guardian|date=2010-07-27 | location=London}}</ref> Balesanna, juru carios [[Kadutaan Israél di London]] nyebatkeun yén "Masarakat Gaza téh tahanan tina organisasai téroris Hamas. Kaayaan di Gaza téh hasil langsung tina aturan jeung prioritas Hamas." [[image:Tent camp gaza strip april 2009.jpg|thumb|left|Kémah ténda, April 2009]] [[Liga Arab]] nuduh Israél ngabiayaan perang kauangan.<ref>[http://www.infoprod.co.il/article/2/293 Arab League : Israel waging a financial war] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20110816215008/http://www.infoprod.co.il/article/2/293 |date=2011-08-16 }}</ref> IDF ngadalikeun lalampahan dina wewengkon titik pameuntasan antawis Israél jeung Jalur Gaza, sarta nutup watesna jeung Gaza. Kaayaan kaamanan di Gaza jeung sapanjang watesna, kaasup watesna jeung Mesir sarta basisirna, bahaya sarta bisa robah sawaktu-waktu.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/tw/tw_922.html |title=Israel, the West Bank and Gaza Travel Warning |publisher=Travel.state.gov |date= |accessdate=2010-06-01 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20041230204200/http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/tw/tw_922.html |archivedate=2004-12-30 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041230204200/http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/tw/tw_922.html |date=2004-12-30 }}</ref> Nyanghareupan ningkatna panggilan internasional sangkan ngalogorkeun atanapi ngahupus blokadena, Mesir jeung Israél ngirangan palarangan éta mimiti Juni 2010, nalika Pameuntasan Wates Rafah ti Egypt ka Gaza dibuka sabagian ku Mesir, sarta mentri luar nagri Mesir nerangkeun yén pameuntasan wates éta bakal terus dibuka utamina pikeun jalma, tapi sanés pikeun pasokan barang, ngaliwat.<ref>[http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2010/0602/Egypt-eases-own-Gaza-blockade-after-Israel-Freedom-Flotilla-raid Egypt eases own Gaza blockade after Israel Freedom Flotilla raid], Christian Science Monitor, June 2, 2010 (page 2)</ref> Israél ngumumkeun yén nagara éta bakal ngijinkeun barang-barang kabutuhan sipil kalawan pangawasan bari nyegah pakarang katangtu jeung barang dwifungsi asup ka Gaza nu dikawasaan ku Hamas.<ref name="google1">{{cite web|last=Rabinowitz |first=Gavin |url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hYVYAfX_Mu7L_Kv-VU_3g4XdDiSA |title=AFP: Israel to allow more 'civilian' goods into Gaza: official |publisher=Google.com |date=2010-06-20 |accessdate=2010-12-12|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20120525004953/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hYVYAfX_Mu7L_Kv-VU_3g4XdDiSA|archivedate=2012-05-25}}</ref> ====Trén Islamisasi==== {{utama|Islamisasi Jalur Gaza}} Ti 1987 nepi ka 1991, nalika [[intifada kahiji]], Hamas ngampanyekeun pamakéan hijab sarta aturan-aturan lianna, kaasup maksa awéwé tinggal di imah jeung dipisahkeun ti lalaki, sarta kampanye poligami. Dina perkawis ieu, awéwé nu milih teu maké hijab disiksa sacara verbal jeung fisik, kalawan hasil hijabna dipaké 'ngan pikeun nyegah masalah di jalan'.<ref name="Ruben">Rubenberg, C., ''Palestinian Women: Patriarchy and Resistance in the West Bank'' (USA, 2001) p.230-231</ref> Saprak Hamas nyandak kadali kana Jalur Gaza dina 2007, sababaraha anggotana ngusahakeun maksa pamakéan pakéan Islam atanapi [[Hijab]] pikeun awéwé.<ref name="ReferenceB">[http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/06/world/middleeast/06gaza.html Hamas Fights Over Gaza’s Islamist Identity] New York Times, September 5, 2009</ref><ref name="xinhua">{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2010-01/03/content_12748559.htm |title=Hamas encourages Gaza women to follow Islamic code|publisher=News.xinhuanet.com |date=2010-01-03 |accessdate=2011-05-21}}</ref> "Kamentrian Pandukung Islam" ogé miboga anggota Komite Kahadéan ngélingkeun masarakat kana bahaya pakéan nu teu sopan, maén kartu, jeung bobogohan.<ref name="bloomberg">[http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aB2RfynNbLmk Hamas Bans Women Dancers, Scooter Riders in Gaza Push] By Daniel Williams, Bloomberg, November 30, 2009</ref> Tapi, euweuh aturan pamaréntah anu ngatur neguaan pakéan jeung aturan moral lianna, sarta kamentrian pangatikan Hamas malikkeun hiji usaha pikeun maksa pakéan Islam kana murid-murid.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Numutekun [[Panénjo Hak Asasi Manusa]], pamaréntahan Gaza Hamas ningkatkeun usahana pikeun "ng-Islam-keun" Gaza dina 2010, usaha nu ngawengku, numutekun organisasi éta, "panekenan masarakat sipil" jeung "pangruksakan parah kana kabébasan pribados."<ref name=Esveld>[http://articles.latimes.com/2010/jun/27/opinion/la-oe-vanesveld-gaza-20100627 "In Gaza, prisoners twice over; Palestinians are being squeezed by the Israeli blockade and Hamas' 'Islamizing' actions,"] Bill Van Esveld, Bill Van Esveld is a Middle East researcher for Human Rights Watch, June 27, 201o, Los Angelies Times.</ref> Panalungtik [[urang Paléstina|Paléstina]], Dr. [[Khaled Al-Hroub]] ngkritik kana nu ku anjeunnna disebat "léngkah-léngkah [[Taliban]]-an" nu dicandak ku Hamas. Numutkeun anjeunna, "Islamisasi nu geus dipaksa kana Jalur Gaza - panindasaan sosial, budaya, jeung pérs nu teu cocog jueng pandangan Hamas - mangrupa kalakuan kakoncara nu kedah dilawan. Éta téh mangrupa palaksanaan ulang tina pangalaman rézim totalitér jeung kadiktatoran liaana disamarkeun ku agama.<ref>The Hamas Enterprise and the Talibanization of Gaza, by Khaled Al-Hroub, Al-Ayyam (Palestinian Authority), October 11, 2010. [http://www.memri.org/report/en/0/0/0/0/0/0/4696.htm Translation] by the Middle East Research Institute, October 22, 2010.</ref> Pajabat Hamas nolak ngeunaan miboga rancangan pikeun maksakeun aturan Islam, saurang anggota déwan nyarios yén “Naon nu ku manéh tempo téh kacilakaan, sanés kawijakan,” sarta aturan Islam éta téh standar nu dipikahayang "tapi urang percaya kana ajakan.”<ref name="bloomberg"/> ====Gawé bareng Israél jeung program pitulungan internasional==== Antara Januari 2009-Juni 2010, kira-kira 137 juta liter suluh, jeung 50.000 ton gas rumah tangga dikintun liwat Israél ka Jalur Gaza.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unmultimedia.org/radio/english/detail/37167.html |title=Israel resumes delivery of fuel to Gaza |publisher=Unmultimedia.org |date= |accessdate=2010-12-12 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123133313/http://www.unmultimedia.org/radio/english/detail/37167.html |date=2011-11-23 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Government/Communiques/2009/Increased_humanitarian_aid_Gaza_after_IDF_operation_Jan_2009 |title=Increased humanitarian aid to Gaza after IDF operation |publisher=Mfa.gov.il |date= |accessdate=2010-12-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/32650677/Gaza-Strip-Merchandise-and-Humanitarian-Aid-May-30th-June-5th-2010 |title=Gaza Strip Merchandise and Humanitarian Aid May 30th - June 5th, 2010 |publisher=Scribd.com |date=2010-06-05 |accessdate=2010-12-12}}</ref> Aya ogé kasus di mana bantosan ka Gaza diblokade ku Israél saperti [[tarajangan armada Gaza]],<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2010/05/30/israel-gaza.html | work=CBC News | title=Israeli ships attack Gaza aid flotilla: reports | date=2010-05-31}}</ref> sanajan bantosan éta dikintun liwat Israél sanggeus dipariksa tina pakarang jeung barang selundupan. Dina Januari jeung Pébruari 2011, [[Badan Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa pikeun Koordinasi Hubungan Kamanusaan]] (UNOCHA) maréntah hiji panalungtikan perkiraan tina akibat aturan éta pikeun ngalogorkeun palarangan aksés.<ref name=ocha201103>{{cite web|title=Easing the blockade – Assessing the humanitarian impact on the population of the Gaza Strip|url=http://www.ochaopt.org/documents/ocha_opt_special_easing_the_blockade_2011_03_english.pdf|publisher=UNITED NATIONS Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs occupied Palestinian territory|accessdate=16 July 2011|date=March 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726062323/http://www.ochaopt.org/documents/ocha_opt_special_easing_the_blockade_2011_03_english.pdf |date=26 July 2011 }}</ref> Tina panalungtikan éta, dicindekkeun yén hasilna kahirupan masarakat heunteu ningkat kalawan signifikan.<ref name=ocha201103/> Dipanggih yén "kaayaan penting tina larangan nu masih aya" sarta akibat ti 3 taun blokade ketat nyegah paningkatan signifikan dina kahirupan jeung nyauran Israél sangkan ngahupus sapinuuhna blokade éta kaasup larangan impor material qangunan sarta ékspor barang, sarta sangkan naghupus palarangan umum dina lalampahan jalmi antawis Gaza jeung Sisi Kulon liwat Israél sangkan saluyu jeung anu diterangkeun minangka kawajiban kamanusaan internasional jeung hukum hak asasi manusa.<ref name=ocha201103/> ==Géografi jeung iklim== {{refimprove}} [[image:Southeast mediterranean annotated geography.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Kaayaan géografis utama wewengkon Israél jeung Méditérania tenggara]] [[image:Gaza Beach.jpg|thumb|right|Basisir Gaza]] Jalur Gaza aya di Wétan Tengah (dina {{Coord|31|25|N|34|20|E|region:PS_type:adm1st_scale:300000|display=inline,title}}). Wewengkonna miboga wates {{convert|51|km|mi}} jeung [[Israél]], sarta 11&nbsp;km jeung [[Mesir]], deukeut Kota [[Rafah]]. [[Khan Yunis]] aya di {{convert|7|km|mi}} kalér-wétaneun Rafah, sarta sababaraha kota sabundeureun [[Deir el-Balah]] aya dina sapanjang basisir terus ka [[Gaza|Kota Gaza]]. [[Beit Lahia]] aya di kaléreun Kota Gaza samentara [[Beit Hanoun]] aya di kalér-wétaneun Kota Gaza. Blok lokalitas Israél [[Gush Katif]] baheula aya dina [[pasir keusik]] deukeut Rafah jeung Khan Yunis, sapanjang sisi {{convert|40|km|mi}} kidul-kulon basisir [[Laut Méditérania]]. Jalur Gaza mioga iklim garing, kalawan ususm tiis nu lemes, sarta usum panas nu panas jeung garing lantaran [[halodo]]. Titik pangluhurna nyaéta Abu 'Awdah (Joz Abu 'Auda), dina {{convert|105|m|ft}} luhureun laut. Sumber daya alam kaasup [[lemah subur]] (kira-kira sapertilu wewengkon Jalur Gaza kairigasi), sarta dipanggih [[gas alam]]. Masalah lingkungan kaasup [[desertifikasi]]; [[Biosalinitas|salinitas]] (kadar uyah) cai; [[sanitasi]]; [[dégradasi lemah]]; sarta kontaminasi jeung ngirangna sumber cai jero taneuh. ==Tingali ogé== * [[Énklave jeung éksklave]] * [[Gaza Ghetto (pilem)]] * [[Hamastan]] * [[Hak asasi manusa di Otoritas Nasional Paléstina]] * [[Status pulitik Sisi Kulon jeung Jalur Gaza]] ==Rujukan== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Pustaka== {{Refbegin}} *{{Cite book|title=The economics of Palestine: economic policy and institutional reform for a viable Palestinian state|first1=David P.|last1=Cobham|first2=Noman|last2=Kanafani|edition=Illustrated|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|isbn=041532761X, 9780415327619}} {{Refend}} ==Tumbu kaluar== {{Sister project links|Gaza Strip}} *[http://atlas.pcbs.gov.ps/atlas/default.asp Atlas Statistik Paléstina] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100514171248/http://atlas.pcbs.gov.ps/atlas/default.asp |date=2010-05-14 }} - [[Badan Puseur Statistik Paléstina]] *{{CIA World Factbook link|gz|Gaza Strip}} *[http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/palestine.htm Gaza Strip] dina ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' *{{Dmoz|Regional/Middle_East/Palestinian_Territory|Gaza Strip}} *[http://www.gaza.net/ Gaza.net] diréktori loka wéb ngeunaan Paléstina *[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/p_refugee_camps.jpg Peta Kémah Pangungsian Paléstina 1993 (UNRWA/C.I.A./Univ. Texas, Austin)] *Webcam langsung [http://www.ustream.tv/channel/gaza-attack Tayangan Ramattan Langsung Kota Gaza] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403054753/http://www.ustream.tv/channel/gaza-attack |date=2013-04-03 }} ti UStréam * [http://gazasiege.org/ GazaSiege.org - Kasang tukang, Warta jeung Analisa paningkeran Gaza] *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6754499.stm Hamas In Control of Gaza Strip] *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6760975.stm New Palestinian Cabinet Sworn In] * Bregman, Ahron (2002). ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xtKuTB_SlwcC&dq=%22israel%27s+wars+a+history+since+1947%22&pg=PP1&ots=1zc6qgWO3x&sig=tUpEtvv7wqSAftiJEydYLW64O9w&hl=nl&prev=http://www.google.nl/search?hl=nl&safe=off&q=%22Israel%27s+Wars:+A+History+Since+1947%22&sa=X&oi=print&ct=title&cad=one-book-with-thumbnail#PPA123,M1 Israel's Wars: A History Since 1947]''. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415287166 - di [[Google Books]] * Ward, Richard J. (1977). ''The Palestine State: A Rational Approach''. London: National University Publications. ISBN 978-0804691598 *{{PDFlink|[http://www.careusa.org/newsroom/pressreleases/2003/jan/01032003_study.pdf Nutritional Assessment of the West Bank and Gaza Strip]|72.0&nbsp;bytes}} *Rashdan, Abdelrahman (2008-04-29), [http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?c=Article_C&cid=1209357115097&pagename=Zone-English-Muslim_Affairs%2FMAELayout Myths and Facts about Gaza (FAQs)]''IslamOnline.net'' *[http://www.mideastweb.org/briefhistory.htm Israel and Palestine: A Brief History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141115100454/http://www.mideastweb.org/briefhistory.htm |date=2014-11-15 }}&nbsp;– Midéast Web for Coexistence *[http://www.ynetnews.com/home/0,7340,L-4244,00.html ''Special: Gaza kidnapping'' Warta Israél]&nbsp;– Ynetnews vérsi Basa Inggris ti [[Yedioth Ahronoth]] *[http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=36439 War Enters the Classrooms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212155248/http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=36439 |date=2012-02-12 }} akibat ti konflik Wétan Tengah kana barudak di Jalur Gaza, ku [[Inter Press Service]], Pébruari 2007 * [http://www.btselem.org/English/Gaza%5FStrip/ B'Tselem Puseur Informasi Israél pikeun Hak Asasi Manusa di Wewengkon Kajajah dina status Gaza saprak paleupasan.] ;Peta *[http://maps.google.com/maps?t=h&ie=UTF8&ll=31.4,34.4&z=10 Jalur Gaza di Google Maps] *[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/gazastrip91.jpg 1991 Peta Jalur Gaza] némbongkeun jalan-jalan jeung kota-kota Israél *[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/gaza_strip_1999.jpg 1999 Peta Jalur Gaza] (aya katerangan) *[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/gaza_strip_may_2005.jpg Peta Jalur Gaza 2005 (C.I.A./Univ. Texas, Austin)] *[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/p_refugee_camps.jpg Peta Kémah Pangungsian Paléstina 1993 (UNRWA/C.I.A./Univ. Texas, Austin)] *[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/cia08/israel_sm_2008.gif Peta Israél 2008 (C.I.A./Univ. Texas, Austin)] *[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/isettlementswb93.jpg Peta Pamukiman Israél di Sisi Kulon, Dés. 1993 (C.I.A./Univ. Texas, Austin)] *[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/gazastrip.jpg Map Peta Pamukiman Israél di Jalur Gaza, Dés. 1993 (C.I.A./Univ. Texas, Austin)] {{Cities in the Gaza Strip}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Gaza}} [[Kategori:Jalur Gaza| ]] [[Kategori:Levant Kidul]] [[Kategori:Asia Kulon]] e1kqlzdwp4uxyogiy0uzfll6i7g8z3u 0 41943 710046 672155 2026-06-04T01:13:11Z Sayaanakmalaysia92 35619 710046 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ethnic group| |group=Suku Batak |image=Batak Warriors 60011135 edit.jpg |caption= [[Daptar inohong Batak|Inohong-inohong ti séké sélér Batak]]<br />[[Amir Sjarifoeddin]], [[Abdul Haris Nasution]], [[Burhanuddin Harahap]], [[Adnan Buyung Nasution]], [[TB Simatupang]], [[Sitor Situmorang]]<br />(ti kénca ka katuhu) |poptime='''6.076.440 jiwa''' (Sensus 2000)<ref>{{cite book | last = | first = | publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies | title =Indonesia's Population: Ethnicity and Religion in a Changing Political Landscape | date = | year =2003 | url = | accessdate = | isbn = 9812302123}}</ref> |region1 = [[Sumatera Kalér]] |pop1 = '''4.827.000''' |region2 = [[Riau]] |pop2 = '''347.000''' |region3 = [[Jakarta]] |pop3 = '''301.000''' |region4 = [[Jawa Kulon]] |pop4 = '''275.000''' |region5 = [[Sumatera Kulon]] |pop5 = '''188.000''' |langs= [[Basa Batak Toba|Toba]]<br />[[Basa Batak Angkola|Angkola]]<br />[[Basa Batak Karo|Karo]]<br />[[Basa Batak Simalungun|Simalungun]]<br />[[Basa Batak Pakpak|Pakpak]]<br />[[Basa Batak Mandailing|Mandailing]] |rels=[[Kristen]]<br />[[Islam]]<br />[[Parmalim]]<br />[[Animismeu]] |related=[[Suku Alas]]<br />[[Suku Nias]]<br />[[Suku Malayu]]<br />[[Suku Minangkabau]]<br />[[Suku Bugis]]<br />[[Suku Dayak]]<br />[[Suku Rimba]]<br />[[Suku Gayo]]<br />[[Suku Singkil]]<br />[[Suku Acéh]] }} '''Batak''' nyaéta ngaran hiji séké sélér di [[Indonésia]],<ref name="hiji">Alwi, Hasan. 2007. ''Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia''. Jakarta: Balai Pustaka.</ref> séké ieu téh lolobana mah ngadumuk di [[Sumatera Kalér]], namung aya sawaréhna mah anu cicing di wawates propinsi [[Acéh]] jeung [[Sumatera Kulon]].<ref name="dua">Woro Aryandini dan Tim. 2011. Bahan Ajar Budaya Nusantara: Program Diploma III Keuangan Spesialisasi Kebendaharaan Negara''. Jakarta: STAN.</ref> Lolobana urang Batak mah ngagem [[:en:religion|agama]] [[Kristen]] jeung [[Islam]], tapi aya ogé nu masih kénéh ngagem kapercayaan buhun ([[animismeu]]/Parmalim).<ref name="dua"/> Kiwari urang Batak nyicingan sawatara lobana daérah pagunungan ti mimiti wawates [[propinsi]] [[Acéh]] di béh kalér nepi ka wawates [[:id:Riau|Riau]] jeung [[:id:Sumatera Barat|Sumatera Kulon]] di béh kidul, ogé nyicingan daérah rata nu aya di antara daérah pagunungan jeung [[basisir]] [[Wétan]] [[Sumatera Kalér]] jeung [[basisir]] [[Barat]] [[Sumatera Kalér]].<ref name="dua" /> Ku kituna, urang Batak ieu nyicingan [[pasir]] [[Karo]], [[Langkat Hulu]], [[Deli Hulu]], [[Serdang Hulu]], [[Simalungun]], [[Dairi]], [[Toba]], [[Humbang]], [[Silindung]], [[Angkola]], jeung [[Mandailing]] sarta [[Kabupatén Tapanuli Tengah]].<ref name="dua" /> ==Sarupaning Batak== Numutkeun dumuk géografisna urang Batak kabagi jadi 5 sub étnis, di antarana<ref name="dua"/>: #Batak Karo, séké ieu nyicingan [[pasir]] Karo, Langkat Hulu, Deli Hulu, Serdang Hulu jeung sawaréh tina daérah Dairi,<ref name="dua"/> #Batak Simalungun, séké ieu nyicingan [[Kabupatén Simalungun]],<ref name="dua"/> #Batak Pakpak, séké ieu nyicingan puser daérah [[Dairi]], jeung [[Acéh Kidul]],<ref name="dua"/> #Batak Toba, suku ieu nyicingan daérah [[Kabupatén Toba Samosir]], [[Tapanuli Kalér]], sawaréh [[:id:Tapanuli Tengah|Tapanuli Tengah]],<ref name="dua"/><ref name=”Sit”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=h5HHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83&dq=Kabupaten+Padang+Lawas&hl=id&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiT-6DLg8aHAxUkSGwGHdKcBZoQ6AF6BAgMEAI#v=onepage&q=Kabupaten%20Padang%20Lawas&f=false| title =Asal-Usul, Silsilah dan Tradisi Budaya BatakSitumorang, M.A., M.Th.| last =Situmorang, M.A., M.Th.| first =Pdt. Dr. Jonar | publisher =Penerbit Andi| location =Jakarta| year =2023|ISBN=9786238806614|pages =34}} Disungsi 27Juli 2024</ref> # Batak Mandailing, séké ieu nyicingan daérah [[Kabupatén Tapanuli Kidul]], [[Mandailing Natal]], Kotamadya Padang Sidempuan, sebagian Tapanuli Tengah, sarta sebagian Pasaman di Sumatera Barat.<ref name="dua"/> ==Sajarah== ===Asal-muasal Séké Batak=== #Mungguh Urang Karo #:Nurutkeun budayawan Karo [[Darwan Prinst]] dina [[sasakala]] séké Karo dikocapkeun yén hiji karajaan ged nu ngaranna Haru pernah ngadeg di [[:en:Andalas|Sumatera]], [[karajaan Haru]] ieu nu jadi taratas séké Karo.<ref name="dua"/> Saurang ahli [[sajarah]] [[Sumatera Kalér]] [[Tengku Lukman Sinar]] dina makalahna mangsa [[kongrés Kabudayaan Karo]] taun [[1995]] di [[Berastagi]] midangkeun bukti-bukti yén [[Deli Tua]] nyaéta puseur kota [[karajaan Haru]].<ref name="dua"/> #:Kitu ogé pangaruh-pangaruh nu datang ti [[India]] ([[Hindu]]) misalna ngaran Sembiring, Sigombak, anu loba asalna rina klan [[India]] misalna [[Brahma]], [[Colia]], [[Meliala]] sarta upacara ka[[agama]]an jeung kapercayaan, makna [[agama]] kacida patalina jeung [[Hindu]]. Jujuluk “Batak” dina Karo nyaéta istilah pikeun ngahijikeun séké-séké anu can ngagem keur harita salian [[Malayu]] ([[Islam]]).<ref name="dua" /> Sohorna jujuluk Batak di [[:id:Masyarakat|masarakat]] Karo katingal dina GBKP (Gareja Batak Karo Protéstan) minangka paguyuban [[:id:masyarakat|masarakat]] [[Karo]].<ref name="dua" /> #Mungguh Urang Mandailing #:Dina [[pupuh]] [[:id:XIII|XIII]] [[kitab Negarakertagama]] yasana [[Mpu Prapanca]] sabudeureun taun [[1365]] dituliskeun dina wangun wawacan ngaran [[Mandailing]] barengan loba ngaran nagari di [[Sumatera Kalér]] minangka nagara di handapeun kakawasaan [[karajaan Majapahit]] diantawisna ogé disebutkeun ngaran-ngaran nagari [[Pane]], [[Padang Lawas]].<ref name="dua"/> Katerangan ngeunaan [[Mandailing]] saméméh [[abad ka-14]] minangka [[hiji]] karajaan euweuh urut-urutna acan, ngan ukur disebutkeun minangka kakawasaanna [[karajaan Majapahit]].<ref name="dua"/> #:Perlu dipikanyaho yén nyangkaruk ruruntuhanna candi [[Siwa]] ([[Hindu]]) ti [[abad ka-8]] datang ka [[Mandailing]] dina raraga néangan [[emas]] anu ku maranéhanana disebut [[Swarna Dwipa]].<ref name="dua" /> [[jalma|Urang]] [[Hindu]] nu dimaksud datang ka [[Mandailing]] nyaéta anu asana ti [[Karajaan Kalingga]] di [[India]], ku sabab kitu [[jalma|urang]] [[:id:kerajaan Kalingga|Kalingga]] éta disebut [[:id:orang|urang]] Holing atawa [[jalma|urang]] Koling.<ref name="dua" /> Meureunan [[:id:manusia|jalma-jalma]] nu dimaksud téh datang jeung asup ti daérah [[Singkuang]] nyaéta tempat muarana [[walungan Batang Gadis]] anu kasohor minangka [[:id:pelabuhan mandala|palabuan Mandala]] anu hartina lingkungan atawa [[wewengkon]] pikeun [[:id:manusia|urang-urang]] Holing, meureunan ogé anu dimaksudkeun téh nyaéta ngaran [[Mandailing]].<ref name="dua" /> #:Nepika [[abad ka-13]] [[jalma|orang-orang]] [[Hindu]] aya anu dumuk di [[Mandailing]], hal ieu dikanyahokeunna ku ayana [[tihang]] [[batu]] di [[gunung Sorik Merapi]] nu taréhna [[abad ka-13]] di [[wewengkon]] [[Mandailing Godang]] ([[Pidoli]]). [[:id:Masyarakat|Masarakat]] [[Mandailing]] jeung [[Angkola]] lolobana mah ngagem [[agama]] [[Islam]] jeung nolak ngakukeun asal-muasalna Batak téh ti si Raja Batak.<ref name="dua" /> Mahkamah Syariah Sultan [[Déli]] ngadéklarasikeun yén séké sélér [[Mandailing]] kapisah jeung ngadeg sorangan ti séké sélér Batak, ku sabab kitu séké sélér Batak mawa perkara ieu ka Mahkamah Sipil di [[:en:Batavia|Batavia]], [[:en:Java|Jawa]] jeung Mahkamah pangluhurna di [[Hindia Walanda]] ngadéklarasikeun yén séké sélér [[Mandailing]] téh lain Batak.<ref name="dua" /> ===Sajarah silsilah “Batak”=== Ngaran Batak teu dipikanyaho satemenna, tapi nurutkeun [[:id:cerita|carita-cerita]] [[suci]] [[jalama|urang]] Batak utamana ti Batak Toba mertélakeun yén sakabéh sub séké Batak mibanda [[uyut]] [[bao]] anu hiji nyaéta si Raja Batak.<ref name="dua"/> Jujuluk “Raja” dina Raja Batak lain anu mibanda kakawasaan (pangawasa) tapi minangka ajrihan hungkul.<ref name="dua"/><ref name=”Ver”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=ry9qDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=BATAK&hl=id&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjDjr7BoMaHAxV0XWwGHXACBiUQ6AF6BAgHEAI#v=onepage&q=BATAK&f=false| title =Masyarakat dan hukum adat Batak TobaVergouwen| last =Vergouwen| first =J. C. | publisher =Penerbit Andi| location =Jakarta| year =2004|ISBN=9789793381428|pages =97}} Disungsi 27Juli 2024</ref> ==Sistim Sosial== [[File:Batak Sumatra Kaler.svg|thumb|300px|Kabupatén-kabupatén di Sumatera Kalér anu diwarnaan, miboga mayoritas pangeusi Batak.]] ===Undakan Sosial=== Sistim undakan sosial [[:id:masyarakat|masarakat]] Batak kabagi dina<ref name="dua"/>: *Bébédaan umur<ref name="dua"/> *Bébédaan pangkat jeung jabatan<ref name="dua"/> *Bébédaan watek aslina, status kawin.<ref name="dua"/> ===Kapamingpinan=== Kapamingpinan dina [[masyarakat|masrakat]] Batak Karo kapisah nurutkeun [[tilu]] widang nyaéta widang adat, widang [[pamaréntahan]], jeung di widang ka[[agama]]an.<ref name="dua"/> ===Perkawinan=== Perkawinan dina séké Batak mangrupa hiji pranata anu meungkeut [[hiji]] [[lalaki]] jeung hiji [[awéwé]] tapina ogé meungkeut hiji patalian nu ditangtukeun, sangkan hiji [[lalaki]] séké sélér Batak henteu bébas dina pulah-pilih [[jodo]].<ref name="dua"/> ====Perkawinan nu sakuduna==== Per[[kawin]]an yang dianggép alus téh nyaéta perkawinan antara hiji [[awéwé]] [[:id:rimpal|rimpal]] (marpariban [[basa Batak]] [[Toba]]) nyaéta perkawinan antara [[lalaki]] Batak jeung budak [[awéwé]] dulur [[lalaki]] [[indung]]na.<ref name="dua"/> Ogé perkawinan anu pantrang dilakonan nyaéta jeung awéwé anu ti margana sorangan. (namung kiwari geus loba jajaka anu teu maliré adat kuna éta)<ref name="dua"/> ====Perkawinan Mabur==== Per[[:id:kawin|kawin]]an anu di luar pituduh nyaéta per[[kawin]]an mabur (mangalua), perkara ieu kajadian ku sabab teu luyuna antarwis salah sawios pihak atawa dua beulah pihak sadudulurna.<ref name="dua"/> Dina [[:en:marriage|kawin]] mabur ieu dina wanci kurang ti sapoé sadudulur pihak [[lalaki]] kudu ngirimkeun [[:id:delegasi|wawakil]] ka imah koltna si [[wanoja]] pikeun ngabéwarakeun yén budak [[awéwé]] manéhanana geus dibawa nu maksudna dikawin (diparaja, [[basa Batak]] [[Toba]]).<ref name="dua"/> ===Marga jeung Tarombo=== ====Marga==== Marga nyaéta saguliwek duduluran nurutkeun teureuhan ti [[bapa]] (patrilinial). Sistim patrilinial nangtuukeun yén teureuh katurunan osok disambungkeun jeung [[lalaki]].<ref name="dua"/> Saurang Batak ngarasa hirupna lengkep upama manéhanana geus mibanda budak lalaki anu bakal neruskeun margana. Sakabéh samarga teu meunang silih ngawin (henteu kaci pikeun urang Batak Mandailing jeung Batak Angkola) jeung sasama marga disebut dina Dalihan Natolu disebut Dongan Tubu. Lobana sakabéh marga Batak aya 416 kaasup marga séké Nias (sabenerna séké Nias lain Batak).<ref name="dua" /> Tiap-tiap urang Batak mibanda ngaran marga, pamakéan ngaran marga biasana digantungkeun di tukang atawa ditungtung ngaranna. Ngaran marga ieu meunang tina teureuh bapa téa (patrilinéal) anu saterusna bakal diteruskeun ka katurunanna sangkan tuluy-tinuluy.<ref name="dua" /> ====Tarombo==== Tarombo nyaéta silsilah, muasalna nurutkeun teureuh [[bapa]].<ref name="dua"/> ==Kabudayaan Waragad== ===Basa jeung Aksara=== Basa Batak bisa dibagi jadi [[tilu]] guliwek<ref name="dua"/>: #[[Basa Batak]] [[Kalér]]<ref name="dua"/> #[[Basa Batak]] [[Simalungun]]<ref name="dua"/> #[[Basa Batak]] [[Kidul]]<ref name="dua"/> Sérat Batak nyaéta hiji jinis [[aksara]] anu disebut Abugida.<ref name="dua"/> [[Aksara]] Batak biasana ditulis dina kalakay [[awi]] atawa [[kayu]], tutulisanna ti mimiti handap nika luhur jeung garisna ti [[kénca]] ka [[katuhu]].<ref name="dua"/> Sérat Batak jaman baheula dipaké pikeun nulis naskah Batak.<ref name="dua"/> Dina [[basa Batak]] buku nu dimaksud téh disebut Pustaha.<ref name="dua"/> Pustaha ieu ditulis ku datu ([[dukun]]) eusina pananggalan jeung [[élmu nujum]] (perkara-perkara goib).<ref name="dua"/> ===Sistim Orhanisasi Sosial=== ====Pola Pilemburan==== [[File:Batak houses..JPG|thumb|300px|Imah urang Batak]] Lolobana [[:id:masyarakat|masarakat]] Batak masih kénéh hirup di jero pilemburan, pilemburan éta disebut Huta, Kuta, Lumban, Sosor, Bius, Pertahian, Urung dan Pertumpukan.<ref name="dua"/> Huta ([[basa Batak]] Toba) biasana mangrupa jabungan territorial anu didumuk asal ti hiji klén.<ref name="dua"/> pikeun urang Karo, jabungan nu dimaksud téh disebut Kuta biasana leuwih gedé batan huta, pangeusina bisa ti mangrupa-rupa klén. Baheula huta téh dikurilingan ku hiji [[parit]], temok taneuh anu luhur jeungn rungkun [[awi]] anu rapet. Ieu téh dimaksudkeun pikeun ngajaga diri tina serangan musuh. Di bagéan jero tina huta aya jéjéran imah di antarana aya [[tepas]] anu bisa dipaké pesta pertikahan, upacara kamaotan jll. Kitu ogé di [[tepas]] téh aya [[leuit]]-[[leuit]] pikeun neundeun [[paré]] jeung [[lisung]] pikeun nutuan [[paré]]. Di urang Karo mah Simalungun jeung [[Mandailing, Tebing Tinggi Kota, Tebing Tinggi|Mandailing]][https://www.uma.ac.id/ <nowiki>[1]</nowiki>] téa di unggal [[désa]] na téh mibanda [[balé]] [[désa]] anu dipaké pikeun [[:id:sidang|sidang]] [[:id:pengadilan|pangadilan]] jeung [[sidang]] séjénna. Mun di urang Toba mah balé désa ieu digentikeun ku nu disebut partunghoan.<ref name="dua" /> ====Imah urang Batak==== Imah urang Batak Karo disebut Siwaluh Jabu sedengkeun pikeun imah Batak Toba disebut Ruma Bolon. Dina [[imah]] Batak Toba wagunna opat [[juru panjang]], [[talupuh]]na biasana mah 1,75 [[méter]] di handapeun [[taneuh]], bagéan handap dipaké pikeun kandang [[bagong]], [[hayam]] jeung sajabana.<ref name="dua"/> Upama hiji [[jalma]] rék asup ka imah Batak Toba kudu tungkul sangkan henteu tijedug kana balok anu malang, perkara ieu dimaksudkeun supaya [[tamu]] kudu hormat ka si nu boga [[imah]], sarta hihias pamantes saperti [[batok]] [[kelapa]] ngalambangkeun pinareup ([[susu]] [[awéwé]]) anu disebut adep adep, pamantes ieu téh ngalambangkeun sumber kasuburan dan kasatuan.<ref name="dua"/> Sakabéh imah dijieun tina [[kayu]], dina juru imahna nyangked hihias gajah dompak motipna beungeut [[sasatoan]] miboga maksud panolak [[bala]], kitu ogé hihias motipna [[cakcak]], sirah [[singa]] dimaksudkeun pikeun nolak santét, hihias éta téh aya anu mangrupa ukiran jeung diwarnaan ku warna [[hideung]], [[konéng]] dan [[beureum]] anu ngalambangkeun [[tilu]] [[dunya]] kapercayaan [[:id:masyarakat|masarakat]] Batak. Imah anu panglobana hihiasanana mah disebutna gé Gorga. [[Imah]] Batak Toba disebut Ruma Bolon, [[imah]] Mandailing disebut Bagas Godang. Pikeun abus ka imah éta téh kudu nincak tarajé anu ngadeg di tengah [[imah]] anu itungan panincakanna téh [[:id:ganjil|ganjil]].<ref name="dua" /> ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Séké sélér di Indonésia]] tvr8ix7f1gvs7h88h374qa8tdvvff0l 0 98663 710062 663106 2026-06-04T10:20:46Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710062 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Clindamycin 3d structure.png|jmpl|Struktur Klindamisin]] Klindamisin atawa ''[[Clindamycin]]'' mangrupa salah sahiji [[antibiotik]] kelas ''[[lincomycin]]'' anu digunakeun pikeun ngobatan inféksi anu disababkeun tina baktéri anaerob gram positif.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.honestdocs.id/clindamycin-300-mg|title=Clindamycin 300mg - Manfaat, Dosis, & Efek Samping|website=HonestDocs|language=id|accessdate=2019-12-25}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225060937/https://www.honestdocs.id/clindamycin-300-mg |date=2019-12-25 }}</ref> Hasiatna pikeun ngubaran inpéksi dina [[paru-paru]], [[kulit]], [[getih]], alat réproduksi, [[tulang]], jeung organ-organ jero séjénna. Sajaba ti éta, obat ieu ogé sok digunakeun pikeun ngubaran tapak [[éwateun]] atawa sakapeung sok diadumaniskeun jeung obat séjén pikeun ngubaran ''[[anthrax]]'' atawa [[malaria]]. Dina sababaraha kajadian, obat ieu sok digunakeun pikeun nyegah ''[[endocarditis]]'' (infeksi katup jantung). Obat ieu bisa ogé digunakeun pikeun ngubaran inféksi ceuli, ''[[tonsillitis]]'', (amandel), ''[[faringitis]]'' (radang genggerong) sarta ''[[tasksoplasmosis]]''.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://hellosehat.com/obatan-suplemen/obat/clindamycin/|title=Clindamycin Obat Apa? Dosis, Fungsi, dll. • Hello Sehat|website=Hello Sehat|language=id-ID|accessdate=2019-12-25}}</ref> Anu dirékomendasikeun kana fraktur terbuka nurutkeun ''British Orthipaediction'' (BOA) ''and British Assosiation of Plastic, Reconstrukctive jeung Aesthetic Surgeons'' (BAPRAS) nyaéta antibiotik ''co-amoksiklav Sefuroksim'' (atawa klindamisin saupama alérgi penisilin) sarta kudu buru-buru dibikeun ka pasénna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://eprints.umm.ac.id/48036/3/BAB%20II.pdf.pdf|title=|last=|first=|website=|publisher=|accessdate=}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415150210/http://eprints.umm.ac.id/48036/3/BAB%20II.pdf.pdf |date=2023-04-15 }}</ref> == Cara Nyimpen == Klidamicin nyaéta salah sahiji obat anu kudu disimpen dina suhu ruangan, sarta kudu dijauhkeun tina sinar panon poé atawa tempat anu baseuh, sabab bakal nimbulkeun karuksakan, Sajaba ti éta teu meunang ditunda di kamer cai atawa dina lomari és (dibekukeun). Salawasna kudu merhatikeun cara nunda ieu obat, saupama teu ngarti tanyakeun ka apotéker sarta kudu dijauhkeun tina jangkowan barudak. Perhatikeun ogé mangsa kadaluarsana éta obat.<ref name=":0" /> == Dosis == === Dosis Déwasa === ==== '''Dosis Klindamsin Ngaliwatan Baham (diinum)''': ==== * Inféksi serius: 150-300 mg unggal 6 jam * Inféksi leuwih parah: 300-450 mg unggal 6 jam ==== '''Dosis Klindamisin Ngaliwatan Suntikan:''' ==== * Inféksi serius: 600-1.200 mg ngaliwatan infus/ suntikan per poé, dosis dibagi jadi 2-4 rata * Inféksi parah: 1.200-2.700 mg ngaliwatan infus/ suntikan per poé, dosis dibagi jadi 2-4 rata * Inféksi leuwih parah: nepi ka 4.800 mg ngaliwatan infus per poé === Dosis Barudak === ==== '''Dosis Klindamisin Ngaliwatan Baham (diinum):''' ==== Beurat badan 10 kg atawa kurang: * Dosis minimal: 37,5 mg 3 kali sapoé Beurat badan 11 kg atawa leuwih: * Inféksi serius: 8-12 mg/kg per poé, dosis dibagi jadi 3-4 rata * Inféksi parah: 13-16 mg/kg per poé, dosis dibagi jadi 3-4 rata * Inféksi leuwih parah: 17-25 mg/kg per poé, dosis dibagi jadi 3-4 rata ==== '''Dosis Klindamisin Ngaliwatan Suntikan:''' ==== * Nepi ka umur 1 bulan: 15-20 mg/ kg ngaliwatan suntikan infus per poé, dosis dibagi jadi 3-4 rata. (Dosis leuwih rendah cukup pikeun orok anu kakara lahirna prématur jeung leutik) * Umur 1 bulan-16 taun'':'' Dosis luyu jeung berat badan: 20-40 mg/kg ngaliwatan infus atawa suntikan per poé, dosis dibagi jadi 3-4 rata. (Dosis lebih luhur digunakuen pikeun inféksi nu leuwih parah) ==== '''Dosis Klindamisin Ngaliwatan Topikal (Obat Luar / DIoléskeun):''' ==== * Inféksi serius: 350 mg/m2 ngaliwatan suntikan IV atawa suntikan IM per poé * Inféksi parah: 450 mg/m2 ngaliwatan infus IV atawa suntikan IM per poé ==== '''Dosis Klindamisin Pikeun Obat Alternatip:''' ==== * Inféksi serius: 8-16 mg/kg per poé, dosis dibagi jadi 3-4 rata * Inféksi leuwih parah: 16-20 mg/kg per poé, dosis dibagi jadi 3-4 rata<ref name=":0" /> *Déwasa nu boga panyakit inpéksi serius 150-300 mg unggal 6 jam sarta bisa dironjatkeun deui jadi 300-450 mg unggal 6 jam sakali saupama diperlukeun * Budak anu boga inféksi beurat 8-16 mg/kg beurat bandanna dina 3-4 dosis dibagi-bagi<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medicastore.com/produk/Obat/1570/clindamycin-capsul-300-mg-indo-farma|title=CLINDAMYCIN CAPSUL 300 MG INDO FARMA|website=medicastore.com|accessdate=2020-01-11}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200111091709/https://medicastore.com/produk/Obat/1570/clindamycin-capsul-300-mg-indo-farma |date=2020-01-11 }}</ref> == Indikasi Klindamisin == Aya sababaraha indikasi obat Klindamisin di antarana: * Inféksi serius akibat tina baktéri anaerob gram positip * inféksi serius kana saluran napas, kulit, jaringan lunak, inféksi beuteung bagian jero, inféksi baham, (absés periodal & periodontitis) * inféksi ginekologi, saperti éndometritid, ''[[salpingitis]]'', [[Selulitis pelvis|''selulitis pelvis'']] pasca operasi vagina jeung ''[[inflamasi pelvis]]'' * Nu boga panyakit AIDS bisa ngagunakeun klindamisin bareng jeung porometamin pikeun terapi tokoplasmik énséfalitis.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://doktersehat.com/obat-clindamycin/|title=Clindamycin - Manfaat, Dosis, Efek Samping - Dokter Sehat|website=doktersehat.com|accessdate=2019-12-25}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225061806/https://doktersehat.com/obat-clindamycin/ |date=2019-12-25 }}</ref> == Kontraindikasi == * Teu meunang digunakeun ka pasén nu boga riwayat hipersénsivitas kana klindamisin jeung linkomisin atawa kandungan séjén anu sarua. * Teu meunang dinikeun ka pasén anu boga riwayat ''kolitis'' ''ulseratif'' atawa ''koitid pseudomembranosa''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.alomedika.com/obat/antiinfeksi/antibakteri/clindamycin/kontraindikasi-dan-peringatan|title=Kontraindikasi dan Peringatan Clindamycin|last=general_alomedika|website=Alomedika|accessdate=2019-12-31}}</ref> * Teu meunang dibikeun kanu boga kondisi médis saperti imunisai/vaksin<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sehatq.com/obat/clindamycin|title=Clindamycin {{!}} Fungsi, Cara Pemakaian, Dosis, Efek Samping|website=SehatQ|language=id|accessdate=2019-12-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231050716/https://www.sehatq.com/obat/clindamycin |date=2019-12-31 }}</ref> == Perhatian Husus == Hadéna mah teu weléh konsultasi ka dokter saupama boga kondisi médis ieu di handap: * Alérgi kana klindamisin * Gangguan peujit, ''[[kolitis]]'', ''[[crohn]]'' * éksim atawa alérgi kulit * Asma atawa réaksi alérgi parah kana asprin * Ngagunakeun klindamisin dina waktu lila bisa nimbulken méncrét jeung [[Pseudomembranosus colitis|''pseudomembranosus colitis'']] sabab gangguan flora normal usus.<ref name=":1" /> == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:Ubar]] t9x2kj4sougkkrzvhs08srzn9uqckid 0 99415 710063 666747 2026-06-04T11:14:11Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710063 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Penyangkalan-medis}} {{Drugbox|Watchedfields=changed|ChEBI=6359|DrugBank=DB00581|ChemSpiderID_Ref={{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}|ChemSpiderID=10856|UNII_Ref={{fdacite|correct|FDA}}|UNII=9U7D5QH5AE|KEGG_Ref={{keggcite|correct|kegg}}|KEGG=D00352|ChEBI_Ref={{ebicite|correct|EBI}}|ChEMBL_Ref={{ebicite|correct|EBI}}|PubChem=11333|ChEMBL=296306|synonyms=4-O-β-<small>D</small>-Galaktosil-<small>D</small>-fruktosa <!--Chemical data-->|C=12|H=22|O=11|smiles=O[C@H]2[C@H](O[C@@H]1O[C@H](CO)[C@H](O)[C@H](O)[C@H]1O)[C@H](O[C@]2(O)CO)CO|StdInChI_Ref={{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}|StdInChI=1S/C12H22O11/c13-1-4-6(16)7(17)8(18)11(21-4)22-9-5(2-14)23-12(20,3-15)10(9)19/h4-11,13-20H,1-3H2/t4-,5-,6+,7+,8-,9-,10+,11+,12-/m1/s1|StdInChIKey_Ref={{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}|DrugBank_Ref={{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}}|ATC_suffix=AD11|verifiedrevid=458266592|legal_UK=|IUPAC_name=4-''O''-β-<small>D</small>-Galaktopiranosil-β-<small>D</small>-fruktofuranosa<br />OR<br />(2''S'',3''R'',4''S'',5''R'',6''R'')-2-((2''R'',3''S'',4''S'',5''R'')-4,5-Dihidroksi-2,5-bis(hidroksimetil)tetrahidrofurana-3-iloksi)-6-(hidroksimetil)tetrahidro-2''H''-piran-3,4,5-triol|image=Lactulose structure.svg|width=225 <!--Clinical data-->|pronounce={{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|æ|k|tj|ʊ|l|oʊ|z}}|tradename=Duphalac, Constipan, Constuloz, Dulcolactol, Extralac, Lacons, Lactulax, Opilax, Laxadilac, Pralax, Solax|Drugs.com={{drugs.com|monografi|lactulosa}}|MedlinePlus=a682338|pregnancy_US=B|legal_US=Dengan resep dokter|ATC_prefix=A06|legal_status=|routes_of_administration=Per oral <!--Pharmacokinetic data-->|bioavailability=Absorbsi jelek|metabolism=100% di usus besar oleh bakteri usus|onset=8 hingga 48 jam|elimination_half-life=1.7–2 jam|excretion=Feses <!--Identifiers-->|CAS_number_Ref={{cascite|correct|??}}|CAS_number=4618-18-2|StdInChIKey=JCQLYHFGKNRPGE-FCVZTGTOSA-N}} '''Laktulosa''' nyaéta [[ubar]] anu dipaké pikeun ngeureunkeun konstipasi atawa hésé [[miceun]]. Ubar ieu ngalirkeun cairan kana usus anu nyababkeun [[Tai|tinja]] jadi leuwih lembék sarta babari pikeun dipiceun. Salian ti éta, laktulosa ogé dipaké pikeun ngubaran sarta nyegah ''ensefalopati képatikum'', atawa kalainan dina [[uteuk]] (saperti parobahan kapribadian jeung gangguan méntal) ku sabab ayana [[panyakit liver]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://patient.info/medicine/lactulose-for-constipation-lactugal|title=Lactulose for constipation - Lactugal. Side effects and dosage|website=patient.info|language=en|accessdate=2020-05-01}}</ref> Laktulosa boga babaraha [[mérek dagang]], di antarana nyaéta ''Lactofid, Lactulax, Pralax, Graphalac, Costuloz, Lactulose, Opilax, Lacons, Constipen, Duphalac,'' jeung ''Dulculactol''.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.alodokter.com/laktulosa|title=Laktulosa|website=Alodokter|accessdate=2020-05-01}}</ref> [[Gambar:Lactulose Molekülbaukasten 9543.JPG|250px|thumb|Struktur kimia laktulosa]] == Mangpaat == Laktulosa bisa dipaké pikeun ngubaran konstipasi atawa hésé miceun. Laktulosa ogé bisa ngubaran ''énséfalopati hépatik''. ''Énséfalopati hépatik'' nyaéta sindrom neuropsikiatrik anu disababkeun ku karusakan parah dina [[ati]], boh karusakan akut atawa karusakan taunan. ieu karusakan téh ditandaan ku ayana gangguan paripolah, gejala neurologik, sarta gangguan kasadaran boh anu ringan atawa anu beurat.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.honestdocs.id/laktulosa|title=Laktulosa - Manfaat, Dosis, & Efek Samping|website=HonestDocs|language=id|accessdate=2020-05-01}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191118045125/https://www.honestdocs.id/laktulosa |date=2019-11-18 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.webmd.com/drugs/2/drug-3367-7202/lactulose-oral/lactulose-liver-oral-rectal/details|title=Drugs & Medications|website=www.webmd.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-05-01}}</ref> === Cara réaksi === Laktulosa kagolongkeun kana obat pencahar (laktatif). Laktulosa mangrupa [[gula]] anu dipecah dina [[Peujit|usus gedé]] jadi asam ringan anu bisa ngalembékkeun tinja.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.healthline.com/health/lactulose-oral-solution|title=Lactulose: Side Effects, Dosage, Uses, and More|website=Healthline|language=en|accessdate=2020-05-01}}</ref><ref name=":6" /> Mékanismeu laktulosa dina ngeureunkeun konstipasi nyaéta jadi agén hipérosmotik kalawan nambahan cai dina tinja, ngalembékkeun tinja, ningkatkeun peristaltik, sarta ngurangan ammonia [[getih]].<ref name=":1" /> Sedengkeun mékanismeu laktulosa dina ngubaran énséfalopati hépatik nyaéta ku cara ngarobah laktulosa jadi asam organik ku baktéri kolon, tuluy nyieun eusi kolon jadi asam, anu matak bisa ngahambat difusi ammonia balik deui kana getih. Laktulosa ogé bisa ningkatkeun [[Difusi permukaan|difusi]] NH₃ ti getih kana [[peujit]], tuluy NH₃ dirobah jadi NH₄⁺. Laktulosa boga onsét 24-48 jam. Laktulosa anu diserep teu dimétabolismeu, sedengkeun laktulosa anu henteu diserep sacara éksténsif bakal dimétabolismeu jadi asam organik ku baktéri kolon. Métabolit laktulosa nyaéta [[asam laktat]] (utama), [[asam format]], jeung [[asam asétat]]. Sedengkeun laktulosa diékskrési liwat [[urin]], [[Tai|fésés]], sarta [[Hampru|hamperu]].<ref name=":1" /> == Sipat fisika jeung kimia == Laktulosa mangrupa [[disakarida]] yang disintésis tina [[fruktosa]] jeung [[galaktosa]], kalawan [[struktur kimia]] C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁, sarta [[Massa molékul rélatif|beurat molékul]] 342,3 g/mol. Laktulosa nyaéta struktur solid kalawan [[titik lebur]] 169&nbsp;°C, sarta bisa leyur dina citiis jueng cipanas kalawan [[kelarutan]] 76,4% dina 30&nbsp;°C. Pamanasan bakal nyababkeun warna larutan laktulosa jadi moékan tapi moal mangaruhan nanaon.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/lactulose.html|title=Lactulose Monograph for Professionals|last=|first=|date=|website=Drugs.com|language=|access-date=2020-05-01}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|url=https://www.alomedika.com/obat/obat-untuk-saluran-cerna/katartik/laktulosa|title=Laktulosa - indikasi, dosis, interaksi dan efek samping|last=Darmawan|first=Josephine|date=27 Februari 2018|website=Alomedika|access-date=2020-05-01}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/11333|title=Lactulose|last=PubChem|first=|date=|website=pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov|language=|access-date=24 Maret 2020}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB00581|title=Lactulose|last=|first=|date=|website=www.drugbank.ca|access-date=2020-05-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=StatPearls|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK536930/|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|date=2020|location=Treasure Island (FL)|pmid=30725615|first=Samiran|last=Mukherjee|first2=Savio|last2=John}}</ref> == Dosis == Pikeun kondisi konstipasi pikeun anu [[Sawawa|déwasa]], dosis awalna nyaéta 15-30 ml sapoéna. Dosisna ogé bisa ditambahan jadi 45 ml.<ref name=":0" /> Sedengkeun pikeun [[Budak leutik|barudak]], yuswa sabulan nepi ka sataun, dosis awalna 2,5 ml. Pikeun barudak yuswa 1-5 taun, 5 ml.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://www.medicinesforchildren.org.uk/lactulose-constipation|title=Lactulose for constipation {{!}} Medicines for Children|website=www.medicinesforchildren.org.uk|accessdate=2020-05-01}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923090918/https://www.medicinesforchildren.org.uk/lactulose-constipation |date=2020-09-23 }}</ref> Tuluy, pikeun [[yuswa]] 5-10 taun, 10 ml. Anu terahir, pikeun yuswa 10-18 taun, 15 ml. Kabéhanana dikonsumsi dua kali sapoé.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":7" /> Salian ti éta, dosis pikeun anu ngalaman kondisi ''enselofati hépatikum'', pikeun anu déwasa, dosisna 90-150 sapoé.<ref name=":0" /> [[Gambar:Lactulose4987086671200.jpg|jmpl|Conto ubar laktulosa]] Saupama éta [[dosis]] kaliwat sakali, dianjurkeun pikeun buru-buru diinum. Tapi, lamun geus téréh kana waktu nginum ubar saenggeusna, teu kudu nginum deui. Ulah nepi ka ngagandakeun dosis.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://hellosehat.com/obatan-suplemen/obat/laktulosa/|title=Laktulosa : Fungsi, Dosis, Efek Samping, Cara Pakai|website=Hello Sehat|language=id-ID|accessdate=2020-05-01}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a682338.html|title=Lactulose: MedlinePlus Drug Information|website=medlineplus.gov|language=en|accessdate=2020-05-01}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nhs.uk/medicines/lactulose/|title=Lactulose: laxative to treat constipation|website=nhs.uk|language=en|accessdate=2020-05-01}}</ref> == Cara ngonsumsi jeung épék samping == Laktulosa bisa dikonsumsi saacan atawa saenggeus dahar. Ieu ubar ogé bisa dicampurkeun kana [[Sari bungbuahan|jus]], [[susu]], atawa [[opieun]]. Saupama ubarna amis teuing, bisa ditambahan ku cihérang atawa jus.<ref name=":5" /> Ubar ieu ogé aya dina wangun sirop.<ref name=":0" /> Sedengkeun épék samping dina ngonsumsi ieu ubar nyaéta teu ngeunah angen, [[diaré]], [[sebel]] jeung [[ongkék]], kram otot, detak [[jantung]] henteu teratur, sarta kejang-kejang.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sehatq.com/obat/lactulose|title=Lactulose {{!}} Fungsi, Cara Pemakaian, Dosis, Efek Samping|website=SehatQ|language=id|accessdate=2020-05-01}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227045245/https://www.sehatq.com/obat/lactulose |date=2021-02-27 }}</ref> Laktulosa ogé bisa nyababkeun [[déhidrasi]] jeung hiponatrémia pikeun [[orok]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/medicines/digestive-health/news/a6979/lactugal-lactulose/|title=Lactulose (Duphalac): to help relief constipation|last=Ghelani|first=Rita|website=Netdoctor|language=en-GB|accessdate=2020-05-01}}{{Dead link|date=April 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Dina ngonsumsi laktulosa, aya babaraha hal anu kudu diperhatikeun, di antarana baé nyaéta sabisana ulah nginum laktulosa saupama boga gangguan nyerna gula ([[galaktosémia]]). Tuluy, ati-ati saupama laktulosa diinum ku anu boga panyakit [[Diabétes mélitus|diabét]] jeung gangguan [[Éléktrolisis|éléktrolit]]. Salian ti éta, kudu diperhatikeun yén pasén anu ngonsumsi laktulosa salila leuwih ti genep bulan, kudu ngalakukeun pamariksaan kasaimbangan éléktrolit sacara rutin.<ref name=":0" /> Sabisana ulah nginum laktulosa saupama pasén eukeur ngalakonan diét husus rendah galaktosa (gula susu).<ref name=":1" /> == Tingali ogé == * [[Ubar]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Ubar]] 4nq5yxccukv2yy9ybiah5b6kt72gpoo 0 102696 710064 681347 2026-06-04T11:56:57Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710064 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Presbytis siberu imported from iNaturalist photo 71151959 on 21 November 2020.jpg|al=Lutung Mentawai|jmpl|Lutung Mentawai ]] '''Lutung Mentawai''' (''Presbytis potenziani'') atawa sok disebut ogé Joja nyaéta spésiés primata anu kagolong kana kulawarga Cercopithecidae, sarta sub kulawarga Colobinaé. Lutung Mentawai mangrupa sato éndemik anu aya di Pulo Mentawai, Indonésia. Tempat cicing alamina aya di leuweung tropos garing atawa di leuweung subtropis. Hanjakal, ieu sato téh kaacam musnah ku sabab leuweung, tempat cicingna diraruksak ku jalma anu teu tanggung jawab.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://primata.ipb.ac.id/presbytis-potenziani/|title=Presbytis potenziani|website=Pusat Studi Satwa Primata|language=en-US|accessdate=2021-09-18}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918065300/https://primata.ipb.ac.id/presbytis-potenziani/ |date=2021-09-18 }}</ref> Sajaba ti disebut Lutung Mentawai atawa Joja, ngaran séjén tina sato ieu nyaéta ''Mentawai Leaf Monkey'', ''Golden-bellied Mentawai Island Langur'', atawa ''Long-tailed Langur.'' <ref name=":0" /> Lutung Mentawai bakal loba kapanggih di Pagai Utara, Pagai Selatan, sarta di Pulo Siberut.<ref name=":0" /> Lutung Mentawai dibagi jadi 2 sub spésiés nyaéta ''Presbytis potenziani potenziani'' anu sumebar di Pulo Sipora, Pulo Pagai Utara jeung Pagai Selatan sarta ''Presbytis potenziani siberut'' anu sumebar di Pulo Siberut.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://agrozine.id/mengenal-primata-endemik-kepulauan-mentawai-ada-apa-saja/|title=Mengenal Primata Endemik Kepulauan Mentawai, Ada Apa Saja?|last=Agrozine|first=Redaksi|website=Agrozine|language=en-US|accessdate=2021-09-18}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918083344/https://agrozine.id/mengenal-primata-endemik-kepulauan-mentawai-ada-apa-saja/ |date=2021-09-18 }}</ref> == Sistem Kawin == Sok sanajan Lutung Mentawai téh kagolong kana sasatoan anu ngadahar bungbuahan, sisikian jeung kekembangan, anu biasana ngabogaan sipat ''poligami,'' tapi Lutung Mentawai anu kagolong kana ''Prebytis'' ieu ngabogaan sistem kawin monogami. Hal ieu jadi kajadian anu ngirut sarta jarang kapanggih dina monyét anu kagolong kana kulawarga ieu.<ref name=":0" /> == Kaunikan Lutung Mentawai == Lutung Mentawai kagolong kana spésiés primata anu boga rupa pangalusna.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.goodnewsfromindonesia.id/2021/07/15/terancam-punah-ini-4-primata-endemik-yang-menghuni-kepulauan-mentawai|title=Terancam Punah, Ini 4 Primata Endemik yang Menghuni Kepulauan Mentawai|last=Afrillia|first=Dian|website=www.goodnewsfromindonesia.id|language=id-ID|accessdate=2021-09-18}}</ref> Tonggongna hideung meles sarta hérang, beuteungna coklat kolot, sabudeureun beungeutna warna bodas, sarta beuheung jeung buntutna panjang hideung meles siga sutra.<ref name=":1" /> Maranéhna kagolong kana sasatoan ''diurnal'', anu gerakanna lolobana ujlang-ajleng jeung gugulantungan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.tamansafari.com/Newsportalv22ok/preview.php?id=31&cat_id=&p=21&search=|title=Konservasi Primata Endemik Kepulauan Mentawai|website=news.tamansafari.com|accessdate=2021-09-18}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918083017/https://news.tamansafari.com/Newsportalv22ok/preview.php?id=31&cat_id=&p=21&search= |date=2021-09-18 }}</ref> Kaunikan séjén tina Lutung Mentawai nyaéta bisa ngaluarkeun sora saméméh meleték panon poé sarta kajadian ieu téh tanda tritorial kakawasaanna.<ref name=":1" /> Lutung Mentawai kagolong kana dalapan jenis lutung di Indonésia anu pangéndahna.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://sumbar.antaranews.com/berita/132210/kekayaan-fauna-joja-atau-lutung-mentawai-presbytis-potenziani|title=Kekayaan Fauna Joja atau Lutung Mentawai (Presbytis potenziani)|last=Agency|first=ANTARA News|website=Antara News Sumbar|accessdate=2021-09-18}}</ref> Kahirupan sosialna beda jeung primata séjénna, jalu jeung bikangna ngabogaan sora kalayan prilaku primitif.<ref name=":2" /> == Populasi == Populasi Lutung Mentawai kiwari éstuning matak prihatin sarta kaancam bakal musnah. Dina jangka waktu 40 taun ieu, populasina terus nyirorot nepi ka 50 persénna, akibat tina ruksakna leuwueng tempat cicing ieu sato.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.antarafoto.com:443/mudik/v1526826023/populasi-lutung-mentawai|title=Populasi Lutung Mentawai|website=www.antarafoto.com|accessdate=2021-09-18}}</ref> Sajaba ti ruksakna tempat cicing asli Lutung Mentawai, utamana di Pulo Siberut, musanahna ieu sato ogé dipangaruhan ku nu moro sacara ilégal, ahirna kaayaan jumlah ieu sato téh kacida matak prihatinna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.id/baca/foto/2018/05/22/populasi-lutung-mentawai/|title=Populasi Lutung Mentawai|website=kompas.id|accessdate=2021-09-18}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918073044/https://www.kompas.id/baca/foto/2018/05/22/populasi-lutung-mentawai/ |date=2021-09-18 }}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mongabay.co.id/2015/02/26/inilah-empat-primata-endemik-kepulauan-mentawai-apa-keunikannya/|title=Inilah Empat Primata Endemik Kepulauan Mentawai. Apa Keunikannya?|website=Mongabay.co.id|language=en-US|accessdate=2021-09-18}}</ref> Baheula nu moro téh ukur ngagunakeun panah, kitu ogé pikeun ngabasmi hama, sedengkeun kiwari mah, moro téh ngagunakeun bedil angin jeung moro sato-sato primata anu geus langka. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.topsatu.com/populasi-empat-spesies-primata-di-mentawai-menurun/|title=Populasi Empat Spesies Primata di Mentawai Menurun|last=Eri|last2=Eri|first2=i|website=Top Satu|language=id-ID|accessdate=2021-09-18|last3=i}}</ref>Joja jadi salah sahiji spésiés prioritas anu bakal di konsérvasi dina taun 2008-2018, anu geus dipunlikasikeun ku ''Kementrian Kehutanan Republik Indonesia'' dina siaran pers nomor S.22/II/PIK-1/2008 (Kementerian Kehutanan Republik Indonesia,2008). <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.id/baca/foto/2018/05/22/populasi-lutung-mentawai/|title=Populasi Lutung Mentawai|website=kompas.id|accessdate=2021-09-18}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918073044/https://www.kompas.id/baca/foto/2018/05/22/populasi-lutung-mentawai/ |date=2021-09-18 }}</ref> == Rujukan == azve85gxc1x3yw7rhxm0o6x2fh53u8h 0 104463 710058 660215 2026-06-04T06:53:32Z Lubinh123 36850 710058 wikitext text/x-wiki {{kanal TV | Ngaran = HTV1 | logofile = HTV1.png | logosize= 200px | stasiun seinduk = [[HTV2]],[[HTV3]],[[HTV Key]],[[HTV7]],[[HTV9]] |terr scan 1 = [[VTV Go]]}}'''HTV1''' ninggalkeun saluran Thong inpormasi umum stasion televisi [[Kota Ho Chi Minh]],salaku tambahan, HTV1 ogé nyiarkeun sababaraha acara olahraga anu lumangsung dina waktos anu sami sareng [[HTV Thể Thao]],[[HTV7]],[[HTV9]] Siaran Langsung Acara [[HTV9]]. Stasion Seinduk: [[HTV2]], [[HTV3]], [[HTV4]], [[HTV5]], [[HTV7]], [[HTV9]], [[HTV Thể Thao]]. ==Acara== * [[Daptar acara HTV1]] ==Tempo ogé== * [[Daptar stasiun televisi di Vietnam]] * [[Daptar stasiun televisi di dunya]] * [[Ho Chi Minh Televisi]] * [[Televisi di Vietnam]] gifabdt1v97llvdgq9p82vhfp751jky 0 108548 710043 709844 2026-06-03T13:13:45Z HenriPurwanto 36661 Nambahan poto Pasisir Sungai Citanduy karya Henri Purwanto 710043 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sungai Citanduy''' nyaéta walungan pangpanjangna di Priangan Wétan, ngalir ngawatesan Propinsi Jawa Barat jeung Jawa Tengah. Walungan ieu mangrupa salah sahiji DAS utama di Jawa Kulon. == Géografi == Sungai Citanduy ngalir ti hulu di pagunungan Priangan Wétan, ngaliwatan Kabupatén Ciamis, Kota Banjar, jeung Kabupatén Cilacap. Walungan ieu ahirna bermuara di Samudra Hindia. [[File:Pesisir Sungai Citanduy dengan pantulan Gunung di Banjar Jawa Barat.jpg|thumb|Pasisir Walungan Citanduy di Banjar, Jawa Barat. Katingali pantulan gunung, mega, jeung tangkal di beungeut cai walungan pangpanjangna di Jawa Barat.]] Kota Banjar jeung situs cagar budaya Kokoplak ayana henteu jauh ti aliran walungan ieu. == Fungsi == Sungai Citanduy boga peran penting pikeun: * '''Irigasi''': Ngairigan sawah-sawah di wewengkon Ciamis, Banjar, jeung Cilacap. * '''Transportasi''': Dina jaman baheula, walungan ieu dipaké pikeun ngangkut hasil bumi. * '''Ekonomi''': Sumber lauk, pasir, jeung cai pikeun masarakat sapanjang aliran. == Sajarah == Walungan Citanduy disebut '''Tjitanduj''' dina naskah [[Kidung Lakbok]] taun 1956.<ref name="kidung">Prawiraatmadja, M. Karso. ''Wawatjan Kidung Lakbok''. Banjar: 31 Agustus 1956.</ref> Dina naskah éta (Pupuh 10), dicaritakeun perang antara Ratu Ineung Buana jeung [[Ratu Agung Tambakbaja]], nalika pasukan anu kalodoh "mundur ngukuj ka Tjitanduj".<ref name="wikisource">{{cite web | title = Kidung Lakbok | website = Wikisource Basa Sunda | url = https://su.wikisource.org/wiki/Kidung_Lakbok | access-date = 29 Méi 2026}}</ref> === Reklamasi Rawa Lakbok (1924) === Taun 1924, Pamaréntah Hindia Walanda ngamimitian proyék reklamasi Rawa Lakbok ku cara ngaluriskeun aliran Citanduy pikeun ngaringkeun rawa gambut anu lega 3.000 héktar.<ref name="sukanagara">{{cite web | title = Sejarah Desa Sukanagara | website = Desa Sukanagara Lakbok | url = https://sukanagara-lakbok.desa.id/profile/sejarah_desa | access-date = 29 Méi 2026}}</ref><ref name="natgeo">{{cite web | title = Rawa Lakbok, Lahan Gambut yang Tersisa di Jawa | website = National Geographic Indonesia | url = https://nationalgeographic.grid.id/read/13283642/rawa-lakbok-lahan-gambut-yang-tersisa-di-jawa | access-date = 29 Méi 2026}}</ref> Proyék ieu digulirkeun ku Bupati Ciamis R.A.A. Wiratanuningrat (1926), anu ngaluarkeun kawijakan Hak Milik Tanah pikeun patani.<ref name="sukanagara"/> Ieu nyababkeun migrasi patani ti [[Banyumas]] jeung Ciamis, anu ngajadikeun masarakat Lakbok [[bilingual]] (Sunda Ciamis–Jawa Banyumasan).<ref name="sukanagara"/> === Ramalan "Bandjar Bakal Bandjir" === Dina bagian prosa Kidung Lakbok aya ramalan "Bandjar bakal bandjir".<ref name="kidung"/> Para panalungtik lokal niténan yén Kota Banjar perenahna di cekungan Citanduy. Nalika Citanduy diluriskeun (1924), résiko banjir di hilir ningkat. Sastra kuno nangkep ancaman bencana ieu jeung ngaramalkeun dina wangun mantra.<ref name="kidung"/> === Angkutan Sédimén jeung Morfologi === Numutkeun tesis [[Institut Teknologi Bandung]] taun 2023, Citanduy Hilir ngalaman paningkatan sédiméntasi jeung parobahan morfologi anu signifikan.<ref name="itb2023">Putranda, Jovan. (2023). ''Kajian Angkutan Sedimen dan Morfologi Sungai Citanduy Hilir''. Tesis Magister Pengelolaan Sumber Daya Air, Institut Teknologi Bandung.</ref> Panalungtikan ieu ngagunakeun aplikasi HEC-RAS 6.1 pikeun simulasi angkutan sédimén. Hasilna némbongkeun:<ref name="itb2023"/> * Dina usum hujan, beban sédimén leuwih luhur alatan ngaronjatna aliran cai jeung erosi di hulu. * Sampel sédimén dasar némbongkeun dominasi pasir jeung ''silt''. * Citanduy Hilir ngalaman erosi jeung sédiméntasi, utamana di bagian anu ngalengkung (''meandering''). == Tingali ogé == * [[Kota Banjar]] * [[Kabupatén Ciamis]] * [[Kabupatén Cilacap]] * [[Kokoplak]] == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:Walungan di Jawa Barat]] [[Kategori:Walungan di Jawa Tengah]] [[Kategori:Géografi Priangan]] fh5qcqo6g2vppnidx3nmhecmu0dadya 0 108590 710048 709683 2026-06-04T03:59:16Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710048 wikitext text/x-wiki == Sajarah == Desa Langensari asalna tina wilayah [[Desa Pataruman]] anu harita legana ± 17 km ti Kampung Jelat (Ciroas) nepi ka Kampung Citamiang Desa Cintaratu. Dumasar SK Gubernur Jawa Barat No. 69 Pem VI Des./SK/70 tanggal 16 Maret 1970, Desa Pataruman dipecah jadi dua nyaéta Desa Tambakbaya (ayeuna [[Desa Mulyasari]]) jeung Desa Langensari.<ref name="sejarah_desalangensari"/> Ngaran '''Langensari''' dipilih dumasar kana kasapukan masarakat. Caretaker munggaran anu ngajabat nyaéta Bapak Minhadi, BA ti Staf Pemda Tk. II Ciamis ti 27 April 1970 nepi ka 22 Pébruari 1971.<ref name="sejarah_desalangensari"/> Kaping 28 Oktober 1970 dilaksanakeun Pamilihan Kepala Desa definitif anu dimenangkeun ku Bapak Peltu Santoso. Anjeunna dilantik dina tanggal 22 Pébruari 1971 minangka Kepala Desa Langensari anu kahiji.<ref name="sejarah_desalangensari"/> === Pemekaran === Dumasar SK Gubernur Jawa Barat tanggal 5 Juni 1978 No. 939 Pem/120/SK/78, Desa Langensari dimekarkeun jadi tilu desa:<ref name="sejarah_desalangensari"/> * Desa Rejasari * Desa Langensari * Desa Waringinsari Sanggeus pemekaran éta, Desa Langensari ngawengku opat kampung:<ref name="sejarah_desalangensari"/> * Kampung Langen * Kampung Sukahurip * Kampung Karangmukti * Kampung Sidamukti Dumasar SK Gubernur KDH Tk. I Jawa Barat tanggal 2 Séptémber 1983 No. 146.1/SK.1987-Pemdes 83 jeung SK Bupati Ciamis tanggal 25 Pébruari 1984 No. 08 Pem. 146.1 Des/SK/1984, Desa Langensari dimekarkeun deui jadi dua desa:<ref name="sejarah_desalangensari"/> * Desa Langensari * Desa Muktisari Sanggeus pemekaran kadua, Desa Langensari ngawengku tilu dusun:<ref name="sejarah_desalangensari"/> * Dusun Sukahurip * Dusun Karangmukti * Dusun Sidamulya (hasil pemecahan tina Dusun Sidamukti) Dumasar SK Bupati Ciamis tanggal 16 Januari 1991 No. 1461/SK.20-HUK/1991, dibentuk dusun anyar nyaéta Dusun Sinargalih (tina pecahan Dusun Sukahurip jeung Dusun Karangmukti). Ku kituna Desa Langensari ayeuna ngawengku opat dusun:<ref name="sejarah_desalangensari"/> * Dusun Sukahurip * Dusun Sinargalih * Dusun Karangmukti * Dusun Sidamulya === Kapala Desa === Di handap ieu daptar Kepala Desa Langensari ti mimiti diadegkeun:<ref name="sejarah_desalangensari"/> {| class="wikitable" ! No !! Ngaran !! Masa Jabatan !! Katerangan |- | 1 || Caretaker Minhadi, BA || 1970–1971 || |- | 2 || Peltu Santoso || 1971–1981 || Kepala Desa definitif kahiji |- | 3 || Ibu Suyatun || 1981–1989 || Kepala Desa kadua |- | 4 || Pjs. Engkos Beni || 1989–1990 || |- | 5 || Tugiman || 1990–2000 || Kepala Desa katilu |- | 6 || Pjs. Sasmita, SH || |- | 7 || Pjs. Saryan || |- | 8 || Pjs. Dadang Suharto || |- | 9 || Keriman || 2002–2007 || Kepala Desa kaopat |- | 10 || Plh. Somantri || |- | 11 || Sutopo || 2007–2013 || Kepala Desa kalima |- | 12 || Ibu Yanti || 2013–2019 || Kepala Desa kagenep |} == Démografi == Dumasar data BPS Kota Banjar taun 2023, jumlah penduduk Désa Langensari nyaéta: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! Désa/Kelurahan !! Laki-Laki !! Perempuan !! Jumlah |- | Langensari || 4.906 || 4.707 || 9.613 |} Sumber: BPS Kota Banjar, ''Kecamatan Langensari Dalam Angka 2024''<ref name="bps2024">{{cite web |title=Kecamatan Langensari Dalam Angka 2024 |website=BPS Kota Banjar |url=https://banjarkota.bps.go.id/ |access-date=23 Méi 2026 |language=id }}</ref> == Rujukan == <references> <ref name="sejarah_desalangensari">{{cite web |title=Sejarah Desa Langensari |website=Website Resmi Desa Langensari |url=https://desalangensari.banjarkota.go.id/index.php/sejarah |access-date=23 Méi 2026 |language=id }}{{Dead link|date=June 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> </references> [[Kategori:Desa di Kota Banjar]] [[Kategori:Kecamatan Langensari]] agor0qe1sj6rtc5al31pr60hnhs57bb 0 108606 710059 709722 2026-06-04T08:17:58Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 2 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710059 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width: 25em; font-size: 90%; text-align: left; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border: 1px solid #aaa; border-collapse: collapse;" ! colspan="2" style="background: #b0c4de; text-align: center; font-size: 125%;"| Kacamatan Pamarican<br>ᮕᮙᮛᮤᮎᮔ᮪ |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| [[Berkas:Pamarican_map.png|250px]] |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #dcdcdc; text-align: center;"| Inpormasi Umum |- ! Nagara | Indonésia |- ! Propinsi | Jawa Barat |- ! Kabupatén | Kabupatén Ciamis |- ! Puseur Pamaréntahan | Désa Pamarican |- ! Camat | Drs. Bangbang Mohamad Sobar Gumilar |- ! Luas | 107,76 km² |- ! Pangeusi (2023) | 69.929 jiwa |- ! Kapadetan | 648,9 jiwa/km² |- ! Koordinat | {{Coord|7|27|28|S|108|31|22|E|type:adm2nd}} |- ! Ketinggian | 27 mdpl |- ! Situs Web | [https://kecamatan-pamarican.ciamiskab.go.id kecamatan-pamarican.ciamiskab.go.id] |} '''Kacamatan Pamarican''' nyaéta salah sahiji kacamatan di Kabupatén Ciamis, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia. Puseur pamaréntahan kacamatan ieu aya di Désa Pamarican. == Sajarah == Kacamatan Pamarican diadegkeun saprak taun 1945. Mimitina ngan ukur ngawengku 8 désa, ayeuna geus ngembang jadi 14 désa. == Géografi == Kacamatan Pamarican ayana di bagian tenggara Kabupatén Ciamis kalawan luas wilayah 107,76 km² dumasar data BPS taun 2023. Ketinggian wilayahna rupa-rupa ti 26 nepi ka 600 méter di luhur beungeut laut. == Iklim == Kacamatan Pamarican mibanda iklim tropis baseuh kalawan dua usum, nyaéta usum hujan jeung usum halodo. Suhu rata-rata sapopoé antara 22–31 °C kalawan kalembaban hawa anu cukup luhur, nyaéta 66–98%. Data iklim pangénggalna tiasa ditingali dina situs resmi [[Badan Meteorologi, Klimatologi, jeung Geofisika|BMKG]]. == Démografi == Dumasar data BPS taun 2023, jumlah pangeusi Kacamatan Pamarican nyaéta 69.929 jiwa, kalawan kapadetan 648,9 jiwa/km² jeung rasio jenis kelamin 100,3. Rincian per désa: {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Désa !! Laki-laki !! Perempuan !! Jumlah !! Persentase !! Kapadetan (/km²) !! Rasio JK |- | Sidamulih || 1.735 || 1.780 || 3.515 || 5,03% || 299,7 || 97,5 |- | Margajaya || 2.043 || 1.980 || 4.023 || 5,75% || 282,9 || 103,2 |- | Neglasari || 3.367 || 3.496 || 6.863 || 9,81% || 613,7 || 96,3 |- | Pamarican || 2.788 || 2.876 || 5.664 || 8,11% || 841,9 || 96,9 |- | Sukahurip || 2.587 || 2.532 || 5.119 || 7,32% || 549,5 || 102,2 |- | Kertahayu || 4.175 || 4.099 || 8.274 || 11,83% || 1.030,7 || 101,9 |- | Sukajadi || 3.158 || 3.026 || 6.184 || 8,86% || 1.657,6 || 104,4 |- | Sukamukti || 2.476 || 2.471 || 4.947 || 7,08% || 2.140,3 || 100,2 |- | Sidaharja || 2.010 || 1.885 || 3.895 || 5,57% || 972,1 || 106,6 |- | Bangunsari || 3.831 || 3.855 || 7.686 || 10,99% || 894,5 || 99,4 |- | Sukajaya || 2.146 || 2.238 || 4.384 || 6,27% || 736,6 || 95,9 |- | Bantarsari || 1.223 || 1.268 || 2.491 || 3,56% || 481,8 || 96,5 |- | Pasirnagara || 1.749 || 1.721 || 3.470 || 4,97% || 585,0 || 101,6 |- | Mekarmulya || 1.721 || 1.693 || 3.414 || 4,88% || 314,5 || 101,7 |- ! Jumlah !! 35.009 !! 34.920 !! 69.929 !! 100,00% !! 648,9 !! 100,3 |} == Pamaréntahan == Kacamatan Pamarican diwangun ku 14 désa. Daptar désa sareng luas wilayah dumasar data taun 2023: {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Désa !! Luas (km²) !! Persentase |- | Sidamulih || 11,73 || 10,89% |- | Margajaya || 14,22 || 13,20% |- | Neglasari || 11,20 || 10,39% |- | Pamarican || 6,73 || 6,25% |- | Sukahurip || 9,32 || 8,65% |- | Kertahayu || 8,02 || 7,44% |- | Sukajadi || 3,73 || 3,46% |- | Sukamukti || 2,31 || 2,14% |- | Sidaharja || 4,01 || 3,72% |- | Bangunsari || 8,59 || 7,97% |- | Sukajaya || 5,95 || 5,52% |- | Bantarsari || 5,17 || 4,80% |- | Pasirnagara || 5,93 || 5,50% |- | Mekarmulya || 10,85 || 10,07% |- ! Jumlah || 107,76 || 100,00% |} == Pertanian jeung Panggunaan Lahan == Dumasar data BPS taun 2020, luas panggunaan lahan di Kacamatan Pamarican nyaéta 13.346,32 ha, kalawan 2.916 ha sawah, 10.361,32 ha tanah kering, jeung 69 ha perairan umum. == Budaya jeung Cagar Budaya == Di wilayah Kacamatan Pamarican aya reruntuhan candi Hindu di Kampung Kedungbangkong, Désa Sukajaya, caket walungan Ciseel. Candi ieu dipikawanoh ku masarakat satempat salaku '''Candi Ronggeng'''. == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} <ref>{{cite web |title=Kecamatan Pamarican Dalam Angka 2024 |url=https://web-api.bps.go.id/download |publisher=Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupatén Ciamis |access-date=24 Méi 2026 }}{{Dead link|date=June 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |title=Prakiraan Cuaca Kacamatan Pamarican |url=https://www.bmkg.go.id/cuaca/prakiraan-cuaca/32.07.19 |publisher=BMKG |access-date=24 Méi 2026 }}{{Dead link|date=June 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Tumbu kaluar == * [https://kecamatan-pamarican.ciamiskab.go.id Situs resmi Kacamatan Pamarican] [[Kategori:Kacamatan di Kabupatén Ciamis]] [[Kategori:Kacamatan di Jawa Barat]] s5izgakqamhbt1ukb1q72z1u6k545i2 0 108665 710056 710022 2026-06-04T06:31:29Z Mirani Pramitasari 26631 710056 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Museum Galunggung Tasikmalaya - 01.jpg|jmpl|294x294px|Wangunan musieum]] '''Musieum Galunggung''' mangrupaken hiji lembaga permuseuman dumasar komunitas anu perenahna di suku [[Gunung Galunggung]], pasna mah di jero Kompleks [[Ékowisata Batu Mahpar]], [[Sukamulih, Sariwangi, Tasikmalaya|Désa Sukamulih]], [[Sariwangi, Tasikmalaya|Kacamatan Sariwangi]], [[Kabupatén Tasikmalaya]], [[Jawa Kulon]]. Diwangun pikeun jadi tempat nyimpen ngaran jeung ingetan babarengan sarta jadi cikal bakal ngoréhan sajarah tatar Sunda, musieum ieu ngahijikeun lalakon sajarah lokal, warisan géologi purba, jeung usaha keur ngahudangkeun kasadaran sajarah masarakat ti rupa-rupa generasi. Aya na Musieum Galunggung téh jadi alat anu penting pisan keur ngajawab pasualan mimiti leungitna ingetan sosial masarakat kana kabeungharan budaya lokal. Musieum ieu nembongkeun diri lain saukur tempat statis keur ngumpulkeun barang antik, tapi jadi rohang édukasi anu dinamis anu terus ngahasilkeun kanyaho sajarah demi ngajaga idéntitas kadaéhan masarakat Tasikmalaya.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Musyaffa|first=Moch Azka Shohibul|last2=Samsudin|last3=Astri|first3=Yasmina Wikan|date=2026-04-30|title=THE ROLE OF THE GALUNGGUNG MUSEUM IN PROMOTING HISTORY LEARNING AND PRESERVING LOCAL CULTURE IN TASIKMALAYA (2020–2024): Peran Museum Galunggung Dalam Upaya Pembelajaran Sejarah dan Pelestarian Budaya Lokal Di Tasikmalaya (2020-2024)|url=https://ejournal.unibabwi.ac.id/index.php/santhet/article/view/7721|journal=Santhet (Jurnal Sejarah Pendidikan Dan Humaniora)|language=en|volume=10|issue=2|pages=693–704|doi=10.36526/santhet.v10i2.7721|issn=2541-6103}}</ref> == Kasang tukang == Diadegkeunana Musieum Galunggung téh ku Irjen. Pol. (Purn.) Dr. (H.C.) [[Anton Charliyan]], M.P.K.N., mantan Kapolda Jawa Kulon anu katelah ogé aktip salaku tokoh anu ngalestarikeun adat jeung budaya Sunda.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://portalbandungtimur.pikiran-rakyat.com/budaya/pr-946821821/museum-galunggung-kekhawatiran-akan-sejarah-yang-terlupakan|title=Museum Galunggung, Kekhawatiran Akan Sejarah yang terlupakan|last=Retno|first=Heriyanto|website=Portal Bandung Timur|language=id|accessdate=2026-06-02}}</ref> Pikiran keur ngadegkeun musieum ieu akarna tina rasa prihatin anu kacida ti éta tokoh kana turunna minat barudak ngora dina mikawanoh kasang tukang sajarah wewengkon maranéhna sorangan. Ayana kacenderungan ngarasaasing kana budaya di kalangan masarakat Tasikmalaya ngahudangkeun rasa hariwang yén warisan luhur peradaban Galunggung bakal bener-bener poho sagemblengna lamun teu dirojong ku hiji lembaga anu nyalametkeun ingetan babarengan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mediaperadaban.com/museum-galunggung-menyambung-warisan-menyalakan-kesadaran-sejarah-di-tasikmalaya/|title=Museum Galunggung: Menyambung Warisan, Menyalakan Kesadaran Sejarah di Tasikmalaya – Media Peradaban|language=id|accessdate=2026-06-02}}</ref> Musieum ieu diadegkeun salaku wujud tina modél musieum komunitas (''community-based museum''). Ciri ieu anu ngabédakeunana jeung musieum-musieum milik nagara anu biasana dikokolakeun sacara ''top-down'' (ti luhur ka handap). Ngaliwatan pendekatan komunitas, Musieum Galunggung fungsina jadi rohang inklusif tempat para sajarawan, budayawan, akademisi, jeung warga lokal babarengan aktip ngahirupkeun deui lalakon-lalakon sajarah [[Priangan Wétan]] anu saencana pabalatak atawa teu kaurus alatan kurangna dokuméntasi tinulis dina kurikulum pendidikan formal. == Koléksi musieum == <gallery> Koleksi Museum Galunggung Tasikmalaya - 02.jpg Koleksi Museum Galunggung Tasikmalaya - 03.jpg Koleksi Museum Galunggung Tasikmalaya - 04.jpg Koleksi Museum Galunggung Tasikmalaya - 05.jpg Koleksi Museum Galunggung Tasikmalaya - 06.jpg Koleksi Museum Galunggung Tasikmalaya - 08.jpg Dokumentasi Naga Museum Galunggung.jpg Koleksi Museum Galunggung (1).jpg Koleksi Museum Galunggung (2).jpg Koleksi Museum Galunggung (3).jpg Koleksi Museum Galunggung (4).jpg Koleksi Museum Galunggung (5).jpg Koleksi Museum Galunggung (6).jpg Koleksi Museum Galunggung (7).jpg Koleksi Museum Galunggung (8).jpg </gallery> == Référénsi == oq5ycgyxomzmzgb6ea1znnx2sl4mg99 0 108667 710050 2026-06-04T05:52:04Z HenriPurwanto 36661 Nyieun kaca anyar ngeunaan mendong (tutuwuhan anyaman), kalawan rujukan botani jeung ékonomi. 710050 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mendong''' atawa '''Mendong wulung''' nyaéta ngaran pikeun tutuwuhan jinis jukut rawa nu ngahasilkeun rumpak pikeun bahan anyaman. Ngaran ilmiahna ''Fimbristylis globulosa'' atawa ''Fimbristylis umbellaris''. == Pedaran == Tutuwuhan ieu hirup ngarumpak dina taneuh lumpur, jangkungna bisa nepi ka 75 cm. Batangna segi tilu, teu boga daun beneran, ngan aya palapah di pangkalna. Kembangna ngumpul jadi payung, buahna leutik buleud kawas biji wijen.<ref name="florachina">{{cite web |url=https://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200026610 |title=Fimbristylis globulosa |website=Flora of China |access-date=4 Juni 2026}}</ref> == Budidaya == Mendong tumuwuh hadé di daérah rawa jeung sawah anu caina teu ngocor. Di [[Jawa Kulon]], loba dibudidayakeun ku patani di [[Kabupatén Tasikmalaya]], [[Kabupatén Ciamis|Ciamis]], jeung [[Kota Banjar|Banjar]].<ref name="disbun">{{cite web |url=https://disbun.jabarprov.go.id/index.php/komoditas/mendong |title=Komoditi Mendong Jawa Barat |website=Dinas Perkebunan Jawa Barat |access-date=4 Juni 2026}}</ref> == Mangpaat == Rumpak mendong dipaké pikeun nyieun [[tikar]], tas, topi, jeung karajinan lianna. Di [[Tasikmalaya]], industri ieu jadi mata pencaharian utama masarakat.<ref name="kompas">{{cite news |date=13 Maret 2025 |title=Anyaman Mendong Tasikmalaya Tembus Pasar Amerika dan Jerman |work=Kompas.com |url=https://bandung.kompas.com/read/2025/03/13/185411578/anyaman-mendong-tasikmalaya-tembus-pasar-amerika-dan-jerman |access-date=4 Juni 2026}}</ref> == Tempo ogé == * [[Anyaman]] * [[Tikar]] * [[Tasikmalaya]] == Tutumbu luar == * [https://www.efloras.org Flora of China - Fimbristylis globulosa] == Rujukan == <references/> [[Kategori:Jukut]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan rawa]] [[Kategori:Anyaman Sunda]] [[Kategori:Ékonomi Tasikmalaya]] m0bw43735as6wjmzmtq7cevimcsp1w1 710052 710050 2026-06-04T06:01:49Z HenriPurwanto 36661 Ngapdet rujukan Disbun: nambihan archive-url ti Wayback Machine 15 Januari 2024 + url-status=dead. Ayeuna rujukan anti link paeh. 710052 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mendong''' atawa '''Mendong wulung''' nyaéta ngaran pikeun tutuwuhan jinis jukut rawa nu ngahasilkeun rumpak pikeun bahan anyaman. Ngaran ilmiahna ''Fimbristylis globulosa'' atawa ''Fimbristylis umbellaris''. == Pedaran == Tutuwuhan ieu hirup ngarumpak dina taneuh lumpur, jangkungna bisa nepi ka 75 cm. Batangna segi tilu, teu boga daun beneran, ngan aya palapah di pangkalna. Kembangna ngumpul jadi payung, buahna leutik buleud kawas biji wijen.<ref name="florachina">{{cite web |url=https://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200026610 |title=Fimbristylis globulosa |website=Flora of China |access-date=4 Juni 2026}}</ref> == Budidaya == Mendong tumuwuh hadé di daérah rawa jeung sawah anu caina teu ngocor. Di [[Jawa Kulon]], loba dibudidayakeun ku patani di [[Kabupatén Tasikmalaya]], [[Kabupatén Ciamis|Ciamis]], jeung [[Kota Banjar|Banjar]].<ref name="disbun">{{cite web |url=https://disbun.jabarprov.go.id/komoditas/mendong |title=Komoditi Mendong Jawa Barat |website=Dinas Perkebunan Jawa Barat |access-date=4 Juni 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240115000000/https://disbun.jabarprov.go.id/komoditas/mendong |archive-date=15 Januari 2024 |url-status=dead}}</ref> == Mangpaat == Rumpak mendong dipaké pikeun nyieun [[tikar]], tas, topi, jeung karajinan lianna. Di [[Tasikmalaya]], industri ieu jadi mata pencaharian utama masarakat.<ref name="kompas">{{cite news |date=13 Maret 2025 |title=Anyaman Mendong Tasikmalaya Tembus Pasar Amerika dan Jerman |work=Kompas.com |url=https://bandung.kompas.com/read/2025/03/13/185411578/anyaman-mendong-tasikmalaya-tembus-pasar-amerika-dan-jerman |access-date=4 Juni 2026}}</ref> == Tempo ogé == * [[Anyaman]] * [[Tikar]] * [[Tasikmalaya]] == Tutumbu luar == * [https://www.efloras.org Flora of China - Fimbristylis globulosa] == Rujukan == <references/> [[Kategori:Jukut]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan rawa]] [[Kategori:Anyaman Sunda]] [[Kategori:Ékonomi Tasikmalaya]] 3tzzlgpiodfmnid0tglizxx5xxptx2w 710053 710052 2026-06-04T06:09:35Z HenriPurwanto 36661 Ngapdet rujukan Disbun ayeuna rujukan anti link maot 710053 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mendong''' atawa '''Mendong wulung''' nyaéta ngaran pikeun tutuwuhan jinis jukut rawa nu ngahasilkeun rumpak pikeun bahan anyaman. Ngaran ilmiahna ''Fimbristylis globulosa'' atawa ''Fimbristylis umbellaris''. == Pedaran == Tutuwuhan ieu hirup ngarumpak dina taneuh lumpur, jangkungna bisa nepi ka 75 cm. Batangna segi tilu, teu boga daun beneran, ngan aya palapah di pangkalna. Kembangna ngumpul jadi payung, buahna leutik buleud kawas biji wijen.<ref name="florachina">{{cite web |url=https://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200026610 |title=Fimbristylis globulosa |website=Flora of China |access-date=4 Juni 2026}}</ref> == Budidaya == Mendong tumuwuh hadé di daérah rawa jeung sawah anu caina teu ngocor. Di [[Jawa Kulon]], loba dibudidayakeun ku patani di [[Kabupatén Tasikmalaya]], [[Kabupatén Ciamis|Ciamis]], jeung [[Kota Banjar|Banjar]].<ref name="disbun">{{cite web |url=http://disbun.jabarprov.go.id/page/view/70-id-mendong |title=Mendong |website=Dinas Perkebunan Jawa Barat |access-date=4 Juni 2026}}</ref> == Mangpaat == Rumpak mendong dipaké pikeun nyieun [[tikar]], tas, topi, jeung karajinan lianna. Di [[Tasikmalaya]], industri ieu jadi mata pencaharian utama masarakat.<ref name="kompas">{{cite news |date=13 Maret 2025 |title=Anyaman Mendong Tasikmalaya Tembus Pasar Amerika dan Jerman |work=Kompas.com |url=https://bandung.kompas.com/read/2025/03/13/185411578/anyaman-mendong-tasikmalaya-tembus-pasar-amerika-dan-jerman |access-date=4 Juni 2026}}</ref> == Tempo ogé == * [[Anyaman]] * [[Tikar]] * [[Tasikmalaya]] == Tutumbu luar == * [https://www.efloras.org Flora of China - Fimbristylis globulosa] == Rujukan == <references/> [[Kategori:Jukut]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan rawa]] [[Kategori:Anyaman Sunda]] [[Kategori:Ékonomi Tasikmalaya]] ntdpoyg86tizjwwxtvpd1uhy3kipvef 710054 710053 2026-06-04T06:15:22Z HenriPurwanto 36661 Update nambihan infobox 710054 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width: 250px; font-size: 90%; background-color: #f8f9fa; border-collapse: collapse; float: right; margin-left: 1em;" |+ '''Mendong''' |- ! Ngaran ilmiah | ''Fimbristylis globulosa'' / ''F. umbellaris'' |- ! Karajaan | [[Plantae]] |- ! Kulawarga | [[Cyperaceae]] |- ! Marga | ''[[Fimbristylis]]'' |- ! Spésiés | '''''F. globulosa''''' |} '''Mendong''' atawa '''Mendong wulung''' nyaéta ngaran pikeun tutuwuhan jinis jukut rawa nu ngahasilkeun rumpak pikeun bahan anyaman. Ngaran ilmiahna ''Fimbristylis globulosa'' atawa ''Fimbristylis umbellaris''. == Pedaran == Tutuwuhan ieu hirup ngarumpak dina taneuh lumpur, jangkungna bisa nepi ka 75 cm. Batangna segi tilu, teu boga daun beneran, ngan aya palapah di pangkalna. Kembangna ngumpul jadi payung, buahna leutik buleud kawas biji wijen.<ref name="florachina">{{cite web |url=https://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200026610 |title=Fimbristylis globulosa |website=Flora of China |access-date=4 Juni 2026}}</ref> == Budidaya == Mendong tumuwuh hadé di daérah rawa jeung sawah anu caina teu ngocor. Di [[Jawa Kulon]], loba dibudidayakeun ku patani di [[Kabupatén Tasikmalaya]], [[Kabupatén Ciamis|Ciamis]], jeung [[Kota Banjar|Banjar]].<ref name="disbun">{{cite web |url=http://disbun.jabarprov.go.id/page/view/70-id-mendong |title=Mendong |website=Dinas Perkebunan Jawa Barat |access-date=4 Juni 2026}}</ref> == Mangpaat == Rumpak mendong dipaké pikeun nyieun [[tikar]], tas, topi, jeung karajinan lianna. Di [[Tasikmalaya]], industri ieu jadi mata pencaharian utama masarakat.<ref name="kompas">{{cite news |date=13 Maret 2025 |title=Anyaman Mendong Tasikmalaya Tembus Pasar Amerika dan Jerman |work=Kompas.com |url=https://bandung.kompas.com/read/2025/03/13/185411578/anyaman-mendong-tasikmalaya-tembus-pasar-amerika-dan-jerman |access-date=4 Juni 2026}}</ref> == Tempo ogé == * [[Anyaman]] * [[Tikar]] * [[Tasikmalaya]] == Tutumbu luar == * [https://www.efloras.org Flora of China - Fimbristylis globulosa] == Rujukan == <references/> [[Kategori:Jukut]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan rawa]] [[Kategori:Anyaman Sunda]] [[Kategori:Ékonomi Tasikmalaya]] 6pthq0zctcd9tnzlyql91edys1ij5is