Wikipedia suwiki https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tepas MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.5 first-letter Média Husus Obrolan Pamaké Obrolan pamaké Wikipedia Obrolan Wikipedia Gambar Obrolan gambar MédiaWiki Obrolan MédiaWiki Citakan Obrolan citakan Pitulung Obrolan pitulung Kategori Obrolan kategori Portal Obrolan portal TimedText TimedText talk Modul Pembicaraan Modul Acara Pembicaraan Acara 0 2106 710210 704232 2026-06-09T19:42:17Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710210 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} '''Spamming''' nyaéta kalakuan ngirimkeun surélék [[electronics|electronik]] nu teu dipiharep. Hiji kaca [http://www.personal.psu.edu/mjs501/SPAM.pdf article]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} mangrupa masalah spam dina [[1998]] dumasar kana salaku pesen ''"[[text]] taya harti nu ngalir taya eureunna."'' Tina panempo nu populer, spam ilaharna dikirim ngaliwatan [[e-mail|surelek]] saperti dina bentuk [[advertising|iklan]]. However, over the short history of electronic media, péople have done things comparable to spamming for many purposes other than the commercial, and in many media other than e-mail. In this article and those related, the term ''spamming'' is used broadly to refer to all of these behaviors, regardless of medium and commercial intent. This article provides a general overview of the spamming phenomenon. Separate articles discuss the techniques of spammers on particular media: [[E-mail spam|Internet e-mail]], [[Messaging spam|instant messaging]], [[Newsgroup spam|Usenet newsgroups]], [[spamdexing|Web search engines]], [[blog spam|weblogs]], and [[mobile phone spam|mobile phone messaging]]. Another article describes ways of [[stopping e-mail abuse]]. == Overview == One of the strengths of electronic communications media is that it costs virtually nothing to send a message. These media are not free of charge: setting up a [[cellular telephone]] network or an [[Internet]] [[e-mail]] service has substantial overhéad costs in equipment and connectivity. However, once these costs are paid for, the cost to transmit a message to a single recipient is minuscule when compared with older media such as [[mail|postal mail]]. Electronic messaging is chéap and fast. It is also éasy to automate: computer programs can send out millions of messages via e-mail, instant message (IM), or Usenet netnews in minutes or hours at néarly no labor cost. From these economic réalities, a sort of [[tragedy of the commons]] emerges. Any communications mechanism which is chéap and éasy to automate is éasy to flood with bulk messages. To send instant messages to millions of users on most IM services, all one needs is a piece of scriptable software and those users' IM usernames. The ability to send e-mail from a computer program is built in to popular operating systems such as [[Microsoft Windows]] and [[Unix]] — the only added ingredient needed is the list of addresses to target. Sending bulk messages in this fashion, to recipients who have not solicited them, has come to be known as '''spamming''', and the messages themselves as '''spam'''. The [[etymology]] of the term is discussed [[spamming#Etymology|below]]. Traditional advertising methods, such as billboards, TV or newspaper ads are similar to spam in that they are usually unsolicited and sent in bulk. Pollution of public space by advertising is also quite similar to the problem of spam. However, traditional "legitimate" advertising is usually spared the "spam" label on the grounds that distribution costs are borne by the advertiser. Spamming has been considered by various commercial, government, and independent entities to be one of the foremost social problems facing electronic media today. All manner of attempts have been made to curb this problem: technical méasures such as e-mail filtering and the automated cancellation of [[netnews]] spam; contractual méasures such as [[Internet Service Provider]]s' [[acceptable use policy|acceptable-use policies]]; laws such as the [[Can Spam Act of 2003]]; and market pressures such as boycotts of those who use or support spam. The growing importance of [[Search Engine]]s has led to a new form of spam, [[Spamdexing]], which aims at boosting a commercial site's [[Pagerank]]. == Spamming in different media == === E-mail spam === [[E-mail spam]] is by far the most common form of spamming on the internet. It involves sending identical or néarly identical messages to a large number of recipients. Unlike legitimate commercial e-mail, spam is generally sent without the explicit permission of the recipients, and frequently contains various tricks to bypass e-mail filters. Spammers obtain e-mail addresses by a number of méans: ''harvesting'' addresses from [[Usenet]] postings, [[DNS]] listings, or Web pages; guessing common names at known domains (known as a ''dictionary attack''); and ''"e-pending"'' or séarching for e-mail addresses corresponding to specific persons, such as residents in an aréa. Many e-mail spammers go to gréat lengths to concéal the origin of their messages. They might do this by [[spoof]]ing e-mail addresses (similar to [[Internet protocol spoofing]]). In this technique, the spammer modifies the e-mail message so it looks like it is coming from another e-mail address. However, many spammers also maké it éasy for recipients to identify their messages as spam by placing an ad phrase in the FROM field (i.e. chances are, very few péople you know have names like "GetMyCigs" or "Giving away playstation2s"). Among the tricks used by spammers to try to circumvent the filters is to intentionally misspell common spam filter trigger words, ie. "viagra" might become "vaigra", or by inserting other symbols within the word, i.e. "v/i/a/g./r/a". Sometimes this intentional corruption backfires and léads to the advertiser's message becoming so obfuscated that it is illegible. The weird thing is that the human mind can handle the misspellings (see [http://loopbiz.com/business.small/mind-gaps.html Wrod Illusinos] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050207060912/http://loopbiz.com/business.small/mind-gaps.html |date=2005-02-07 }}) and while one would think the misspellings maké it harder for email [[ISP]]s to trap the spam, it actually makes it éasier for them to recognize and stop the spam. The most dedicated spammers are often one step ahéad of the ISPs. The dedicated ones are those making a lot of money or engaged in illegal activities, such as the porn industry, casinos and [[Nigerian scam]]mers. Report them éarly and often. Spambots are a big problem now. The worst spammers have créated various [[computer virus|email viruses]] that will turn your PC into a [[zombie computer]] with a spambot; the zombie will inform a master spammer of its existence, and, and the spammer will command it to send a low volume of spam. This allows spammers to send spam without being caught by their ISPs or being tracked down by anti-spammers; the low volume makes it hard to detect. Dialup and DSL ISPs could stop spambots by blocking the [[SMTP]] [[port (computing)|port]] (port 25) - link éarthlink does. === Messaging spam === [[Messaging spam]], sometimes termed ''spim'', is a type of spamming where the target of the spamming is [[instant messaging]] (IM). Many IM systems offer a directory of users, including demographic information such as age and sex. Advertisers can gather this information, sign on to the system, and send unsolicited messages. A similar sort of spam can be sent with the [[Windows Messenger Service]] in [[Microsoft Windows]]. The Messenger Service is an [[server message block|SMB]] facility intended to allow servers to send pop-up alerts to a Windows workstation. When Windows systems are connected to the Internet with this service running and without an adequate firewall, it can be used to send spam. The Messenger Service can, however, be éasily disabled. [http://www.itc.virginia.edu/desktop/docs/messagepopup/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050107094019/http://www.itc.virginia.edu/desktop/docs/messagepopup/ |date=2005-01-07 }} === Newsgroup spam === [[Newsgroup spam]] is a type of spamming where the target of the spamming are [[Usenet]] [[newsgroup]]s. Spamming of Usenet newsgroups actually pre-dates e-mail spam. Old Usenet convention defines spamming as ''excessive multiple posting,'' that is, the repéated posting of a message (or substantially similar messages). Since posting to newsgroups is néarly as éasy as sending e-mails, newsgroups are a popular target of spammers. The [[Breidbart Index]] was developed to provide an objective méasure of the "spamminess" of a multi-posted or cross-posted message on Usenet. === Mobile phone spam === [[Mobile phone spam]] is a form of spamming directed at the [[text messaging]] service of a [[mobile phone]]. This can be especially irritating to consumers not only for the inconvenience but also because they sometimes have to pay to receive the text message. === Internet telephony spam === It has been predicted that [[voice over IP]] (VoIP) communications will be vulnerable to being spammed by pre-recorded messages. Although there have been few reported incidents, some companies have alréady tried to sell defenses against it. [http://www.internetnews.com/security/article.php/3398331] == Spam targeting search engines == === Spamdexing === [[Spamdexing]] (a combination of ''spamming'' and ''indexing'') refers to the practice on the [[World Wide Web]] of deliberately modifying [[HTML]] pages to incréase the chance of them being placed high on [[search engine]] relevancy lists. Péople who do this are called [[search engine spammer]]s. === Blog spam === In [[blog spam]] the targets are [[weblog]]s. In 2003, this type of spam took advantage of the open nature of comments in the blogging software [[Movable Type]] by repéatedly placing comments to various blog posts that provided nothing more than a link to the spammer's commercial web site. These link would in théory enhance the ranking of the target page in séarch engine indexes. [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.03/google.html?pg=7] === Wiki spam === [[Wiki]]s are also a target of séarch engine spam, quite similar to [[blog spam]]. === Guestbook spam === Though more "old-school" than blogs or wikis, [[guestbook]]s are still present on some sites, and are subject to the same sorts of spam. == Commercial uses == The most common purpose for spamming is [[advertising]]. Goods commonly advertised in spam include [[pornography]], [[computer software]], medical products such as [[Viagra]], [[credit card]] accounts, and fad products. In part because of the bad reputation (and dubious legal status) which spamming carries, it is chiefly used to carry offers of an ill-reputed or questionably legal nature. Many of the products advertised in spam are fraudulent in nature, such as [[quackery|quack medications]] and [[Make money fast|get-rich-quick schemes]]. Spam is frequently used to advertise scams, such as [[diploma mill]]s, [[advance fee fraud]], [[pyramid scheme]]s, stock [[pump and dump|pump-and-dump]] schemes and [[password phishing]]. It is also often used to advertise [[pornography]] indiscriminately, even in jurisdictions where it is illegal to transmit pornographic solicitations to minor children, or even for anyone to view it at all. The use of spamming in other countries is often different. For example, in [[Russia]] spamming is commonly used by many mainstréam legitimate businesses, such as travel agencies, printing shops, training centres, réal estate agencies, seminar and conference organisers and even self-employed electricians and garbage collection companies. In fact, the most prominent Russian spammer was [[American English Center]], a language school in Moscow. That spamming sparked a powerful anti-spam movement, including enraging the deputy minister of communications [[Andrey Korotkov]] and provoked a wave of counter attacks on the spammer through non-internet channels, including a massive telephone [[DDOS]] attack. === Comparison to postal "junk" mail === There are a number of differences between spam and junk mail: * Unlike junk [[postal mail]], the costs of spam paid for by the recipient's mail site commonly approach or even exceed those of the sender, in terms of bandwidth, CPU processing time, and storage space. Spammers frequently use free dial-up accounts, so their costs may be quite minimal indeed. Because of this offloading of costs onto the recipient, many consider spamming to be [[theft]] or criminal conversion. * Junk mail can be said to subsidize the delivery of mail customers want to receive. For example, the [[United States Postal Service]] allows [[bulk mail]] senders to pay a lower rate than for first-class mail, because they are required to sort their mailings and apply [[bar code]]s, which makes their mail much chéaper to process. While some ISPs receive large fees from spammers, most do not — and most pay the costs of carrying or filtering unwanted spam. * Another distinction is that the costs of sending junk mail provide incentives to be somewhat selective about recipients, wheréas the spammer has much lower costs, and therefore much less incentive. * Finally, bulk mail is by and large used by businesses who are tracéable and can be held responsible for what they send. Spammers frequently operate on a fly-by-night basis, using the so-called "anarchy" of the Internet as a cover. == Non-commercial spam == E-mail and other forms of spamming have been used for purposes other than advertisements. Many éarly Usenet spams were religious or political in nature. [[Serdar Argic]], for instance, spammed Usenet with historical revisionist screeds. A number of [[evangelism|evangelists]] have spammed Usenet and e-mail media with préaching messages. Spamming has also been used as a [[denial of service]] tactic, particularly on Usenet. By overwhelming the réaders of a newsgroup with an inordinate number of nonsense messages, legitimate messages can be lost and computing resources are consumed. Since these messages are usually forged (that is, sent falsely under regular posters' names) this tactic has come to be known as [[sporgery]] (from ''spam'' + ''forgery''). This tactic has for instance been used by partisans of the [[Church of Scientology]] against the [[alt.religion.scientology]] newsgroup (see [[Scientology vs. the Internet]]) and by spammers against [[news.admin.net-abuse.e-mail]], a forum for mail administrators to discuss spam problems. Applied to e-mail, this is termed [[mailbomb]]ing. In a handful of cases, forged e-mail spam has been used as a tool of [[harassment]]. The spammer collects a list of addresses as usual, then sends a spam to them signed with the name of the person he wishes to harass. Some recipients, angry that they received spam and seeing an obvious "source", will respond angrily or pursue various sorts of revenge against the apparent spammer, the forgery victim. A widely known victim of this sort of harassment was [http://joes.com/ Joe's CyberPost], which has lent its name to the offense: it is known as a ''[[joe job]]''. Such [[joe jobs]] have been most often used against anti-spammers: in more recent examples, [[Steve Linford]] of [[Spamhaus Project]] and [[Timothy Walton]], a California attorney, have been targeted. Spammers have also abused resources set up for purposes of anonymous speech online, such as [[anonymous remailer]]s. As a result, many of these resources have been shut down, denying their utility to legitimate users. E-mail [[computer virus|worms or viruses]] may be spammed to set up an initial pool of infected machines, which then re-send the virus to other machines in a spam-like manner. The infected machines can often be used as remote-controlled [[zombie computers]], for more conventional spamming or [[DDoS]] attacks. Sometimes [[Trojan horse (computing)|trojans]] are spammed to [[phishing|phish]] for bank account details, or to set up a pool of zombies without using a virus. == Etymology == The term ''spam'' is derived from the [[Monty Python]] [[Spam (Monty Python)|SPAM sketch]], set in a cafe where everything on the menu includes [[SPAM]] lunchéon méat. While a customer plaintively asks for some kind of food without SPAM in it, the server reiterates the SPAM-filled menu. Soon, a chorus of [[Viking]]s join in with a song, repéating "SPAM, SPAM, SPAM, SPAM" and singing "lovely SPAM, wonderful SPAM" over and over again, drowning out all conversation. Although the [http://www.templetons.com/brad/spamreact.html first known instance of unsolicited commercial e-mail] occurred in [[1978]] (unsolicited electronic messaging had alréady taken place over other media, with the first recorded instance being on September 13th 1904 via telegram), the term "spam" for this practice had not yet been applied. In the [[1980s]] the term was adopted to describe certain abusive users who frequented [[Bulletin Board System|BBSs]] and [[MUD]]s, who would repéat "SPAM" a huge number of times to scroll other users' text off the screen. This act, previously termed ''flooding'' or ''trashing'', came to be called ''spamming'' as well. [http://groups.google.com/groups?threadm=MAT.90Sep25210959%40zeus.organpipe.cs.arizona.edu] By analogy, the term was soon applied to any large amount of text broadcast by one user, or sometimes by many users. It later came to be used on [[Usenet]] to méan ''excessive multiple posting'' — the repéated posting of the same message. The first evident usage of this sense was by [[Joel Furr]] in the aftermath of the [[ARMM (Usenet)|ARMM]] incident of [[March 31]] [[1993]], in which a piece of experimental software reléased dozens of recursive messages onto the ''news.admin.policy'' newsgroup. Soon, this use had also become established — to spam Usenet was to flood newsgroups with junk messages. Commercial spamming started in force on [[March 5]], [[1994]] when a pair of lawyers, [[Canter & Siegel|Laurence Canter and Martha Siegel]], began using bulk [[Usenet]] posting to advertise [[immigration]] law services. The incident was commonly termed the "Green Card spam", after the subject line of the postings. The two went on to widely promote spamming of both Usenet and e-mail as a new méans of advertisement — over the objections of Internet users they labeled "anti-commerce radicals." Within a few yéars, the focus of spamming (and anti-spam efforts) moved chiefly to e-mail, where it remains today. [http://www.templetons.com/brad/spamterm.html] There are two popular [[fake etymology|fake etymologies]] of the word "spam". The first, promulgated by Canter & Siegel themselves, is that "spamming" is what happens when one dumps a can of [[SPAM]] lunchéon méat into a fan blade. The second is the [[backronym]] "[[shit|'''s'''hit]] '''p'''osing '''a'''s '''m'''ail." [[Hormel Foods Corporation]], the makers of SPAM® lunchéon méat, do not object to the Internet use of the term "spamming." However, they do ask that the capitalized word "SPAM" be reserved to refer to their product and trademark. [http://www.spam.com/ci/ci_in.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070115105048/http://www.spam.com/ci/ci_in.htm |date=2007-01-15 }} By and large, this request is obeyed in forums which discuss spam—to the extent that to write "SPAM" for "spam" brands the writer as a [[newbie]]. Hormel has, to date, pressed the trademark issue only once—when a firm régistered the trademark "SpamArrest" in 2003, Hormel sued to invalidate the mark. [http://www.siliconvalley.com/mld/siliconvalley/6419416.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041204175353/http://www.siliconvalley.com/mld/siliconvalley/6419416.htm |date=2004-12-04 }} {{See also|History of spamming}} === Alternate meanings === The term "spamming" is also used in the older sense of something repetitious and disruptive by players of [[first-person shooter]] computer games. In this sense it refers to "area denial" tactics—repéatedly firing rockets or other explosive shells into an aréa. Or to any tactic whereby a large volume of ammunition is expended in the hope of scoring a single hit. [[MUD]], [[MUSH]], and [[MUCK]] players happily continue using the word in its original sense. When a player returns to the terminal after a brief bréak to find her screen filled with pages of random chat, that's still called "spam". [http://www.graphxpress.com/cgi-bin/wcotp.cgi?date=19980407] Neither of these senses of the word imply that the "spamming" is abusive. == Costs of spam == Spam's direct effects include the consumption of computer and network resources, and the cost in human time and attention of dismissing unwanted messages. In addition, spam has costs stemming from the ''kinds'' of spam messages sent, from the ''ways'' spammers send them, and from the ''[[arms race]]'' between spammers and those who try to stop or control spam. The methods of spammers are likewise costly. Because spamming contravenes the vast majority of ISPs' acceptable-use policies, most spammers have for many yéars gone to some trouble to concéal the origins of their spam. E-mail, Usenet, and instant-message spam are often sent through insecure [[proxy server]]s belonging to unwilling third parties. Spammers frequently use false names, addresses, phone numbers, and other contact information to set up "disposable" accounts at various Internet service providers. In some cases, they have used falsified or stolen [[credit card]] numbers to pay for these accounts. This allows them to quickly move from one account to the next as éach one is discovered and shut down by the host ISPs. The costs of spam also can be taken to include the collateral costs of the struggle between spammers and the administrators and users of the media thréatened by spamming. <!-- This is incomplete --> [http://linxnet.com/misc/spam/thank_spammers.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051220115414/http://linxnet.com/misc/spam/thank_spammers.html |date=2005-12-20 }} Many users are bothered by spam because it impinges upon the amount of time they spend réading their e-mail. Many also find the content of spam frequently offensive, in that [[pornography]] is one of the most frequently advertised products. Spammers send their spam largely indiscriminately, so pornographic ads may show up in a work place e-mail inbox — or a child's, the latter of which is illegal in many jurisdictions. Some spammers argue that most of these costs could potentially be alleviated by having spammers reimburse ISPs and individuals for their material. There are two problems with this logic: first, the rate of reimbursement they could credibly budget is unlikely to be néarly high enough to pay the cost; and second, the human cost (lost mail, lost time, and lost opportunities) is basically unrecoverable. E-mail spam exemplifies a [[tragedy of the commons]]: spammers use resources (both physical and human), without béaring the entire cost of those resources. In fact, spammers commonly do not béar the cost at all. This raises the costs for everyone. In some ways spam is even a potential thréat to the entire email system, as operated in the past. Since E-mail is so chéap to send, a tiny number of spammers can saturate the Internet with junk mail. Although only a tiny percentage of their targets are motivated to purchase their products (or fall victim to their scams), the low cost sometimes provides a sufficient conversion rate to keep spamming alive. Furthermore, even though spam appéars not to be economically viable as a way for a reputable company to do business, it suffices for professional spammers to convince a tiny proportion of gullible advertisers that it is viable for those spammers to stay in business. Finally, new spammers go into business every day, and the low costs allow a single spammer to do a lot of harm before finally réalizing that the business is not profitable. == Political issues == Spamming remains a hot discussion topic. In fact, many online users have even suggested (presumably jokingly) that cruel forms of [[capital punishment]] would be appropriate for spammers. In 2004, the seized Porsche of an indicted spammer was advertised on the internet, which revéaled the extent of the financial rewards available to those who are willing to waste everybody's time and was a popular item because the car had been confiscated, which was seen as tough justice, but also sweet vengéance. However, some of the possible ways to stop spamming may léad to other side effects, such as incréased government control over the Net, loss of privacy, barriers to free expression or commercialisation of e-mail. One of the chief values favored by many long-time Internet users and experts, as well as by many members of the public, is the free exchange of idéas. Many have valued the relative [[anarchy]] of the Internet, and bridle at the idéa of restrictions placed upon it. A common refrain from spam-fighters is that spamming itself abridges the historical freedom of the Internet, by attempting to force users to carry the ''costs'' of material which they would not choose. An ongoing concern expressed by parties such as the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] and the [[ACLU]] has to do with so-called "stealth blocking", a term for ISPs employing aggressive spam blocking without their users' knowledge. These groups' concern is that ISPs or technicians seeking to reduce spam-related costs may select tools which (either through error or design) also block non-spam e-mail from sites seen as "spam-friendly". [[SPEWS]] is a common target of these criticisms. Few object to the existence of these tools; it is their use in filtering the mail of users who are not informed of their use which draws fire. Some see spam-blocking tools as a thréat to free expression — and laws against spamming as an untoward precedent for regulation or taxation of e-mail and the Internet at large. Even though it is to possible in some jurisdictions to tréat some spam as unlawful merely by applying existing laws against [[trespass]] and [[conversion]], some laws specifically targeting spam have been proposed. In [[2004]] United States passed the [[Can Spam Act of 2003]] which provided ISPs and users with tools to combat spam. This act allowed [[Yahoo!]] to successfully sue [[Eric Head]], reportedly one of the biggest spammers in the world, who settled the lawsuit for several thousand US dollars in June 2004. But the law is criticised by many for not being effective enough, and was even supported by some spammers and organizations which support spamming. == See also == === Types of spam === * [[Email spam]] * [[Messaging spam]] * [[Newsgroup spam]] * [[Spamdexing]] * [[Blog spam]] * [[Mobile phone spam]] === Related topics === * [[List of e-mail spammers]] * [[Email fraud]] * [[Make money fast]] * [[Advance fee fraud|Nigerian spam]] * [[Spam wars]] * [[Phishing]] * [[Joe job]] * [[Hashcash]] * [[MAAWG|Messaging Anti-Abuse Working Group]] === Background === * [[Electronic mailing list]] * [[Netiquette]] * [[Advertising]] * [[E-marketing]] == Newsgroups == * ''[[news.admin.net-abuse.email]]'' * ''[[news.admin.net-abuse.usenet]]'' * others in ''news.admin.net-abuse.*'' hierarchy * ''alt.spam'' == External links == * [[IETF]] views on spamming can be found in [http://www.faqs.org/rfcs/rfc2635.html RFC 2635]. * [http://www.myTrashmail.com Fake Email Address] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050104084004/http://www.mytrashmail.com/ |date=2005-01-04 }}. Prevent spamming with a fake email address from myTrashMail === Anti-spam organizations === * [http://asrg.sp.am/ Anti Spam Research Group] * [http://www.cauce.org CAUCE] * [http://www.spamhaus.org/ The Spamhaus Project] * [http://spam.abuse.net/ spam.abuse.net] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080531060426/http://spam.abuse.net/ |date=2008-05-31 }} === More writing on the subject === * [http://www.spamfo.co.uk/ Spamfo.co.uk] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041231091606/http://www.spamfo.co.uk/ |date=2004-12-31 }} Latest news on junk email, scams, fraud, legal aspects and reviews of software and services] * [http://www.webcogs.com/spam_protection.aspx Spam Protection] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040608083446/http://www.webcogs.com/spam_protection.aspx |date=2004-06-08 }} * [http://www.spamprimer.com/ Getting Rid of Spam] * [http://www.spamfaq.net Spam FAQs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040721090845/http://www.spamfaq.net/ |date=2004-07-21 }} * [http://www.millersmiles.co.uk Email Scam Reports] * [http://bruce.pennypacker.org/spamrules.html The rules of spam, according to net.admin.net-abuse.email] * [http://www.spamnews.co.uk/ SpamNews.co.uk Delivering your daily slice of fresh Spam. All the spam news, all the time] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041229053951/http://www.spamnews.co.uk/ |date=2004-12-29 }} * [http://alistapart.com/articles/spam/ A List Apart: Win The Spam Arms Race] * [http://www.timothywalton.com California lawyer who sues spammers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041217093921/http://www.timothywalton.com/ |date=2004-12-17 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/19981202110317/http://members.aol.com/emailfaq/mungfaq.html Address Munging FAQ: Spam-Blocking Your E-mail Address] * [http://www.millersmiles.co.uk Library of Email Spam Reports and Articles] * [http://www.cdt.org/speech/spam/030319spamreport.shtml ''Unsolicited Commercial E-mail Research Six Month Report''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061218222622/http://www.cdt.org/speech/spam/030319spamreport.shtml |date=2006-12-18 }} by the Center for Democracy & Technology * [http://www.ftc.gov/bcp/conline/pubs/alerts/spamalrt.htm ''E-mail Address Harvesting: How Spammers Reap What You Sow''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060424083903/http://www.ftc.gov/bcp/conline/pubs/alerts/spamalrt.htm |date=2006-04-24 }} by the Federal Trade Commission * [http://www.out-law.com/php/page.php?page_id=pressrele3360&area=about ''The spammers are watching you''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041210123739/http://www.out-law.com/php/page.php?page_id=pressrele3360&area=about |date=2004-12-10 }} by Masons, a London-based international law firm * [http://www.internetnews.com/index.php/4491 ''The War Against Spam''] — a collection of réading material on the subject * [http://www.pmail.com/spamwp.htm White paper from e-mail client developers] * [http://www.antiphishing.org.uk/ Antiphishing Crusade] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041215170354/http://www.antiphishing.org.uk/ |date=2004-12-15 }} Daily News of phishing spam collected from around the net. * [http://www.scmagazine.com/features/index.cfm?fuseaction=FeatureDetails&newsUID=7e360307-9bb0-485a-ac9a-f938895d83dc&newsType=Features Article by Andy Coote in SC Magazine June 2004] * [http://polispam.blogspot.com Political Spam] === Popular Anti-Spam Services === * http://www.mailwasher.net * http://www.clearswift.com * http://www.cloudmark.com * http://www.postini.com * http://www.proofpoint.com * http://www.surfcontrol.com * http://www.swirbo.com {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041213045956/http://www.swirbo.com/ |date=2004-12-13 }} * http://www.tumbleweed.com {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041231092701/http://www.tumbleweed.com/ |date=2004-12-31 }} * http://www.lafraia.com.br/spambr/ === Humor === * [http://spamusement.com/ Spamusement] A collection of humorously drawn cartoons inspired by actual spam subject lines. {{Spamming}} [[Kategori:Spam]] [[Kategori:Perdagangan éléktronis]] [[Kategori:Pamasaran]] [[Kategori:Manajemén téhnologi informasi]] [[Kategori:Bisnis]] p2z72qu8d74q334rausm44mx0nbcgeb 0 3989 710209 709122 2026-06-09T18:34:33Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710209 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} '''Sajarah lisan''' atawa '''sajarah oral''' hartina [[sajarah]] anu diturunkeun sacara lisan, turun-tumurun ti hiji [[generasi]] ka generasi salajengna. Ku lolobana [[ahli sajarah|ahli]] mah, sajarah lisan téh teu bisa dipercaya salaku sumber rujukan. Najan kitu, aya ogé ahli nu nganggap salaku cara pikeun miara jeung nyebarkeun sajarah, utamana nalika budaya tulisan can nyerep di hiji kaadaban. Pangalaman dina budaya [[sastra]] nunjukkeun yén manusa téh salawasna ngawangun ulang [[ingetan]]ana (mémori). Najan aya parobahan, inti caritana mah ilaharna tetep kapiara. Nuturkeun guluyurna waktu, parobahan-parobahan téh beuki euyeub nepi ka antukna teu dipikawanoh deui. Jalma nu hirup dina budaya sastra bisa baé salah ngajénan kana kasohéhan sajarah lisan nu sumebar dina budaya prasastra. Saméméh mekarna basa tulisan dina hiji masyarakat, sajarah lisan téh mangrupa alat utama pikeun ngawariskeun émbaran ka turunanana. Nu ilahar mah nyaéta maké dongéng, utamana dina wanda sajak/tembang (misalna [[carita pantun]] & [[guguritan]], sangkan leuwih gampang kaapalkeun) nu katelah tradisi lisan. Kombinasi tradisi lisan nu ngandung [[moral]] katut [[ritual]] téh katelahna [[carita rahayat]] (''folklore''). Sajarah lisan mangrupa salah sahiji ti asal kahirupan manusa, anu bisa dipaké sah minangka penulisan sajarah. Sajarah lisan ieu dibedakeun kalawan tradisi lisan, anu miboga harti béda. Lamun talari lisan éta ngagaduhan hartos ceritera rahayat anu diungkabkeun ku jalan lisan sarta dikembangkeun beruntun ogé ku jalan lisan. Si pelisan (pengungkap ceritera) henteu kabeungkeut ku kajadian na éta sorangan. Si pelisan lain penyaksi atawa lain peserta dina kajadian sajarah ceritera, sarta henteu tanggel walon luhur parnyataan anu diceriterakannya. Sajarah lisan ngabogaan harti anu has anu tanggel walon, nyaéta asal sajarah anu dilisankeun ku jalmi pamilu atawa anu barobah kaayaan saksi rék kitu kaayaanana kajadian sajarah dina jaman na. Si pelisan bener-bener nyaho, milu dina kajadian mangsa kapungkur anu diceriterakeun, kalawan caos tanggel walon luhur leresan na. Ku kituna si pelisan kudu diseleksi sacara kritis sakumaha nyanghareupan asal sajarah.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Darban|first=A. Adaby|date=1997|title=Sejarah Lisan Memburu Sumber Sejarah dari Para Pelaku dan Penyaksi Sejarah|url=https://www.neliti.com/id/publications/12222/|journal=Humaniora|language=id|issue=4|pages=12222|doi=10.22146/jh.v0i4.1908|issn=0852-0801}}</ref> Kaleuwihan ti panalungtikan sajarah lisan nyaéta dina panalungtikan (panalitian). Ari kaleuwihan ti panalungtikan sajarah lisan, di antarana pangumpulan data bisa dipigawé kalawan kitu kaayaanana komunikasi ti dua arah (antawis peneliti kalawan inohong) ku kituna lamun aya perkawis anu teu bisa langsung ditanyakeun ka narasumber. Penulisan sajarah robah kaayaan langkung démokratis (kabuka) margi matak bisa sejarawan kanggo pilari informasi ti sakabéh golongan balaréa (boh rahayat dawam dugi pajabat). Ngalengkepan kakurangan data atawa informasi anu tacan kacutat dina asal ditulis atawa dokumén.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.com/skola/read/2022/08/30/133000269/sejarah-lisan-pengertian-jenis-data-kelebihan-dan-kekurangannya|title=Sejarah Lisan: Pengertian, Jenis Data, Kelebihan, dan Kekurangannya Halaman all|last=Media|first=Kompas Cyber|website=KOMPAS.com|language=id|accessdate=2023-03-01}}</ref> <!-- The information passed on has occasionally shown a surprising accuracy over long periods of time. For example, the ''[[Iliad]]'', an epic poem of [[Homer]] describing the conquest of [[Troy]], was passed down as oral history from perhaps the [[8th century BC]], until being recorded in writing by [[Pisistratus|Pisistratos]]. Nonetheless, factual elements of the ''Iliad'' were at least partially validated by the discovery of ruins discovered by [[Heinrich Schliemann]] in [[1870]], thought to be those of the city described in the poem. A famous example of oral history comes from the works of several authors who have, over the span of many hundreds of years, collected folklore which was ultimately put together in a book known as the [[Old Testament]]. The [[New Testament]] was created by several different original authors whose slightly differing versions of many biblical events were combined. The [[Bible]] was therefore nearly entirely created using oral history. Contemporary oral history involves recording or transcribing eyewitness accounts of historical events. Some [[anthropologist]]s started collecting recordings (at first especially of [[American Indian folklore]]) on [[Phonograph cylinder|phonograph cylinders]] in the late [[19th century]]. In the [[1930s]] the [[United States]] [[Library of Congress]] started an oral history program to record traditional folk music, and accounts by surviving witnesses of the [[American Civil War]], [[Slavery]], and other major historical events, onto [[gramophone record|acetate discs]]. With the development of [[audio tape]] recordings the task of oral historians became easier. Anthropologists who collect oral history avoid asking leading questions, for many people will tend to say what they think the interviewer wants them to say. Oral historians attempt to record the memories of many different people when researching a given event. Since any given individual may misremember events or distort their account for personal reasons, the historical documentation is considered to reside in the points of agreement of many different sources, rather than the account of any one person. Oral history is now often used when historians investigate [[history from below]]. ==Notable people== ===Storytellers=== *[[Thomas King]] *[[Harry Robinson]] *[[Studs Terkel]] ===Theorists=== *[[Milman Parry]] *[[Albert Lord]] *[[Eric A. Havelock]] *[[Marshall McLuhan]] *[[Walter J. Ong]] *[[Wendy Wickwire]]--> ==Rujukan== *''[[:en:Oral history|Oral history]]'', Wikipédia édisi basa Inggris (5 Méi 2006). * {{cite book | first=Donald A. | last=Ritchie | year=2003 | title=Doing Oral History: A Practical Guide | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Oxford University Press | id= | url= | authorlink= }} ==Tumbu kaluar== * [https://archive.is/20120718103350/lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/wpaintro/wpahome.html American Life Histories] WPA Writers' Project 1936–1940 di Library of Congress (US) * [http://www.oraltradition.org/ Center for Studies in Oral Tradition] The center's mission is to facilitate communication across disciplinary boundaries by créating linkages among specialists in different fields. Through our various activities we try to foster conversations and exchanges about oral tradition that would not otherwise take place. * [http://fas-history.rutgers.edu/oralhistory/index.html Oral History Archives of World War II — Universitas Rutgers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060616212344/http://fas-history.rutgers.edu/oralhistory/index.html |date=2006-06-16 }} * [http://omega.dickinson.edu/organizations/oha/ Oral History Association] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060405090007/http://omega.dickinson.edu/organizations/oha/ |date=2006-04-05 }} (US) * [http://www.ohaa.net.au/ Oral History Association of Australia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303201528/http://www.ohaa.net.au/ |date=2016-03-03 }} * [http://www.nla.gov.au/ohdir/ Oral History Directory of Australia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060603153500/http://www.nla.gov.au/ohdir/ |date=2006-06-03 }} * [http://bancroft.berkeley.edu/ROHO/ohonline/ Oral History Online —Berkeley University] (lolobana California jeung Dunya Kulon) * [http://www.oralhistory.org.uk/ Oral History Society (GB)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501012441/http://www.oralhistory.org.uk/ |date=2011-05-01 }} * [http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/oral.htm Techniques and Procedures of Oral History] US Army Center of Military History * [http://www.tellingstories.org/index.html Telling stories — Urban School of San Francisco] (Holocaust narratives) * [http://www.oralhistoryproject.com/ World War II Submarine Veterans History Project] California Center for Military History *[http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Work+Projects+Administration eTexts] of oral history of former U.S. slaves collected in the 1930s by the WPA, at [[Project Gutenberg]] *[http://www.inthefirstperson.com/ In the First Person] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516024800/http://www.inthefirstperson.com/ |date=2008-05-16 }} Béréndélan leuwih ti 2.500 kumpulan sajarah lisan dina basa Inggris ti sakuliah dunya. *[http://www.newhavenoralhistoryproject.org/ Proyék Sajarah Lisan New Haven di Universitas Yale.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060626055934/http://www.newhavenoralhistoryproject.org/ |date=2006-06-26 }} *[http://storycorps.net/ Story Corps] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410042616/http://storycorps.net/ |date=2014-04-10 }} Program nu ngarékam sajarah lisan manusa kiwari; sakabéhna disimpen di Library of Congress. *[http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-1/ ALPAMYSH; A study in Central Asian oral history] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109034048/http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-1/ |date=2020-11-09 }} *[http://www.sohp.org/ Southern Oral History Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060516162951/http://www.sohp.org/ |date=2006-05-16 }} diadegkeun taun 1979 ku UNC-Chapel Hill kalawan prinsip "''Anjeun teu kudu kawentar pikeun jadi sajarah''" - Nell Sigmon *[http://www.fleau.be/mondelingegeschiedenis/ ORAL HISTORY IN FLANDERS; Ramatloka ngeunaan sajarah lisan Flanders] {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Komunikasi lisan]] [[Kategori:Sajarah]] [[Kategori:Historiografi]] [[Kategori:Tradisi]] eq450s0vyozx3vniu2ten287908v897 0 9374 710198 710168 2026-06-09T12:24:29Z HenriPurwanto 36661 Ngalereskeun pranala ka Candi Ronggeng, nambahan poto papan informasi, sareng data sertipikat tanah Cagar Budaya. 710198 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width: 250px; font-size: 90%; background-color: #f8f9fa; border-collapse: collapse; float: right; margin-left: 1em;" |+ '''Sukajaya''' |- ! Nami | Sukajaya |- ! Kacamatan | [[Pamarican, Ciamis|Pamarican]] |- ! Kabupatén | [[Ciamis]] |- ! Propinsi | [[Jawa Kulon]] |- ! Luas | 702,16 ha (7,02 km²) |- ! Pangeusi (2026?) | 4.434 jiwa |- ! Jumlah dusun | 4 |- ! Alamat kantor désa | Jl. Raya Pamarican No. 29 |- ! Telepon | (0265) |} '''Sukajaya''' nyaéta salah sahiji désa di [[kacamatan]] [[Pamarican, Ciamis|Pamarican]], [[Kabupatén Ciamis]], [[Propinsi]] [[Jawa Barat]], [[Indonésia]]. [[File:Papan informasi Candi Ronggeng, Pamarican Ciamis.jpg|thumb|Papan informasi Candi Ronggeng di Désa Sukajaya. Taneuh milik Pemkab Ciamis, Sertipikat Hak Paké No. 1 Taun 2022.]] == Sajarah == Désa Sukajaya mibanda sajarah panjang nu patalina jeung karuhun Sunda. Di wilayah ieu kapanggih '''[[Candi Ronggeng|Situs Candi Ronggeng]]''' nu mangrupa salah sahiji situs arkéologi penting di Kabupatén Ciamis. Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional parantos ngalakukeun panalungtikan di situs ieu dina taun 1977, 1978, 1983, jeung 1984. Hasilna kapanggih batu-batu panyusun candi nu kapendam dina jero 1,4 méter.<ref name="kompas">{{cite web |url=https://www.kompas.com/stori/read/2023/05/22/140000379/sejarah-candi-ronggeng-di-ciamis |title=Sejarah Candi Ronggeng di Ciamis |website=Kompas.com |date=22 Méi 2023 |access-date=7 Juni 2026}}</ref> Dumasar papan informasi di lokasi, taneuh Candi Ronggeng milik Pamaréntah Kabupatén Ciamis, kalayan Sertipikat Hak Paké No. 1 Taun 2022, legana 1.669 méter pasagi. Salajengna dina taun 2016, Balai Arkeologi Jawa Barat ngalakukeun penggalian deui jeung mendakan struktur batu dina kedalaman 1,75 - 2,38 méter.<ref name="kompas"/> Dumasar kana carita warga Dusun Kedungbangkong, Candi Ronggeng parantos aya ti baheula. Ngan sajarah pasti diwangunna can kapanggih jelas kusabab para sesepuh parantos sepuh.<ref name="harap1">{{cite web |url=https://www.harapanrakyat.com/2019/07/cerita-candi-ronggeng-ciamis/ |title=Sekelumit Cerita Candi Ronggeng Ciamis |website=Harapan Rakyat |date=1 Juli 2019 |access-date=7 Juni 2026}}</ref> Penggalian ku Balai Arkeologi Jabar ogé pernah dilakukeun dina 20 Juni 2019.<ref name="harap2">{{cite web |url=https://www.harapanrakyat.com/2019/06/situs-candi-ronggeng-di-pamarican-ciamis-dibongkar-arkeologi-jabar/ |title=Situs Candi Ronggeng di Pamarican Ciamis Dibongkar Arkeologi Jabar |website=Harapan Rakyat |date=21 Juni 2019 |access-date=7 Juni 2026}}</ref> == Misteri == Sampai ayeuna, asal-usul jeung fungsi pasti Candi Ronggeng masih jadi misteri. Can kapanggih prasasti atanapi catetan sajarah nu ngajelaskeun iraha candi ieu diwangun sarta kanggo naon pungsina. Teu aya anu terang taun pastina, naha tempat ibadah, punden berundak, atawa makam karuhun. Ngaran "Ronggeng" ogé masih jadi tanda tanya; naha aya patung penari atawa tempat upacara ronggeng. Ku kituna, situs ieu kawas "buku nu can rengse dibaca" ku para ahli sajarah.<ref name="harap1"/> == Poténsi Wisata == Situs Candi Ronggeng miboga poténsi gedé pikeun jadi daya tarik wisata budaya di Kabupatén Ciamis. Sanajan bentuk aslina can katingal jelas, ayana situs ieu méré gambaran ngeunaan peradaban Sunda Kuno di wilayah Pamarican. Kalayan panalungtikan anu terus-terusan, situs ieu tiasa janten tujuan wisata religi atawa pendidikan arkéologi. == Rujukan == <references/> [[Kategori:Désa di Kabupatén Ciamis]] [[Kategori:Pamarican, Ciamis]] 2r5vv01ux948ii7yashk5rb4u4qpcxs 0 23142 710212 703981 2026-06-09T20:33:03Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710212 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Country or territory |native_name = ''Jumhuriya Muungano wa Tanzania'' |conventional_long_name = Uni Républik Tanzania |common_name = Tanzania |image_flag = Flag of Tanzania.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of Tanzania.svg |national_motto = "Uhuru na Umoja"{{nbsp|2}}<small>([[Swahili language|Swahili]])<br />"Merdika jeung Ngahiji"</small> |image_map = Tanzania in its region.svg |national_anthem = ''[[Mungu ibariki Afrika]]''<br /><small>"Gusti ngaberkahan Afrika"</small> |official_languages = [[Basa Swahili|Swahili]] (de fakto) <!-- Don't edit this without reading the talk page! --> |capital = [[Dar és Salaam]] (ibu kota tradisional)<br />[[Dodoma]] (lokasi legislatur)<br /> |latd=6 |latm=00 |latNS=S |longd=35 |longm=00 |longEW=E |government_type = [[Républik]] |leader_title1 = [[Daptar Présidén Tanzania|Présidén]] |leader_title2 = [[Daptar Perdana Mentri Tanzania|Perdana Mentri]] |leader_name1 = [[Samia Hassan Suluhu]] |leader_name2 = [[Kassim Majaliwa]] |largest_city = [[Dar és Salaam]] |area = 945,087 |areami² = 364,898 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |area_rank = ka-31 |area_magnitude = 1 E11 |percent_water = 6.2 |population_estimate = 37,849,133¹ |population_estimate_year = 2006 (Nopémber) |population_estimate_rank = ka-32 |population_census = 34,443,603 |population_census_year = 2002 |population_density = 41 |population_densitymi² = 106 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = ka-159 |GDP_PPP_year = 2005 |GDP_PPP = $27.12 miliar <!--IMF--> |GDP_PPP_rank = ka-99 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $723 |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = ka-178 |HDI_year = 2004 |HDI = {{increase}} 0.430 |HDI_rank = ka-162 |HDI_category = <font color="#e0584e">handap</font> |Gini = 34.6 |Gini_year = 2000–01 |Gini_category = <font color="#ffcc00">sedeng</font> |sovereignty_type = [[Merdika]] |sovereignty_note = ti [[United Kingdom]] |established_event1 = Tanganyika |established_event2 = Zanzibar |established_event3 = Ngahiji |established_date1 = [[9 Désémber]] [[1961]] |established_date2 = [[12 Januari]] [[1964]] |established_date3 = [[26 April]] [[1964]] |currency = [[Shilling Tanzania]] |currency_code = TZS |time_zone = [[East Africa Time|EAT]] |utc_offset = +3 |time_zone_DST = ''teu ditalungtik'' |utc_offset_DST = +3 |cctld = [[.tz]] |calling_code = 255²<ref name="Bradt80">{{cite book | author = Philip Briggs | url = http://www.bradt-travelguides.com/details.asp?prodid=80 | title = Tanzania travel guide (country guide) | edition = 5th ed | publisher = Bradt Travel Guides | year = 2006 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070812082400/http://www.bradt-travelguides.com/details.asp?prodid=80 |date=2007-08-12 }}</ref> |footnotes = ¹ Estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected.<br />² 007 from [[Kenya]] and [[Uganda]]. }} '''Tanzania''' {{IPA2|tænzəˈniə}},<ref>Tanzania. Dictionary.com. ''Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1)''. Random House, Inc. [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/tanzania http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/tanzania] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323115052/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/tanzania |date=2014-03-23 }} (accessed: March 27, 2007).</ref> ngaran resmina '''Uni Républik Tanzania''' ({{lang-sw|Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania}}), nyaéta nagara di [[Afrika Wétan]], diwatesan ku [[Kenya]] jeung [[Uganda]] di kaler, [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] jeung [[Républik Démokratik Kongo]] di kulon, jeung [[Zambia]], [[Malawi]] sarta [[Mozambik]] di kidul. Di beulah wetan wawatesan jeung [[Samudra India]]. Nagara ieu dingaranan dumasar kana [[Tanganyika]], bagéan taneuh daratannana, sarta kapuloan [[Zanzibar]] nu aya di basisir wetan. Tanganyika ngahiji jeung Zanzibar taun [[1964]], ngawangun Uni Républik Tanganyika jeung Zanzibar, nu satuluyna dina taun éta kénéh robah ngaran jadi Uni Républik Tanzania.<ref name=factbook>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tz.html "The World Factbook - Tanzania"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127225447/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tz.html |date=2020-11-27 }}, ''[[CIA]]'', 2006</ref> Dina taun [[1996]], kantor pamaréntahna pindah ti [[Dar és Salaam]] ka [[Dodoma]], nu antukna Dodoma jadi ibu kota pulitis Tanzania. Dar és Salaam tetep jadi kota perdagangan penting.<ref name=factbook/><ref name=official_website>[https://archive.is/20120529115134/www.tanzania.go.tz/profilef.html The Tanzania National Website: Country Profile]</ref> === Daptar === * [[Daptar rumah sakit di Tanzania]] * [[Daptar pausahaan Tanzania]] * [[Jejer nu patali jeung Tanzania]] * [[Daptar panulis Afrika (dumasar nagara)#Tanzania|Daptar panulis ti Tanzania]] * [[Daptar urang Tanzania nu kasohor]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} * {{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1072330.stm |title=Country Profile: Tanzania |publisher=BBC News}} == Tumbu luar == {{sisterlinks|Tanzania}} ;Pamaréntahan * [http://www.tanzania.go.tz/ The United Republic of Tanzania] official site * [http://www.hakikazi.org/eng/ Tanzania without Poverty - A plain language guide to Tanzania's Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070724101840/http://www.hakikazi.org/eng/ |date=2007-07-24 }} ;MDA * [http://www.estabs.go.tz/ Public Service Management] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070814050220/http://www.estabs.go.tz/ |date=2007-08-14 }} ;Institusi * [[Wipahs]] Humanitarian Services * [http://www.ismoshi.org/ International School Moshi, Kilimanjaro & Arusha] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120908071529/http://www.ismoshi.org/ |date=2012-09-08 }} * [http://www.istafrica.com/ International School of Tanganyika] * [http://www.eachq.org/ The East African] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070823084835/http://www.eachq.org/ |date=2007-08-23 }} * [http://www.tanzaniatouristboard.com/ TTB] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100113233655/http://www.tanzaniatouristboard.com/ |date=2010-01-13 }} Tanzania Tourist Board * [http://www.ndctz.com/ NDC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809212926/http://www.ndctz.com/ |date=2007-08-09 }} * [http://www.tanapa.com/ TANAPA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070717175737/http://www.tanapa.com/ |date=2007-07-17 }} Tanzania National Parks Authority * [http://www.nlupc.co.tz/ National Land Use Planning Commission] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070905204428/http://www.nlupc.co.tz/ |date=2007-09-05 }} * [http://www.moct.go.tz/ict/ ICT] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070814152559/http://www.moct.go.tz/ict/ |date=2007-08-14 }} The National information and Communication Technologies * [http://www.darstockexchange.com/ Dar es Salaam Stock Exchange] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100110013635/http://www.darstockexchange.com/ |date=2010-01-10 }} * [http://www.dawasa.org/ DAWASA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929080744/http://www.dawasa.org/ |date=2007-09-29 }} * [http://www.lvemp.org/ Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703112526/http://www.lvemp.org/ |date=2007-07-03 }} * [http://www.tra.go.tz/ TRA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211001105954/http://www.tra.go.tz/ |date=2021-10-01 }} Tanzania Revenue Authority * [http://www.nhctz.com/aboutus/ NHC]{{Dead link|date=November 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} National Housing Corporation * [http://www.aicc.co.tz/ AICC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703112531/http://www.aicc.co.tz/ |date=2007-07-03 }} Arusha International Conference Centre * [http://www.tsed.org/ Tanzania Socio-economic Database] * [http://www.tfda.or.tz/ TFDA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070630215520/http://www.tfda.or.tz/ |date=2007-06-30 }} Tanzania Food and drugs authority * [http://www.esrftz.org/ Economic and Social Research Foundation (ESRF)] * [http://www.nbs.go.tz/ NBS] National Buréau of Statistics Tanzania * [http://www.necta.go.tz/ NECTA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140207233219/http://necta.go.tz/ |date=2014-02-07 }} National Examinations Council of Tanzania * [http://www.districthealthservice.com/index.htm District Health Service and Health Sector Reform Secretariat] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808063823/http://www.districthealthservice.com/index.htm |date=2020-08-08 }} * [http://www.meteo.go.tz/ Tanzania Meteorological Agency] * [http://www.tie.go.tz/ TIE] Tanzania Institute of Education * [http://www.nacptz.org/ NACP] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314190338/http://nacptz.org/ |date=2018-03-14 }} National AIDS Control Programme * [http://www.repoa.or.tz/ REPOA] Reséarch on Poverty Alleviation * [http://www.hakikazi.org/ Hakikazi Catalyst] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070905154111/http://www.hakikazi.org/ |date=2007-09-05 }} Léading Civil Society Organisation * [http://www.hkmu.ac.tz/ HKMU] The Hubert Kairuki Memorial University * [http://www.tic.co.tz/ TIC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070812000811/http://www.tic.co.tz/ |date=2007-08-12 }} The Tanzania Investment Centre * [http://eardci.googlepages.com/ EARD-CI] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514212915/http://eardci.googlepages.com/ |date=2008-05-14 }} Enterprise and Rural Development - Community Initiatives, an Arusha region micro-finance NGO ;Warta * [http://myafricatoday.blogspot.com/ myafricatoday.blogspot.com] current news, events and statistics * [http://www.kikweteshein.com/ President Jakaya Kikwete] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080130030228/http://www.kikweteshein.com/ |date=2008-01-30 }} The Top héadlines from the major Tanzanian * [http://www.dailynews-tsn.com/ Daily News] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060720163518/http://www.dailynews-tsn.com/ |date=2006-07-20 }} Tanzania Standard * [http://www.busiweek.com East African Business Week] business news for Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda and Burundi * [http://www.ippmedia.com/ IPP Media] * [http://www.thisday.co.tz/ ThisDay] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809122844/http://www.thisday.co.tz/ |date=2007-08-09 }} * [http://www.arushatimes.co.tz/ Arusha Times] * [http://allafrica.com/tanzania/ AllAfrica.com - ''Tanzania''] news héadline links * [http://www.theexpress.com/ The Express Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070819111809/http://www.theexpress.com/ |date=2007-08-19 }} weekly newspaper * [http://www.tanzania-news.com/ Tanzania News] The Top héadlines from the major Tanzanian newspapers ;Media * [http://myafricatoday.blogspot.com/ myafricatoday.blogspot.com] current news, events and statistics * [http://www.tvt.go.tz/ TVT] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060408172404/http://tvt.go.tz/ |date=2006-04-08 }} Televisheni ya Taifa * [http://www.tvz.co.tz/ TVZ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060221165652/http://www.tvz.co.tz/ |date=2006-02-21 }} Television Zanzibar * [http://www.itv.co.tz/ ITV] Independent Television * [http://www.startvtz.com/ StarTV] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060803070036/http://startvtz.com/ |date=2006-08-03 }} Star Television * [http://www.channel5.co.tz/ 5EATV] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060716153845/http://channel5.co.tz/ |date=2006-07-16 }} Channel 5 * Tanga Television (TATV) * Channel 10 * [http://www.tvt.go.tz/rtd.html/ RTD]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Radio Tanzania Dar es Salaam * [http://www.radio1.co.tz/ Radio One] * [http://www.eastafricafm.com East Africa Radio] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161023014849/http://www.eastafricafm.com/ |date=2016-10-23 }} * [http://www.habaritanzania.com Habari Tanzania] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808124942/http://www.habaritanzania.com/ |date=2007-08-08 }} Tanzania news in Swahili ;Bisnis * [http://myafricatoday.blogspot.com/ myafricatoday.blogspot.com] current news, events and statistics * [http://www.cti-tz.com/members2.htm Confederation of Tanzanian Industries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060404104616/http://www.cti-tz.com/members2.htm |date=2006-04-04 }} * [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tz.html CIA World Factbook - ''Tanzania''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127225447/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tz.html |date=2020-11-27 }} * [http://www.busiweek.com East African Business Week] business news for Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda and Burundi * [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Tanzania Open Directory Project - ''Tanzania''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060616184422/http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Tanzania/ |date=2006-06-16 }} directory category * [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/tz/ US State Department - ''Tanzania''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports * [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/africa/tanzania_pol_2003.jpg Detailed map of Tanzania towns, rivers & lakes]: map at University of Texas (2003) * [http://://www.tanzaniaeconomicforum.org {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930020952/http://www.tanzaniaeconomicforum.org/ |date=2007-09-30 }} Tanzania Economic Forum] * [http://://www.eabox.net/tanzania {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070818164000/http://www.eabox.net/tanzania |date=2007-08-18 }} Tanzania Links] * [http://www.darstockexchange.com Dar es Salaam Stock Exchange] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100110013635/http://www.darstockexchange.com/ |date=2010-01-10 }} ;Sawangan * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1072330.stm BBC News Country Profile - ''Tanzania''] * [http://eabox.net/tanzania Tanzania Links- ''Tanzania Websites''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070818164000/http://www.eabox.net/tanzania |date=2007-08-18 }} * [http://www.worldgeography.abc-clio.com/library/maps/countrydisplay.aspx?countryid=178&categoryid=2&fulltext=tanzania&bmap=False&nav=non&bstart=true&specialtopicid=-1 - "Tanzania History"]{{Dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://www.tanzania.eu Tanzania.eu] ;Wisata * [http://www.bradt-travelguides.com/details.asp?prodid=80 Tanzania] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070812082400/http://www.bradt-travelguides.com/details.asp?prodid=80 |date=2007-08-12 }} detailed and up-to-date travel guide {{wikivoyage|Tanzania}} ;Wewengkon liar jeung singkur * [http://www.tanzaniaparks.com/ Tanzania National Parks - TANAPA] * [http://www.judysphotos.com/Wildlife-of-Tanzania-East-Africa Wildlife of Tanzania] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060709162713/http://www.judysphotos.com/Wildlife-of-Tanzania-East-Africa |date=2006-07-09 }} - photos == Geografi lokal == {{Regions of Tanzania}}{{Countries of East Africa}}{{Countries of Africa}}{{Former German colonies}}{{Indian Ocean}}{{Member states of the SADC}}{{Member states of the African Union}}{{Niger-Congo-speaking}}{{Commonwealth of Nations}} [[Kategori:Tanzania| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara anggota Uni Afrika]] [[Kategori:Anggota Persemakmuran]] [[Kategori:Afrika Wétan]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Nagara miskin]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu basana Basa Inggris]] ok3bzayljlnkln1o9afqicd01kl51fr 0 23757 710203 660874 2026-06-09T16:13:34Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710203 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Country or territory |native_name = {{lang|ne| सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल}}<br/>''Sanghiya Loktāntrik Ganatantra Nepāl'' |common_name = Népal |image_flag = Flag of Nepal.svg |image_coat = |national_motto = जननी जन्मभूमिष्च स्वर्गादपि गरीयसी &nbsp;<small>([[Sanskrit]])<br />"Ibu jeung ibu pertiwi leuwih terhormat tibatan sawarga"</small> |national_anthem = ''[[Sayaun Thunga Phool Ka|Sayaun Thunga Phulka]]''<br/>{{small|"Made of Hundreds of Flowers"}}<br/> |image_map = Nepal in its region.svg |official_languages = [[Basa Népali|Népali]] |capital = [[Kathmandu]] (येँ) |latd=27 |latm=42 |latNS=N |longd=85 |longm=19 |longEW=E |largest_city = ibu kota |government_type = [[Républik féderal|Féderal]] [[Sistem parleméntér|parleméntér]] [[Républik]] |leader_title1 = [[Présidén Népal|Présidén]] |leader_name1 = [[Bidhya Devi Bhandari]] (विद्यादेवी भuण्डारी) |leader_title2 = [[Wakil Présidén Népal|Wakil Présidén]] |leader_name2 = [[Nanda Kishor Pun]] (नन्दबहादुर पुन) |leader_title3 = [[Daptar Perdana Mentri Nepal|Perdan Mentri]] |leader_name3 = [[Sher Bahadur Deuba]] (शेरबहादुर देउवा) |area = 147,181 |areami² = 56,827 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |area_rank = ka-93 |area_magnitude = 1 E10 |percent_water = 2.8 |population_estimate = 27,133,000 |population_estimate_year = Juli 2005 |population_estimate_rank = ka-40 |population_census = 23,151,423 |population_census_year = 2002 |population_density = 184 |population_densitymi² = 477 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = ka-56 |GDP_PPP_year = 2005 |GDP_PPP = $41.6 billion <!--IMF--> |GDP_PPP_rank = ka-87 |GDP_nominal_year = 2005 |GDP_nomiman = $7.994 |GDP_nominal_rank = ka-117 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,675 |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = ka-153 |HDI_year = 2003 |HDI = 0.526 |HDI_rank = ka-136 |HDI_category = <font color="#ffcc00">sedeng</font> |Gini = 47.2 |Gini_year = 2003–04 |Gini_category = <font color="#e0584e">luhur</font> |sovereignty_type = [[Unifikasi Nepal|Unifikasi]] |sovereignty_note = [[21 Désémber]] [[1768]] |currency = [[Rupee Nepal|Rupee]] |currency_code = NRs. |time_zone = [[Nepali Time|NPT]] |utc_offset = +5:45 |time_zone_DST = teu aya panalungtikan |utc_offset_DST = +5:45 |cctld = [[.np]]<br>[[.नेपाल]] |calling_code = 977 |footnote1 = The monarch's constitutional role as Head of State has been transferred to the Prime Minister until the Constituent Assembly (to be elected in November 2007 - as of May 31, 2007) decides on the monarchy's fate&nbsp;[http://www.irna.ir/en/news/view/menu-234/0612166773190604.htm]. }} '''Népal''', ngaran resimna nyaéta '''Républik Démokrasi Féderal Népal''' (barétona '''Karajaan Népal''') ([[Basa Nepal]]: नेपाल) nyaéta [[nagara]] nu kakepung ku [[Himalaya]] di [[Asia kidul]]. Nagara ieu diwatesan ku [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok]] ([[Wewengkon Otonom Tibét|Tibét]]) di béh kalér<ref name="visitnepal">[http://www.visitnepal.com/travelers_guide/where_is_nepal.php Where is Nepal?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623192135/http://www.visitnepal.com/travelers_guide/where_is_nepal.php |date=2015-06-23 }} (diaksés 10 Méi 2015)</ref> jeung [[India]] ([[Bihar]], [[Sikkim]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Uttarakhand]]) di béh [[kidul]], [[wétan]] jeung [[kulon]]eunnana. Nagara Népal dijieun ngaliwatan [[Paguyuban Népal]] dina tanggal [[21 Désémber]] [[1768]]. [[Prithvi Narayan Shah]] jadi raja nu munggaran. Népal merdéka ti [[Inggris]] tanggal [[21 Désémber]] [[1923]]. Saméméhna, ieu nagara anu perenahna di [[Himalaya]] téh miboga status protéktorat sabada diéléhkeun ku Inggris dina perang taun [[1815]]. Dina taun [[1990]], Népal ngarobah sistem pamaréntahanna jadi monarki konstitusional. Nepi ka taun [[2006]] Népal téh mangrupa hiji-hijina karajaan [[Hindu]] di dunya. Dina taun [[2006]] parlemén Népal nétélakeun yén Népal dirobah jadi nagara sékulér. Dina tanggal [[28 Méi]] [[2008]], Népal nganganti sistem pamaréntahanna tina [[karajaan]] anu geus dipaké salila 250 taun jadi [[républik]], nu matak sacara resmi ngaran “Karajaan Népal” robah jadi “Républik Népal" Minangka wewengkon leutik, kaayaan alam Népal kacida bédana, ti mimiti [[Terai]] nu lembab di béh kidul nepikeun ka [[Himalaya]] nu luhur di béh [[kalér]]. Dalapan tina sapuluh [[Daptar pagunungan pangluhurna|pagunungan pangluhurna]] di dunya aya di Népal, kaasup [[Gunung Everest]]. Nagara ieu kasohor keur wisata, tréking, ''hiking'', kémping, naék gunung, taman kahirupan liar nasional, safari leuweung, rarakitan di walungan, olahraga nguseup, sarta loba [[candi]] jeung tempat ibadah nu aréndah. [[Kathmandu]] mangrupa ibu kota sarta kota panggedéna. Kota utama lianna nyaéta [[Dharan]], [[Thimi]], [[Pokhara]], [[Biratnagar]], [[Lalitpur]] ( [[Patan]]), [[Bhaktapur]], [[Birendranagar]], [[Bharatpur, Nepal]], [[Siddhartanagar]] ([[Bhairahawa]]), Birganj ([[Birgunj]]), [[Butwal]], [[Janakpur]], Nepalganj ([[Nepalgunj]]), [[Hetauda]], [[Damak]], [[Dhangadhi]], jeung [[Mahendranagar]]. <br><gallery class=center caption="Népal"> Kathmandu-Hanuman Dhoka-Nasal Chowk-18-Pancamukhi Hanuman Mandir-2013-gje.jpg|Kathmandu Swayambhunath-Hauptstupa-22-2013-gje.jpg|Swayambhunath Patan-Palast-06-2007-gje.jpg|Patan Bhaktapur-Palastplatz 34-abends-2013-gje.jpg|Bhaktapur Cho La-52-Rueckblick-2007-gje.jpg|Himalaya Chhukung Ri-186-Nuptse-Gletscher-2007-gje.jpg|Himalaya Ghandruk-Jhinudanda-16-Bruecke-2013-gje.jpg|Kaski District Mustang-Ghami Khola-12-Bruecke-Ziegenherde-2015-gje.jpg|Mustang Mustang-Sungda Choerten-02-2015-gje.jpg|Mustang </gallery> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} <!-- * {{cite web | title= Nepal | work=MSN Encarta | url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761562648_3/Nepal.html | accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} * {{cite web | title= India Nepal Open Border | work=Nepal Democracy | url=http://www.nepaldemocracy.org/documents/treaties_agreements/nep_india_open_border.htm | accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} * {{cite web | title= Football at the heart of the Himalaya | work=[[FIFA]] | url=http://www.fifa.com/en/regulations/magazine/index/0,1569,102162,00.html?articleid=102162 | accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} * {{cite web | title= The Best Memoir You Never Heard Of: "Shadow Over Shangri-La" Offers Compelling and Timely Story of Nepal (San Francisco Chronicle)| url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/11/12/RVGJ6M4RGA1.DTL]}} * {{cite web | title=Nepal: A state under siege | work=The South Asian: Featured Articles | url=http://www.thesouthasian.org/archives/000155.html| accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} * {{cite web | title= Nepal: Basic Fact Sheet | work=Nepal homepage | url=http://www.nepalhomepage.com/general/glance.html| accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} * {{cite web | title= Jailed ex-PM in Nepal court plea | work=[[BBC News]] | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4194160.stm| accessdate=September 29 | accessyear=2005 }} * {{cite web | title= Nepal's new emblem | work=Citizen Journalism Nepal | url=http://www.cjnepal.org/story/547/nepals-new-emblem| accessdate=February 7 | accessyear=2007 }} * {{cite book | author=Gotz Hagmuller | title=Patan Museum: The Transformation of a Royal Palace in Nepal | location= London | publisher=Serindia | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-9-6-26-58-X}} * {{cite book | author=Kunda Dixit | title=[A people war: Images of the Nepal conflict 1996–2006] | location= Kathmandu | publisher=nepa-laya | year=2006 | id=ISBN }} * {{cite book | author=Barbara Crossette| title=So Close to Heaven: The Vanishing Buddhist Kingdoms of the Himalayas | location= New York | publisher=Vintage | year=1995 | id=ISBN 0-679-74363-4}} * {{cite book | author=Bista, Dor Bahadur| title=People of Nepal | publisher= Dept. of Publicity, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of Nepal | year=1967 | id=ISBN 99933-0-418-2}} * Michael Hutt, ed., ''Himalayan 'people's war' : Nepal's Maoist rebellion'', London : C. Hurst, 2004 * {{cite book | author=Peter Matthiessen| title=The Snow Leopard | publisher= Penguin | year=1993 | id=ISBN 0-00-272025-6}} * {{cite book | author=Joe Simpson| title=Storms of Silence | publisher= Mountaineers Books | year=1997 | id=ISBN 0-89886-512-3}} * {{cite book | author=Samrat Upadhyay| title=Arresting God in Kathmandu | publisher= Mariner Books | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0-618-04371-3}} * {{cite book | author=Joseph R. Pietri| title=The King of Nepal | publisher=Joseph R. Pietri | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0-615-11928-X}} * {{cite book | author=Maurice Herzog| title=[[Annapurna]] | publisher=The Lyons Press | year=1951 | id=ISBN 1-55821-549-2}} * {{cite book | author=Dervla Murphy| title=The Waiting Land: A Spell in Nepal | publisher= Transatlantic Arts | year=1968 | id=ISBN 0-7195-1745-1}} * {{cite book | author=Rishikesh Shaha| title=Modern Nepal: A Political History| publisher=Manohar Publishers and Distributors | year=2001 | id=ISBN 81-7304-403-1}} * {{cite web | title= Nepal: Basic Info | work= About Nepal | url=http://himalayacrafts.com/Nepal/Nepal.aspx| accessdate=June 23 | accessyear=2007 }} --> == Tumbu luar == <!-----Note: PLEASE DO NOT ADD BLOGS-----> {{sisterlinks|Nepal}} * [http://www.nepalgov.gov.np Government of Nepal (situs resmi pamaréntah Népal)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190621111641/http://www.nepalgov.gov.np/ |date=2019-06-21 }} * [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/Nepal/ Open Directory Project — Nepal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218191125/http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/Nepal/ |date=2007-02-18 }} * [http://hicapnepal.org The Himalayan Cultural Conservation Campaign Nepal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320114731/http://hicapnepal.org/ |date=2018-03-20 }} * {{wikivoyage|Nepal}} * [http://planetnepal.org/cgi-bin/view/Main/WebHome Planet Nepal Encyclopedia Project]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/nptoc.html Library of Congress — Nepal] * [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5283.htm United States Department of State Profile of Nepal] * [https://cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/np.html CIA World Factbook - Nepal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429033918/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications//the-world-factbook/geos/np.html |date=2015-04-29 }} {{Template group |title = Geografi lokal |list = {{Countries of Asia}} {{Countries of South Asia}} }} {{Template group |title = Kaanggotaan internasional |list = {{South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)}} }} <!--Keep at top of list (eponymous category)--> <!--Categories--> [[Kategori:Nepal| ]] [[Kategori:Anggota SAARC]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Asia Kidul]] [[Kategori:Monarki konstitusional]] [[Kategori:Nagara miskin]] <!--Other languages--> a7u28gu8f3i0ubexf2k8kcfi9hugelp 0 24552 710207 676359 2026-06-09T17:59:54Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710207 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} Dina [[fisika]], '''rohangan kosong''' mangrupa konsép tina [[teori elektromagnetik]], pakait jeung "''[[rohangan hampa]] sampurna''". ==Definisi== Rohangan hampa boga harti yén ''teu aya matrial'' atawa ''fenomena fisika'' iwal fénoménaanu keur ditaliti. Rohangan kosong dianggap mangrupa kaayaan dasar [[medan elektromagnetik]]. [[Enerji pancaran]] anu ngarambat ngaliwatan rohangan kosong dina bentuk [[gelombang elektromagnetik]], saperti [[gelombang radio]] jeung [[cahaya katenjo]] (di antarana frékuénsi-frékuénsi[[spectrum elektromagnetik]]). Harga konstan <math>\mu_0 \,</math> dikenal minangka ''[[permeabilitas rohangan kosong]]''. [[permittivitas rohangan hampa]], <math>\varepsilon_0 </math>, mangrupa rasio tina [[electric displacement field]] jeung [[medan listrik]] dina rohangan hampa. Nurutkeun [[theory of relativity|toeri relativitas]], énérgi pancaran dina rohangan kosong ngarambat dina [[laju cahaya]], henteu gumantung kana laju pangawas atawa sumber asal gelombang. {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} ==Ideal states and real-world applications== Free space conveys that the region is absolutely devoid of matter and has no external [[Field (physics)|field]]s or [[force]]s other than those considered in the problem at hand. Free space, with a gaséous pressure of absolute zero is a mathematical idéalization. For example, in the "vacuum" of [[outer space]], there are [[density|small quantities]] of [[matter]] (mostly hydrogen), and [[cosmic noise]]. The density of the [[interplanetary medium]] and [[interstellar medium]] though is extremely low, and, for many applications, the interplanetary and interstellar regions are "free space". The [[cosmic microwave background]] has a temperature of 2.725 K, which implies a photon density of about 400 /cm³.<ref>{{citation |author=[[Martin J. Rees]]| title=Origin of pregalactic microwave background |year=1978 |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v275/n5675/abs/275035a0.html |journal=[[Nature]] |volume=275 |pages=35-37.}}</ref> Free space is a philosophical concept that is never observed in practice. The [[United States Patent Office]] defines "''free space''" for radio and radar applications as "''space where the movement of energy in any direction is substantially unimpeded, such as the atmosphere, the ocean, or the earth''". (US Patent Class 342, Class Notes <ref>U.S. Patent Classification System - [http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/ac/ido/oeip/taf/def/342.htm Classification Definitions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071208121840/http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/ac/ido/oeip/taf/def/342.htm |date=2007-12-08 }} as of June 30, 2000</ref>) This is considerably different from the théoretical definition of free space as there exists considerable material in all of the USPTO's examples. As per this definition, at various electromagnetic frequencies some density conditions are réasonable approximations to free space.{{Fact|date=March 2007}} ==Tempo oge== * [[Vacuum energy]] * [[Medium (optics)]] * [[Dielectric constant]] * [[Dirac sea]] ==Catetan== <references/> ==Rujukan== * Davida, "''[http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/newton/askasci/1993/physics/PHY48.HTM What is the significance of permittivity of free space?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205074136/http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/newton/askasci/1993/physics/PHY48.HTM |date=2008-12-05 }}''". Ask A Scientist, Physics Archive. * Susan Léa, "''[http://www.physics.sfsu.edu/~lea/courses/grad/waveguid.PDF Electromagnetic waves in free space] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060919031651/http://www.physics.sfsu.edu/%7Elea/courses/grad/waveguid.PDF |date=2006-09-19 }}''". ([[PDF]]) * Eric W. Weisstein, "''[http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/PermittivityofFreeSpace.html Permittivity of Free Space]''". * Eric estrada. Weisstein, "''[http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/PermeabilityofFreeSpace.html Permeability of Free Space]''". * "''[http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/0,,sid9_gci845268,00.html Characteristic impedance of free space] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071206092657/http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/0,,sid9_gci845268,00.html |date=2007-12-06 }}''". TechTarget, 2005. [[Kategori:Éléktromagnétisme]] boupybdvraw7r3o5pl6412zvsd9oz14 0 25052 710206 676358 2026-06-09T17:59:49Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710206 wikitext text/x-wiki Dina [[fisika]], '''rohangan bébas''' mangrupa konsép tina [[téori éléktromagnétik]], pakait jeung "''[[rohangan hampa]] sampurna''". ==Définisi== Rohangan bébas boga harti yén ''teu aya material'' atawa ''fénomena fisika'' lianna iwal ti fénomena anu keur ditaliti kiwari. Rohangan bébas dianggap mangrupa kaayaan dasar [[médan éléktromagnétik]]. [[Énerji pancaran]] ngarambat ngaliwatan rohangan bébas dina wangun [[gelombang éléktromagnétik]], saperti [[gelombang radio]] jeung [[cahaya katémbong]] (di antarana frékuénsi-frékuénsi [[spéktrum éléktromagnétik]]). Harga konstanta <math>\mu_0 \,</math> disebut ''[[perméabilitas rohangan bébas]]''. [[Permittivitas rohangan bébas]], <math>\varepsilon_0 </math>, mangrupa rasio tina [[electric displacement field]] jeung [[médan listrik]] dina rohangan bébas. Nurutkeun [[theory of relativity|téori rélativitas]], énerji pancaran dina rohangan bébas ngarambat sagancang [[laju cahaya]], henteu gumantung kana laju pangawas atawa sumber asal gelombang. ==Kaayaan idéal jeung panerapan-panerapan dina dunya nyata== Rohangan bébas ngagambarkeun yén rohangan kasebut bener-bener hampa tina material sarta henteu boga [[Field (physics)|médan]] atawa [[gaya]] éksternal salian ti médan atawa gaya dina rohangan hampa anu keur ditaliti kiwari. Rohangan bébas, katut tekanan gas anu enol mutlak mangrupa idéalisasi matématis. Contona, dina rohangan hampa "vacuum" di [[angkasa luar]], aya [[density|saeutik]] [[matéri]] (sabagian gedéna mangrupa hidrogén), sarta [[nois kosmik]]. Karapetan [[midiyeum antar planét]] jeung [[midiyeum antar béntang]] sanajan leutik pisan, mangrupa "rohangan bebas". [[Latar gelombang mikro kosmik]] miboga suhu saukuran 2.725 K, anu nunjukkeun ayana foton kalawan karapetan 400 /cm³.<ref>{{citation |author=[[Martin J. Rees]]| title=Origin of pregalactic microwave background |year=1978 |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v275/n5675/abs/275035a0.html |journal=[[Nature]] |volume=275 |pages=35-37.}}</ref> Rohangan bébas mangrupa filosofi anu henteu pernah kawenehan dina prakték. [[Kantor Patén Amerika Serikat]] ngadéfinisikeun "''rohangan bébas ''" pikeun panerapan radio jeung radar saperti kieu: "''rohangan di mana pamindahan énerji dina satiap arah henteu keuna hahalang, saperti anu kaalaman dina atmosfir, laut, atawa dunya''". (US Patent Class 342, Class Notes <ref>U.S. Patent Classification System - [http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/ac/ido/oeip/taf/def/342.htm Classification Definitions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071208121840/http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/ac/ido/oeip/taf/def/342.htm |date=2007-12-08 }} as of June 30, 2000</ref>) Hal ieu béda jauh jeung définisi téoritis ngeunaan rohangan bébas lantaran hadirna material dina kabéh conto bogana USPTO. Dumasar kana définisi ieu, dina rupa-rupa frékuénsi élektromagnétik, sababaraha kondisi karapetan mangrupa aproksimasi anu cukup pantes pikeun ngaharib kana rohangan bébas. {{Fact|date=March 2007}} ==Tempo ogé== * [[Enerji rohangan hampa]] * [[Midiyeum (optika)]] * [[Konstanta dielektrik]] * [[laut Dirac]] ==Cutatan== <references/> ==Rujukan== * Davida, "''[http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/newton/askasci/1993/physics/PHY48.HTM What is the significance of permittivity of free space?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205074136/http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/newton/askasci/1993/physics/PHY48.HTM |date=2008-12-05 }}''". Ask A Scientist, Physics Archive. * Susan Léa, "''[http://www.physics.sfsu.edu/~lea/courses/grad/waveguid.PDF Electromagnetic waves in free space] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060919031651/http://www.physics.sfsu.edu/%7Elea/courses/grad/waveguid.PDF |date=2006-09-19 }}''". ([[PDF]]) * Eric W. Weisstein, "''[http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/PermittivityofFreeSpace.html Permittivity of Free Space]''". * Eric estrada. Weisstein, "''[http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/PermeabilityofFreeSpace.html Permeability of Free Space]''". * "''[http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/0,,sid9_gci845268,00.html Characteristic impedance of free space] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071206092657/http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/0,,sid9_gci845268,00.html |date=2007-12-06 }}''". TechTarget, 2005. [[Kategori:Éléktromagnétisme]] [[en:Vacuum#In electromagnetism]] 8h6axyh30iodrbgjfjg06l2iugu87u1 0 33219 710204 651546 2026-06-09T16:40:51Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710204 wikitext text/x-wiki :''Kaca ieu eusina ngeunaan pakakas '''Palu'''. Pikeun guna lian ti Palu, tempo '''[[Palu (disambiguasi)]]''''' [[Gambar:Framing hammer.jpg|thumb|Palu]] '''Palu''' atawa '''martil''' nyaéta pakakas anu dipaké pikeun nakol hiji barang. Palu umumna dipaké pikeun [[paku|maku]], ngoméan hiji banda, nempa [[logam]] jeung ngancurkeun hiji banda. Palu dirarancang pikeun tujuan nu tangtu kalawan variasi dina wangun jeung struktur. Wngun umum palu nyaéta boga gagang jeung hulu, kalawan bagian anu leuwih beurat dina huluna. Désan dasar palu sangkan babari dipaké, tapi aya ogé modél palu mékanis anu dioperasikeun pikeun kaperluan au leuwih gedé. Palu mungkin pakakas anu pangkolotna anu masih kénéħ nyampak nepika kiwari. Palu batu dipikawanoh geus dipaké ti semet taun 2.600.000 Saméméh Maséhi <ref name="hammer">Semaw, S., M. J. Rogers, J. Quade, P. R. Renne, R. F. Butler, M. Domínguez-Rodrigo, D. Stout, W. S. Hart, T. Pickering, and S. W. Simpson. 2003. 2.6-Million-year-old stone tools and associated bones from OGS-6 and OGS-7, Gona, Afar, Ethiopia. ''Journal of Human Evolution 45:169-177''</ref>. Palu nyaéta pakakas dasar pikeun rupa-rupa profési. Minangka [[analogi]]na, palu ogé dipaké pikeun pakakas anu didésain pikeun méré takolan, contona dina mékanisme pikeun ngaluncurkeun [[pélor]] dina [[bedil]]. == Referensi == {{reflist}} == Tumbu luar == * {{en}} [http://www.diracdelta.co.uk/science/source/h/a/hammer/source.html Tipe Palu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090702011323/http://www.diracdelta.co.uk/science/source/h/a/hammer/source.html |date=2009-07-02 }} gambar jeung deskripsi * {{en}} [http://www.hammermuseum.org Museum Palu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110905075950/http://www.hammermuseum.org/ |date=2011-09-05 }} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Palu]] [[Kategori:Pakakas]] 4b0arsz43pk5ktimrez18itdnce4ayz 0 36097 710208 709753 2026-06-09T18:12:21Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710208 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} {{Infobox sport | image = New Zealand vs South Africa 2006 Tri Nations Line Out.JPG | imagesize = 300px | caption = [[Victor Matfield]] ti Afrika Kidul ngalaksanakeun ''lineout'' kana Selandia Anyar dina 2006. | union = [[International Rugby Board]] | nickname = Rugger, Rugby<ref>{{cite book |title=British language & culture |publisher=[[Lonely Planet]] |first=David |last=Else |year=2007 |edition=2nd |page=97 |isbn=186450286X}}</ref> | first = Awal abad ka-19 (wangun awal)<br />1845 (hukum tinulis awal) | registered = 5.062.396 | clubs = 18.920 | contact = [[Olahraga kontak#Kontak pinuh|Kontak pinuh]] | team = 15 | mgender = Kompetisi kapisah | category = [[Olahraga tim]], luar rohangan | equipment = [[Maén bal (bal)#Rugbi union|Bal rugbi]] | venue = | olympic = [[Rugbi union dina Olimpiade 1900|1900]]; dihupus ti program [[Olimpiade 1928|1928]]; [[Rugbi Tujuh]] dibalikkeun [[Olimpiade 2016|2016]] }} '''Rugbi union''', mindeng disebut '''rugbi''' wungkul, nyaéta hiji olahraga tim [[Olahraga kontak#Kontak pinuh|kontak pinuh]] nu lahir di Inggris di awal abad ka-19.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rugbyfootballhistory.com/originsofrugby.htm#2 |title=Origins of Rugby – Codification "The innovation of running with the ball was introduced some time between 1820 and 1830." |publisher=Rugbyfootballhistory.com |accessdate=15 August 2011}}</ref> salah sahiji [[Bandingan rugbi liga jeung rugbi union|dua kode]] ti [[maén bal rugbi]], nyaéta dina lumpat sareng bal dicandak ku tangan. Olahraga ieu dimaénkeun kalawan hiji [[bal rugbi|bal]] nu bentukna oval, di lapangan nu panjangna nepi ka 100 m jeung lébarna nepi ka 70 m kalawan pos gawang nu bentukna kawas hurup "H" dina masing-masing garis gawang. [[William Webb Ellis]] mindeng dipercaya kalawan pamanggihan lumpat sareng nyandak bal ku tangan dina 1823 di [[Sakola Rugby]] basa anjeunna diduga nyanggap bal nalika keur maén bal jeung lumpat ka gawang lawan. Tapi, bukti carita éta diragukeun. Dina 1845, hukum maén bal kahiji ditulis ku murid-murid Sakola Rugby; kajadian signifikan lianna dina pamekaran awal rugbi contona kaputusan [[Blackheath F.C.|Klub Blackheath]] ninggalkeun ''[[The Football Association]]'' dina 1863 sarta misahna rugbi union jeung [[rugbi liga]] dina 1895. Dina 1995 [[International Rugby Board|Badan Rugbi Internasional]] (''International Rugby Board'', IRB) ngahupus larangan dina bayaran ka pamaén, nyieun maénna sacara kabuka profésional dina tingkat nu pangluhurna pikeun kahijina. IRB geus jadi badan pangurus pikeun rugbi union ti pawangunanna dina 1886. Sumebarna rugbi union tumuwuh ti [[Home Nations|Bangsa Asal]] (''Home Nations''), Britania Raya jeung Irlandia, sarta diserep ku raloba nagara nu kaasosiasi jeung Kakaisaran Britania. Éksponén awal ti olahraga ieu contona Australia, Selandia Anyar, jeung Afrika Kidul. Nagara-nagara nu geus ngadopsi rugbi union salaku olahraga nasionalna sacara ''[[de facto]]'' misalna Fiji, Géorgia, Selandia Anyar, Samoa, Tonga, jeung Wales. Rugbi union dimaénkeun di leuwih ti 100 nagara di 6 buana jeung dina Nopémber 2010, 118 union mangrupa anggota IRB. [[Piala Dunya Rugbi]], kahiji lumangsung dina 1987, dilaksanakeun saban opat warsih, kalawan nu meunangna narima [[Piala Webb Ellis]]. [[Kajuaraan Genep Bangsa]] (''Six Nations Championship'') di Éropa jeung [[Kajuaraan Rugby]] (''The Rugby Championship'') di Hémisfér Kidul (nu ngaganti ''Tri Nations'') mangrupa kompetisi internasional utami anu dilaksanakeun warsihan. Kompetisi doméstik utama contona [[Top 14]] di Perancis, [[English Premiership (rugbi union)|English Premiership]] di Inggris, [[Currie Cup]] di Afrika Kidul, jeung [[ITM Cup]] di Selandia Anyar. Kompetisi antarbangsa nu lian contona [[Celtic League (rugbi union)|Celtic League]], aslina mimilukeun tim ti Irlandia, Skotlandia, jeung Wales sarta ayeuna ditambih ti Italia; [[Super Rugby]] (baheulana Super 12 jeung Super 14), mimilukeun tim ti Afrika Kidul, Australia, jeung Selandia Anyar; sarta [[Heineken Cup]], mimilukeun sawatara tim ti Éropa. ==Sajarah== {{utama|Sajarah rugbi union}} [[File:Rugby School 850.jpg|box|thumb|[[Sakola Rugby]] di [[Rugby, Warwickshire]]. Katembong dina gambar gawang rugbi nu wangunna kawas hurup "H"]] Asalna maén bal rugbi dianggap salaku hiji insidén dina hiji patandingan [[Maén bal sakola umum Inggris|maén bal sakola Inggris]] di Sakola Rugby dina 1823 basa [[William Webb-Ellis]] disebut yén anjeunna nyandak bal teras lumpat barina.<ref>{{cite web|title = Webb Ellis, William|url = http://www.rugbyfootballhistory.com/webb-ellis.html|accessdate =14 September 2009}}</ref> Sanajan bukti ti carita éta diragukeun,<ref>{{cite episode|title=Flotsam|url=http://www.comedy.co.uk/guide/tv/qi/episodes/6/3/|series=QI|serieslink=QI|network=[[BBC]]|station=BBC One |location=UK|airdate=9 January 2009|seriesno=F|number=3}}</ref> hal éta diabadikeun di sakola éta kalawan hiji [[piagam pangélingan|piagam]] nu diumumkeun dina 1895.<ref>{{cite web|title = William Webb Ellis – fact or fiction?|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/low/rugby_union/6255164.stm |first=Sean|last=Davies| publisher=bbc.co.uk |accessdate =20 September 2011}}</ref> Sanajan asalna anékdot, [[Piala Webb Ellis|tropi Piala Dunya Rugbi]] dingaranan ti namina. Maén bal rugbi tumuwuh ti wangun kaulinan dimaénkeun di Sakola Rugby, nu dicandak urut siswana ka universitas; [[Albert Pell]], saurang mahasiswa ti [[Universitas Cambridge|Cambridge]], diajénan ku lantaran geus ngawangun tim 'maén bal' kahiji.<ref name="Marshall13">{{Harvnb|Marshall|1951|p=13}}</ref> Dina période awal ieu, béda sakola béda aturan, kalawan urut murid Rugby jeung [[Kampus Eton|Eton]] ngusahakeun mawa aturan anu dipikaresepna ka universitas.<ref name="Marshall13-14">{{Harvnb|Marshall|1951|pp=13–14}}</ref> Kajadian-kajadian signifikan dina pamekaran awal maén bal rugbi nyaéta panyieunan sét hukum maén bal katulis anu kahiji di Sakola Rugby dina 1845,<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=9}}</ref> anu dipiluan ku '[[Aturan Cambridge]]' dijieun dina 1848.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rugbyfootballhistory.com/originsofrugby.htm#3 |title=Early Laws |publisher=Rugbyfootballhistory.com |accessdate=6 February 2010}}</ref> Kajadian penting lianna contona kaputusan Klub Blackhéath Club ninggalkeun ''The Football Association'' dina 1863<ref name="Godwin10">{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title = The History of Football |url = http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/history/game/historygame4.html |work = FIFA.com |accessdate = 25 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130314172942/http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/history/game/historygame4.html |date=14 March 2013 }}</ref> jeung ngadegna [[Rugby Football Union]] dina 1871.<ref name="Godwin10"/> Kode ieu aslina disebut "maén bal rugbi" (''rugby football''); tapi sanggeus [[Sajarah rugbi liga#Peupeus di Inggris|peupeus di Inggris]] dina 1895, anu ngahasilkeun misahna [[rugbi liga]], olahraga ieu maké ngaran "rugbi union" pikeun ngabédakeunnana.<ref>{{cite book|title=Rugby's great split: class, culture and the origins of rugby league football|author=Tony Collins|pages=87–120|chapter=Schism 1893–1895|edition=2nd|publisher=Routlage|year=2006|isbn=0-415-39616-6}}</ref> Sanajan ngaran pinuhna rugbi union, olahraga ieu ngan disebut rugbi di kalobaannana bagian dunya.<ref>{{cite web |title = Warwickshire and Rugby Football |url = http://www.warwickshire.gov.uk/Web/corporate/pages.nsf/Links/25612031C7B03F9C80257610004A20CC |work = warwickshire.gov.uk |accessdate = 26 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212025019/http://www.warwickshire.gov.uk/Web/corporate/pages.nsf/Links/25612031C7B03F9C80257610004A20CC |date=12 December 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=A Short History of Civilization IV |work=Five Epochs of Civilization: Chapter 7 (2000) |url=http://worldhistorysite.com/civilization4.html |publisher=worldhistorysite.com |first=William |last=McGaughey |accessdate=26 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512190553/http://worldhistorysite.com/civilization4.html |date=12 May 2013 }}</ref> [[Patandingan rugbi union Bangsa Asli 1870-71|Maén bal rugbi internasional kahiji]] lumangsung dina 27 Maret 1871, antara Inggris jeung Skotlandia.<ref name="Godwin10"/> Dina 1881 Irlandia jeung Wales miboga tim anu ngawakilannana, jeung dina 1883 kompetisi internasional kahiji, [[Kajuaraan Genep Bangsa|''Home Nations Championship'']] dimimitian. 1883 ogé taundi mana turnamén [[rugbi tujuh]] kahiji lumnangsung, di [[Melrose, Skotlandia|Melrose]], [[Melrose Sevens]],<ref name="Godwin12">{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=12}}</ref> anu masih warsihan dilaksanakeun. Lima taunsanggeusna, aya dua tur penting peuntas laut; tim [[Tur Singa Britania ka Selandia Anyar jeung Australia 1888|Kapuloan Britania]] datang ka Australia jeung Selandia Anyar. Hal éta neundeun pondasi pikeun tur [[Singa Britania jeung Irlandia]] nu engkéna.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lionsrugby.com/history/5023.php|title=1888 Australia & New Zealand|publisher=The British and irish Lions|accessdate=13 August 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607033526/http://www.lionsrugby.com/history/5023.php |date=7 June 2011 }}</ref> [[Tim maén bal Pribumi Selandia Anyar 1888–1889|tim Pribumi Selandia Anyar 1888]] mangrupa tim peuntas laut kahiji nu datang ka Britania.<ref>{{cite book |title=Forerunners of the All Blacks |last=Ryan |first=Greg |publisher=Canterbury University Press |year=1993 |location=Christchurch, New Zealand|isbn=0-908812-30-2|page=44}}</ref> [[File:King George V presents a cup to the captain of the winning New Zealand Services Rugby Team, London.jpeg|thumb|left|[[James Ryan (pamaén rugbi union nu lahir 1887)|James Ryan]], kaptén tim Angkatan Darat Selandia Anyar, narima Piala Kings ti George V|alt=A black and white photo of a rugby field in which three men in military uniform, one of whom is King George, present a silver trophy to a rugby player dressed in black kit. Behind in a line are the rest of the team.]] Antara 1905 jeung 1908, sadaya tilu nagara rugbi utama ti Hémisfér Kidul ngintunkeun tim tur kahijina ka Hémisfér Kalér: [[The Original All Blacks|Selandia Anyar]] dina 1905, dimiluan ku [[Tur rugbi union Afrika Kidul 1906-07|Afrika Kidul]] dina 1906 jeung teras [[Tur rugbi union Britania Australia 1908-09|Australia]] dina 1908. Sadaya tilu tim mawa gaya maén, tingkat kaséhatan, jeung taktik nu anyar,<ref name="Godwin, p18">{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=18}}</ref> jeung leuwih boga hasil tinimbang nu aya dina kritikan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Thomas|1954|p=27}} ''"When they arrived in this country [Britain] they were regarded as an unknown quantity, but it was not anticipated that they would give the stronger British teams a great deal of opposition. The result of the very first match against Devon was regarded as a foregone conclusion by most British followers."''</ref> Tim tur Selandia Anyar 1905 ngalaksanakeun [[Ka Mate|haka]] saméméh saban patandingan, administrator Rugbi Union Wales, [[Tom Williams (pamaén rugbi Wales)|Tom Williams]], nyarankeun pamaén Wales, [[Teddy Morgan]], mingpin balaréa dina nembangkeun Lagu Kabangsaan Nasional Wales, ''[[Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau]]'', salaku balesan. Sanggeus Morgan mimiti nembang, masarakat mimiluan: wayah kahiji lagu kabangsaan ditembangkeun di awal kajadian olahraga.<ref>{{cite web|title=The anthem in more recent years|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/music/sites/anthem/pages/anthem-today.shtml|accessdate=3 December 2010 |publisher=[[BBC Cymru Wales]]|date=1 December 2008 |work=[[BBC Cymru Wales|BBC Cymru Wales history]]}}</ref> Dina 1905, Perancis ngalawan Inggris dina patandingan internasional kahijina.<ref name="Godwin, p18"/> Euweuh patandingan rugbi internasional jeung patandingan nu kadukung union dimaénkeun basa Perang Dunya I, tapi kompetisi lanjut liwat tim layanan saperti [[Tim rugbi Angkatan Darat Selandia Anyar 1919|tim Angkatan Darat Selandia Anyar]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=19}}</ref> Dina Perang Dunya II, euweuh patandingan internasional dimaénkeun ku raloba nagara sanajan Italia, Jérman, jeung Romania maénkeun sawatara patandingan,<ref>[http://www.scrum.com/italy/rugby/match/19590.html Tur Italia – Bukares, 14 April 1940] Romania vs Italia, Scrum.com</ref><ref>[http://www.scrum.com/italy/rugby/match/19591.html Tur Italia – Stuttgart, 5 Méi 1940] Jérman vs Italia, Scrum.com</ref><ref>[http://www.scrum.com/italy/rugby/match/19592.html Tur Romania – Milan, 2 Méi 1942] Italia vs Romania, Scrum.com</ref> sarta [[R.U.F.C. Universitas Cambridge|Cambridge]] jeung [[RFC Universitas Oxford|Oxford]] ngalanjutkeun [[The Varsity Match|Patandingan Universitas]] warsihanna.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=22}}</ref> Rugbi union diasupkeun salaku cabang dina Olimpiade opat kali dina awal 1900-an. Dina 1973, turnamén internasional rugbi tujuh anu didukung resmi lumangsung di Murrayfield, salaku bagian ti pangélingan saratus taun [[Rugbi Union Skotlandia]].<ref>{{cite web|title = Rugby in the Olympics: Future|url = http://www.irb.com/rugbyandtheolympics/future.html|work = [[International Rugby Board|IRB]]|date = |accessdate = 18 August 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810065813/http://www.irb.com/rugbyandtheolympics/future.html |date=10 August 2011 }}</ref> Dina 1987, Piala Dunya Rugbi kahiji dilaksanakeun di Selandia Anyar jeung Australia, sarta nu meunang nyaéta Selandia Anyar. Turnamén Piala Dunya Rugbi Tujuh kahiji dilaksanakeun di Murrayfield dina 1993. Rugbi Tujuh dipikawanohkeun di [[Kajuaraan Rugbi Tujuh Pasamakmuran|Commonwealth Games]] dina 1998 jeung bakal dilombakeun dina Olimpiade 2016.<ref name="I.O.C. Decision"/> Rugbi union mangrupa olahraga amatir nepi ka IRB ngadéklarasikeun olahraga ieu 'kabuka' dina 1995, ngahupus larangan din bayaran ka pamaén.<ref name=Stubbs3>{{Harvnb|Stubbs|2009|p=118}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title = History of the RFU |url = http://www.rfu.com/AboutTheRFU/History.aspx |work = [[Rugby Football Union|RFU]] |date = |accessdate = 28 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100422210444/http://www.rfu.com/AboutTheRFU/History.aspx |date=22 April 2010 }}</ref> Tapi, période rugbi union pra-1995 dicirian ku lobana tuduhan "[[shamateurisme]]",<ref>{{cite web|title = Ontario: The Shamateurs|url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,804253,00.html|work = TIME|date = 29 September 1947|accessdate = 6 February 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513010050/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,804253,00.html |date=13 May 2013 }}</ref> kaasup hiji invéstigasi di Britania ku hiji komite Badan Pamilihan Umum.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/amateur-status-attacked-by-mps-1611641.html?CMP=ILC-refresh |title=Amateur status attacked by MPs - Sport - The Independent |first=John |last=Rentoul |work=[[The Independent]] |date=17 March 1995 |publisher=[[Independent News & Media|INM]] |location=[[London, UK|London]] |issn=0951-9467 |oclc=185201487 |accessdate=19 November 2011}} </ref><ref>{{cite web|title = History of Rugby Union|url = http://www.talkrugbyunion.co.uk/guides/history_of_rugby_union.html|accessdate =6 February 2010}}</ref> Nurutan dipikawanohna profésionalisme kompetisi klub trans-nasional dimimitian, kalawan [[Heineken Cup]] di Hémisfér Kalér jeung [[Super Rugby]] di Hémisfér Kidul.<ref name="historymain">{{cite web | url=http://www.ercrugby.com/eng/37_74.php | title=European Rugby Cup: History | publisher=ERC | accessdate=21 March 2007 | archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070208134810/http://www.ercrugby.com/eng/37_74.php <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> | archivedate=8 February 2007 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070208134810/http://www.ercrugby.com/eng/37_74.php |date=8 February 2007 }}</ref><ref name="Gaynor">{{cite news|title=Union's off-field game a real winner|date=21 April 2001|newspaper=New Zealand Herald|first=Bryan| last=Gaynor|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=184012}}</ref> [[Tri Nations (rugbi union)|Tri-nations]], hiji turnamén internasional mimilukeun Afrika Kidul, Selandia Anyar, jeung Australia, dimimitian dina 1996.<ref name="Gaynor"/> ==Tim jeung struktur tim== {{utama|Posisi pamaén rugbi union}} [[Image:Rugby formation.svg|thumb|Formasi normal tim rugbi union, ngagambareun masing-masing posisi jeung nomerna.]] Masing-masing tim mimiti maén kalawan 15 pamaén di lapangan.<ref name="Law3">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/mm/document/lawsregs/0/090729sgsmlaw3_8811.pdf |work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |title=Law 3 Number of Players |format=PDF |accessdate=6 February 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121013170741/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/lawsregs/0/090729sgsmlaw3_8811.pdf |date=13 October 2012 }}</ref> Pamaén dina hiji tim dibagi kana 8 [[Posisi di rugbi union#Payun|payun]] (2 leuwih di [[rugbi liga]]) jeung 7 [[Posisi di rugbi union#Bék|bék]].<ref name="IRB BGRU 6">{{cite web|url=http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf|work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]]|title=A Beginner's Guide to Rugby Union|page=6|accessdate=24 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025103429/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf |date=25 October 2012 }}</ref> ===Pamaén payun=== Kawajiban utama ti pamaén payun nyaéta miboga jeung nahankeun kabogaan bal.<ref name="talkrugby">{{cite web|url=http://www.talkrugbyunion.co.uk/guides/rugby_union_positions.html |title=Rugby Union Positions |publisher=talkrugbyunion.co.uk |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011}}</ref> Pamaén dina posisi ieu umumna gedé jeung kiat sarti milu dina ''scrum'' jeung ''lineout''.<ref name="talkrugby"/> Aranjeunna sok disebut ''pack'', utamina dina formasi ''scrum''.<ref name="Glossary">{{cite web|url=http://www.espnscrum.com/scrum/rugby/page/97263.html|work=ESPN Scrum.com |title=Rugby Glossary |accessdate=13 August 2011}}</ref> '''Baris payun'''<br/> Baris payun kawangun ti 3 pamaén, 2 prop (panyangga); ''loosehead'' jeung ''tighthead'', sarta ''hooker''. 2 prop ngabantu ''hooker'' dina ''scrum'', pikeun ngadukung paluncat dina ''lineouts'', jeung nyadiakeun tanaga dina ''ruck'' jeung ''maul''.<ref name="IRB BGRU 6"/> Posisi katilu di baris payun nyaéta ''hooker''.<ref name="IRB BGRU 6"/> ''Hooker'' mangrupa posisi konci dina maén ofénsif jeung deféntif sarta miboga tanggung jawab meunangkan bal dina ''scrum''.<ref name="IRB BGRU 6"/> ''Hooker'' biasana anu ngalungkeun bal dina ''lineout''.<ref name="IRB BGRU 6"/> '''Baris kadua'''<br/> Baris kadua kawangun ti 2 ''lock'' atanapi ''lock forwards''. ''Lock'' biasana pamaén nu pangluhurna di tim, jeung husus dina nu lincat nalika ''lineout''.<ref name="IRB BGRU 6"/> Kagunaan utama ''lock'' dina ''lineout'' nyaéta nyieun ''standing jump'' (luncat nangtung), mindeng dirojong ku pamaén payun nu lian, pikeun nyokot bal nu dialungkeun atawa mastikeun bal dipiboga ku reguna. ''Lock'' ogé miboga hiji kagunaan penting dina ''scrum'', nyapit langsung di tukangeun tilu pamaén baris payun jeung nyadiakeun kadali hareup.<ref name="IRB BGRU 6"/> [[File:Chabal Rugby Racing vs Stade Toulousain 311009.jpg|thumb|left|[[Sébastien Chabal]] (kénca jauh) dina posisi nomer dalapan saméméh asup ka ''scrum''|alt=Facing right a group of seven men, in blue and white hooped jersesy, bind together and crouch to form a scrum, the eighth player stands behind them observing the off-picture opposition.]] '''Baris pengker'''<br/> Baris pengker, kadé kaliru jeung ‘Bék’, nyaéta baris katilu jeung baris pangahirna ti barisan di posisi payun. Pamaén di bari pengker mindeng disebut ''loose forwards''.<ref name="Glossary"/> Tilu posisi di baris pengker diwangun ti 2 jangjang jeung nu nomerna 8. Dua posisi jangjang, disebut jangjang ''blindside'' jeung ''openside'', mangrupa baris final dina ''scrum''. Peran utamina nyaéta pikeun meunangkeun kabogaan liwat ''turn over''.<ref name="IRB BGRU 6"/> Nu nomerna 8 dina ''scrum'' miboga peran ngadalikeun bal sanggeus dioper ti payun jeung posisina nyadiakeun hiji panyambung antara nu di payun jeung pengker dina fase narajang.<ref name="IRB BGRU 7">{{cite web|url=http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf|work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]]|title=A Beginner's Guide to Rugby Union|page=7|accessdate=24 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025103429/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf |date=25 October 2012 }}</ref> ===Bék=== Peran bék nyaéta nyieun jeung ngonvérsi kasempetan ngahasilkeun skor, aranjeunna umumna leuwih leutik tapi leuwih gancang jeung leuwih cingceng tinimbang pamaén payun.<ref name="talkrugby"/> Bébéda nu lian antara dua posisi nyaéta bék dipiharep miboga kaahlian najong supérior, utamina dina posisi ''fly-half'' jeung ''full-back''.<ref name="talkrugby"/> '''''Half-back'''''<br/> ''Half-back'' diwangun ti 2 posisi, ''scrum-half''/''half-back'' jeung ''fly-half''/''First Five-Eighth''. ''Fly-half'' penting pikeun rencana tim, ngatur performa tim.<ref name="IRB BGRU 7"/> Aranjeunna biasana anu kahiji nu narima bal ti ''scrum-half'' sanggeus ''breakdown'', ''lineout'', atanapi ''scrum'' jeung kedah merhatoskeun nanao anu dilakukeun jeung éféktif dina ngomunikasi jeung bék luar.<ref name="IRB BGRU 7"/> Loba ''fly-half'' nu ogé panajong ka gawang. ''Scrum-half'' mangrupa panyambung antara pamaén payun jeung bék.<ref name="IRB BGRU 7"/> Aranjeunna narima bal ti ''lineout'' jeung mindahkeun bal ti bagian pengker ''scrum'', biasana ngoperkeunnana ka ''fly-half''.<ref name="IRB BGRU 8">{{cite web|url=http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf|work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]]|title=A Beginner's Guide to Rugby Union|page=8|accessdate=24 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025103429/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf |date=25 October 2012 }}</ref> Aranjeunna ogé ''feed'' (méré bal) ka ''scrum'' jeung kadang kedah jadi ''loose forward'' kaopat.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bompa|1981|p=62}}</ref> '''''Three quarters'''''<br/> Aya 4 posisi ''three quarter'', ''inside centre''/''Second Five-Eighth'', ''outside centre'', sarta jangjang kénca jeung katuhu. Saperti fly-half, aranjeunna umumna miboga tajongan nu alus jeung alus dina maca pamaénan jeung ngarahkeun tarajangan. ''Centre'' bakal ngusakhakeun n-''tackle'' pamaén anu narajang, nalika dina panarajangan, aranjeunna kedah ngaluarkeun kagancangan jeung tanaga pikeun norobos patahanan musuh.<ref name="IRB BGRU 7"/> Jangjang biasana diposisikeun di luareun ''backline''. Kagunaan utamina nya éa ngaréngsékeun gerakan jeung usaha ''try''.{{sfn|Brown, Guthrie and Growden|(2010)}} Jangjang biasana pamaén anu panggancangna dina tim jeung atawa palumpat anu cingceng, atawa umumna di jaman modérn, gedé, kiat, sarta bisa ngéléhkeun ''tackle''.<ref>{{cite news|title=Scottish rugby welcomes back Lomu|date=7 January 2006|first=David|last=Ferguson|url=http://sport.scotsman.com/superteams/Scottish-rugby-welcomes-back-Lomu.2740238.jp|newspaper=Scotsman|accessdate=1 September 2011}}</ref> '''''Fullback'''''<br/> ''Fullback'' biasana aya sawatara méter tukangeun ''back line''. Anjeunna nyanggap tajongan musuh jeung mindeng jadi baris patahanan ahir anu kedah ditorobos ku musuh.<ref name="IRB BGRU 7"/> Dua atribut penting ti saurang ''fullback'' nu alus nyaéta kaahlian nyanggap jeung najong.<ref name = "MacDonald">{{cite book|title=Rugger Practice and Tactics – A Manual of Rugby Football Technique |first=H. F. |last=MacDonald|year=1938|page=97}}</ref> ==Aturan== {{utama|Cara maén rugbi union}} [[Image:RugbyPitchMetricDetailed-su.svg|thumb|300px|right|Diagram lapangan rugbi union midangkeun garis nu kaciri jeung jarak.]] ===Skor=== Rugbi union dimaénkeun antara 2 tim – anu skorna leuwih loba nyaéta nu meunang. Skor bisa dihasilkeun liwat sababaraha cara : ''[[try]]'', ku cara mawa bal ka aréa gawang (antara garis gawang jeung garis bal paéh) jeung bari labuh ka taneuh (''grounding''), ngahasilkeun 5 poin jeung hiji ''conversion'' anu bisa ngahasilkeun 2 poin; liwat pénalti atawa ''[[drop goal]]'' ngahasilkeun 3 poin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_9_EN.pdf|work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]]|title=Law 9 Method of Scoring|format=PDF|accessdate=15 August 2011|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110830123708/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_9_EN.pdf|archivedate=30 August 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830123708/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_9_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> Skor ti cara-cara ieu geus diganti warsih-warsih.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rugbyfootballhistory.com/scoring.htm |title=Scoring through the ages |work=rugbyfootballhistory.com |accessdate=16 August 2011}}</ref> ===Lapangan=== Lapangan rugbi sedeukeut-deukeutna maksimal panjangna 144m jeung lébar 70m.<ref name="pitch size">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/mm/Document/LawsRegs/0/Law1EN_7709.pdf |title=Law 1: The Ground |page=21 |work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |format=PDF |accessdate=6 February 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010221022/http://www.irb.com/mm/Document/LawsRegs/0/Law1EN_7709.pdf |date=10 October 2012 }}</ref> Dina patandingan sabenerna, kedah aya jarak maksimal 100m antara dua garis ''try'', kalawan di mana waé 10 jeung 22m tukangeun garis ''try'' jadi aréa bal paéh.<ref name="pitch size"/> Aya sababaraha garis anu meunatasannana, saperti garis saparo jalan, "dua puluh dua", anu aya 22m ti garis gawang.<ref name="pitch size"/> Pos gawangna saperti hurup H, jeung miboga dua tihang, kapisah 5,6m, disambungkeun ku hiji batang horizontal 3m luhureun taneuh.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_1_EN.pdf |title=Law 1 The Ground |page=1.4(a-b) |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220044847/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_1_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830124154/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_1_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> Diménsi lapangan anu sabenerna mah maké [[unit impérial]], tapi geus dikonvérsi ka [[sistim métrik]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sport/rugby_union/six_nations/618637.stm |title=A beginner's guide to ... rugby laws |work=BBC |date=31 January 2000 |accessdate=24 September 2011}}</ref><ref>Sanajan diménsi lapangan geus dikonvérsi ka sistim métrik, sababaraha koméntator masih nganggo ukuran impérial basa ngarujuk kana aturan katangtu.</ref> ===Struktur patandingan=== Dina awal patandingan, kaptén ti kadua tim jeung wasit ngundi hiji koin pikeun nangtukeun tim mana anu ''kick off'' kahiji. Patandingan teras mimiti kalawan hiji ''drop kick'', jeung pamaén ngudag bal ka aréa musuh, jeung nu lian nyobian sangkan narima bal nu teras narajang. Lamun pamaén nu mawa bal di-''tackle'', salajengna bakal aya hiji [[Cara maén rugbi union#Ruck|''ruck'']].<ref name=Midgley>{{Cite book| last = Midgley| first = Ruth| coauthors = | title = The Official World Encyclopedia of Sports and Games| publisher=Diagram Group| year = 1979| location = London| url =|page=394 | isbn = 0-7092-0153-2}}</ref> Patandingan dibagi kana 2 babak masing-masing 40 menit, kalawan hiji [[Half-time|istirahat]] di tengahna.<ref name="IRBLaw5">{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_5_EN.pdf |title=Law 5: Time |work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |format=PDF |accessdate=23 September 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220045621/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_5_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929014404/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_5_EN.pdf |date=29 September 2011 }}</ref> Di babak kadua, tim silih tuker gawang.<ref name="IRBLaw5"/> Selaan pikeun kacilakaan sangkan mungkinkeun wasit ngalaksanakeun aksi disiplinér, teu kaétang salaku bagian ti wayah maén, jadi biasana waktu anu kapaké leuwih ti 80 menit.<ref name="IRBLaw5"/> Wasit miboga tanggung jawab dina netepkeun wayah, sanajan{{dash}}sakumaha dina loba turnamén{{dash}}anjeunna ditulungan ku hiji panangtu wayah resmi.<ref name="IRBLaw5"/> Upami wayahna béak tapi balna masih dimaénkeun, patandingan lanjut nepi ka balna 'paéh', jeung ngan dina éta wungkul wasit miriwit pikeun nandaan réngséna babak atawa patandingan; tapi, upamina wasti méré pénalti atawa tajongan bébas, patandingan lanjut.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rugby365.com/laws_referees/laws/578937.htm |title=Law 5 – Time |date=22 January 2007 |accessdate=9 July 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100304115933/http://www.rugby365.com/laws_referees/laws/578937.htm |date=4 March 2010 }}</ref> ===Ngoper jeung najong=== Operan payun (ngalungkeun bal ka payun ka pamaén lian) teu beunang; ball ngan bisa dioper ka samping atawa ka tukang.<ref name="irblaws12">{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_12_EN.pdf |title=Law 12 Knock-on ot Throw Forward |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220045447/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_12_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830125954/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_12_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> Bal bisa dicandak ka payun ku tilu cara— ditajong, dicandak lumpat, atanapi ti ''scrum'' atawa [[Cara maén rugbi union#Maul|maul]]. Pamaén anu bisa di-''tackle'' atawa di-''ruck'' ngan pamaén anu mawa bal. Basa bal dipayunkeun ku hiji pamaén maké pananganna, éta ngahasilkeun ''knock-on'', anu teras dilanjutkeun ku ''scrum''.<ref name="irblaws12"/> Sadaya pamaén tiasa najong bal ka payun pikeun miboga téritori. Basa saurang pamaén di mana waé di aréa maén najong sacara teu langsung ka ''[[Touch (rugbi)|touch]]'' jadina balna mantul dina lapangan, ''throw-in'' dilaksanakeun basa balna asup ka ''touch''.<ref name="irblaws12"/> Upami pamaén najong langusng ka ''touch'' (saperti tanpa mantul di jero lapangan heula) tina jero garis 22 méter soranganna, ''lineout'' dilaksanakeun ku tim lawan di tempat bal asup ka ''touch'', tapi upami balna langsung ditajong ka ''touch'' ku saurang pamaén di luar garis 22 méter, ''lineout'' dilaksanakeun ka tempat tajongan anu tadi dilakukeun.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |title=Law 19 Touch and Lineout |page=19.1(e-h) |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220045527/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830123734/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> ===''Breakdowns''=== [[File:Schoolkids doing a rugby tackle.jpg|thumb|Hiji ''tackle'' rugbi: ''tackle'' kedah di handap beuheung kalawan tujuan ngalingan atawa ngalabuhkeun pamaén ogé balna|alt=A child running away from camera in green and black hooped rugby jersey is in the process of being tackled around the hips and legs by an opponent.]] Tujuan sisi nahan nyaéta ngeureunkeun pamaén nu mawa bal, boh liwat ngalabuhkeun manéhna (''tackle'', nu biasana dimiluan ku ''ruck''), atawa parebut posési jeung nu mawa bal dina suku (''maul''). Kaayaan kitu disebut hiji ''breakdown'' jeung miboga aturan husus. Saurang pamaén beunang n-''tackle''-an pamaén lawan anu keur miboga balna ku cara ngalabuhkeun manéhna. Anu n-''tackle'' teu beunang n-''tackle'' di luhureun taktak (tenggek jeung mastaka),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |title=Law 10 Foul play |page=10.4(e) |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220044827/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705044255/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/law_10_en.pdf |date=5 July 2010 }}</ref> jeung nu n-''tackle'' kedah ngusahakeun ngurilingkeun leungeunna kana pamaén anu di-''tackle'' sangkan ''tackle''-na komplit. Teu beunang ngadorong, ngadu taktak, atawa néngklas pamaén lian maké suku, tapi panangan beunang dipaké (maksudna hiji ''tap-tackle'' atawa ''[[Ankle tap|ankle-tap]]'').<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |title=Law 10 Foul play |page=10.4(d) |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220044827/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705044255/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/law_10_en.pdf |date=5 July 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |title=Law 10 Foul play |page=10.4(g) |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220044827/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705044255/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/law_10_en.pdf |date=5 July 2010 }}</ref> ''Maul'' aya sanggeus saurang pamaén nu mawa bal kontak jeung lawanna tapi kadalina tetep dina sukuna; basa tilu pamaén cekap pikeun ngawangun hiji ''maul''.<ref name="Glossary"/> Hiji ''ruck'' mirip jeung ''maul'', tapi dina kasus ieu balna geus ka taneuh kalwan minimalna tilu pamaén milu ngalindungan balna.<ref name="Glossary"/> ===''Set pieces''=== [[File:Ireland vs Georgia, Rugby World Cup 2007 line up.jpg|thumb|left|[[Tim nasional rugbi union Irlandia|Irlandia]] jeung [[Tim nasional rugbi union Géorgia|Géorgia]] dina ''lineout'' basa [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 2007]]|alt=Two rows of opposing players, green to the fore, white behind, each aid a jumping player from their team by lifting him towards an off-picture ball travelling overhead.]] ====''Lineout''==== :{{utama|Line-out}} Basa balna kaluar liwat sisi lapangan, hiji [[line-out|''lineout'']] dilakukeun ku lawanna tim anu pangahirna keuna bal.<ref name="irblaws19">{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |title=Law 19 Touch and Lineout |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220045527/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830123734/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> Pamaén payun ti saban tim baris saméter kapisah, tegak lurus jeung garis ''touch'' sarta antara 5 m jeung 15 m ti garis ''touch''.<ref name="irblaws19"/> Balna dialungkeun ti garis ''touch'' ka jero lapangan ku hiji pamaén (biasana ''[[hooker (rugbi union)|hooker]]'') ti tim anu sanés pangahirna keuna bal.<ref name="irblaws19"/> Kajaba, upami balna kaluar ku lantaran hiji pénalti, tim anu ngalaksanakeun pénalti ngalakukeun ''line-out''-na.<ref name="irblaws19"/> Tim duanana parebut balna jeung pamaén beunang ngangkat réréncangan satimna.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |title=Law 19 Touch and Lineout |page=19.10 |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220045527/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830123734/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> Pamaén nu luncat teu beunang di-''tackle'' nepi ka manéhna nangtung sarta ngan kontak taktak anu diijinkeun; palanggaran anu dihaja kana aturan eiu mangrupa bahaya, jeung bisa ngahasilkeun pénalti.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |title=Law 19 Touch and Lineout |page=19.8(p) |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220045527/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830123734/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_19_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> ====''Scrum''==== {{utama|Scrum (rugbi union)}} [[File:Scrum-1.JPG|thumb|right|Hiji ''[[scrum (rugbi)|scrum]]''|alt=Two opposing formations of eight men, in white and black to the left, red and black to the right, push against each other in a crouched position; behind them stands another player and the referee.]] Hiji ''scrum'' mangrupa hiji cara pikeun 'ngamimitian' deui patandingan kalawan aman jeung adil sanggeus palanggaran leutik.<ref name="irblaws20">{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_20_EN.pdf |title=Law 20 Scrum |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220045535/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_20_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830130008/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_20_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> ''Scrum'' dilaksanakeun ku lantaran operan payun, ''[[Offside (rugbi)#Rugbi union|offside]]'', atawa upami balna kakurung dina ''ruck'' atawa ''maul'' tanpa kasempetan bal kaambil. Hiji tim bisa ogé milih ''scrum'' salaku hadiah pénaltina.<ref name="irblaws20"/> Hiji ''scrum'' diwangun ti 8 pamaén payun ti saban tim ngariung dina 3 baris.<ref name="irblaws20"/> Baris payun ngawengku 2 ''prop'' (''loosehead'' jeung ''tighthead'') atawa sisi ''hooker''.<ref name="irblaws20"/> Baris kadua ngawengku 2 ''lock'' jeung 2 ''flanker''. Tukangeun baris kadua nyaéta si nomer 8. Formasi ieu kawanoh salaku formasi 3–4–1.<ref name="FormingScrum">{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/rules_and_equipment/4205334.stm |title=Forming a scrum |publisher=BBC Sport |accessdate=13 August 2011 | date=14 September 2005}}</ref> Basa hiji ''scrum'' kawangun, ''scrum-half'' ti tim anu dihadiahan nga-''feed'' (méré) balna ka sela antara dua baris payun (kawanoh salaku ''tunnel'').<ref name="irblaws20"/> Dua ''hooker'' teras parebut ku cara nyapukeun bal na ka tukang maké suku, samentara masing-masing kelompok nyoba ngadorong kelompok ''scrum'' musuhna pikeun ngalindungan posési.<ref name="irblaws20"/> Tim anu meunangkeun posési mindahkeun balna ka bagian tukangna ''scrum'', di mana balna dicandak ku nu nomer 8 atawa ku ''scrum-half''.<ref name="irblaws20"/> ===Ofisial jeung sanksi=== Aya 3 ofisial patandingan: hiji wasit jeung dua asistén wasit.<ref name="IRBLaw6">{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_6_EN.pdf |title=Law 6: Match officials |work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |format=PDF |accessdate=19 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220044908/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_6_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830125555/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_6_EN.pdf |date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> Asistén wasit, baheulana kawanoh salaku hakim ''toucdh'', miboga fungsi utami pikeun nunjukkeun di mana balna kaluar ti lapangan; peranna geus dilegaan jeung aranjeunna ayeuna bisa ngiringan wasit pikeun rupa-rupa tujuan, saperti nunjukkeun palanggaran jeung mariksa garis ''off-side''.<ref name="IRBLaw6"/> Tambahannana, pikeun patandingan di kompetisi luhur, sok aya ofisial patandingan télévisi (''Television Match Official'' TMO; populérna disebut "wasit vidéo"), pikeun nulungan sababaraha kaputusan, disambungkeun ka wasit ku radio.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/rugby/rugby-union/news-comment/peter-bills-refereeing-protocol-rules-over-common-sense-2242369.html |title=Peter Bills: Refereeing protocol rules over common sense |work=The Independent|first=Peter|last=Bills |accessdate=15 March 2011}}</ref> Para wasit miboga sistim sinyal tangan pikeun ngindikasikeun kaputusannana.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coachingrugby.com/OpenPagesContent.do?requestType1=currentIssues/&requestType2=lawsSignals |title=Referee Signals |work=coachingrugby.com |accessdate=24 September 2011}}</ref> Hukuman umum contona n-''tackle'' luhureun taktak, rubuh dina ''scrum'', ''ruck'', atanapi ''maul'', teu ngalepaskeun bal basa di taneuh, atawa ''off-side''.<ref name="Law10">{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |title=Law 10: Foul Play |work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |format=PDF |page=70 |accessdate=19 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220044827/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_10_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705044255/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/law_10_en.pdf |date=5 July 2010 }}</ref> Lawanna tim anu ngalanggar aturan miboga sababaraha pilihan pikeun hadiahna: hiji tajongan "tap" (balna ditajong ka jarak anu deukeut pisan ti tangan, mungkinkeun nu najongna nyandak balna deui jeung tuluy lumpat barina), hiji ''punt'' (balna ditajong ka jarak nu jauh ti tangan, pikeun posisi lapangan), hiji ''place-kick'' (nu najongna bakal nyobian nyitak gol), atawa hiji ''scrum''.<ref name="Law10"/> Pamaén bisa dikaluarkeun (dibéré [[Kartu pénalti#Kartu beureum|kartu beureum]]) atawa ditunda ("''sin-binned''") pikeun 10 menit ([[Kartu pénalti#Kartu konéng|kartu konéng]]) ku lantaran palanggaran, jeung teu beunang diganti.<ref name="Law10"/> ===Panggantian jeung substitusi=== Dina patandingan, pamaén bisa diganti (ku lantaran kacilakaan) atawa disubstitusi (pikeun alesan taktik).<ref name="Law3"/> Saurang pamaén nu geus diganti teu beunang maén deui iwal anjeunna diganti saheulaan pikeun ngadalian ciderana; saurang pamaén anu geus disubstitusi bisa maén deui saheulaan, pikeun ngaganti pamaén anu boga rahut nu getihan, atawa permanén, upami ngagantikeun pamaén baris payun.<ref name="Law3"/> Dina patandingan internasional, 7 panggantian diijinkeun; di turnamén domstik atawa antarbeungeut, dina kawijaksanaan babon organisasina, jumlahna bisa ditambihkeun nepi ka 8, nu mana 3 kedah geus dilatih jeung mibanda pangalaman anu cekap pikeun nyadiakeun pangaling pikeun tilu pamaén baris payun.<ref name="Uncontested">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2033086.html#irb+acts+uncontested+scrums |title=IRB acts on uncontested scrums |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date=19 August 2009 |accessdate=23 September 2009 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090822203000/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2033086.html#irb+acts+uncontested+scrums |date=22 August 2009 }}</ref> ==Pakakas== {{utama|Pakakas rugbi union}} Pakakas dasar ti rugbi union nyaéta balna, baju rugbi, [[calana pondok rugbi]], kaos suku, jeung sapatu. Bal rugbi bentukna oval, (téhnisna [[buleud manjang]]), jeung dijieun ti 4 panel.<ref name="IRBLaw2">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/mm/Document/LawsRegs/0/Law2EN_7708.pdf |title=Law 2 The Ball |page=27 |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=15 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091116195453/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/lawsregs/0/law2en_7708.pdf |date=16 November 2009 }}</ref> Balna baheula dijieun ti kulit, tapi ayeuna bisana ngagunakeun bal anu dijieun ti matérial sintétis. IRB ngaluarkeun ukuran spésifik bal, panjang 280-300mm, kuriling panjang 740-770mm, jeung kuriling lébar 580-620mm.<ref name="IRBLaw2"/> Sapatu rugbi miboga sol jeung [[pul]] anu mungkinkeun cekelan kana taneuh lapangan. Pulna bisa dijieun ti logam atawa plastik tapi teu kénging seukeut.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_4_EN.pdf |title=Law 4 Players' clothing (4.3b) |page=40 |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=13 August 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110220045617/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/Law_4_EN.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215090105/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/law_4_en.pdf |date=15 February 2010 }}</ref> Pakakas palindung opsional sarta aya aturannana. Pakakas anu paling umum nyaéta [[palindung baham]], anu dipaké ku ampir sadaya pamaén, jeung mangrupa pakakas rugbi wajib dina sababaraha nagara.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.coachingtoolbox.co.nz/rugbysmart/protective-equipment/ |title=Protect Your Assets: Mouthguards |accessdate=23 September 2011 |publisher=coaching toolbox.co.nz }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208034203/http://www.coachingtoolbox.co.nz/rugbysmart/protective-equipment/ |date=8 February 2013 }}</ref> Pakakas palindung lianna contona [[hélm scrum|hélm]]; ipis (teu leuwih ti 10&nbsp;mm), alas taktak hampang, jeung [[palindung sampéan]]; anu dipaké di jero kaos suku.<ref name="dress">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/mm/document/lawsregs/0/regulation12090603_8287.pdf |title=Regulation 12 Provisions relating to player dress |format=PDF |accessdate=6 February 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514141522/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/lawsregs/0/regulation12090603_8287.pdf |date=14 May 2013 }}</ref> Perban atanapi bandana kénging dipaké; sababaraha pamaén maké bandana di mastakana pikeun ngalindungan cepil dina ''scrum'' jeung ''ruck''. Pamaén awéwé beunang ogé maké ales dada.<ref name="dress"/> Sanajan teu dipaké pikeun palindungan, sababaraha rupa sarung tangan tanpa ramo diidinkeun pikeun nambihan cekelan.<ref name="dress"/> mangrupa tanggung jawab ofisial patandingan pikeun mariksa pakakas jeung pakéan pamaén saméméh tanding mastikeun yén saluyu jeung aturan maén.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irblaws.com/EN/laws/2/4/36/before-the-match/players-clothing/inspection-of-players-clothing/#clause_36 |title=4.5 Inspection of players' clothing) |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829200052/http://www.irblaws.com/EN/laws/2/4/36/before-the-match/players-clothing/inspection-of-players-clothing/#clause_36 |date=29 August 2011 }}</ref> ==Babon organisasi== {{Tempo ogé|International Rugby Board}} Babon organisasi internasional rugbi union (jeung kaulinan anu kaasosiasina kawas [[rugbi tujuh]]) nyaéta [[International Rugby Board]] (IRB).<ref name="IRB Organisation"/> IRB markasna aya di [[Dublin]], Irlandia.<ref name="IRB Organisation"/> IRB, diadegkeun dina 1886, mingpin olahraga ieu disakuliah dunya jeung ngabéwarakeun aturan maén sarta [[Réngking Dunya IRB|réngking]].<ref name="IRB Organisation"/> Dina Nopémber 2010, IRB miboga 118 kahijian di kaanggotaannana, boh anggota pinuh atawa nu kaasosiasi.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2041050.html | title=Iran becomes 118th IRB Member Union | work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] | date=25 November 2010 | accessdate=18 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101128090509/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2041050.html |date=28 November 2010 }}</ref> Dumasar kana IRB, rugbi union dimaénkeun ku lalaki jeung awéwé di leuwih ti 100 nagara.<ref name="IRB Organisation"/> IRB ngadalikeun [[Piala Dunya Rugbi]],<ref name="IRB Organisation"/> [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Awéwé]],<ref>{{cite web | work=rwcwomens.com | title=IRB Women's Rugby World Cup | url=http://www.rwcwomens.com/ | accessdate=24 September 2011 | date= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100917121216/http://www.rwcwomens.com/ |date=17 September 2010 }}</ref> [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Tujuh]],<ref>{{cite web | work=stuff.co.nz |title = Russia to host 2013 Rugby World Cup Sevens |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/sport/rugby/international/sevens/5634035/Russia-to-host-2013-Rugby-World-Cup-Sevens| accessdate=24 September 2011|date=15 September 2011}}</ref> [[IRB Sevens World Series]],<ref>{{cite web | work=irbsevens.com | title=Rules | url=http://www.irbsevens.com/rules/index.html | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903015900/http://www.irbsevens.com/rules/index.html |date=3 September 2011 }}</ref> [[IRB Junior World Championship|Junior World Championship]],<ref>{{cite web| work=IRB.com| title=Chile to host IRB Junior World Trophy| url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2000098.html| accessdate=24 September 2011| date=31 August 2007}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518111417/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2000098.html |date=18 May 2011 }}</ref> [[IRB Junior World Rugby Trophy|Junior World Trophy]],<ref>{{cite web | work=IRB.com | title=IRB Junior World Rugby Trophy | url=http://www.irb.com/jwrt/rules/index.html | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080325160709/http://www.irb.com/jwrt/rules/index.html |date=25 March 2008 }}</ref> [[IRB Nations Cup|Nations Cup]]<ref>{{cite web | work=IRB.com | title=Nations Cup | url=http://www.irb.com/nationscup/news/index.html | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110824035936/http://www.irb.com/nationscup/news/index.html |date=24 August 2011 }}</ref>, sarta [[Piala Bangsa-Bangsa Pasifik]].<ref>{{cite web | work=IRB.com | title=Pacific Nations Cup | url=http://www.irb.com/pacificnationscup/index.html | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902103431/http://www.irb.com/pacificnationscup/index.html |date=2 September 2011 }}</ref> 6 asosiasi régional, anu mangrupa anggota IRB, nyaéta: * [[Konféderasi Rugbi Afrika]] (CAR)<ref>{{cite web|work=IRB.com|title=African Rugby unveils blueprint for growth|url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2041287.html|date=24 December 2010|accessdate=24 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113151724/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/mediazone/pressrelease/newsid=2041287.html |date=13 January 2011 }}</ref> * [[Uni Maén Bal Rugbi Asia]] (ARFU)<ref>{{cite web|work=IRB.com|title=HSBC extends commitment to Asian rugby|url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/regional/newsid=2041344.html|date=19 January 2011|accessdate=24 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016042833/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/regional/newsid=2041344.html |date=16 October 2012 }}</ref> * [[Asosiasi Rugbi Amérika Kalér jeung Karibia]] (NACRA)<ref>{{cite web | work=nawira.com | title=About North America Caribbean Rugby Association "NACRA" | url=http://www.nawira.com/about/ | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130625043327/http://www.nawira.com/about/ |date=25 June 2013 }}</ref> * [[FIRA - Asosiasi Rugbi Éropa|Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur – Association Européenne de Rugby]] (FIRA-AER)<ref name="FIRA">{{cite web | work=fira-aer-rugby.com | title=FIRA-AER History | url=http://www.fira-aer-rugby.com/article-28.htm | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130427115039/http://www.fira-aer-rugby.com/article-28.htm |date=27 April 2013 }}</ref> * [[Féderasi Union Rugbi Oséania]] (FORU)<ref>{{cite web | work=oceaniarugby.com | title=FORU Mission | url=http://oceaniarugby.com/home.html | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004102301/http://oceaniarugby.com/home.html |date=4 October 2011 }}</ref> * [[Confederación Sudamericana de Rugby]] (South American Rugby Confederation) (CONSUR)<ref>{{cite web | work=consur.org |title =Confederación Sudamericana de Rugby (CONSUR)|url=http://translate.google.co.uk/translate?hl=en&sl=es&u=http://www.consur.org/&ei=O6h9Tv-5IKaR0AWPv9AC&sa=X&oi=translate&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q7gEwAA&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dconsur%26hl%3Den%26biw%3D1366%26bih%3D623%26prmd%3Dimvns |accessdate=24 September 2011}}</ref> [[SANZAR]] (''South Africa, New Zealand and Australia Rugby''; Rugbi Afrika Kidul, Selandia Anyar, jeung Australia) nyaéta gabungan ti [[Union Rugbi Afrika Kidul]], [[Union Rugbi Selandia Anyar]], jeung [[Union Rugbi Australia]] anu ngurus [[Super Rugby]] jeung [[Kajuaraan Rugbi|Kajuaraan Rugbi (''The Rugby Championship'')]] (baheulana ''Tri Nations'' saméméh asupna Argéntina).<ref>{{cite web | work=rugbyweek.com | title=SANZAR Boss Peters defends TriNations timing | url=http://www.rugbyweek.com/news/article.asp?id=31407 | accessdate=24 September 2011 | date=4 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326201127/http://www.rugbyweek.com/news/article.asp?id=31407 |date=26 March 2012 }}</ref> Sanajan [[Union Rugbi Argéntina]] awalna teu boga pawakilan dina SANZAR, tapi geus dibéré aksés ka kagiatan organisasi, utamina Kajuaraaan Rugbi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.allblacks.com/news/18009/SANZAR-remains-intact |title=SANZAR remains intact |first=James |last=Mortimer |work=[[New Zealand Rugby Union|AllBlacks.com]] |date=9 November 2011 |accessdate=10 November 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121227101127/http://www.allblacks.com/news/18009/SANZAR-remains-intact |date=27 December 2012 }}</ref> Union nasional nénjo rugbi union dina nagara sosorangan jeung kaafiliasi kana IRB. Déwan IRB miboga 26 korsi.<ref name="IRB Organisation">{{cite web | work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] | title=IRB Organisation | url=http://www.irb.com/aboutirb/organisation/index.html | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110922095704/http://www.irb.com/aboutirb/organisation/index.html |date=22 September 2011 }}</ref> ==Sakuliah dunya== {{see also|Daptar nagara nu maén rugbi union}} [[File:URBA Finals.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Final Rugbi [[URBA]] 2007|alt=An airborne player wearing a hooped blue and yellow jersey is challenged by two opponents after leaping to catch a high ball.]] [[File:Germany vs Belgium rugby match.jpg|thumb|Jérman lawan Bélgia]] [[File:Walers Japan Rugby World Cup 2007 09 20 supporters1.jpg|thumb|right|Pandukung Jepang jeung Wales di [[Cardiff]], Wales|alt=A group of thirteen supporters pose together, some wearing rugby jerseys while others sport traditional Japanese costumes and Japanese flags.]] Nagara anu pangawalna ngadopsi rugbi union nyaéta [[Rugbi union di Inggris|Inggris]], nagara asal, teras dimiluan ku 3 Nagara Asal (''Home Nations'') nu lian, [[Rugbi union di Skotlandia|Skotlandia]], [[Rugbi union di Irlandia|Irlandia]], jeung [[Rugbi union di Wales|Wales]]. Sumebarna rugbi union salaku olahraga dunya bisa ditulusur kana pamawaanna ku ékspatriat Britania, personél militér, jeung mahasiswa universitas di luar nagri. Hiji klub rugbi dibentuk di Sydney, [[Rugbi union di Australia|Australia]] dina 1864; samentara olahraga ieu disebut geus dipikawanohkeun ka [[Rugbi union di Selandia Anyar|Selandia Anyar]] ku Charles Munro dina 1870, anu maénkeun rugbi basa minangka murid di [[Kampus Christ (Finchley)|Christ's College, Finchley]].<ref name="Godwin10"/> Klub rugbi nu kahiji di [[Rugbi union di Perancis|Perancis]] diwangun ku padumuk Britania di Le Havre dina 1872, samentara taunsalajengna [[Rugbi union di Argéntina|Argéntina]] miboga patandingan nu kahijina: 'Banks' v 'City' di Buenos Aires.<ref name="Godwin11">{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=11}}</ref> Di Amérika Kalér, hiji klub dibentuk di Montréal dina 1868, klub kahijina [[Rugbi union di Kanada|Kanada]]. Kota Montréal ogé maénkeun peranna dina pamikawanohan olahraga ieu di [[Rugbi union di Amérika Sarikat|Amérika Sarikat]], basa mahasiswa [[Universitas McGill]] ngalawan hiji tim ti [[Universitas Harvard]] dina 1874.<ref name="Godwin10"/><ref name="Godwin11"/> Dina 1875, rugbi dipikawanohkeun ka [[Rugbi union di Afrika Kidul|Afrika Kidul]] ku prajurit Britania di Cape Town.<ref name="Godwin11"/> Sababaraha nagara kapuloan geus ngadukung olahraga ieu, loba anu dipikawanohkeun ku Britania, tapi teras nyebarkeun ka nagara tatanggana bari néangan musuh luar nagri. Rugbi kahiji kalina dimaénkeun di [[Rugbi union di Fiji|Fiji]] kira-kira dina 1884 ku prajurit Éropa jeung Fiji ti Angkatan Kapulisian Pribumi di [[Ba (kota)|Ba]] di Pulo Viti Levu.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=74}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/5392022.stm | title=Fire and flair: Fijian rugby |work=BBC Sport |first=Sean|last=Davies | date= | accessdate=20 September 2011}}</ref> Fiji teras ngintunkeun timna ka [[Rugbi union di Samoa|Samoa]] dina 1924, anu ngadegkeun [[Union Rugbi Samoa|unionna]] dina 1927.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=174}}</ref> Nagara lian anu miboga tim rugbi nasional di Oséania contona [[Rugbi union di Kapuloan Cook|Kapuloan Cook]], [[Rugbi union di Niue|Niue]], [[Rugbi union di Papua Nugini|Papua Nugini]], jeung [[Rugbi union di Kapuloan Solomon|Kapuloan Solomon]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://oceaniarugby.com/member_unions/foru_member_union_american_samoa.html | title=Member Unions | work=oceaniarugby.com | date= | accessdate=1 October 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150331061452/http://www.oceaniarugby.com/member_unions/foru_member_union_american_samoa.html |date=31 March 2015 }}</ref> Sanajan kaping pastina kadatangan rugbi union di [[Rugbi union di Trinidad jeung Tobago|Trinidad jeung Tobago]] teu kawanoh, klub kahijina, Northern RFC, dibentuk dina 1923, hiji tim nasional maén dina 1927 sarta ku lantaran hiji tur nu dibolaykeun ka [[Guiana Britania]] dina 1933, ngarobih tujuanna ka [[Rugbi union di Barbados|Barbados]]; mikawanohkeun rugbi ka ditu.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=160}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=43}}</ref> Nagara Atlantik lian nu maénkeun rugbi union contona [[Rugbi union di Jamaika|Jamaika]]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.irb.com/unions/union=11000064/index.html | title=Jamaica | work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] | date= | accessdate=6 October 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928002800/http://www.irb.com/unions/union=11000064/index.html |date=28 September 2011 }}</ref> jeung [[Rugbi union di Bermuda|Bermuda]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.irb.com/unions/union=11000040/index.html | title=Bermuda | work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] | date= | accessdate=6 October 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110915192248/http://www.irb.com/unions/union=11000040/index.html |date=15 September 2011 }}</ref> Nyebarna rugbi union di Éropa téh sporadis. Sajarahna, ku sabab kirangna patandingan internasional antara tim kandang Britania jeung Irlandia, anu leuwih kapincut kana ngalawan raksasa Hémisfér Kidul Australia, Selandia Anyar, jeung Afrika Kidul, bagian Éropa lianna dipaksa pikeun nyieun hiji 'tingkat kadua' pikeun patandingan rugbi internasional. Salaku hiji nagara daratan utama jeung dina jaman nalika diisolasi ku Union Britania jeung Irlandia, Perancis jadi sahiji-hijina tim Éropa ti tingkat atas pikeun sacara régulér ngalawan nagara Éropa lianna; utamina [[Rugbi union di Bélgia|Bélgia]], [[Rugbi union di Walanda|Walanda]], [[Rugbi union di Jérman|Jérman]], [[Rugbi union di Spanyol|Spanyol]], [[Rugbi union di Romania|Romania]], [[Rugbi union di Polandia|Polandia]], [[Rugbi union di Italia|Italia]], jeung [[Rugbi union di Cékoslowakia|Cékoslowakia]].<ref name="FIRA"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Dine |first=Philip |coauthors= |title=French Rugby Football |year=2001 |pages=79–94|publisher=Berg |location=Oxford |isbn=1-85973-327-1}}</ref> Dina 1934, diusulkeun ku [[Féderasi Rugbi Perancis]], [[FIRA – Association of European Rugby|FIRA]] (Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur) diwangun pikeun ngatur rugbi union di luar otoritas IRB.<ref name="FIRA"/> Anggota pawangunna nyaéta Italia, Romania, Walanda, Katalonia, Portugal, Cékoslowakia, jeung Swédia. Nagara Éropa lianna anu maén rugbi union di antarana [[Rugbi union di Rusia|Rusia]], anu patandingan resmi anu kacutatna ditandaan ku tepungna Dynamo Moskwa jeung Institut Ilmu Olahraga Moskwa dina 1933.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=148}}</ref> Sanajan Argéntina mangrupa nagara pamaén rugbi anu katelah ti Amérika Kidul, ngadegkeun [[Rugbi Union Argéntina]] dina 1899,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/8362870.stm | title=Puma power: Argentinian rugby |work=BBC Sport |first=Sean|last=Davies | date=16 November 2009 | accessdate=24 September 2011}}</ref> sababaraha nagara lian di buanana ogé miboga sajarah rugbi. Rugbi geus dimaénkeun di [[Rugbi union di Brasil|Brasil]] ti ahir abad ka-19, tapi kaulinan ieu dimaénkeun sacara kaatur ti 1926, basa São Paulo ngéléhkeun Santos dina hiji patandingan antarkota.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=48}}</ref> Mibutuhkeun sababaraha panolakan pikeun [[Rugbi union di Uruguay|Uruguay]] ngadopsi olahraga ieu, diluluguan ku utamina raloba dukungan ti [[Klub Krikét Montevideo]]; lanjuy dina 1951 kalawan diwangunna hiji liga nasional jeung 4 klub.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=166}}</ref> Nagara di Amérika Kidul lianna anu geus ngadegkeun hiji union rugbi contona [[Rugbi union di Cili|Cili]] (1948),<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=58}}</ref> jeung [[Rugbi union di Paraguay|Paraguay]] (1968).<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=127}}</ref> Loba nagara ti Asia anu tradisina maénkeun rugbi bisa ditulusuran ka jaman panjajahan Kakaisaran Britania. [[Rugbi union di India|India]] mimiti maénkeun rugbi dina awal 1870-an, [[Klub Maén Bal Kalkuta]] ngabentuk dina 1872. sanggeus ditarikna dinas Britania ti wewengkon ieu dina ahir dékade éta, rugbi di India ngangkleung. Paninggalan India kana olahraga ieu nyaéta [[Piala Kalkuta]] ka Uni Maén Bal Rugbi; tropi rugbi anu pangkolotna sadunya anu diparebutkeun taunan antara Inggris jeung Skotlandia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=92}}</ref> [[Rugbi union di Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]] ngaklaim geus ngawangun unionna dina 1878, jeung sanajan sautik informasi resmi ti jaman éta kasadia, timna meunangkeun piala All-India di Madras dina 1920.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=152}}</ref> [[Rugbi union di Malaysia|Malaysia]] ogé miboga cutatan buruk. Sajarahna, patandingan anu kahijina kacutat di Malaysia nyaéta dina 1892, tapi konfirmasi tina kahiji kalina ayana rugbi nyaéta ayana ''HMS Malaya Cup'' anu, dingaranan dumasar [[HMS Malaya|HMS ''Malaya'']], anu dipidangkeun kahiji kalina dina 1922 jeung masih dihadiahkeun kana pameunang rugbi tujuh Malaysia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|pp=112–113}}</ref> Rugbi union dipikawanohkeun ka [[Rugbi union di Jepang|Jepang]] dina 1899 ku [[Ginnosuke Tanaka]], saurang murid ti [[Trinity Hall, Cambridge]] sarta [[Edward Bramwell Clarke]], anu balajar dina [[Kampus Corpus Christi, Cambridge]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=105}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/6157863.stm | title=Eastern Promise: Japanese rugby |work=BBC Sport |first=Sean|last=Davies | date=12 February 2007 | accessdate=20 September 2011}}</ref> RFU Jepang diwangun dina 1926 jeung tempatna dina sajarah rugbi direketkeun ku warta yén Jepang bakal jadi nagara palaksana [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 2019]].<ref name="2015 bid">{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/8170488.stm | title=England will host 2015 World Cup |work=BBC Sport | date=28 July 2009 | accessdate=7 February 2010}}</ref> Hal ieu bisa jadi kahiji kalina nagara di luar Pasamakmuran, Irlandia, jeung Perancis anu ngalaksanekun acara éta, jeung diténjo ku IRB salaku hiji kamungkinan keur rugbi union mébérkeun jangjangna leuwih lega,<ref name="2015 bid"/> utamina di Asia. Nagara ti Asia lianna anu maén rugbi union di antarana [[Rugbi union di Singapura|Singapura]], [[Rugbi union di Koréa Kidul|Koréa Kidul]], sarta [[Rugbi union di Cina|Cina]], samentara urut jajahan Britania, [[Rugbi union di Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] katelah dina rugbi ti pamekaranna dina rugbi tujuh, utamina turnamén [[Hong Kong Sevens]] anu diadegkeun dina 1976.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.irbsevens.com/news/newsid=2042721.html | title=HSBC join Cathay as Hong Kong Sevens sponsors | work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] | date=18 May 2011 | accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611204444/http://www.irbsevens.com/news/newsid=2042721.html |date=11 June 2011 }}</ref> [[File:Ivory Coast rugby union team in 2008.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Tim nasional Basisir Gading saméméh [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 2011 – Kualifikasi Afrika|kualifikasina]]; vs. Zambia dina 21 Juli 2008.|alt=A close up shot of the Ivory Coast players, in their country's orange jerseys, entering the field from the dressing room tunnel.]] Rugbi di wewengkon Teluk jeung Wétan Tengah miboga sajarahna dina 1950-an, kalawan klub-na dibentuk ku dinas Britania jeung Perancis anu ditempatkeun di wewengkon ieu sanggeus Perang Dunya II.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=42}}</ref> Basa aranjeunna arangkat, klub jeung tim-tim tetep diayakeun ku profésional ngora, kalobannana urang Éropa, anu gawé di nagara ieu. Union resmi [[Rugbi union di Oman|Oman]] dibentuk dina 1971, kalawan Yang Mulia [[Qaboos bin Said al Said]] salaku Palindung.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=126}}</ref> [[Rugbi union di Bahrain|Bahrain]] ngabentuk unionna sataun sanggeusna, samentara dina 1975, [[Dubai Sevens]], turnamén rugbi wewengkon Teluk kawentar, dijieun ku by Klub Rugbi Dubai Exiles. Rugbi tetep minangka olahraga minoritas di wewengkon ieu kalawan [[Rugbi union di Israél|Israél]], sakumaha dina 2011, jadi union anggota sahiji-hijina ti Wétan Tengah anu kaasup kana Réngking Dunya IRB.<ref name="Full rankings">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/rankings/full.html |title=IRB World Rankings |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |accessdate=18 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810042746/http://www.irb.com/rankings/full.html |date=10 August 2011 }}</ref> Rugbi union di Afrika nyebar dina ahir abad ka-19 jeung awal abad ka-20 utamina ku padumuk jeung panjajah anu mindeng maké kawijakan 'bodas-wungkul' dina maénkeunnana. Hal ieu nyababkeun rugbi ditempo salaku hiji olahraga borjuis kju urang pribumi kalawan daya tarik anu leutik.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wesclark.com/rrr/kenya_rugby.html |title=A Review of Kenyan Rugby |publisher=wesclark.com|first=Michael Mundia |last=Kamau |accessdate=19 August 2011}}</ref> Nagara nu kahijina nempo pamaénan rugbi kompetitif contona Afrika Kidul, jeung tatanggana, [[Rugbi union di Rodésia|Rodésia]] (ayeuna Zimbabwé), anu ngawangun Union Maén Bal Rugbi Rodésia dina 1895.<ref>{{Harvnb|Godwin|1981|p=15}}</ref> Kalawan labuhna kakawasaan panjajah, kapopuléran rugbi ngirang, tapi kiwari, olahraga ieu didukung ku sababaraha nagara Afrika. Dina awal abad ka-21, [[Rugbi union di Madagaskar|Madagaskar]] ngalaman panongton saloba 40.000 dina patandingan internasional,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4471650.stm |title=Madagascar rugby inspires new passion |publisher=BBC Sport|first=Tim |last=Cocks|date=26 November 2005 |accessdate=19 August 2011}}</ref> samentara Namibia, anu sajarah rugbina bis ditulusuran ka 1915, geus pernah asup sababaraha kali ka jirangan final Piala Dunya.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/8951401.stm |title=Namibia rugby: Out of Boks' shadow |publisher=BBC Sport|first=Sean |last=Davies|date=4 September 2010 |accessdate=19 August 2011}}</ref> Nagara Afrika lianna anu midang dina Réngking Dunya IRB salaku Union Anggota contona [[Rugbi union di Basisir Gading|Basisir Gading]], [[Rugbi union di Kénya|Kénya]], [[Rugbi union di Uganda|Uganda]], sarta [[Rugbi union di Zambia|Zambia]].<ref name="Full rankings"/> Afrika Kidul jeung Kénya aya dina 12 "tim inti" anu milu dina sadaya pasanggiri Séri Tujuh Dunya IRB.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.irbsevens.com/destination/edition=9/news/newsid=2048923.html#teams+announced+gold+coast+kick |title=Teams announced for Gold Coast kickoff |publisher=International Rugby Board |date=8 September 2011 |accessdate=13 November 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011152812/http://irbsevens.com/destination/edition=9/news/newsid=2048923.html#teams+announced+gold+coast+kick |date=11 October 2011 }}</ref> Saminimialna aya 6 nagara anu ngadopsi rugbi union salaku [[olahraga nasional]]na sacara ''[[de facto]]''; nyaéta Fiji,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/international/4272324.stm |title=Fire and flair: Fijian rugby |publisher=BBC Sport|first=Sean |last=Davies |date=13 October 2005 |accessdate=17 August 2011}}</ref> [[Rugbi union di Géorgia|Géorgia]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/jwrt/news/newsid=2042633.html |title=Scene set for an exciting Junior Trophy |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date=13 May 2011 |accessdate=17 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518181350/http://www.irb.com/jwrt/news/newsid=2042633.html |date=18 May 2011 }}</ref> Selandia Anyar,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bjsm.bmj.com/content/28/4/229.abstract |title=The New Zealand Rugby Injury and Performance Project: II. Previous injury experience of a rugby-playing cohort |publisher=British Medical Journal |year=1994|author=Gerrard, D.F.; Waller, A.E.; Bird, Y.N. |accessdate=17 August 2011}}</ref> Samoa,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/rugby_world_cup/team_pages/samoa/3079758.stm |title=Sititi targets pool's big fish |publisher=BBC Sport |date=26 September 2003 |accessdate=17 August 2011}}</ref> [[Rugbi union di Tonga|Tonga]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nzte.govt.nz/latest-events/Rugby-World-Cup-2011/Documents/Country%20brief%20-%20Tonga.pdf|title=Exporter Guide: Tonga|publisher=New Zealand Trade and Enterprise|year=2010|accessdate=17 August 2011|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110928064142/http://www.nzte.govt.nz/latest-events/Rugby-World-Cup-2011/Documents/Country%20brief%20-%20Tonga.pdf|archivedate=28 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928064142/http://www.nzte.govt.nz/latest-events/Rugby-World-Cup-2011/Documents/Country%20brief%20-%20Tonga.pdf |date=28 September 2011 }}</ref>, jeung Wales.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor1-first=John |editor1-last=Davies|editor1-link=John Davies (historian) |editor2-first=Nigel |editor2-last=Jenkins |editor2-link=Nigel Jenkins |editor3-first=Menna |editor3-last=Baines|editor4-first=Peredur I. |editor4-last=Lynch |editor4-link=Peredur Lynch |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Wales|The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales]] |year=2008 |publisher=University of Wales Press |location=Cardiff|page=782 |isbn=978-0-7083-1953-6}}</ref> ==Rugbi union putri== [[File:Women's Rugby Mark.jpg|thumb|left|Rugbi union putri AS: NC Hustlers vs. Midwest II|alt=A female player in yellow and green kit and wearing a white scrum cap, jumps to collect a ball while supported by team mates.]] {{utama|Rugbi union putri}} Cutatan ngeunaan maén bal rugbi putri balik ka ahir abad ka-19, kalawan sumber kacutat kahiji nyaéta tulisan Emily Valentine, nu nyebutkeun yén anjeunna ngajieun hiji tim rugbi di [[Sakola Portora Royal]] di Enniskillen, Irlandia dina 1887.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irishrugby.ie/news/13664.php |title=Emily Valentine: First Lady Of Irish And World Rugby |work=IrishRugby.ie |date=20 January 2010 |accessdate=5 November 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922022257/http://www.irishrugby.ie/news/13664.php |date=22 September 2013 }}</ref> Sanajan aya laporan patandingan-patandingan rugbi putri awal di Selandia Anyar jeung Perancis, salah sahiji patandingan kahiji anu kaciri pikeun ngabuktikeun bukti utami nyaéta panglawungan antara Cardiff Ladies jeung Newport Ladies dina 1917.<ref>{{cite book |last=Davies |first=D.E. |title=Cardiff Rugby Club, History and Statistics 1876–1975 |year=1975 |publisher=The Starling Press |location=Risca|pages=70–71 |isbn=0950442100}}</ref> Dina sababaraha taun ahir ieu, popularitas rugbi union dina atlét putri geus tumuwuh, sarta, dumasar kana IRB, ayeuna dimaénkeun di leuwih ti 100 nagara.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/womensrugby/index.html |title=Great potential for Women's Rugby in Japan |work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date=22 February 2011 |accessdate=23 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707010439/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/womensrugby/index.html |date=7 July 2014 }}</ref> Union Maén Bal Rugbi Putri Inggris (''Women's Rugby Football Union''; WRFU), tanggung jawab kana rugbi putri di Inggris, Skotlandia, Irlandia, jeung Wales, dibentuk dina 1983, jeung mangrupa babon organisasi nasional resmi anu pangkolotna pikeun rugbi putri.<ref name="WRFU">{{cite web|url=http://www.rwcwomens.com/history/index.html |title=RFUW: A Brief History |work=[[Rugby Football Union|RFU]] |date= |accessdate=28 September 2011}}</ref> Union ieu teras diganti dina 1994 ku [[Union Maén Bal Rugbi pikeun Putri]] (''Rugby Football Union for Women''; RFUW) di Inggris kalawan masing-masing Nagara Asal lianna ngurusan nagarana.<ref name="WRFU"/> Kompetisi internasional utamina dina rugbi union putri nyaéta [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri]], kahiji lumangsung dina 1991.<ref name="Women's Rugby">{{cite web|url=http://www.rwcwomens.com/history/index.html |title=Women's Rugby World Cup history|work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |date= |accessdate=5 August 2011}}</ref> Ti 1994, Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri dilaksanakeun saban 4 warsih.<ref name="Women's Rugby"/> ==Kompetisi internasional utami==<!-- This section is linked from [[BBC Radio Five Live]] --> {{details|Daptar kompetisi rugbi union}} [[File:Coupe du monde rugby - tour Eiffel.JPG|thumb|Hiji bal rugbi gedé nu ngagumantung kana [[Munara Eiffel]] pikeun miélingkeun [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 2007]] nu mana tuan rumahna nyaéta Perancis|alt=An avenue of trees leads to a large iron lattice tower, in which an oversized rugby ball hangs within the lower sections.]] Turnamén anu pangpentingana di rugbi union nyaéta [[Piala Dunya Rugbi]], turnamén putra anu dilaksanakeun saban 4 taunngalombakeun tim-tim nasional rugbi union. [[Tim nasional rugbi union Selandia Anyar|Selandia Anyar]] nyaéta juara anu panganyarna, nu meunangkeun [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 2011]] anu lumangsung di Selandia Anyar, ngéléhkeun Perancis 8-7 di final.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/15405316.stm |title=2011 Rugby World Cup final: New Zealand 8-7 France |publisher=BBC News |date=23 October 2011 |accessdate=23 October 2011}}</ref> euweuh pameunang Piala Dunya nu geus hasil jadi juara turut-tumurut.<ref name="rugby world cup">{{cite web |url=http://www.rugby-world-cup.net/history.html |title=Rugby World Cup History - World Cup Winners List |publisher=rugby-world-cup.net |accessdate=4 October 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522125807/http://www.rugby-world-cup.net/history.html |date=22 May 2013 }}</ref> Inggris mangrupa tim kahiji ti Hémisfér Kalér nu meunangkeunnana. Selandia Anyar pernah meunang dina [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 1987|1987]], Australia dina [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 1991|1991]] jeung [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 1999|1999]], Afrika Kalér dina [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 1995|1995]] jeung [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 2007|2007]].<ref name="rugby world cup"/> Kompetisi internasional utami lianna saperti [[Kajuaraan Genep Bangsa]] dilaksanakeun di Hémisfér Kalér sarta [[Kajuaraan Rugbi]], dilaksanakeun di Hémisfér Kidul. Kajuaraan Genep Bangsa (''Six Nations Championship'') nyaéta hiji kompetisi taunan mimilukeun tim Inggris, Perancis, Irlandia, Italia, Skotlandia, jeung Wales.<ref name="SixNations">{{cite web |url=http://www.rbs6nations.com/en/history.php |title=Six Nations Championship: History |publisher=rbs6nations.com |date= |accessdate=15 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091015033350/http://www.rbs6nations.com/en/history.php |date=15 October 2009 }}</ref> Masing-masing nagara ngalawan lima nu lianna sakali. Kajuaraan Rugbi (''The Rugby Championship'') nyaéta ngaran anyar ti séri taunan internasional di Hémisfér Kidul, mimilukeun Afrika Kidul, Argéntina, Australia, jeung Selandia Anyar. Ti awalna dina 1996 nepi ka sabagian 2011, kompetisi ieu kawanoh salaku ''Tri Nations'' (Tilu Bangsa), jeung ngan mimilukeun Australia, Selandia Anyar, jeung Afrika Kidul.<ref name="TriNations History">{{cite web |url=http://www.rugbyweek.com/fournations/history.asp |title=TriNations Rugby |publisher=RugbyWeek.com |accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019065904/http://www.rugbyweek.com/fournations/history.asp |date=19 October 2011 }}</ref> Tim-tim ieu geus ngadominasi réngking dunya sababaraha taun ahir, jeung loba anu nyebutkeun yén kompetisi ieu mangrupa kompetisi pangkiatna dina rugbi internasional.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sport24.co.za/Rugby/Boks-face-aerial-bombardment-20100630 |title=NZ expect aerial bombardment |publisher=sport24.co.za |first=J.J. |last=Harmse |date=30 June 2010 |accessdate=18 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | date = 26 August 2010 | title = Preview: South Africa v Australia | work=Planet Rugby | publisher=365 Media | url = http://www.planetrugby.com/story/0,25883,16024_6340553,00.html | accessdate =27 August 2010}}</ref> ===Tur rugbi=== Dina sajarah awal rugbi union, jaman saméméh lalampahan udara komérsial, tim-tim ti buana nu béda jarang patepang. 2 tur awal anu katelah aya dina 1888, Kapuloan Britania ka Selandia Anyar jeung Australia<ref name="Lions history">{{cite news |url=http://www.lionsrugby.com/history/potted_history.php |title=The History |publisher=lionsrugby.com |accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722073223/http://www.lionsrugby.com/history/potted_history.php |date=22 July 2013 }}</ref>, anu dimiluan ku tur tim Selandia Anyar ka Éropa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/history/halloffame/newsid=2027752.html |title=IRB Hall of Fame Welcomes Five Inductees |publisher=International Rugby Board |date=23 November 2008 |accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824065112/http://www.irb.com/history/halloffame/newsid=2027752.html |date=24 August 2010 }}</ref> Tradisionalna, tur anu pangluhurna nyaéta tur nagara Hémisfér Kidul (Australia, Selandia Anyar, jeung Afrika Kidul) ka Hémisfér Kalér, teras tur balesan dijieun ku tim gabungan Britania jeung Irlandia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Griffiths|1987|p=ix}} ''"In the first century of rugby union's history the IRB only recognised matches with international status if both teams in a match came from a small pool of countries: Australia, British Lions, England, France, Ireland, New Zealand, Scotland, South Africa and Wales."''</ref> ===Rugbi dina turnamén internasional=== {{See also|Rugbi union dina Olimpiade|Rugbi tujuh dina Pésta Olahraga Pasamakmuran|Rugbi union dina Pésta Olahraga Asia}} Rugbi union dimaénkeun dina Olimpiade Usum Panas [[Rugbi union dina Olimpiade 1900|1900]], [[Rugbi union dina Olimpiade 1908|1908]], [[Rugbi union dina Olimpiade 1920|1920]], jeung [[Rugbi union dina Olimpiade 1924|1924]].<ref name="Rugby in the Olympics">{{cite news |url=http://www.irb.com/rugbyandtheolympics/history.html |title=Rugby in the Olympics: History |work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |accessdate=16 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810064813/http://www.irb.com/rugbyandtheolympics/history.html |date=10 August 2011 }}</ref> Sakumaha dina aturan Olimpiade, Skotlandia, Wales, jeung Inggris teu diidinkeun maén dina tim anu kapisah ku sabab sanés nagara daulat. Dina 1900, Perancis meunangkeun emas, ngéléhkeun Britania Raya 27-8 jeung ngéléhkeun Jérman 27-17.<ref name="Rugby in the Olympics"/> Dina 1908, Australasia ngéléhkeun Britania Raya, meunangkeun medali emas, kalawan skor 32-3.<ref name="Rugby in the Olympics"/> Dina 1920, Amérika Sarikat, maké hiji tim anu pamaén-pamaénna karak anyar kana olahraga rugbi, tapi bisa ngéléhkeun Perancis, 8-0. Dina 1924, Amérika Sarikat ngéléhkeun Perancis deui, 17-3, jadi sahiji-hijina tim anu meunangkeun emas dua kali di olahraga ieu.<ref name="Rugby in the Olympics"/> Dina 2009, [[Komite Olimpiade Internasional]] miboga hasil pamilihan 81-8, meunangkeun rugbi union sangkan dibalikkeun salaku olahraga Olimpiade saheunteuna dina Olimpiade [[Olimpiade 2016|2016]] jeung [[Olimpiade 2020|2020]], tapi dina rugbi tujuh, kalawan format turnamén 4-dinten.<ref name="I.O.C. Decision">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/14/sports/14sports.html |title=I.O.C. Decision Draws Cheers and Complaints From Athletes |work=The New York Times |first=Jeff |last=Klein |date=13 August 2009 |accessdate=13 August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/olympics/news/6281166/Rugby-sevens-and-golf-ratified-for-2016-Olympics-in-Rio-de-Janeiro.html |title=Rugby sevens and golf ratified for 2016 Olympics in Rio de Janeiro |first=Paul |last=Kelso| publisher=Telegraph |date=9 October 2009 |accessdate=5 November 2010}}</ref> Rugbi tujuh geus dimaénkeun di [[Kajuaraan Rugbi Tujuh Pasamakmuran|Pésta Olahraga Pasamakmuran]] ti [[Commonwealth Games 1998|1998]] di Kuala Lumpur.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/commonwealth_games/delhi_2010/9031959.stm |title=Commonwealth Games 2010: Form guide – rugby sevens| publisher=BBC Sport |date=27 September 2010 |accessdate=17 September 2011}}</ref> Panyekel medali emas ayeuna nyaéta [[Tim nasional rugbi union Selandia Anyar (tujuh)|Selandia Anyar]] anu geus meunangkeunnana 4 kali.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/commonwealth_games/delhi_2010/9084566.stm |title=Commonwealth Games: NZ win sevens as England miss medal| publisher=BBC Sport |date=12 October 2010 |accessdate=17 September 2011}}</ref> Rugbi union ogé geus jadi cabang [[Pésta Olahraga Asia]] ti [[Pésta Olahraga Asia 1998|1998]] di Bangkok, Thailand. Dina kompetisi 1998 jeung 2002, anu tujuh jeung lima welas dua-duana dimaénkeun, tapi ti 2006, ngan nu tujuh anu ditahankeun. Dina 2010, rugbi tujuh putri dipikawanohkeun. Panyekel medali emas ayeuna dina turnamén tujuh, dilaksanakeun di [[Pésta Olahraga Asia 2010|2010]], nyaéta [[Tim nasional rugbi union Jepang (tujuh)|Jepang]] dina nomer putrana sarta [[Tim nasional rugbi union putri Kazakhstan (tujuh)|Kazakhstan]] dina nomer putrina.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irbsevens.com/regionalsports/newsid=2040867.html|title=Japan claim Asian Games gold|publisher=planetrugby.com|date=23 November 2010|accessdate=10 October 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602181345/http://www.irbsevens.com/regionalsports/newsid=2040867.html |date=2 June 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irbsevens.com/regionalsports/newsid=2040914.html |title=Kazakhstan win first Asian Games women's gold |publisher=IRBSevens.com |date=23 November 2010 |accessdate=18 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602182627/http://www.irbsevens.com/regionalsports/newsid=2040914.html |date=2 June 2013 }}</ref> ===Rugbi internasional putri=== {{utama|Rugbi union internasional putri}} Rugbi union putri internasional kahiji mimiti 1982, kalawan hiji patandingan antara [[Tim nasional rugbi union putri Perancis|Perancis]] jeung [[Tim nasional rugbi union putri Walanda|Walanda]] anu dilaksanakeun di [[Utrecht (kota)|Utrecht]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://rugbyrelics.com/museum/exhibitions/NR125/14.htm |title=Women's Rugby |work=rugbyrelics.com |date= |accessdate=18 August 2011}}</ref> Dina 2009, leuwih ti 600 patandingan internasional putri geus dimaénkeun ku leuwih ti 40 tim.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://bleacherreport.com/articles/119928-womans-rugby-beautiful-side-of-brutal-game |title=Women's Rugby: Beautiful Side of a Brtual Game |work=bleacherreport.com |first=Giorgi |last=Dolidze |date=5 February 2009 |accessdate=25 September 2011 |note=1}}</ref> [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri]] anu kahiji dilaksanakeun di Wales dina [[Piala Dunia Rugbi Putri 1991|1991]], jeung nu meunang nyaéta [[Tim nasional rugbi union putri Amérika Sarikat|Amérika Sarikat]].<ref name="Women's Rugby"/> Turnamén anu kadua dilaksanakeun dina [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri 1994|1994]], jeung saprak éta kompetisina geus dilaksanakeun saban 4 taun. Tim Selandia Ayar geus meunangkeun 4 Piala Dunya nu pangahirna ([[Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri 1998é|1998]], [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri 2002|2002]], [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri 2006|2006]], [[Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri 2010|2010]]).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nz2011.govt.nz/news/february-2011/rugbys-prized-trophies-going-on-tour |title=Rugby’s prized trophies going on tour |work=nz2011.govt.nz |date= 6 February 2011 |accessdate=26 September 2011}}</ref> Sakumaha ayana Piala Dunya Rugbi Putri, aya ogé turnamén régulérna, contona [[Kajuaraan Genep Bangsa Putri]], dilaksanakeun bareng jeung nu putrana. Kahiji dimaénkeun dina [[Kajuaraan Nagara Asal Putri 1996|1996]], kompetisi ieu geus didominasi ku [[Tim nasional rugbi union putri Inggris|Inggris]], anu geus meunangkeun turnamén éta 12 kali, kalawan 6 kali meunang turut-tumurut ([[Kajuaraan Genep Bangsa Putri 2006|2006]] nepi ka [[Kajuaraan Genep Bangsa Putri 2011|2011]]).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/9428976.stm |title=England Women beat Ireland to clinch Grand Slam |work=BBC Sport|date= 18 March 2011 |accessdate=18 August 2011}}</ref> ==Varian== {{see also|Rugbi tujuh}} [[File:Spielszene BK.jpg|thumb|Patandingan rugbi basisir|alt=On a sunlit beach two teams of players, one in yellow the other in blue, play a form of rugby; the central yellow player runs forward clutching the ball with one hand, close to his chest.]] Rugbi union geus miboga sababaraha varian. Pabédaan umum dina varian olahraga ieu biasana pamaén nu leuwih saeutik atawa ngirangan kontak pamaén. Varian nu pangkoltna nyaéta [[Rugbi tujuh]] (7's, atawa VIIs), hiji varian nu gancang nu lahir di [[Melrose, Skotlandia|Melrose]], Skotlandia dina 1883. Di rugbi tujuh, ngan aya 7 pamaén saban tim, jeung hiji babakna biasana ngan tujuh menit. Turnamén utami contona [[Hong Kong Sevens]] jeung [[Dubai Sevens]], duanana dilaksanakeun di aréa nu teu biasa kaasosiasi jeung tingkat luhur rugbi 15. Varian lianna contona [[Rugbi sapuluh]] (10's atawa Xs), hiji varian Malaysia kalawan 10 pamaén per tim.<ref name=Completerugby1>{{Harvnb|Bath|1997|p=71}}</ref> Ku lantaran kaayaan fisik dina maén rugbi, sababaraha varian geus dijieun pikeun mikawanohkeun olahraga ieu ka barudak kalawan tingkat kontak fisik nu dikirangan.<ref name="IRB BGRU 14">{{cite web|url=http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf|work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]]|title=A Beginner's Guide to Rugby Union|page=14|accessdate=24 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025103429/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/training/0/beginners20guide20en_7391.pdf |date=25 October 2012 }}</ref> Ti vérsi-vérsi ieu, [[Touch rugbi]], nu mana ''tackles'' dijieun ku cara ngeunakeun nu mawa bal ku dua tangan. Olahraga ieu populér salaku vérsi campuran ti nu 15, dimaénkeun ku boh barudak boh déwasa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.couriermail.com.au/sport/getting-a-kick-out-of-touch/story-e6frep5o-1225699224845 |title=Touch rugby league growing in Brisbane |first=Karl|last=deKroo| work=The Courier-Mail |date=11 April 2009 |accessdate=23 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rfu.com/TheGame/~/link.aspx?_id=A4A528E2CC22410390D89AE5E46D1EF9&_z=z |title=Touch Rugby | work=[[Rugby Football Union|RFU]] |accessdate=24 September 2011}}</ref> [[Tag Rugby]], nyaéta vérsi di mana pamaénna maké hiji beubeur kalawan dua talian, upami dileupaskeun hartina ka-''tackle''. Dina Tag Rugby, najong bal ogé teu beunang.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rfu.com/TheGame/FormsOfRugby/Tag.aspx |title=Tag Rugby |work=[[Rugby Football Union|RFU]] |date=11 April 2009 |accessdate=23 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810133935/http://www.rfu.com/TheGame/FormsOfRugby/Tag.aspx |date=10 August 2011 }}</ref> [[Rugbi mini]] ogé varian lian ti rugbi union pikeun mikawanohkeun olahraga ieu ka barudak,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irishrugby.ie/minis/index.php |title=About Mini Rugby |work=irishrugby.ie |date= |accessdate=23 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130209200753/http://www.irishrugby.ie/minis/index.php |date=9 February 2013 }}</ref><ref name=Rutherford1>{{cite book |last=Rutherford |first=Don |title=The Complete Book of Mini Rugby |publisher=Partridge |year=1993 |location=London |page=2 |url= |isbn=1852251964 }}</ref> Dimaénkeun ku 9 pamaén jeung di lapangan nu leuwih leutik.<ref name="Mini Rugby">{{cite web|url=http://www.irishrugby.ie/downloads/IRFU_Mini_Rugby_09-10.pdf|title=Mini Rugby|work=irishrugby.ie|accessdate=24 September 2011|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20101227222214/http://www.irishrugby.ie/downloads/IRFU_Mini_Rugby_09-10.pdf|archivedate=27 December 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120913104229/http://www.irishrugby.ie/downloads/IRFU_Mini_Rugby_09-10.pdf |date=13 September 2012 }}</ref> Mirip jeung Tag Rugby, [[Rugbi Bandéra Amérika]] (''American Flag Rugby''; AFR), mangrupa hiji varian ti rugbi union nu dimaénkeun campuran (bisa ku bareng lalaki-awéwé) tanpa kontak pikeun barudak Amérika dina kelas K-9.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.americanflagrugby.com/about-afr.php |title=About AFR |work=americanflagrugby.com |date= |accessdate=18 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110817210310/http://www.americanflagrugby.com/about-afr.php |date=17 August 2011 }}</ref> Boh Rugbi Bandéra Amérika boh Rugbi Mini duanana béda jeung Tag Rugby nu mana dina dua varian rugbi éta leuwih dipikawanohkeun deui unsur lanjutan rugbi union sajalan pamaénna tumuwuh.<ref name="Mini Rugby"/> Varian lianna contona [[rugbi basisir]] jeung [[rugbi salju]].<ref name="IRB BGRU 14"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/news/newsid=2026163.html|work=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]]|title=Rugby X-treme hits the Andes|first=Frankie|last=Deges|date=15 July 2008|accessdate=24 September 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726135403/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/news/newsid=2026163.html |date=26 July 2010 }}</ref> ==Pangaruh kana olahraga lian== {{See also|Sajaran maén bal Amérika|Bandingan maén bal Amérika jeung rugbi union|Asalna maén bal Australia|Bandingan rugbi liga jeung rugbi union}} [[File:Fielding Yost-1902.jpg|thumb|left|225px|Hiji patandingan [[maén bal Amérika]] antara [[Universitas Michigan]] jeung [[Universitas Minnesota]] (1902). Bentuk awal patandingan miboga patalian nu terang jeung ékuivalén rugbi lianna.|alt=A grainy black and white photo of teams in sports jerseys and light padding contesting a play near the touchline, while watched by officials, coaches and crowds.]] Rugbi union football, jeung katurunan langsungna, maén bal rugbi, miboga pangaruh nu kiat kana sababaraha olahraga lian. [[maén bal Gridiron|Kode Gridiron]], [[maén bal Amérika]]<ref name=Completerugby2>{{Harvnb|Bath|1997|p=77}}</ref><ref name=Stubbs>{{Harvnb|Stubbs|2009|p=115}}</ref> jeung [[maén bal Kanada]],<ref name=CanFitba1>{{Cite book |first=|title=Encyclopedia Canadiana|volume = 8|editor=John Everett Robbins| year=1972 |publisher=Grolier of Canada|location=Toronto, Ottawa, Montreal |page=110 |isbn=0717216012}}</ref> diturunkeun ti bentuk awal rugbi. Di Kanada, [[maén bal Kanada]] geus mindeng disebut "[[maén bal rugbi]]" (''rugby football''),<ref name=CanFitba1/> jeung sababaraha badan nasional jeung propinsi disebut "Union Rugbi Maén Bal" atawa "Union Rugbi", saperti Union Rugbi Maén Bal [[Union Rugbi Maén Bal Ontario|Ontario]] jeung [[Union Rugbi Maén Bal Quebec|Quebec]].<ref name=CanFitba1/> Contona, dina ''Encyclopedia Canadiana'', cutatan ''Rugby Football'' dimimitian ku cara ngarujuk ka "''the Canadian development of rugby union or "English rugger" introduced into Canada in the third quarter of the nineteenth century''" (pamekaran Kanada kana rugbi union atawa "''rugger'' Inggris" dipikawanohkeun ka Kanada dina parapat katilu abad ka-19), tapi teras nyebutkeun yén "''the Canadian game is a radical departure from rugby union''" (kaulinan Kanadana mangrupa hiji kadatangan radikal ti rugbi union).<ref name=CanFitba1/> [[Maén Bal Australia]] geus kapangaruh ku loba olahraga, kaasup [[maén bal Gael]], maén bal rugbi, jeung [[krikét]]. Raloba panulis percaya yén pangaruh utamina nyaéta [[maén bal rugbi]] jeung [[Kaulinan maén bal sakola umum Inggris|kaulinan lian nu lahir di sakola umum Inggris]].<ref name="See 1991, pp. 49-50">[[Geoffrey Blainey]], [[Leonie Sandercock]], Ian Turner, jeung [[Sean Fagan]] miboga dukungan tinulis kana pamikiran ieu. Tempo, contona: Richard Davis, 1991, "Irish and Australian Nationalism: the Sporting Connection: Football & Cricket", ''Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies Bulletin'', v.3, no.2, pp. 49–50 jeung; B. W. O'Dwyer, 1989, "The Shaping of Victorian Rules Football", ''Victorian Historical Journal'', v.60, no.1.</ref> [[Tom Wills]], nu diakuan salaku panaratas Maén Bal Australia, ogé pernah janten murid Sakola Rugby.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/magazine/content/story/395810.html |last=Haigh |first=Gideon |title=Murder, suicide, cricket|work=espncricinfo.com |date=21 March 2009 |accessdate=28 August 2011}}</ref> [[James Naismith]] ngarujuk ti rupa-rupa olahraga kaasup rugbi pikeun nyieun [[baskét]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1027613/index.htm |last=Wolff |first=Alexander |title=The Olden Rules |work=sportsillustrated.cnn.com |date=25 November 2002 |accessdate=18 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604031625/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1027613/index.htm |date=4 June 2011 }}</ref> Kontribusi nu terangna nyaéta kamiripan [[bal luncat]] ka ''linéout'' ogé gaya ngalung ''underhand'' nu ngadominasi taun-taun awal ti olahraga éta. Naismith pernah maén rugbi pikeun sababaraha taun dina [[Universitas McGill]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mcgilltribune.com/sports/profile-james-naismith-where-athletics-meets-religious-fervor-1.1627628#.TnapQdQdxF4 |last=Kanter |first=Jacob |title=Profile-James Naismith: Where athletics meets religious fervor |work=mcgilltribune.com |date=21 September 2010 |accessdate=18 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311152517/http://www.mcgilltribune.com/sports/profile-james-naismith-where-athletics-meets-religious-fervor-1.1627628#.TnapQdQdxF4 |date=11 March 2012 }}</ref> [[Maén bal Swédia (kode)|Maén bal Swédia]] nyaéta hiji kode nu aturanna mangrupa campuran ti [[Laws of the Game (maén bal)|aturan maén bal]] jeung [[maén bal rugbi|aturan maén bal rugbi]]. Sababaraha urang maénkeun kaulinan éta maké hiji bal nu buleud, samentawis nu lian maké bal oval.<ref name="jönsson203">{{cite book |last=Jönsson |first=Åke |title=Fotboll: hur världens största sport växte fram |year=2006 |publisher=Historiska media |location=Lund |isbn=91-85377-48-1 |page=203}}</ref> Kaulinan éta teu dimaénkeun deui.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://translate.google.co.uk/translate?hl=en&sl=sv&u=http://svenskfotboll.se/svensk-fotboll/historia/svff-1904/&ei=p8V9TtHEKKSP0AXUvPUB&sa=X&oi=translate&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CB0Q7gEwAA&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dsvff:s%2Btillkomst%2B1904%26hl%3Den%26rls%3Dcom.microsoft:en-gb%26prmd%3Dimvns |title=SvFF:s tillkomst 1904 |work=svenskfotboll.se |accessdate=24 September 2011}}</ref> Rugbi minangka dasar ti [[rugbi korsi roda]] (kawanoh ogé salaku "rugbi quad" atawa "''murderball''"), tapi olahraga ieu leuwih kiatna dipangaruhan ku [[baskét korsi roda]], [[hoki és]], jeung [[bal tangan]] tinimbang rugbi union.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iwrf.com/history.htm |title=About Wheelchair Rugby |work=iwrf.com |accessdate=24 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080424065940/http://www.iwrf.com/history.htm |date=24 April 2008 }}</ref> ==Statistik jeung rékor== {{see also|Daptar pamaén rugbi union top dumasar midang internasional|Daptar panyitak skor top rugbi union}} Dumasar kana hiji laporan dina 2011 ku Puseur Bisnis Internasional olahraga di [[Universitas Coventry]], ayeuna aya leuwih ti 5 yuta urang maénkeun rugbi union atawa hiji varianna anu kaorganisasi ku IRB.<ref name="Stripes">{{cite web |url=http://www.stripes.com/military-life/they-re-game-rugby-team-willing-to-play-all-takers-1.146065 |title=They're game: Rugby team willing to play all takers |first=Seth |last=Robson |publisher=stripes.com |date=8 July 2011 |accessdate=25 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814172158/http://www.stripes.com/military-life/they-re-game-rugby-team-willing-to-play-all-takers-1.146065 |date=14 August 2011 }}</ref> Hal ieu mangrupa paningkatan 19 persén ti laporan saméméhna dina 2007.<ref name="Global Rugby">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/mm/Document/NewsMedia/MediaZone/02/04/22/88/2042288_PDF.pdf |title=Economic Impact Report on Global Rugby; Part III: Strategic and Emerging Markets |publisher=Centre for the International Business of Sport, [[Coventry University]] |first=Simon |last=Chadwick |date=5 April 2011 |accessdate=25 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110626220118/http://www.irb.com/mm/Document/NewsMedia/MediaZone/02/04/22/88/2042288_PDF.pdf |date=26 June 2011 }}</ref> Laporan ieu nyebutkeun ogé yén ti 2007, partisipasi geus ningkat 33 persén di Afrika, 22 persén di Amérika Kidul, jeung 18 persén di Asia sareng Amérika Kalér.<ref name="Global Rugby"/> Acara utami rugbi union, Piala Dunya Rugbi, geus lanjut mekarna ti lahirna dina 1987.<ref name="IRB2010">{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/mm/document/newsmedia/mediazone/02/04/21/65/2042165_pdf.pdf |title=IRB Year in Review 2010 |publisher=[[International Rugby Board|IRB]] |page=74 |year=2010 |accessdate=25 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514115712/http://www.irb.com/mm/document/newsmedia/mediazone/02/04/21/65/2042165_pdf.pdf |date=14 May 2013 }}</ref> Turnamén kahijina, mimilukeun 16 tim, ditongtonkeun ka 17 nagara kalawan total pamiarsa kaakumulasi 230 yuta.<ref name="IRB2010"/> Panjualan tikét basa babak grup jeung final ti turnamén nu sarua kirang ti sayuta.<ref name="IRB2010"/> [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 2007|Piala Dunya 2007]] mimilukeun 94 nagara kalawan panjualan tikét 3.850.000 dina babak grup jeung final.<ref name="IRB2010"/> Total pamiarsa acara éta, nu ditongtonkeun ka 200 nagara, nyaéta 4,2 milyar.<ref name="IRB2010"/> Pamaén nu midang internasional panglobana ti nagara golongan 1 nyaéta ''halfback'' Australia, [[George Gregan]], kalawan 139 kali midang.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espnscrum.com/statsguru/rugby/stats/index.html?class=1;filter=advanced;orderby=matches;template=results;type=player |title=Statsguru/Test matches/Player records |publisher=ESPN Scrum.com |date= |accessdate=19 August 2011}}</ref> Samentawis pamaén internasional panyitak skor panglobana ti nagara golongan 1 nyaéta [[Dan Carter]] ti Selandia Anyar, nu geus nyitak 1250 poin dina karirna.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espnscrum.com/statsguru/rugby/stats/index.html?class=1;filter=advanced;orderby=points;template=results;type=player |title=Statsguru/Test matches/Player records |publisher=ESPN Scrum.com |date= |accessdate=10 September 2011}}</ref> Dina April 2010, [[Rugbi union di Lithuania|Lithuania]] ngéléhkeun rékor kameunangan internasional turut-tumurut, anu saméméhna dicekel ku Selandia Anyar jeung Afrika Kidul, kalawan 17 kali meunang turut-tumurut ngalawan nagara golongan 1<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/news/newsid=2036957.html |title=Lithuania bid for World record test run |publisher=IRB |date=16 April 2010 |accessdate=30 May 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514131525/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/news/newsid=2036957.html |date=14 May 2013 }}</ref>. Lithuania meunangkeun kameunangan ka-18-na dina patandingan ngalawan nagara golongan 2, [[Rugbi union di Sérbia|Sérbia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espnscrum.com/statsguru/rugby/stats/index.html?class=1;filter=advanced;orderby=date;spanmax1=08+May+2010;spanmin1=04+Jun+2006;spanval1=span;team=90;template=results;type=team;view=match |title=Statsguru / Test matches / Team records: Lithuania, matches between 4 June 2006 and 8 May 2010, sorted by ascending match date |work=ESPN Scrum |publisher=SFMS Limited |accessdate=6 May 2011}} ''"The dates chosen bookend Lithuania's 18-match winning streak."''</ref> Patandingan internasional anu boga skor panglobana antara dua tim nu diakuan nyaéta kameunangan Hong Kong kana Singapura, 164 - 13, dina 27 Oktober 1994.<ref name="record wins">{{cite web |url=http://www.rugbydata.com/centuries |title=Games where 100 or more points were scored by a team |publisher=rugbydata.com |date= |accessdate=27 September 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130325101231/http://www.rugbydata.com/centuries |date=25 March 2013 }}</ref> Rékor lian contona kameunangan <u>></u>152 poin nu dicekel ku 2 nagara, Jepang (meunang 155 - 3 ngalawan Taipéi Cina) jeung Argéntina (152 - 0 ngalawan Paraguay). Duanana dina taun 2002.<ref name="record wins"/> ==Rugbi union dina budaya== <!-- Bagian di handap ieu nyaéta pikeun INOHONG seniman kakoncara nu geus maké rugbi atawa pikeun karya nu museur kana rugbi union. Bagian ieu lain keur pamidangan umum rugbi dina budaya populér atawa fakta trivia saperti salasahiji épisode Friends ''The One with all the Rugby''.--> [[File:Henri Rousseau - The Football Players.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Henri Rousseau – ''The Football Players'' (1908)|alt=An oil painting of two groups of a pair of moustached men wearing stripped jerseys and shorts, contesting a rugby ball within an avenue of trees.]] Pangaruh rugbi kana budaya bisa ditempo dina inspirasi seniman jeung panulis, ogé pangaruh pamaén jeung pangurus rugbi salaku pacontoan jeung pahlawan pikeun nagarana. Loba panulis populér nu geus maké rugbi union dina bukuna. Novél 1857 Thomas Hughes, [[Tom Brown's Schooldays]], latarna di Sakola Rugby, ngawengku carita ngeunaan patandingan maén bal rugbi, nu teras dipilemkeun dina 1940-an. James Joyce nyebutkeun tim Irlandia, [[Bective Rangers]], di sababaraha bukuna, kaasup Ulysses (1922) jeung Finnegans Wake (1939), samentawis karya semi-otobiagrafis 1916-na, ''[[A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man]]'', miboga catetan pamaén internasional ti Irlandia, [[James Magee]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bectiverangers.com/content/view/197/5 |title=Bective Rangers – James Joyce |date= |work=bectiverangers.com |location=UK |accessdate=28 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726215801/http://www.bectiverangers.com/content/view/197/5/ |date=26 July 2011 }}</ref> Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, dina carita Sherlock Holmes 1924-na, ''[[The Adventure of the Sussex Vampire]]'', nyebutkeun yén Dr Watson maén rugbi pikeun Blackheath.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/cult/vampires/classicstory/sussexvampire_p1.shtml|title=The Adventure of the Sussex Vampire |date=September 2005|work=BBC |location=UK |accessdate=28 August 2011 }}</ref> Rugbi union mangrupa subjék ti skétsa awal ngagambarkeun olahraga ieu, tapi dipaké ogé ku sababaraha seniman, utamina ku sababaraha palukis Perancis awal abad ka-20. Post-Imprésionis Perancis [[Henri Rousseau]], ''Joueurs de football'', damelan 1908, némbongkeun 2 pasang pamaén rugbi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guggenheim.org/new-york/collections/collection-online/show-full/piece/?search=The%20Football%20Players&page=&f=Title&object=60.1583 |title=Henri Rousseau |first=Cornelia |last=Lauf |date= |work=guggenheim.org |accessdate=28 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429080822/http://www.guggenheim.org/new-york/collections/collection-online/show-full/piece/?search=The%20Football%20Players&page=&f=Title&object=60.1583 |date=29 April 2011 }}</ref> Seniman Perancis lianna nu geus ngagambarkeun olahraga ieu dina karyana contona [[Albert Gleizes]] (''Les Joueurs de football'' [1912]), [[Robert Delaunay]] (''Football. L'Equipe de Cardiff'' [1916]), jeung [[André Lhote]] (''Partie de Rugby'' [1917]).<ref>{{cite book |last=Dine |first=Philip |coauthors= |title=French Rugby Football |year=2001 |page=19|publisher=Berg |location=Oxford |isbn=1-85973-327-1}}</ref> [[Kompetisi seni dina Olimpiade 1928|Medali Emas pikeun Seni 1928]] dina Olimpiade Antwerp dimeunangkeun ku [[Jean Jacoby]] ti Luksemburg dina karyana ''Rugby''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://olympic-museum.de/art/1928.htm |title=Art Competitions |date= |work=olympic-museum.de |accessdate=6 October 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080501132439/http://www.olympic-museum.de/art/1928.htm |date=1 May 2008 }}</ref> Dina televisi jeung pilem, rugbi union geus dipaké minangka kasang tukan dina sababaraha produksi. Komédi 1949 ti Ealing Studios, ''[[A Run for Your Money]]'', jeung pilem televisi 1979 ti BBC Wales, ''[[Grand Slam (pilem 1978)|Grand Slam]]'', duanana museur kana pandukung panongton patandingan, sanés olahragana.<ref>{{cite book |last=Berry|first=David|title=Wales and Cinema, The First Hundred Years |year=1996 |publisher=University of Wales Press |location=Cardiff |page=215 |isbn=0-7083-1370-1}}</ref> Pilem nu maké olahraga ieu dina rincian leuwih contona produksi indie ''[[Old Scores]]'' (1991) jeung ''[[Forever Strong]]'' (2008). ''[[Invictus (pilem)|Invictus]]'' (2009), dumasar kana bukuna [[John Carlin]], ''Playing the Enemy'', ngomongkeun kajadian dina [[Piala Dunya Rugbi 1995]] jeung usaha Nelson Mandela pikeun nganggo olahraga ieu ngahijikeun masarakat Afrika Kidul pasca-apartheid.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/portal/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=&xml=/portal/2007/10/19/ftmandela119.xml|title=How Nelson Mandela won the rugby World Cup |accessdate=28 August 2011|work=The Daily Telegraph |location=UK |date=19 October 2007 | first=John | last=Carlin}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8406647.stm|title=South Africa 'rugby unity': Fact and fiction |date=11 December 2009|work=BBC News |location=UK |accessdate=28 August 2011 | first=Pumza | last=Fihlani}}</ref> Raloba nagara miboga patung nu ngagambarkeun rugbi union atawa pamaén rugbi. Sababarahana bisa dipanggih di stadion rugbi, saperti patung perunggu 27 suku di [[Stadion Twickenham|Twickenham]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yourlocalguardian.co.uk/news/local/richmondnews/8196778.Iconic_sculpture_of_rugby_line_out_unveiled/ |title=RFU unveils iconic bronze of rugby line-out by sculptor Gerald Laing |date=2 June 2010 |work=yourlocalguardian.co.uk |location=UK |accessdate=28 August 2011 | first=Joanna | last=Kilvington}}</ref> jeung pangurus rugbi Sir [[Tasker Watkins]] di [[Stadion Millenium]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/south_east/8360513.stm |title=Statue of Sir Tasker is unveiled |date=15 November 2009 |work=BBC News |location=UK |accessdate=23 September 2011 }}</ref> Pamaén rugbi nu geus dihormatan dijieun patungna contona [[Gareth Edwards]] di Cardiff jeung [[Danie Craven]] di Stellenbosch.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rugby365.com/schools/craven/2504760.htm |title=Craven of Craven Week |date=27 June 2010 |work=rugby365.com |accessdate=28 August 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719053209/http://www.rugby365.com/schools/craven/2504760.htm |date=19 July 2011 }}</ref> ==Tempo ogé== {{Portal|Rugbi union}} {{Wikinews category|Rugby}} * ''[[International Rugby Hall of Fame]]'' * ''[[IRB Hall of Fame]]'' * [[Daptar tim rugbi union internasional]] * [[Daptar kompetisi rugbi union pangkolotna]] * [[Daptar istilah rugbi union]] * [[Variasi aturan pacobian]] ==Réferénsi== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ===Sumber citakeun=== {{refbegin}} * {{Cite book |first=|title=Encyclopedia Canadiana vol. 8|year=1972 |publisher=Grolier of Canada|location=Toronto, Ottawa, Montreal|isbn=0717216012| ref= harv}} * {{Cite book | editor-last = Bath | editor-first = Richard | year = 1997 | title = Complete Book of Rugby | publisher=Seven Oaks Ltd | ISBN = 1862000133| ref= harv}} *{{cite book|title=Rugby: Steps to Success|first1=Tony|last1=Biscombe |first2= Peter|last2=Drewett|year=2009|publisher=Human Kinetics| ref= harv}} *{{cite book|title=Periodization in Rugby|first1=Tudor|last1=Bompa |first2= Frederick|last2=Claro|year=2008|publisher=Meyer and Meyer Sport| ref= harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Godwin |first=Terry |coauthors=Rhys, Chris |title=The Guinness Book of Rugby Facts & Feats |year=1981 |publisher=Guinness Superlatives Ltd |location=Enfield|isbn=0851122140| ref = harv}} * {{cite book |last=Griffiths |first=John|coauthors= |title=The Phoenix Book of International Rugby Records |year=1987 |publisher=Phoenix House |location=London |isbn=0460070037| ref= harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Marshall |first=Howard |coauthors= Jordon, J.P. |title=Oxford v Cambridge, The Story of the University Rugby Match |year=1951 |publisher=Clerke & Cockeran|location=London |isbn=| ref= harv}} * {{Cite book| last = Midgley| first = Ruth| coauthors = | title = The Official World Encyclopedia of Sports and Games| publisher=Diagram Group| year = 1979| location = London| url = | isbn = 0-7092-0153-2| ref= harv}} * {{Cite book| last = Richards| first = Huw| coauthors = | title = A Game for Hooligans: The History of Rugby Union| publisher=[[Mainstream Publishing]]| year = 2007| location = Edinburgh| url = | isbn = 978-1845962555| ref= harv}} * {{Cite book| last = Stubbs| first = Ray| coauthors = | title = The Sports Book| publisher=[[Dorling Kindersley]]| year = 2009| pages = | url = | isbn = 978-1405336970 |ref = harv}} * {{cite book |last=Thomas |first=J.B.G. |coauthors= Rowe, Harding|title=On Tour |year=1954 |publisher=Anchor Press Ltd.|location=Essex |isbn= | ref = harv}} {{refend}} ===Sumber éléktronik=== * {{Cite web | url=http://www.irb.com/lawregulations/laws/index.html | title=Laws of Rugby Union | publisher=IRB | year=2010 | accessdate=16 January 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518105529/http://www.irb.com/lawregulations/laws/index.html |date=18 May 2011 }} * {{Cite web | url=http://www.irb.com/lawregulations/regulations/index.html | title=IRB Regulations | publisher=IRB | accessdate=16 January 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20130103091436/http://www.irb.com/lawregulations/regulations/index.html |date=3 January 2013 }} * [http://www.espnscrum.com/scrum/rugby/story/94071.html Scrum.com Rugby guide] ==Tumbu kaluar== <!-- Please discuss on the article talk page before adding any further links here --> {{Commons category}} {{Sisterlinks}} * [http://www.irb.com International Rugby Board] – loka resmi babon organisasi * [http://www.rugbydata.com Rugby Data] – statistik rugbi union * [http://www.planetrugby.com/ Planet Rugby] – warta, jadwal, laporan, jsb. * [http://www.espnscrum.com/ ESPN Scrum.com] warta, laporan, statistik, jsb. {{Team Sport}} {{international rugby union}} {{Olympic sports}} {{Rugby Union Club Competitions}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Rugbi Union}} [[Kategori:Rugbi union| ]] [[Kategori:Kaulinan nu maké bal]] [[Kategori:Kode maén bal]] [[Kategori:Olahraga nu lahir di Inggris]] [[Kategori:Olahraga tim]] [[Kategori:Urut olahraga Olimpiade]] 2jjhmv0iqg2nva6ltaqrazpqzlxgc40 0 50648 710205 708826 2026-06-09T17:06:34Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710205 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Other uses}} [[Gambar:Reagan and Gorbachev hold discussions.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Presiden Amérika Sarikat|Presiden AS]] [[Ronald Reagan]] (kiri) jeung [[Sekretaris Jenderal Partei Komunis Uni Soviét|Sekretaris Jenderal Soviét]] [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], papanggih di [[Jenewa]] dina taun 1985.]] '''Perang Tiis''' ({{lang-en|Cold War}}, {{lang-ru|холо́дная война́, kholodnaya voyna}}, 1947–1991) nyaéta sesebutan kana ayana kategangan [[politik]] jeung [[militer]] antara [[Dunya Kulon]], nu dipingpin ku [[Amérika Sarikat]] jeung sekutu [[NATO]], ngalawan [[Dunya Kadua|Dunya Komunis]], nu dipingpin ku [[Uni Soviét]] jeung sakutu nagara-[[nagara satelit]]na. Kajadian ieu dimimitian ku kajayaan [[Sakutu Perang Dunya II|Sakutu]] dina ngéléhkeun [[Jerman Nazi]] dina [[Perang Dunya II]], nu nyésakeun [[Amérika Sarikat]] jeung [[Uni Soviét]] nu jadi dua [[nagara adidaya]] di dunya ku bédana idéologi, ékonomi, jeung militer nu gedé. Uni Soviét, babarengan jeung nagara-nagara di [[Éropa Wétan]] nu dijajahna, [[Blok Wétan]]. Prosés pamulihan saanggeusna perang di [[Éropa Kulon]] difasilitasan ku program [[Rancana Marshall]] [[Amérika Sarikat]], jeung pikeun nandingana, [[Uni Soviét]] ogé nyieun [[Comecon|COMECON]] babarengan jeung sekutu Wétanna. Amérika Sarikat nyieun aliansi militer [[NATO]] dina taun 1949, sadengkeun Uni Soviét ogé nyieun [[Pakta Warsawa]] dina taun 1955. Sababarah nagara milihan pikeun milu kana salah sahiji ti dua nagara adidaya ieu,sadengkeun nu lianna milih pikeun tetep nétral ku dijieunna [[Gerakan Non-Blok]] Kajadian ieu dingaranan Perang Tiis ku sabab dua pihak can kungsu miluan dina aksi militer sacara nyaan, ngan masing-masing pihak mibanda [[sanjata nuklir]] nu bisa ngakibatkeun kahancuran nu gedé. Perang Tiis ogé ngalantarankeun kategangan nu kacida nu dina ahirna ngalantarankeun ayana konflik militer régional saperti [[Blokade Berlin]] (1948–1949), [[Perang Koréa]] (1950–1953), [[Krisis Suéz]] (1956), [[Krisis Berlin 1961]], [[Krisis Rudal Kuba]] (1962), [[Perang Viétnam]] (1959–1975), [[Perang Yom Kippur]] (1973), [[Perang Afganistan]] (1979–1989), jeung panembakan ''[[Korean Air Penerbangan 007]]'' ku Soviét (1983). Alih-alih miluan dina konflik ku cara nyata, kadua pihak lolombaan ngaliwatan koalisi militer, payebaran idéologi jeung pangaruh, méré bantuan ka [[nagara klien]], [[spionaseuu|spionaseu]], kampanyeu propaganda sacara gedé-gedéan, [[perlombaan senjata|perlombaan nuklir]], ngélég nagara-nagara netral, saingan di perlombaan olahraga internasional, jeung kompetisi téhnologi seperti [[Perlombaan Angkasa]]. AS jeung Uni Soviét ogé saingan dina rupa-rupa [[perang proksi]]; di [[Amérika Latin]] jeung [[Asia Tenggara]], Uni Soviét ngabantuan [[révolusi komunis]] nu ditentang ku sababaraha nagara-nagara Kulon, Amérika Sarikat mikir pikeun supaya kumaha teu kajadian ngeunaan éta ku cara pangiriman tantara jeung peperangan. Dina rangka ngaleutikan résiko [[perang nuklir]], kadua pihak paheut nyieun panglanyah ''[[détente]]'' dina taun 1970-an pikeun ngurangan kaharénghéngan politik. [[Perang Tiis (1979–1985)|Dina taun 1980-an]], Amérika Sarikat ningkatkeun deui [[Doktrin Reagan|tekanan diplomatik, militer, jeung ékonomi]] ka Uni Soviét dina waktuna nagara komunis éta keur aya dina kamiskinan [[Era Stagnasi|stagnasi perékonomian]]. Dina pertengahan 1980-an, présidén Soviét nu anyar , [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], méré nyaho ngeunaan kabijakan réformasi liberalisasi ''[[perestroika]]'' ("rékonstruksi, réorganisasi", 1987) jeung ''[[glasnost]]'' ("keterbukaan", [[ca.]] 1985). Kabijakan ieu ngabalukarkeun Soviét jeung nagara-nagara satelitna dilanda ku [[Révolusi 1989|gelombang Révolusi]] damai nu diengpikeun ku [[Bubaran Uni Soviét|runtuhna Uni Soviét]] dina taun 1991, jeung dina ahirna nyésakeun Amérika Sarikat nu jadi hiji-hijina kakuatan militer nu pantohagana di dunya. Perang Tiis jeung rupa-rupa kajadian nu séjénna ngabalukarkeun akibat nu gedé ka dunya jeung sok disebutkeun dina budaya populér, khususna dina média nu némbongkeun téma [[spionaseuu|spionaseu]] jeung ancaman perang [[nuklir]]. == Asal istilah == Dina ahir [[Perang Dunya II]], panulis jeung jurnalis Inggris [[George Orwell]] maké istilah ''perang Tiis'' nu jadi istilah umum dina éséyna nu judulna "''[[You and the Atomic Bomb]]''" (Anjeun jeung Bom Atom), nu diterbitkan ku surat kabar Inggris, ''[[Tribune (majalah)|Tribune]]'', dina tanggal 19 Oktober 1945. Ésai éta ngagambarkeun Dunya nu hirup disingsieunan ku [[perang nuklir]]. Orwell nulis: :"Salila opat puluh atawa lima puluh taun ayeuna, Mr. [[H. G. Wells]] jeung nu lianna ngingetan urang yén manusa bakal aya dina bahaya, ngancurkeun sorangan ku senjatana sorangan, nyésakeun sireum atawa sababaraha kelompok spésiés lianna pikeun nyokot alih. Saha baé nu geus mempo kaancuran di dayeuh-dayeuh di [[Jerman]] bakal mikir yén gagasan ieu sahenteuna asup kana akal. Namung, lamun nempo Dunya sacara kabéh, kajadian sababaraha dekade ieu teu asup ka arah anarki, namun ka arah diayakeuna deui perbudakan. Urang sigana teu ka arah ngaruksak umum, tapi ka jaman perbudakan kuno nu sieun. Téori [[James Burnham]] geus loba dibahas, namun saeutik ti jalma teu acan nanggepan nu jadi implikasi idéologi. Jenis pandangan ka Dunya, jenis kayakinan, jeung struktur sosial mungkin bakal nguasaan nagara nu teu kaéléhkeun jeung ngaluruskeun dina "perang Tiis" permanén jeungbtatanggana."<ref>Orwell, "[http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/abombs.html You and the Atomic Bomb] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080206214319/http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/abombs.html |date=2008-02-06 }}", ''Tribune'' October 19, 1945</ref> Dina ''The Observer'' édisi 10 Maret 1946, Orwell nulis yén "saenggeus konferensi Moskow Désémber kamari, Rusia majukeun 'perang Tiis' ka [[Britania]] jeung [[Imperium Britania]]."<ref>Orwell, George, ''The Observer'', March 10, 1946</ref> Istilah nu dipaké pikeun ngagambarkeun kategangan [[géopulitik]] antara [[Uni Soviét]] jeung [[nagara satelit]]na jeung Amérika Sarikat jeung sekutu Éropa Kulon-na saenggeus [[Perang Dunya II]] dimimitian ku [[Bernard Baruch]], saurang ahli piduiteun Amérika jeung panaaséhat présidén.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=54}}</ref> Dina salah sahiji pidato di [[South Carolina]] dina tanggal 16 April 1947,<ref>{{cite news|first=William|last=Safire|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/10/01/news/edsafire.php|title=Islamofascism Anyone?|work=The New York Times|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]|date=October 1, 2006|accessdate=December 25, 2008|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20061022172712/http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/10/01/news/edsafire.php|archivedate=October 22, 2006}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061022172712/http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/10/01/news/edsafire.php |date=October 22, 2006 }}</ref> Ceuk Baruch : "Urang ulah katipu: poé ieu urang aya di tengah-tengah perang Tiis."<ref>'[http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/bernard-baruch-coins-the-term-cold-war Bernard Baruch coins the term "Cold War"]', history.com, April 16, 1947. Retrieved on July 2, 2008.</ref> Salah sahiji réporter jeung kolumnis surat kabar nu arana [[Walter Lippmann]] ngajabarkeun penjelasan nu sakitu panjang lebarna ngeunaan Perang Tiis dina bukuna nu judulna ''The Cold War'', waktu ditanya dina taun 1947 ngeunaan sumber istilah "perang Tiis", manéhna nyebutkeun istilah éta ngarujuk dina istilah Perancis ti taun 1930-an, ''la guerre froide''.<ref>[[Strobe Talbott]]: ''The Great Experiment: The Story of Ancient Empires, Modern States, and the Quest for a Global Nation'' (2009) p.441 n.3; Lippmann's own book is {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=Ydc3AAAAIAAJ&q=walter+lippmann+cold+war&dq=walter+lippmann+cold+war|author=Lippmann, Walter|title=The Cold War|accessdate=Séptémber 2, 2008|publisher=Harper|year=1947}}</ref> ==Sabab kajadian == {{main|Mimiti Perang Tiis}} {{see|Kasieunan Beureum|Permainan Besar}} [[Gambar:American troops in Vladivostok 1918 HD-SN-99-02013.JPEG|thumb|right|Pasukan Amérika di [[Vladivostok]], Agustus 1918, salila [[Intervensi Sekutu dina Perang Saudara Rusia|intervensi Sekutu]] dina [[Perang Saudara Rusia]].]] Aya perdebatan dina golongan para [[sejarawan]] ngeunaan titik awal ti Perang Tiis. Loba ti golongan sejarawan mibanda pendapat yén Perang Tiis dikeureuyeh saenggeus Perang Dunya II engpikeun, nu lainna ogé mibanda pendapat yén Perang Tiis dipaju dina ahir [[Perang Dunya I]], sanajan kategangan antara [[Kekaisaran Rusia]], nagara-nagara Éropa lainna, jeung Amérika Sarikat geus aya dina pertengahan abad ka-19.<ref name="Gaddis"/> [[Révolusi Oktober|Révolusi Bolshevik]] di [[Rusia]] dina taun 1917 (diiluan ku panarikan mundur pasukana ti Perang Dunya I), mengakibatkan Soviét Rusia terisolasi ti diplomasi internasional.<ref name="lee">{{Harvnb|Lee|1999|p=57}}</ref> Pamingpin [[Vladimir Lenin]] ngomong yén Uni Soviét "dikepung ku para kapitalis nu mumusuhan", jeung mandang diplomasi sebagai senjata pikeun ngajauhkeun Soviét ti musuh, dimimitian ku [[Komintern]] Soviét, nu ngagoakkeun pergolakan Révolusioner di luar Soviét.<ref name="Palmieri34">{{Harvnb|Palmieri|1989|p=62}}</ref> Pamingpin Soviét [[Joseph Stalin]], nu nganggep [[Uni Soviét]] sebagai salah sahiji "kapuloan sosialis", nyatakeun yén Uni Soviét kudu mandang "dominasi kapitalis ayeuna kudu digantikan ku dominasi sosialis."<ref name="tucker46">{{Harvnb|Tucker|1992|p=46}}</ref> Dina awal 1925, [[Stalin]] nyieun pernyataan yén manéhna mandang pulitik internasional sebagai salah sahiji dunya bipolar di mana Uni Soviét bakal narik nagara-nagara liana ke arah sosialisme jeung nagara-nagara kapitalis ogé bakal narik nagara-nagara lian ka arah [[kapitalismeuu]], sadengkeun dunya keur aya dina périodeu "stabilisasi sementara kapitalismeu" saméméh rubuhna.<ref name="tucker47">{{Harvnb|Tucker|1992|pp=47–8}}</ref> Rupa-rupa kajadian saméméh Perang Dunya Kadua némbongkeun ayana silih teu percaya jeung curiga dina kakuatan Kulon jeung Uni Soviét, teu leupas ti filosofi umum partéy [[Bolshevik]] nu dijieun pikeun ngalawan kapitalismeu.<ref name = "Halliday">{{Harvnb|Halliday|2001|p=2e}}</ref> Ada dukungan ti Kulon ka [[gerakan Bodas]] anti-Bolshevik dina [[Perang Saudara Rusia]],<ref name = "Gaddis">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|1990|p=57}}</ref> pemberian dana ku Uni Soviét ka pekerja pemberontak Britania dina taun 1926 ngabalukarkeun [[Britania Raya]] memutuskan hubungan dengan Uni Soviét,<ref name="tucker74">{{Harvnb|Tucker|1992|p=74}}</ref> deklarasi Stalin taun 1927 pikeun hirup berdampingan sacara damai dengan nagara-nagara kapitalis diurungkan,<ref name="tucker75">{{Harvnb|Tucker|1992|p=75}}</ref> tuduhan ayana konspirasi dina [[Peradilan Shakhty]] taun 1928 nu direncanakeun ku Britania jeung Perancis ngabalukarkeun kudéta,<ref name="tucker98">{{Harvnb|Tucker|1992|p=98}}</ref> penolakan Amérika pikeun mengakui Uni Soviét hingga taun 1933,<ref name = "LaFeber 1991">{{Harvnb|LaFeber|1991|pp=194–197}}</ref> jeung [[Stalieusme]] [[Peradilan Moskow]] pikeun kasus [[Pembersihan Gedé-Gedéan]], sarta tuduhan atas ayana spionaseu ti Britania, Perancis, jeung [[Jerman Nazi]] mangrupa kajadian-kajadian nu nukangan Perang Tiis.<ref>{{cite book|author=Tim Tzouliadis|title=The Forsaken|publisher=The Penguin Press|isbn=978-1-59420-168-4}}</ref> Keur waktuna Tentara Jerman [[Operasi Barbarossa|menginvasi Uni Soviét]] dina bulan Juni 1941, Sekutu nyokot kauntungan ti front anyar ieu jeung milih pikeun ngabantuan Uni Soviét. Britania nandatanganan persekutuan formal jeung Amérika Sarikat nyieun kasepakatan informal jeung Soviét. Dina waktuna perang, Amérika Sarikat méré fasilitaa Britania jeung Soviét liwat program [[Lend-Lease]] na.<ref>George C. Herring Jr., ''Aid to Russia, 1941–1946: Strategy, Diplomacy, the Origins of the Cold War'' (Columbia University Press, 1973).</ref> Kumaha waé ogé, Stalin tetep neundeun rasa curiga kana kadua nagara éta jeung percaya yén Britania jeung Amérika Sarikat kong-kalingkong pikeun muguhkeunna yén Soviét bakal nanggung beban panggedéna dina perang ngalawan Jerman Nazi. Ceuk pandangana ieu, Sekutu Kulon ngahaja ngundur waktu pikeun muka front anti-Jerman kadua nu tujuanna pikeun beraksi di waktu-waktu ahir jeung diteruskeun nyieun panganggeusan damai. Jadi, persepsi Soviét ka dunya Kulon ngabalukarkeun ayana arus kategangan jeung permusuhan jeung pihak [[Sekutu Perang Dunya I|Sekutu]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|1990|pp=151–153}}</ref> == Ahir Perang Dunya II (1945–1947) == === Konferensi pasca-perang di Éropa === [[Gambar:Yalta summit 1945 with Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin.jpg|thumb|right| "[[Sekutu Perang Dunya II|Tiga Besar]]" di Konferensi Yalta: [[Winston Churchill]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] jeung [[Joseph Stalin]], 1945.]] {{see|Konferensi Teheran|Konferensi Yalta}} Saenggeus perang, Sekutu manggih mupakat ngeunaan pembagéan jeung pangukuhan tapel wates di Éropa.<ref name="Gaddis13-23">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=13–23}}</ref> Masing-masing pihak mibanda ide-ide nu berbéda ngeunaan pembentukan jeung pemeliharaan kaamanan dunya pasca-perang.<ref name="Gaddis13-23" /> Sekutu Kulon hayang sistem kaamanan ku cara nyieun salega-legana Pamaréntahan démokrasi, nu ngamungkinkeun nagara-nagara pikeun ngaréngsékeun konflik sacara damai melalui [[organisasi internasional]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|1990|p=156}}</ref> Ngemutan sejarah invasi nu sok dikeureuyeuh ka Rusia,<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=7}}</ref> jeung deui gedénya [[Korban Perang Dunya II di Uni Soviét|jumlah korban nu maot]] (dikira kira 27 juta) jeung kaancuran Uni Soviét nu ngeureuyeuh waé saréngséna Perang Dunya II,<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4530565.stm Leaders mourn Soviét wartime dead]", BBC News, May 9, 2005. Retrieved on July 2, 2008.</ref> Uni Soviét nyieun rupa-rupa usaha pikeun ningkatkeun kaamanan ku cara ngadominasi urusan dina negeri nagara-nagara nu babatesan jeung manéhna.<ref name="Gaddis13-23" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|1990|p=176}}</ref> Sekutu Kulon ogé mibanda pendapat sorangan ngeunaan visi maranéhna kana kaayaan Dunya saréngséna perang. Tujuan Roosevelt - kajayaan militer di Éropa jeung Asia, pencapéian supreémasi ékonomi global Amérika nu ngéléhkeun [[Imperium Britania]], jeung menciptakan salah sahiji organisasi perdamaian dunya - leuwih bersifat global dibandingkan dengan Churcill, nu visinya berfokus pikeun mengamankan kontrol atas [[Laut Tengah]], memastikan keberlangsungan Imperium Britania, jeung memerdekakan nagara-nagara [[Éropa Wétan]] pikeun jadikana sebagai [[Nagara pennuga|pennuga]] antara Soviét jeung Britania Raya.<ref Name=Plokhy>{{Harvnb|Plokhy|2010|p=}}</ref> Dina pandangan Amérika, Stalin dianggep sebagai salah sahiji sekutu potensial pikeun mencapai tujuan maranéhna, sadengkeun dina pandangan Britania, Stalin dianggep ancaman panggedéna dina pencapéian agénda maranéhna. Ku diicingana lolobana ti nagara-nagara Éropa Wétan ku Soviét, Stalin aya dina pihak nu untung jeung kadua pamingpin Kulon silih sasaingan pikeun memperku dukungana. Perbédaan visi antara Roosevelt jeung Churchill ngabalukarkeun kadua pihak ngalakukeun negosiasi sacara terpisah dengan Stalin. Dina bulan Oktober 1944, Churcill ngalakukeun perjalanan ke [[Moskow]] jeung paheut pikeun ngabagi [[Balkan]] berdasarkan pangaruh masing-masing, jeung teu lila kemudian, di [[Yalta]], Roosevelt ogé nandatanganan kamupakatan terpisah dengan Stalin ngeunaan masalah Asia jeung nolak pikeun ngadukung Churcill dina isu jeung Reparasi [[Polandia]].<ref Name=Plokhy/> [[Gambar:Map-Germany-1945.svg|thumb|[[Zona Jajahan Sekutu di Jerman]] pasca-perang.]] Negosiasi leuwih lanjut antara Soviét jeung Sekutu sahubungan jeung kasaimbangan dunya saenggeus perang dina [[Konferensi Yalta]] dina bulan Februari 1945, sanajan konferensi ieu ogé gagal nepi ka konsesus ngeunaan kerangka kerja saenggeusperang di Éropa.<ref name="Gaddis21">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=21}}</ref> Dina bulan April 1945, Churcill jeung présidén Amérika Sarikat nu anyar , [[Harry S. Truman]], paheut pikeun ngalawan kaputusan Soviét nu méré bantuan ka Pamaréntahan Lublin, saingan [[Pamaréntahan Polandia di pengasingan]] nu dikontrol ku Soviét.<ref>{{Harvnb|Zubok|1996|p=94}}</ref> Saenggeus [[Ahir Perang Dunya II|kemenangan Sekutu]] dina bulan Mei 1945, Soviét sacara épéktip maju ngadumukan Éropa Wétan,<ref name="Gaddis21" /> sadengkeun pasukan Amérika Sarikat jeung Sekutu Kulon kukuh di [[Éropa Kulon]]. Di wilayah Jerman nu diicingan Sekutu, Uni Soviét, Amérika Sarikat, Britania Raya jeung [[Perancis]] nyieun [[Jajahan Sekutu di Jerman|zona Jajahan]] jeung nyieun kerangka kerja pikeun ngabagi wilayah-wilayah éta jadi opat zona Jajahan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=22}}</ref> [[Konferensi PBB ngeunaan Organisasi Internasional|Konferensi Sekutu dina taun 1945]] di [[San Francisco]] ngahasilkeun kaputusan ngeunaan pendirian organisasi PBB multi-nasional pikeun memelihara perdamaian dunya, namun kapasitas panegakanna ku [[Déwan Kaamanan PBB|Dewan Kaamanan]] sacara épéktip dilumpuhkeun ku kabisa anggotana pikeun maké [[hak veto]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Bourantonis|1996|p=130}}</ref> Ku sebab itu, PBB dina dasarnya diubah jadi salah sahiji forum aktif pikeun tukeur retorika polemik, jeung Soviét dianggep sacara eksklusif sebagai tribun [[propaganda]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Garthoff|1994|p=401}}</ref> === Konferensi Potsdam jeung kaéléhan Jepang === [[Gambar:L to R, British Prime Mieuster Winston Churchill, President Harry S. Truman, and Soviét leader Josef Stalin in the... - NARA - 198958.jpg|thumb|[[Winston Churchill]], [[Harry S. Truman]] jeung [[Joseph Stalin]] di [[Konferensi Potsdam]], 1945.|pra=Special:FilePath/L_to_R,_British_Prime_Mieuster_Winston_Churchill,_President_Harry_S._Truman,_and_Soviét_leader_Josef_Stalin_in_the..._-_NARA_-_198958.jpg]] {{see|Konferensi Potsdam|Menyerahnya Jepang}} Dina [[Konferensi Potsdam]], nu dikeureuyeuh dina ahir Juli saenggeus ngarasa éléhna Jerman, perbédaan serius terkait dengan perkembangan masa depan Jerman jeung Éropa Wétan.<ref name = "Byrd">{{cite encyclopedia|author=Byrd, Peter|editor=McLean, Iain; McMillan, Alistair|encyclopedia=The concise Oxford dictionary of politics|title=Cold War (entire chapter)|url=http://books.google.com/?id=xLbEHQAACAAJ|accessdate=June 16, 2008|year=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-280276-3|ref=harv}}</ref> Selain itu, jumlah partisipan perang jeung perbédaan kebiasaan dijadikeun alasan ku satu sama lianna pikeun mengkonfirmasi kecurigaan maranéhna ngeunaan niat bermusuhan jeung mempertahankan kubu maranéhna masing-masing.<ref>Alan Wood, p. 62</ref> Dina konferensi ieu, Truman mérétahu Stalin yén Amérika Sarikat mibanda senjata anyar nu kuat.<ref name="Gaddis25" /> Stalin nyangka Amérika Sarikat keur ngembangkeun [[bom atum]], jeung ngingetan sasaran Amérika Sarikat kamungkinan saingan Soviét, nyaéta [[Jepang]], Stalin nanggepan hal éta ku sikep tenang. Stalin ngomong mun manéhna ngarasa bagja ku warta éta jeung nyatakeun kahayangna yén senjata éta bakal dipaké pikeun ngalawan Jepang.<ref name="Gaddis25">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=25–26}}</ref> Satu minggu saenggeus berahirnya Konferensi Potsdam, Amérika Sarikat [[Serangan bom atom di Hiroshima jeung Nagasaki|membom Hiroshima jeung Nagasaki]]. Teu lila saenggeus serangan, Stalin protés ka para petinggi Amérika Sarikat ku sabab leutikna bagéan [[Padumukan Sekutu atas Jepang|Jepang nu diicingan Sekutu]] nu ditawarkeun ku présidén Truman ka Soviét.<ref>{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|p=28}}</ref> === Awal Blok Wétan === {{See|Blok Wétan}} [[Gambar:EasternBloc BorderChange38-48.svg|right|thumb|Perubahan wilayah pasca-perang di [[Éropa Wétan]] jeung pembentukan [[Blok Wétan]], nu dijuluki "Tirai Beusi".]] Dina awal Perang Dunya II, Uni Soviét meletakkan dasar bagi terbentuknya [[Blok Wétan]] ku cara nyaplok langsung sababaraha nagara saperti [[Republik Sosialis Soviét]], nu awalna dibérékeun ka Soviét ku [[Jerman Nazi]] dina [[Pakta Molotov-Ribbentrop]]. Wilayah ieu kaasup Polandia bagéan Wétan (terus dipisahkeun jadi [[Wilayah Polandia nu dicaplok ku Uni Soviét|dua nagara Soviét nu béda]]),<ref name="wettig20">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|p=21}}</ref><ref name="senn">Senn, Alfred Erich, ''Lithuania 1940 : revolution from above'', Amsterdam, New York, Rodopi, 2007 ISBN 978-90-420-2225-6</ref> [[Estonia]] (nu kemudian jadi [[Republik Sosialis Soviét Estonia|RSS Estonia]]),<ref name="stalinswars43">{{Harvnb|Roberts|2006|p=43}}</ref> [[Latvia]] (jadi [[Republik Sosialis Soviét Latvia|RSS Latvia]]),<ref name="wettig20"/><ref name="senn"/> [[Lithuania]] (jadi [[Republik Sosialis Soviét Lituania|RSS Lithuania]]),<ref name="wettig20"/><ref name="senn"/> bagéan Wétan [[Finlandia]] (jadi [[Republik Sosialis Soviét Karelo-Finlandia|RSS Karelo-Finlandia]]), jeung [[Rumania]] Wétan (nu jadi [[Republik Sosialis Soviét Moldavia|RSS Moldavia]]).<ref name="stalinswars55">{{Harvnb|Roberts|2006|p=55}}</ref><ref name="shirer794">{{Harvnb|Shirer|1990|p=794}}</ref> Wilayah Éropa Wétan nu dibébaskeun ti Nazi jeung diicingan ku pasukan Soviét salajengna ogé ditambahkeun ka Blok Wétan ku cara ngarobahna jadi [[nagara satelit]],<ref name = "Schmitz" /> nagara-nagara ieu di antarana [[Jerman Wétan]],<ref name="wettig96">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|pp=96–100}}</ref> [[Republik Rakyat Polandia]], [[Republik Rakyat Bulgaria]], [[Republik Rakyat Hongaria]],<ref name="dijk">van Dijk, Ruud, ''Encyclopedia of the Cold War, Volume 1'', p. 200. Taylor & Francis, 2008. ISBN 0-415-97515-8</ref> [[Republik Sosialis Cekoslowakia]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Grenville|2005|pp=370–71}}</ref> [[Republik Rakyat Romania]], jeung [[Republik Rakyat Albania]].<ref name="cook17">{{Harvnb|Cook|2001|p=17}}</ref> Rézim Soviét nu bijil di nagara-nagara Blok Wétan ngadopsi sistem [[ékonomi komando]] Soviét wungkul, manéhna ogé ngadopsimétodeubrutal nu dipaké ku [[Joseph Stalin]] jeung polisi rusiah Soviét pikeun neken oposisi nu nyata jeung poténsial.<ref name="roht83">{{Harvnb|Roht-Arriaza|1995|p=83}}</ref> Di Asia, [[Tentara Beureum]] geus ngabanjiran [[Manchuria]] dina bulan-bulan ahir perang, jeung ngeureuyeuh pikeun nyicingan bagéan besar wilayah [[Korea]] bagéan Kalér.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=40}}</ref> Sebagai bagéan ti konsolidasi kontrol Stalin atas Blok Wétan, [[NKVD]], nu dipimpin ku [[Lavrentiy Beria]], ngawasan dijieunna sistem polisi rusiah nu bergaya Soviét di Blok Wétan pikeun ngabasmi perlawanan anti-komunis.<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 34"/> Lamun aya saeutik waé sumanget kemerdekaan di nagara-nagara Blok Wétan, maranéhna nu miluan bakal disingkirkeun ti kakuasaan, diadilan, dipenjarakeun, jeung dina sababaraha kasus, diéksékusi.<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 100">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=100}}</ref> [[Perdana Menteri Britania Raya]] [[Winston Churchill]] khawatir yén jumlah besar pasukan Soviét nu di Éropa dina ahir perang, jeung persepsi yén pamingpin Soviét Joseph Stalin teu bisa diandelkeun, bakal ngabalukarkeun anceman ka [[Éropa Kulon]].<ref name="Telegraph">Fenton, Ben. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20080528222149/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/htmlContent.jhtml?html=%2Farchive%2F1998%2F10%2F01%2Fnwar101.html The secret strategy to launch attack on Red Army]", telegraph.co.uk, October 1, 1998. Retrieved July 23, 2008.</ref> Dina bulan April-Mei 1945, [[Kementerian Perang Churcill|Kabinét Perang Britania Raya]] mengembangkan salah sahiji rencana operasi pikeun "memaksakan kehendak Amérika Sarikat jeung Imperium Britania ka Rusia".<ref>{{cite web | last = British War Cabinet, Joint Planning Staff, Public Record Office, CAB 120/691/109040 / 002 | date = August 11, 1945 | url = http://www.history.neu.edu/PRO2/ | title = Operation Unthinkable: 'Russia: Threat to Western Civilization' | format = online photocopy | publisher = Department of History, Northeastern University | accessdate =June 28, 2008 | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080706093010/http://www.history.neu.edu/PRO2/ <!--Added by H3llBot--> | archivedate = July 6, 2008}}</ref> Namung rencana ieu ditolak ku [[Pupuhu Staf Komiteu]] sabab teu layakna sumber daya militer.<ref name="Telegraph" /> === Persiapan pikeun "perang anyar " === {{See|Artikel X|Tirai Beusi}} Dina bulan Februari 1946, laporan "[[Artikel X|Telegram Panjang]]" [[George F. Kennan]] ti Moskow ngabantuan pikeun ngartikulasikeun kawijakan Pamaréntah AS nu teterusan inténsif dina ngalawan Soviét, nu jadi dasar keur strategi Amérika Sarikat ks Uni Soviét salila Perang Tiis.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schecter|2003|pp=152–154}}</ref> Dina bulan Séptémber, pihak Soviét nyieun telegram [[Nikolai Vasilevich Novikov|Novikov]], nu dikirim ku duta besar Soviét ka Amérika Sarikat, namun pangiriman telegram ieu ditugaskeun jeung ogé ditulis ku [[Vyacheslav Molotov]], telegram ieu ngajelaskeun yén AS "ayana dina cengkeraman monopoli kapitalis nu ngembangkeun kamampuan militer dina rangka nyiapkeun kondisi pikeun meunangkeun supremasi dunya dina salah sahiji perang anyar ".<ref>{{Harvnb|Kydd|2005|p=107}}</ref> Dina tanggal 6 Séptémber 1946, [[James F. Byrnes]] menyampaikan pidato di Jerman nu mennukal [[Rencana Morgenthau]] (salah sahiji proposal pikeun misahkeun jeung de-industrialisasi di Jerman pasca-perang). Byrnes ogé ngingetan Soviét yén AS niat pikeun nahan kaayaan militerna teu dibatesan di Éropa.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=30}}</ref> Sabulan saterusna, Byrnes ngaku yén pernyataana ieu mangrupa "intisari ti program kami pikeun meunangkeun haté warga Jerman&nbsp;[...] éta nyaéta pertempuran pikiran antara kami jeung Rusia&nbsp;[...]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.daz.org/enJamesFByrnes.html|title=Southern Partnership: James F. Byrnes, Lucius D. Clay and Germany, 1945–1947|first=Curtis F|last=Morgan|accessdate=June 9, 2008|publisher=James F. Byrnes Institute}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705193541/http://www.daz.org/enJamesFByrnes.html |date=July 5, 2008 }}</ref> Babaraha minggu saenggeus dirilisna "Telegram Panjang", mantan Perdana Menteri Britania Winston Churchill nyampaikeun istilah terkenalna, "[[Tirai Beusi]]", dina salah sahiji pidato di [[Fulton, Missouri]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=94}}</ref> Dina pidato éta, Churcill nyerukeun supaya Inggris-Amérika bersekutu pikeun ngalawan Soviét, nu dituduhna geus ngabentangkan "tirai Beusi" ti "[[Szczecin|Stettin]] di [[Laut Baltik|Baltik]] nepi ka [[Trieste]] di [[Laut Adriatik|Adriatik]]".<ref name = "Schmitz">{{cite encyclopedia|author=Schmitz, David F.|editor=Whiteclay Chambers, John|encyclopedia=The Oxford Companion to American Military History|title=Cold War (1945–91): Causes [entire chapter]|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xtMKHgAACAAJ&dq=The+Oxford+Companion+to+American+Military+History|accessdate=June 16, 2008|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-507198-0|ref=harv}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=711|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20071015163941/http://winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=711|archivedate=October 15, 2007|title=Churchill and...Politics: The True Meaning of the Iron Curtain Speech|author=Harriman, Pamela C.|accessdate=June 22, 2008|publisher=Winston Churchill Centre|date=Winter 1987–1988}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015163941/http://winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=711 |date=October 15, 2007 }}</ref> Dina taun 1952, Stalin [[Nota Stalin|berulang kali mengajukan rencana pikeun menyatukan Jerman Wétan jeung Jerman Kulon]] di handap hiji Pamaréntahan tunggal nu dipilih dina pamilihan umum nu diawasan ku [[Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] mun Jerman nu anyar ieu leupas ti aliansi militer Kulon, namun usulan ieu ditolak ku kakuatan Kulon. Babaraha sumber nyengkétakeun kasungguhan usulan ieu.<ref>Van Dijk, Rudd. [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/ACFB54.pdf The 1952 Stalin Note Debate: Myth or Missed Opportunity for German Reunification?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502194421/http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/ACFB54.pdf |date=2019-05-02 }} Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Cold War International History Project, Working Paper 14, May 1996.</ref> == Permulaan Perang Tiis (1947–1953) == {{Main|Perang Tiis (1947–1953)}} === Kominform jeung perpecahan Tito–Stalin === {{See|Kominform|Perpecahan Tito–Stalin}} Dina bulan Séptémber 1947, Soviét nyieun [[Kominform]], nu tujuana nyaéta pikeun menegakkan ortodoksi dina gerakan komunis internasional jeung ngetatkeun kontrol pulitik ka nagara-nagara satelit Soviét melalui koordinasi ti pihak komunis di [[Blok Wétan]].<ref name="Gaddis32" /> Kominform ngalaman kamunduran dina bulan Juni ka dituna saenggeus [[perpecahan Tito–Stalin]], nu ngabalukarkeun Soviét ngagoréngkeun [[Yugoslavia]]. Yugoslavia tetep jadi nagara komunis, namun maju ngadopsi posisi [[Gerakan Non-Blok|Non-Blok]]. === Kontainmen jeung Doktrin Truman === {{Main|Kontainmen|Doktrin Truman}} [[Gambar:Cold war europe military alliances map en.png|thumb|Aliansi militer Éropa.]] Dina taun 1947, panaséhat présidén AS [[Harry S. Truman]] maksa Truman pikeun nyokot langkah-langkah téréh dina ngalawan pangaruh Uni Soviét, Ngemutan upaya Stalin (ditengah kabingungan jeung karubuhanana saenggeus perang) pikeun ngalemahkeun Amérika Sarikat ku jalan sasaingan nu bisa ngadorong kalangan kapitalis supaya ngabalukareun perang nu lian.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=27}}</ref> Bulan Februari 1947, Pamaréntah Britania mengumumkan yén maranéhna teu sanggup deui ngabiayaan rezim militer monarki [[Yunani]] dina [[Perang Saudara Yunani]] pikeun ngalawan pemberontak komunis. Tanggepan Pamaréntah Amérika ka pengumuman Britania ieu nyaéta yén maranéhna bakal ngadopsi kawijakan [[kontainmen]],<ref name="Gaddis28">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=28–29}}</ref> nyaéta kawijakan nu tujuanna pikeun ngeureunkeun panyebaran [[komunisme]]. Truman nyampaikeum pidato nu eusina maksa alokasi dana $ 400 pikeun masilitasan miluna Amérika Sarikat dina perang Yunani jeung ngaluncurkeun [[Doktrin Truman]], nu nyatakeun yén konflik éta mangrupa kontes antara masyarakat bébas jeung rezim totaliter.<ref name="Gaddis28" /> Sanajan dina kanyataana para pemberontak komunis meunang bantuan ti pamingpin Yogoslavia [[Josip Broz Tito]],<ref name="LaFeber 1991" /> AS nuduh yén Uni Soviét sekongkolan jeung komunis Yunani pikeun ngalawan royalis dina upayana pikeun ngalegaan pangaruh Soviét.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=38}}</ref> Doktrin Truman nandaan awak ti kawijakan pertahanan bipartisan AS jeung konsesus kbijakan aluar negeri antara [[Partei Republik (Amérika Sarikat)|Partei Republik]] jeung [[Partei Demokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Demokrat]] nu bener-bener pokus dina kontainmen (panahanan) jeung nyegat panyebaran komunisme salila jeung saenggeus [[Perang Vietnam]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hahn|1993|p=6}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Higgs|2006|p=137}}</ref> partéy moderat jeung konservatif lianna di Éropa, sarta demokratik sosial, maju méré dukungan taya syarat ka Sekutu Kulon,<ref>{{Harvnb|Moschonas|Elliott|2002|p=21}}</ref> sadengkeun Komunis Amérika jeung Éropa, dibiayaan ku [[KGB]], pipilueun dina operasi intelijen,<ref>{{cite book|last=Andrew|first =Christopher|coauthors=Mitrokhin, Vasili|title= The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB|publisher= Basic Books|year =2000|page =276}}</ref> operasi ieu tetep sesuai jeung aturan Moskow, sanajan perbédaan pendapat di kalangan komunis ieu karak aya saenggeus taun 1956. Kritik lain ngeunaan Doktrin Truman ieu asalba ti [[Penentang Perang Vietnam|aktivis anti-Perang Vietnam]], [[CND]] jeung gerakan [[pembekuan nuklir]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Crocker|Hampson|Aall|2007|p=55}}</ref> === Rencana Marshall jeung kudéta Cekoslowakia === [[Gambar:Marshall Plan.png|right|thumb|Peta éra Perang Tiis di Éropa jeung Wétan Dekat, nunjukkeun nagara-nagara nu menerima bantuan [[Rencana Marshall]]. Kolum Beureum nunjukkeun jumlah relatif bantuan nu diterima per nagara.]] [[Gambar:Cold war europe economic alliances map en.png|thumb|Aliansi perékonomian Éropa.]] {{Main|Rencana Marshall|Kudéta Cekoslowakia 1948}} Dina awal 1947, Britania, Perancis, jeung Amérika Sarikat teu ngahasil nepi kéasepakatan jeung Uni Soviét ngeunaan rencana dijieuna deui perékonomian Jerman, kaasup jumlah rinci ngeunaan pamelakan modal industri, barang, jeung infrastruktur nu geus ancur ku Sekutu salila perang.<ref name="miller16">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=16}}</ref> Bulan Juni 1947, sarua jeung Doktrin Truman, Amérika Sarikat ngesahkeun program [[Rencana Marshall]], nyaéta salah sahiji program bantuan ékonomi ka sakabéh nagara Éropa nu daék pikeun miluan, kaasup Uni Soviét.<ref name="miller16"/> Tujuan ti rencana ieu pikeun ngawangun deui sistem [[démokrasi]] jeung perékonomian Éropa jeung pikeun ngabatesan pangaruh komunis di Éropa.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|1990|p=186}}</ref> Rencana ieu ogé nyatakeun yén kamakmuran Éropa kagantung dina pamulihan ékonomi Jerman.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,887417,00.html|title=Pas de Pagaille!|work=[[Time (majalah)|Time]]|date=July 28, 1947|accessdate=May 28, 2008}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130828025646/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,887417,00.html |date=August 28, 2013 }}</ref> Sabulan kemudian, Truman mengesahkan [[Undang-Undang Kaamanan Nasional 1947]], nyieun [[Departemen Pertahanan Amérika Sarikat|Departemen Pertahanan]] terpadu, [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], jeung [[Badan Kaamanan Nasional]] (NSC). Hal ieu selanjutnyabakal jadi birokrasi utama kawijakan AS dina Perang Tiis.<ref name="Karabell" >{{Harvnb|Karabell|1999|p=916}}</ref> Stalin percaya yén integrasi ékonomi jeung [[Dunya Kulon|Kulon]]bakal ngamungkinkeun nagara-nagara Blok Wétan pikeun misahkeun diri ti kontrol Soviét, Stalin ogé percaya yén AS usaha pikeun “meuli” Éropa supaya mihak ka AS.<ref name="Gaddis32">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=32}}</ref> Ku sebab kitu, Stalin ngalarang nagara-nagara [[Blok Wétan]] nampanan bantuan Marshall.<ref name="Gaddis32" /> Alternatif Uni Soviét dina nandingan Rencana Marshall, nu ngabéakkeun subsidi Soviét jeung perdagangana jeung Éropa Wétan, nyaéta ku cara nyieun [[Rencana Molotov]] (terus dilembagakeun dina bulan Januari 1949 nu diaranan [[Comecon]]).<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> Stalin ogé ngahariwangkeun upaya AS pikeun ngarékonstitusi Jerman; visi pasca-perangna ka Jerman teu kaasup hal ieu, sabab Soviét teu hayang méré senjata deui Jerman atawa ku lian kata, sieun yén hal éta bakal ngabalukarkeun anceman deui ka Uni Soviét.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=105–106}}</ref> Dina awal 1948, nyusul laporan nu nguatan "elemen reaksioner" di [[Cekoslowakia]], Soviét [[Kudéta Cekoslowakia 1948|ngalaksanakeun kudéta di Cekoslowakia]], nu mangrupa hiji-satunya nagara Blok Wétan nu diijinkan Soviét pikeun mempertahankan struktur démokrasinya.<ref name="wettig86">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|p=86}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Patterson|1997|p=132}}</ref> Kebrutalan publik dina kudéta ieu mengejutkan nagara-nagara Kulon, perdebatan muncul di Kongres Amérika Sarikat, nu sieuneun yén perangbakal terjadi kembali dina upaya Soviét pikeun menyapu habis sakabéh pendukung Rencana Marshall.<ref name="miller19">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=19}}</ref> Kawijakan kembar Doktrin Truman jeung Rencana Marshall ngabalukarkeuin miliaran bantuan ékonomi jeung militer mengalir pikeun [[Éropa Kulon]], [[Yunani]], jeung [[Turki]]. Dengan bantuan AS, militer Yunani berhasil meunangkeun perang saudara.<ref name = "Karabell" /> partéy [[Démokrasi Kristen (Italia)|Démokrasi Kristen]] [[Italia]] ogé sukses ngéléhkeun aliansi [[Partei Komunis Italia|Komunis]]-[[Partei Sosialis Italia|Sosialis]] dina pemilihan umum taun 1948.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=162}}</ref> Dina saat nu bersamaan, terjadi paningkatan aktivitas intelijen jeung [[spionaseu]], [[Pembelotan jeung emigrasi Blok Wétan|pembelotan Blok Wétan]], jeung pengusiran diplomatik.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cowley|1996|p=157}}</ref> === Blokade Berlin === [[Gambar:C-47s at Tempelhof Airport Berlin 1948.jpg|thumb|C-47s ngalakukeun pembongkaran di [[Bandar Udara Internasional Tempelhof|Bandar Udara Tempelhof]] di Berlin salila berlangsungnya Blokade Berlin.]] {{Main|Blokade Berlin}} Amérika Sarikat jeung Britania ngahijikeun zona Jajahan maranéhna di Jerman jadi “[[Bizone|Bizonia]]” (1 Januari 1947, terus jadi “Trizonia” saenggeus zona Jajahan Perancis ogé digabungkeun dina bulan April 1949).<ref name="miller13">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=13}}</ref> Bagéan ti upaya dibangunna deui perékonomian Jerman, dina awal 1948 perwakilan ti sababaraha nagara Éropa Kulon jeung Amérika Sarikat ngumumkeun kamupakatan pikeun ngahijikeun wilayah Jajahan Jerman Kulon jadi salah sahiji Pamaréntahan federal.<ref name="miller18">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=18}}</ref> Selain itu, sesuai dengan Rencana Marshall, maranéhna nyieun deui industrialisasi jeung ngatur deui perékonomian Jerman bareng-bareng, kaasup dibéwarakeunna mata uang anyar [[Deutsche Mark]] pikeun ngagantikeun mata uang [[Reichsmark]] lila nu nilaina anjlok Soviét.<ref name="miller31">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=31}}</ref> Teu lila sanggeusna, Stalin ngalembagakeun [[Blokade Berlin]] (24 Juni 1948 - 12 Mei 1949), salah sahiji krisis gedé kahiji nu kajadian salila Perang Tiis, nu tujuanna pikeun megatkeun akses jeung nyegat kadaharan, bahan, jeung kalengkepan lianna asup ka [[Berlin Kulon]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=33}}</ref> Amérika Sarikat, Britania, Perancis, [[Kanada]], [[Selandia Baru]], [[Australia]], jeung Babaraha nagara lianna majukeun “bantuan udara” gedé-gedéan pikeun méré ka Berlin Kulon ku kadaharan jeung kalengkepan lianna.<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|pp=65–70}}</ref> Soviét ngalcarkeun kampanyeu hubungan publik kana parobahan kawijakan di Jerman Kulon. Para Komunis di Berlin Wétan ngupayakeun pikeun ngaganggu acara pemilihan umum munisipal di Berlin (saperti nu maranéhna lakukan dina pemilu 1946),<ref name="miller13"/> nu diayakeun dina tanggal 5 Désémber 1948 jeung ngahasilkeun 86,3% pemilih sakalian kajayaan nu gedé keur partéy non-Komunis.<ref>Turner, Henry Ashby, ''The Two Germanies Since 1945: East and West'', Yale University Press, 1987, ISBN 0-300-03865-8, page 29</ref> Hasil ieu sacara épéktip ngabagi Berlin jadi dua bagéan, nyaéta Berlin Wétan jeung Berlin Kulon. 300.000 warga Berlin démo jeung maksa supaya bantuan udara internasional pikeun Berlin tetep dilanjutkeun,<ref>Fritsch-Bournazel, Renata, ''Confronting the German Question: Germans on the East-West Divide'', Berg Publishers, 1990, ISBN 0-85496-684-6, page 143</ref> jeung pilot US Air Force [[Gail Halvorsen]] terus nanggepanna ku cara nyieun “[[Blokade Berlin|Operasi Permen]]” pikeun méré permen ka budak-budaj Jerman.<ref name="miller26">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=26}}</ref> Dina bulan Mei 1949, Stalin mundur jeung nyabut blokadeu ka Berlin.<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 34">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=34}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|pp=180–81}}</ref> === Awal NATO jeung Radio Free Europe === {{Main|NATO|Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|Penyebaran informasi Blok Wétan}} [[Gambar:Truman signing National Security Act Amendment of 1949.jpg|right|thumb| Presiden Truman nandatanganan [[Undang-Undang Kaamanan Nasional 1947|Amendemen Undang-Undang Kaamanan Nasional 1949]] dengan para tamu di [[Oval Office]].]] Britania, Perancis, Amérika Sarikat, Kanada jeung dalapan nagara-nagara Éropa Kulon nandatanganan [[Pakta Pertahanan Atlantik Kalér]] dina bulan April 1949 pikeun nyieun [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO).<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 34"/> Dina bulan Agustus, perangkat atom Soviét kahiji dibitukeun di [[Semipalatinsk]], [[Republik Sosialis Soviét Kazakhstan|RSS Kazakhtan]].<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> Saenggeus Soviét nolak pikeun miluan dina upaya dibanguna deui Jerman nu geus ditetapkeun ku nagara-nagara Éropa Kulon dina taun 1948,<ref name="miller18"/><ref name="turner23">{{Harvnb|Turner|1987|p=23}}</ref> AS, Britania, jeung Perancis meloporan dijieuna [[Jerman Kulon]] di tilu zona Jajahan maranéhna nu digabungkeun dina bulan April 1949.<ref name = "Byrd" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Trizonia|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|year=2011|accessdate=May 7, 2011|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/606151/Trizonia}}</ref> Soviét teus nyikepanna ku dibéwarakeuna dijieuna [[Jerman Wétan|Republik Demokratik Jerman]] di zona Jajahana di Jerman Wétan dina bulan Oktober.<ref name = "Byrd" /> Média massa di [[Blok Wétan]] mangrupa [[Panyebaran informasi Blok Wétan|organ nagara]], operasionalna bener-bener kagantung jeung tunduk dina peraturan partéy komunis, media televisi jeung radio ditetapkeun sebagai Badan usaha milik nagara, sadengkeun [[media cetak]] biasana dibogaan ku organisasi pulitik, bagéan gedéna dibogaan ku partéy komunis lokal.<ref name="oneil15">{{cite book|last=O'Neil|first=Patrick|title=Post-communism and the Media in Eastern Europe|publisher=Routledge|year=1997|isbn=0-7146-4765-9|pages=15–25}}</ref> [[Propaganda]] Soviét maké filosofi Marxis pikeun nyerang kapitalismeu, mengklaim éksploitasi tenaga kerja, jeung perang ka imperialisme.<ref>James Wood, p. 111</ref> Ku waktu dilegaana siaran [[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation]] jeung [[Voice of America]] ka Éropa Wétan,<ref>{{Harvnb|Puddington|2003|p=131}}</ref> upaya propaganda gedé-gedéan dipaju dina taun 1949 ku dijieuna [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]], nu didedikasikeum pikeun ngawartakeun ngeunaan éra kakacauan ti sistem komunisme di Blok Wétan.<ref name="Puddington9" /> Radio Free Europe ngaupayakeun pikeun nepi ka tujuana ku cara ngalayanan pamiarsa sebagai stasiun radio gaganti, jeung jadi alternatif keur media dina negeri nu dikontrol jeung didominasi ku partéy.<ref name="Puddington9">{{Harvnb|Puddington|2003|p=9}}</ref> Radio Free Europe Éropa nyaéta produk ti sababaraha arsitek nu pang nonjolna ti strategi Perang Tiis awal Amérika, utamana maranéhna nu percaya yén Perang Tiis dina ahirna bakal diperjuangkeun liwat jalur pulitik daripada militer, siga Géorge F. Kennan.<ref name="Puddington7">{{Harvnb|Puddington|2003|p=7}}</ref> Nu nyieun kawijakan Amérika, kaasup Kennan jeung [[John Foster Dulles]], ngaku yén Perang Tiis dina kanyataana mangrupa salah sahiji perang gagasan.<ref name=Puddington7 /> Amérika Sarikat, dibantuan ku [[CIA]], ngabiayaan daptar panjang proyék-proyék pikeun ngalawan daya tarik komunis keur kalangan intelektual Éropa jeung nagara-nagara berkembang, atawa ku kata lian, nyegat upaya Soviét pikeun nyebarkeun pangaruh komunisna.<ref>{{Harvnb|Puddington|2003|p=10}}</ref> CIA icing-icing ogé nyeponsoran kampanyeu propaganda dina negeri nu disebut [[Pembasmian pikeun Kebébasan]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Cummings|first=Richard H.|title=Radio free Europe's "Crusade for freedom" : rallying Americans behind Cold War broadcasting, 1950-1960|year=2010|publisher=McFarland & Co|location=Jefferson, N.C.|isbn=9780786444106|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BO78hXsRebkC}}</ref> Dina awal 1950-an, AS ngupayakeun méré senjata deui Jerman Kulon. Dina taun 1955, AS ngajamin kaanggotaan pinuh Jerman Kulon di NATO.<ref name = "Byrd" /> Saméméhnya, bulan Mei 1953, Soviét gagal nyegat upaya dihijikeuna Jerman Kulon ka NATO.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=105}}</ref> === Perang Saudara Cina jeung SEATO === {{See|Perang Saudara Cina| Pakta Pertahanan Asia Tenggara}} [[Gambar:Mao, Bulganin, Stalin, Ulbricht Tsedenbal.jpeg|thumb|[[Mao Zedong]] jeung [[Joseph Stalin]] di Moskow, Désémber 1949 ]] Dina taun 1949, Tentara Pembébasan Rahayat [[Mao Zedong]] ngahasil ngagulingkeun Pamaréntahan Nasionalis [[Kuomintang]] (KMT) [[Chiang Kai-shek]] nu didukung ku Amérika Sarikat di [[Tiongkok]], jeung Uni Soviét tuluy ngajalin aliansi jeung [[Republik Rakyat Tiongkok]] nu anyar kabentuk.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=39}}</ref> Chiang jeung Pamaréntahan KMT na mundur ka kapuloan [[Taiwan]]. Sabab dihadapkeun dina [[Révolusi Cina (1949)|Révolusi komunis di Tiongkok]] jeung [[Proyék bom atom Soviét|ahir ti monopoli atom]] Amérika Sarikat dina taun 1949, Pamaréntahan Truman langsung ngalegaan jeung ningkatkeun kawijakan [[kontainmen]] maranéhna di Tiongkok.<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> Dina [[NSC-68]], salah sahiji dokumen rusiah dina taun 1950,<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 164">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=164}}</ref> disebutkeun yén Dewan Kaamanan Nasional ngusulkeun pikeun nguatan sistem aliansi pro-Kulon jeung ngagedéan pangeluaran pertahanan.<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> Amérika Sarikat salajengna ogé maju ngalegaan kawijakan kontainmen maranéhna ke Asia, Afrika, jeung [[Amérika Latin]] pikeun ngalawan gerakan nasionalis Révolusioner, lolobana dipimpin ku partéy-partéy komunis nu dibiayaan ku Soviét jeung berjuang dina ngalawan dominasi kolonial Éropa di [[Asia Tenggara]] jeung wilayah lianna.<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 212">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p= 212}}</ref> Dina awal 1950-an (périodeu ieu kadang dikenal ku “[[Pactomania]]”), AS nyieun rangkéan aliansi jeung Jepang, Australia, Selandia Anyar , Thailand, jeung [[Filipina]] (utamana [[ANZUS]] dina taun 1951 jeung [[Pakta Pertahanan Asia Tenggara|SEATO]] dina taun 1954). Aliansi ieu nyieun AS mibanda sababaraha pangkalan militer jangka panjang di nagara-nagara éta.<ref name = "Byrd" /> === Perang Korea === {{Main|Perang Korea}} [[Gambar:IncheonLandingMcArthur.jpg|thumb|left|Jenderal [[Douglas MacArthur]], komandan CiC PBB (diuk), nempokeun panembakan laut [[Incheon]] ti [[USS Mount McKinley (AGC-7)|USS ''Mt. McKinley'']], 15 Séptémber 1950.]] Salah sahiji dampak nu signifikan ti kawijakan kontainmen Amérika Sarikat nyaéta peupeusna [[Perang Korea]]. Dina bulan Juni 1950, [[Tentara Rakyat Korea|Tentara Rakyat Korea Kalér]] di handap arahan ti [[Kim Il-Sung]] nginvasi [[Korea Kidul]].<ref name="Stokesbury1990">{{cite book|title= A Short History of the Korean War|last=Stokesbury|first= James L|year= 1990|publisher=Harper Perennial|location= New York|isbn= 0-688-09513-5|page=14}}</ref> Joseph Stalin “ngarencanakeun, nyiapkeun, jeung majukeun” invasi éta,<ref>David Dallin, ''Soviét Foreign Policy After Stalin'' (J. B. Lippincott, 1961), p60.</ref> nyusun “rencana [perang] nu parélé” nu terus dikirimkeun ka Koréa Kalér.<ref>Douglas J. Macdonald, “Communist Bloc Expansion in the Early Cold War,” International Security, Winter 1995-6, p180.</ref><ref>John Lewis Gaddis, ''We Know Now: Rethinking Cold War History'' (Oxford University Press, 1997), p71.</ref><ref>Sergei N. Goncharov, John W. Lewis and Xue Litai, ''Uncertain Partners: Stalin, Mao and the Korean War'' (Stanford University Press, 1993), p213</ref><ref>William Stueck, ''The Korean War: An International History'' (Princeton University Press, 1995), p69.</ref> Pikeun ngareuwaskeun Stalin,<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> [[Dewan Kaamanan PBB]] ngadukung jeung masilitasan pertahanan di Koréa Kidul, sanajan Soviét terus memboikot sidang sebagei protés sabab [[Republik Tiongkok|Taiwan]] nu dibéréan korsi tetep di dewan, bukana [[Republik Rakyat Tiongkok|Komunis Cina]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Malkasian|2001|p=16}}</ref> Personel militer gabungan PBB nu ngahiji ti Koréa Kidul, AS, Britania Raya, Turki, Kanada, Australia, Perancis, Afrika Kidul, Filipina, Belanda, Belgia, Selandia Baru, jeung nagara-nagara lianna ngahiji pikeun ngeureunkeun invasi ieu.<ref>Fehrenbach, T. R., ''This Kind of War: The Classic Korean War History'', Brasseys, 2001, ISBN 1-57488-334-8, page 305</ref> Épék laina ti Perang Koréa nyaéta ngadorong [[NATO]] pikeun ngembangkeun struktur militer.<ref>{{Harvnb|Isby|Kamps|1985|pp=13–14}}</ref> Opini publik di nagara-nagara nu miluan, seperti Britania, lolobana ngalawan perang ieu. Loba nu sieuneun yén perang ieu bakal ningkat jadi perang gedé ku Komunis Cina, atawa jadi [[perang nuklir]]. Pandangan nu béda ngeunaan perang ieu sok ngayakeun kategangan dina [[Hubungan Amérika Sarikat–Britania Raya|hubungan Britania–Amérika]]. Sabab alesan ieu, Britania nyokot langkah téréh pikeun ngeureunkeun konflik ku cara ngayakeun ide ngeunaan ngahijikeun Koréa di handap naungan PBB jeung panarikan sakabéh pasukan asing.<ref>{{Cite book |last = Cotton |first = James |title = The Korean war in history |publisher = Manchester University Press ND |year = 1989 |page = 100 |url = |id = |isbn = 0-7190-2984-8}}</ref> Sanajan Cina jeung Koréa Kalér geus capé ku perang nu ngeureuyeuh terus jeung siap pikeun ngeureunana dina taun 1952, Stalin kukuh yén maranéhna kudu terus berjuang, jeung [[gencatan senjata]] anyar disetujuan dina taun 1953 saenggeus pupusna Stalin.<ref name = "Byrd" /> Pamingpin Koréa Kalér Kim Il Sung terus ngayakeun kediktatoran nu terpusat pidan jeung brutal di Koréa Kalér, méréna kakuasaan teu kabatas jeung ngahasilkeun salah sahiji kultus kapribadian nu teu katembus berdekade-dekade lilana.<ref>Oberdorfer, Don, ''The Two Koreas: A Contemporary History'', Basic Books, 2001, ISBN 0-465-05162-6, page 10-11</ref><ref>No, Kum-Sok and J. Roger Osterholm, ''A MiG-15 to Freedom: Memoir of the Wartime North Korean Defector who First Delivered the Secret Fighter Jet to the Americans in 1953'', McFarland, 1996, ISBN 0-7864-0210-5</ref> Di Koréa Kidul, pamingpin [[Korupsi|korup]] [[Syngman Rhee]] nu meunang dukungan ti AS nerapkeun sistem Pamaréntahan [[Totalitarianisme|totaliter]].<ref>{{Cite book|last = Hastings|first = Max|title = The Korean War|publisher = Simon & Schuster|year = 1988|location = New York|pages = 89–90|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=wvOMegzEi3AC|id =|isbn = 0-671-66834-X}}</ref> Saenggeus Rhee digulingkan dina taun 1960, Koréa Kidul ragrag di handap masa Pamaréntahan militer nu lumangsung nepi ka dijieuna deui sistem multi-partéy dina taun 1987. == Krisis jeung paningkatan (1953-1962) == {{Main|Perang Tiis (1953–1962)}} [[Gambar:1959 NATO and WP troop strengths in Europe.svg|thumb|Kakuatan tentara NATO jeung [[Pakta Warsawa]] di Éropa dina taun 1959.]] === Khrushchev, Eisenhower jeung de-Stalieusasi === Dina taun 1953, perobahan dina kepamingpinan pulitik di kadua pihak turut menggeser dinamika Perang Tiis.<ref name=autogenerated1>Karabell, p. 916</ref> [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] dilantik sebagai présidén AS nu anyar dina bulan Januari. Salila 18 bulan terahir Pamaréntahan Truman, anggaran pertahanan Amérika Sarikat telah meningkat opat kali lipat, jeung Eisenhower bertekad pikeun ngurangan sepertiga ti pengeluaran militer sambil terus berjuang dina Perang Tiis sacara épéktip.<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> Saenggeus kematian [[Joseph Stalin]], [[Nikita Khrushchev]] jadi pamingpin Soviét saenggeus deposisi jeung pengeksekusian [[Lavrentiy Beria]] jeung ogé menyingkirkan saingana seperti [[Georgy Malenkov]] jeung [[Vyacheslav Molotov]]. Dina tanggal 25 Februari 1956, Khrushchev mengejutkan delegasi dina Kongres ke-20 [[Partei Komunis Uni Soviét|Partei Komunis Soviét]] dengan mencela kejahatan Stalin.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=107}}</ref> Sebagai bagéan ti kampanye [[de-Stalieusasi]], manéhna nyatakeun yén hiji-hijina cara pikeun méré formasi jeung menjauh ti kawijakan Stalin nyaéta dengan mengakui kesalahan nu dilakukana dina masa lalu.<ref name = "Karabell" /> Dina tanggal 18 November 1956, saat berpidato ka duta besar Kulon dina salah sahiji resepsi di kedutaan Polandia di Moskow, Khrushchev mengungkapkan kalimat terkenalnya: "Entah kalian suka atawa henteu, sejarah aya di pihak kami. Kamibakal mengubur kalian", pernyataana ieu mengejutkan sakabéh tamu nu hadir.<ref>"[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,867329,00.html We Will Bury You!] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130824033318/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,867329,00.html |date=2013-08-24 }}", ''[[Time (magazine)|Time magazine]]'', November 26, 1956. Retrieved June 26, 2008.</ref> Khrushchev kemudian mengklaim yén manéhna teu membicarakan ngeunaan perang nuklir, melainkan ngeunaan kemenangan komunisme atas kapitalismeu.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=84}}</ref> Taun 1961, Khrushchev nyatakeun: "bahkan jika Uni Soviét aya di belakang Kulon, dina satu dekade kekurangan perumahanbakal lenyap, barang-barang konsumsibakal melimpah, jeung dina dua dekade, pembangunan masyarakat komunis di Uni Soviétbakal selesai".<ref>{{Harvnb|Tompson|1997|pp=237–239}}</ref> Sekretaris nagara Eisenhower, John Foster Dulles, ngamimitian kawijakan "[[New Look]]" nu jadi strategi kontainmen (penahanan) anyar, nu nyerukeun supaya AS leuwih ngandelkeun senjata nuklir pikeun ngalawan musuh-musuhna keur waktuna perang.<ref name = "Karabell" /> Dulles ogé nyerukeun doktrin "pembalasan besar-besaran" jeung nitah ka AS pikeun teu nanggepan unggal agresi Soviét. Sebagai contoh, karena Soviét mibanda kaunggulan nuklir, Eisenhower, di handap ancaman ti Khrushchev, nolak pikeun campur tangan dina [[Krisis Suez]] di [[Wétan Tengah]] dina taun 1956.<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> === Pakta Warsawa jeung Révolusi Hungaria === {{Main|Pakta Warsawa| Révolusi Hongaria}} [[Gambar:Location Warsaw Pakt.svg|thumb|right|300px|Peta nagara-nagara [[Pakta Warsawa]].]] Saenggeus kematian Stalin dina taun 1953, kategangan berlangsung dengan sedikit leuwih santai, meskipun situasi di Éropa tetep belum kondusif.<ref name = "Palmowski">{{Harvnb|Palmowski|year=2004}}</ref> Soviét, nu sudah nyieun jaringan perjanjian bantuan timbal balik dina [[Blok Wétan]] dina taun 1949,<ref>Feldbrugge, p. 818</ref> ogé nyieun suatu aliansi formal pikeun ngalengkepana, nyaéta [[Pakta Warsawa]] dina taun 1955.<ref name = "Byrd" /> [[Révolusi Hongaria]] 1956 terjadi teu lila saenggeus Khrushchev menghapuskan kakuasaan pamingpin Stalieus Hongaria [[Mátyás Rákosi]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/4/newsid_2739000/2739039.stm|title=Soviét troops overrun Hungary|publisher=BBC News|date=November 4, 1956|accessdate=June 11, 2008}}</ref> Sebagai tanggepan ka pemberontakan,<ref>Video: [http://files.osa.ceu.hu/holdings/selection/rip/4/av/1956-44.html Revolt in Hungary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071117094223/http://files.osa.ceu.hu/holdings/selection/rip/4/av/1956-44.html |date=2007-11-17 }} Narrator: [[Walter Cronkite]], producer: CBS (1956) – Fonds 306, Audiovisual Materials Relating to the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, OSA Archivum, Budapest, Hungary ID number: HU OSA 306-0-1:40</ref> rezim anyar ieu sacara resmi dibubarkan ku [[ÁVH|polisi rusiah]], nyatakeun niatnya pikeun menarik diri ti [[Pakta Warsawa]] jeung jangji pikeun ngayakeun pemilihan umum nu. Tentara Soviét mulai menyerbu.<ref name=troops>UN General Assembly ''Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary'' (1957) {{PDF|[http://mek.oszk.hu/01200/01274/01274.pdf Chapter IV. E (Logistical deployment of new Soviét troops), para 181 (p. 56)]|1.47&nbsp;MB}}</ref> Rébuan warga Hongaria ditangkap, dipenjarakan, dideportasi ke Uni Soviét,<ref>{{cite web | title = Report by Soviét Deputy Interior Mieuster M. N. Holodkov to Interior Mieuster N. P. Dudorov (15 November 1956) | work = The 1956 Hungarian Revolution, A History in Documents | publisher = George Washington University: The National Security Archive | date = November 4, 2002 | url = http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB76/doc8.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate =Séptémber 2, 2006}}</ref> jeung leuwih ti 200.000 warga melarikan diri keluar Hongaria.<ref name="Cseresneyes">{{cite journal| last = Cseresnyés| first = Ferenc| title = The '56 Exodus to Austria| journal = The Hungarian Quarterly| volume = XL| issue = 154| pages = 86–101| publisher = Society of the Hungarian Quarterly| url = http://www.hungarianquarterly.com/no154/086.html| date = Summer 1999| accessdate = October 9, 2006| ref = harv| postscript = .}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041127172402/http://www.hungarianquarterly.com/no154/086.html |date=November 27, 2004 }}</ref> Pamingpin Hongaria [[Imre Nagy]] jeung nu lianna dieksekusi saenggeus diprosés dina salah sahiji persidangan rusiah.<ref name="BBCJune16">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/16/ "On This Day June 16, 1989: Hungary reburies fallen hero Imre Nagy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090425235008/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/16/ |date=April 25, 2009 }} British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) reports on Nagy reburial with full honors. Retrieved October 13, 2006.</ref> Ti 1957 sampai 1961, Khrushchev sacara terbuka jeung teterusan ngancem Kulon ku pamusnahan nuklir. Manéhna mengklaim yén kamampuan rudal Soviét jauh leuwih unggul ti Amérika Sarikat, jeung mampu mupuskeun dayeuh-dayeuh di Amérika atawa Éropa. Namun, Khrushchev nolak keyakinan Stalin dina keniscayaan perang jeung nyatakeun yén tujuan barunya nyaéta pikeun "hirup berdampingan sacara damai".<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=70}}</ref> Kawijakan ieu berbéda dengan Soviét dina éra Stalin, di mana [[perjuangan kelas]] internasional hartina yén kadua kubu nu berlawanan aya dina konflik tak terelakkan dengan komunisme nu bakal menang melalui [[Perang Dunya|perang global]]. Ayeuna, perdamaianbakal ngamungkinkeun kapitalismeu pikeun menghadapi keruntuhana sendiri,<ref>{{Harvnb|Perlmutter|1997|p=145}}</ref> jeung ogé méré waktu bagi Soviét pikeun ningkatkeun kamampuan militer maranéhna,<ref>{{Harvnb|Njolstad|2004|p=136}}</ref> nu bakal tetep bertahan puluhan taun sampai munculnya éra "pemikiran baru" Gorbachev.<ref>Breslauer, p. 72</ref> Paristiwa di [[Hongaria]] melumpuhkan idéologi partéy-partéy Komunis dunya, terutama di [[Éropa Kulon]], jeung terjadi penurunan nu besar dina jumlah kéanggotaan partéy. Nagara-nagara Kulon jeung komunis merasa kecewa dengan respon brutal Soviét.<ref name=Lendvai196>{{Cite book |last = Lendvai |first = Paul |title = One day that shook the Communist world: the 1956 Hungarian uprising and its legacy |publisher = Princeton University Press |year = 2008 |page = 196 |url = |id = |isbn = 0-691-13282-8}}</ref> partéy komunis di Kulon can pernah pulih ti pangaruh Révolusi Hongaria dina hal kéanggotaan partéy, fakta nu segera diakui ku Babaraha pihak, seperti politisi [[Yugoslavia]] [[Milovan Djilas]], nu nyatakeun yén: "luka nu ditorehkan ku Révolusi Hongaria ka komunisme can pernah bener-bener sembuh".<ref name=Lendvai196/> === Ultimatum Berlin jeung integrasi Éropa === [[Gambar:Soviét empire 1960.png|thumb|Wilayah-wilayah di dunya nu aya di handap pangaruh Soviét saenggeus [[Révolusi Kuba]] taun 1959 jeung saméméh [[perpecahan Sino-Soviét]] taun 1961.|pra=Special:FilePath/Soviét_empire_1960.png]] Salila bulan November 1958, Khrushchev gagal pikeun ngarobah sakabéh [[Berlin]] jadi "dayeuh nu independen, terdemiliterisasi jeung bébas", hal ieu membuat Amérika Sarikat, Britania, jeung Perancis diberi ultimatum enam bulan pikeun menarik pasukan maranéhna ti sektor nu masih diicingan di Berlin Kulon, atawa Khrushchevbakal mengalihkan kendali hak akses Kulon ke [[Jerman Wétan]]. Khrushchev saméméhnya menjelaskan ka [[Mao Zedong]] yén "Berlin nyaéta testikelnya Kulon. Unggal kali saya hayang membuat Kulon menjerit, maka sayabakal meremas Berlin."<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=71}}</ref> [[NATO]] sacara resmi nolak ultimatum ieu dina pertengahan Désémber jeung Khrushchev menarik kembali ultimatumnya dina konferensi Jenewa.<ref>Glees, pp. 126–27</ref> Leuwih luas deui, salah sahiji ciri ti taun 1950-an nyaéta awal ti [[integrasi-Éropa]], nu mangrupa produk ti Perang Tiis nu memperomosikan pulitik, ékonomi, jeung militer Truman jeung Eisenhower, namun kemudian hal ieu dipandang sebagai kawijakan nu ambigu, takut yén Éropa nu independen bakal ngalakukeun ''[[détente]]'' misah ti Uni Soviét, nu bisa dipaké pikeun ngagogoréng perpecahan Kulon.<ref>Cameron‏, p. 156</ref> === Sasaingan di Dunya Katilu === {{Main|Kudéta Iran 1953|Kudéta Guatemala 1954|Krisis Kongo|Dekolonisasi|Gerakan Non-Blok}} [[Gambar:1961 CPA 2566.jpg|thumb|170px|right|Perangko Soviét taun 1961 nu nungtut kebébasan bagi nagara-nagara Afrika.]] [[Gambar:The Soviet Union 1961 CPA 2576 stamp (The Struggle for the Liberation of Africa. Lumumba ( 1925-1961 ), premier of Congo).jpg|thumb|upright|Perangko Soviét taun 1961 intuk memperingati [[Patrice Lumumba]], perdana menteri [[Republik Kongo]].]] Gerakan nasionalis di sabaraha nagara saperti [[Guatemala]], [[Indonésia]] jeung [[Indocina]] sok bersekutu jeung kelompok komunis, atawa nu dianggep ku Kulon dibantuan ku komunis.<ref name = "Karabell" /> Dina konteks ieu, Amérika Sarikat jeung Uni Soviét terus ningkatkeun sasaingan maranéhna pikeun nyebarkeun pangaruh dengan cara néangan proksi di [[Dunya Katilu]], jeung ieu bertepatan dengan momentum [[dekolonisasi]] dina taun 1950-an jeung awal 1960-an.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=121–124}}</ref> Selain itu, Soviét terus dirugikan ku kakuatan-kakuatan imperialis.<ref>Edelheit, p. 382</ref> Kadua pihak mulai ngalakukeun pengiriman jeung penjualan senjata ka nagara-nagara Dunya Katilu pikeun meunang pangaruh.<ref>{{cite book|last1 = Towle|first1 = Philip|title = The Oxford History of Modern War|chapter = Cold War|editors = Charles Townshend|publisher = Oxford University Press|year = 2000|location = New York, USA|page = 160|accessdate =August 12, 2011|isbn = 0-19-285373-2}}</ref> Amérika Sarikat memanfaatkan [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) pikeun menyusup ke dina pergolakan pulitik di Dunya Katilu jeung ogé pikeun ngadukung sekutu maranéhna.<ref name = "Karabell" /> Dina taun 1953, CIA melaksanakan [[Operasi Ajax]], salah sahiji operasi rusiah nu bertujuan pikeun ngagulingkeun perdana menteri [[Iran]], [[Mohammed Mossadegh]]. Mosadegh nu menganut prinsip [[Gerakan Non-Blok|Non-Blok]] telah jadi nemesis [[Wétan Tengah]] bagi Britania sejak manéhna menasionalisasi perusahaan minyak [[Anglo-Iranian Oil Company]] milik Britania dina taun 1951. [[Winston Churchill]] mengatakan ka AS yén Mossadegh "beuki beralih ke komunisme".<ref>Mark J. Gasiorowski and Malcolm Byrne ''Mohammad Mosaddegh and the 1953 Coup in Iran'', Syracuse University Press, May 2004. ISBN 0-8156-3018-2, p. 125.</ref><ref>{{Cite document |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB126/iran521120.pdf |format=PDF |title=United States policy regarding the current situation in Iran |publisher=George Washington University |date=November 20, 1952 |author=James S. Lay, Jr. |accessdate=November 7, 2007 |ref=harv}} Statement of policy proposed by the National Security Council</ref><ref>{{Cite document |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB126/iran530320.pdf |format=PDF |title=First Progress Report on Paragraph 5-1 of NSC 136/1, "U.S. Policy Regarding the Current Situation in Iran" |publisher=George Washington University |author=Walter B. Smith, Undersecretary |date=March 20, 1953 |accessdate=November 7, 2007 |ref=harv}}</ref><ref>{{Cite document |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB126/iran530300.pdf |publisher=George Washington University |title=Measures which the United States Government Might Take in Support of a Successor Government to Mosaddegh |month=March |year=1953 |format=PDF |accessdate=November 7, 2007 |ref=harv}}</ref> [[Shah]] nu pro-Kulon, [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]], kemudian naik jabatan sebagai monarki [[otokratik]].<ref>{{Cite book|last = Watson|first = Cynthia A.|title = U.S. National Security: A Reference Handbook|publisher = ABL-CLIO|year = 2002|location = Santa Barbara, California|page = 118|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=Nj2monE0y4cC|id =|isbn = 978-1-57607-598-2}}</ref> Kawijakan Shah nu anyar ieu di antarana ngalarang aktivitas partéy komunis [[Partei Tudeh|Tudeh]] jeung penekanan perbédaan pendapat pulitik ku [[SAVAK]], Badan kaamanan jeung intelijen dina negeri Shah. Di [[Guatemala]], salah sahiji [[Kudéta Guatemala 1954|kudéta militer nu didukung CIA]] berhasil ngagulingkeun présidén sayap kiri [[Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán]] dina taun 1954.<ref>Stone, ''The Atlantic and Its Enemies'' (2010) pp 199, 256</ref> Pamaréntah pasca-Arbenz nu dipimpin ku [[Carlos Castillo Armas]] mengembalikan sakabéh properti milik AS nu dinasionalisasi, nyieun [[Komite Nasional Pertahanan Ngalawan Komunisme]], jeung mendekritkan Hukum Pidana Pencegahan Ka Komunisme atas permintaan Amérika Sarikat.<ref>{{Cite book|last = Bulmer-Thomas|first = V.|title = The Political Economy of Central America since 1920|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 1987|location = Cambridge|page = 142|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=zHE5AAAAIAAJ|isbn = 978-0-521-34284-1}}</ref> présidén Indonésia, [[Soekarno]], nu ngagem prinsip-prinsip Non-Blok, dihadapkan dina ancaman besar dina awal taun 1956, ketika Babaraha komanjeung daerah mulai nungtut otonomi ti [[Jakarta]]. Saenggeus prosés mediasi gagal, Soekarno mengambil tindakan tegas pikeun menyingkirkan maranéhna nu membangkang. Dina bulan Februari 1958, komanjeung militer di [[Sumatera Tengah]] (Kolonel [[Ahmad Husein]]) jeung Sulawesi Kalér (Kolonel [[Ventje Sumual]]) mendeklarasikan pembentukan [[Pamaréntah Révolusioner Republik Indonésia]]-[[Permesta]], nu bertujuan pikeun ngagulingkeun rezim Soekarno. Maranéhna bergabung dengan politisi sipil lianna ti partéy [[Masyumi]] seperti [[Sjafruddin Prawiranagara]], nu ngalawan pertumbuhan pangaruh ti [[Partei Komunis Indonésia]]. Karena retorika anti-komunis maranéhna, pemberontakan maranéhna mendapat bantuan senjata, dana, jeung bantuan lianna ti CIA. Hal ieu terbukti saat pesawat Amérika nu dipiloti ku [[Allen Lawrence Pope]] tertembak jatuh di [[Ambon]] dina bulan April 1958. Pamaréntah pusat nanggepannya dengan meluncurkan invasi militer lewat laut jeung udara melalui [[Dinang]] jeung [[Manado]]. Dina ahir 1958, para pemberontak berhasil dikalahkan, jeung pemberontak nu tersisa menyerahkan diri dina bulan Agustus 1961.<ref>{{cite book |last = Roadnight |first = Andrew |title = United States Policy towards Indonesia in the Truman and Eisenhower Years |publisher = Palgrave Macmillan |year = 2002 |location = New York |pages = |url = |isbn = 0-333-79315-3}}</ref> Di [[Irak]], [[Abd al-Karim Qasim]] [[Révolusi 14 Juli|ngagulingkeun]] monarki [[Hashemite]] dina taun 1958 jeung ngawangun aliansi dengan [[Partei Komunis Irak]] jeung Uni Soviét.<ref>{{cite book|author = [[Con Coughlin|Coughlin, Con]]| pages = 25–26|title = Saddam: His Rise and Fall|location =|publisher = [[Harper Perennial]]|year = 2005|isbn = 0-06-050543-5}}</ref> Meskipun [[Partei Ba'ath Sosialis Arab – Wilayah Irak|Partei Ba'ath]] nu anti-komunis nyaéta faksi dominan dina kabinét Qasim,<ref>{{cite book|author = [[Con Coughlin|Coughlin, Con]]| pages = 24–25|title = Saddam: His Rise and Fall|location =|publisher = [[Harper Perennial]]|year = 2005|isbn = 0-06-050543-5}}</ref> AS mulai khawatir yén pemberontakan mungkinbakal menginspirasi "reaksi berantai" di sakabéh Wétan Tengah.<ref>Lesch, David W. ''The Middle East and the United States Third Edition: A Historical and Political Reassessment''. Boulder: Westview Press, 2003. page 173.</ref> Mesir jeung Suriah ogé berusaha pikeun membunuh Qasim pikeun alasan maranéhna sendiri,<ref>{{cite book|author = [[Con Coughlin|Coughlin, Con]]| page = 27|title = Saddam: His Rise and Fall|location =|publisher = [[Harper Perennial]]|year = 2005|isbn = 0-06-050543-5}}</ref> CIA ogé dianggep berperan dina ngirimkan saputangan beracun ka Qasim (meskipun masih diperdebatkan).<ref name=Church181>{{Cite book |chapter = C. Institutionalizing Assassination: the "Executive Action" capability |title = Alleged Assassination Plots involving Foreign Leaders |author = Senate Select Committee on Intelligence |date = 20 November 1975 |url = http://history-matters.com/archive/church/reports/ir/contents.htm |page = 181 |ref = harv }}</ref> Saenggeus serangkaian kudéta, Ba'athist berhasil méré but kakuasaan dina taun 1968, kemungkinan dengan dukungan ti KGB,<ref>Mauro, Ryan, [http://globalpolitician.com/21610-iraq-syria-wmd "Interview with Ali Ibrahim al-Tikriti,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016163428/http://www.globalpolitician.com/21610-iraq-syria-wmd |date=2012-10-16 }} ''Global Politician'', 14 February 2006. The former Ba'athist general claims: "The Soviét Union openly supported and backed the [[17 July Revolution|Ba'athist revolution in Iraq]] at the time and I am sure you can find news articles about it in European press agencies and others at the time. I was there helping with the revolution and worked on two occasions with Soviét KGB officials to help train us, much like the United States did with the Taliban during the Soviét campaign in Afghanistan."</ref> meskipun militer Irak ogé ngalakukeun kudéta.<ref>{{cite book|author = [[Con Coughlin|Coughlin, Con]]| page = 52|title = Saddam: His Rise and Fall|location =|publisher = [[Harper Perennial]]|year = 2005|isbn = 0-06-050543-5}}</ref> Di Républik Kongo, nu anyar merdeka ti [[Belgia]] dina bulan Juni 1960, CIA menghasut présidén [[Joseph Kasa-Vubu]] pikeun memecat Perdana Menteri kapilih [[Patrice Lumumba]] jeung membubarkan kabinét Lumumba dina bulan Séptémber.<ref name = "Schraeder 1994, 57">{{Cite book|last = Schraeder|first = Peter J.|title = United States Foreign Policy Toward Africa: Incrementalism, Crisis, and Change|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 1994|location = Cambridge|page = 57|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=goKxyUia-7UC|id = |isbn = 978-0-521-46677-6}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Dina [[Krisis Kongo]] nu terjadi saenggeusnya, CIA ngadukung Kolonel [[Mobutu]] dengan cara memobilisasi pasukana pikeun méré but kakuasaan melalui kudéta militer.<ref name = "Schraeder 1994, 57"/> Di [[Guiana Britania]], kandidat [[Partei Progresif Rakyat]] (PPP) nu berhaluan kiri, [[Cheddi Jagan]], meunangkeun posisi ketua menteri dina pemilihan umum kolonial nu diselenggarakan dina taun 1953, namun sacara cepat dipaksa pikeun mengundurkan diri ti jabatana saenggeus ayana suspensi ti Britania Raya nu masih mibanda kewenangan ka konstitusi nagara éta.<ref name = "Rose 2002, 167">{{Cite book|last = Rose|first = Euclid A.|title = Dependency and Socialism in the Modern Caribbean: Superpower Intervention in Guyana, Jamaica, and Grenada, 1970–1985|publisher = Lexington Books|year = 2002|location = Lanham|page = 57|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=KkPb3-krfQgC|id =|isbn = 978-0-7391-0448-4}}</ref> Dipermalukan ku kemenangan telak Jagan nu diduga Marxis, Britania memenjarakan ketua PPP dina taun 1955 jeung maranéhnayasa perpecahan antara Jagan dengan rekan PPP nya.<ref name="Mars & Young 2004, xviii">Mars, Perry & Alma H. Young (2004). [http://books.google.com/books?id=F4lJBFU-k1wC ''Caribbean Labor and Politics: Legacies of Cheddi Jagan and Michael Manley'']. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. p. xviii. ISBN 978-0-8143-3211-5.</ref> Jagan deudeuieun meunangkeun pemilu kolonial dina taun 1957 jeung 1961. Amérika Sarikat menekan Britania pikeun menunda méré kemerdekaan ka Guiana sampai haluan pulitik Jagan telah teridentifikasi.<ref>{{Cite book|last = Palmer|first = Colin A.|title = Cheddi Jagan and the Politics of Power: British Guiana's Struggle for Independence|publisher = University of North Carolina Press|year = 2010|location = Chapel Hill|pages = 247–248|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=NHd1sxVg4XwC|id =|isbn = 978-0-8078-3416-9}}</ref> Karena dilelahkan ku [[Perang Indochina Kahiji|perang gerilya komunis nu nungtut kemerdekaan Vietnam]], Perancis setuju pikeun ngalakukeun negosiasi dengan komunis Vietnam. Dina [[Konferensi Jenewa (1954)|Konferensi Jenewa]], perjanjian damai ditandatangani, jeung Vietnam dibagi jadi [[Vietnam Kalér]] nu pro-Soviét jeung [[Vietnam Kidul]] nu pro-Kulon. Antara taun 1954 jeung 1961, Amérika Sarikat ngirimkan bantuan ékonomi jeung penasihat militer pikeun memperkuat rezim pro-Kulon Vietnam Kidul dina menghalangi upaya komunis nu berniat pikeun mengacaukana.<ref name = "LaFeber 1991"/> Loba nagara-nagara berkembang di Asia, Afrika, jeung Amérika Latin nu nolak tekanan pikeun memihak salah sahiji blok. Dina taun 1955, dina [[Konferensi Asia-Afrika|Konferensi Bandung]] di Indonésia, puluhan nagara Dunya Katilu memutuskan pikeun keluar ti Perang Tiis.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=126}}</ref> [[Dasasila Bandung|Konsesus nu ditetepkan di Bandung]] mencapai puncaknya dengan didirikana [[Gerakan Non-Blok]] nu bermarkas di [[Belgrade]] dina taun 1961.<ref name = "Karabell" /> Sementara itu, Khrushchev memperluas kawijakan Moskow dengan menjalin hubungan dengan [[India]] jeung nagara-nagara netral lianna. Gerakan kemerdekaan di Dunya Katilu ngarobah tatanan dunya pasca-perang jadi leuwih pluralistik dengan diterapkana [[dekolonisasi]] bagi nagara-nagara Afrika jeung Wétan Tengah jeung semangat nasionalisme ogé meningkat di Asia jeung Amérika Latin.<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> === Perpecahan Sino-Soviét jeung Perlombaan Angkasa === {{Main|Perpecahan Sino-Soviét|Perlombaan Angkasa}} [[Gambar:Space Race 1957-1975 black text.png|thumb|right|Diagram perkembangan [[Perlombaan Angkasa]] dina taun 1957–1975.]] périodeu saenggeus 1956 ditandai dengan kemunduran serius bagi Uni Soviét, terutama pecahnya aliansi Cina-Soviét, nu dimulai dengan [[perpecahan Sino-Soviét]]. Mao membela Stalin ketika Khrushchev mengkritiknya saenggeus kematiana dina taun 1956, jeung menganggep pamingpin Soviét nu anyar sebagai "pemula nu dangkal", Mao ogé menuduhnya telah keleungitan sisi Révolusioner.<ref name="Gaddis142" /> Sementara itu, Khrushchev, nu merasa terganggu atas sikap Mao nu anti-perang nuklir, menyebut pamingpin Cina sebagai "orang nu gila takhta".<ref>{{cite book|last=Kempe|first=Frederick|title=Berlin 1961|year=2011|publisher=Penguin Group (USA)|isbn=0-399-15729-8|page=42}}</ref> Saenggeus hal itu terjadi, Khrushchev ngalakukeun rupa-rupa upaya pikeun ngawangun kembali aliansi dengan Cina, namun Mao nolak unggal usulana.<ref name="Gaddis142">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=142}}</ref> Permusuhan Cina-Soviét ieu ahirnya tumpah dina perang propaganda intra-komunis.<ref>Lüthi, pp. 273–276</ref> Selanjutnya, Soviét mulai berfokus dina sasaingan sengit dengan Cina pikeun memperebutkan posisi sebagai pamingpin gerakan komunis dunya.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=140–142}}</ref> Dilatardepani ku [[senjata nuklir]], Amérika Sarikat jeung Uni Soviét mulai bersaing pikeun ngawangun persenjataan nuklir jeung mengembangkan senjata jangka-panjang nu bisa maranéhna pergunakan pikeun menyerang satu sama lain.<ref name = "Byrd" /> Bulan Agustus 1957, Soviét berhasil meluncurkan [[peluru kendali balistik antar benua]] pertama (ICBM),<ref>Lackey, p. 49</ref> jeung dina bulan Oktobernya, Soviét meluncurkan satelit Bumi pertama, [[Program Sputnik|Sputnik]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/4/newsid_2685000/2685115.stm|title=Sputnik satellite blasts into space|publisher=BBC News|date=October 4, 1957|accessdate=June 11, 2008}}</ref> Peluncuran Sputnik ieu menandai dimulainya [[Perlombaan Angkasa]] antara Soviét jeung Amérika Sarikat. Sasaingan ieu memuncak dengan [[Program Apollo|pendaratan Apollo di Bulan]], nu dideskripsikan ku astronot [[Frank Borman]] sebagai "pertempuran dina Perang Tiis".<ref>{{cite web| title = To Boldly Go|author=Klesius, Michael|work=Air & Space| url = http://www.airspacemag.com/space-exploration/To-Boldly-Go.html|accessdate=January 7, 2009|date=December 19, 2008}}</ref> === Révolusi Kuba jeung Invasi Teluk Babi === {{Main|Révolusi Kuba| Invasi Teluk Babi}} [[Gambar:CheyFidel.jpg|thumb|right|170px|[[Fidel Castro]] (kanan) jeung [[Che Guevara]], 1961.]] Di [[Kuba]], [[Gerakan 26 Juli]] berhasil méré but kakuasaan dina bulan Januari 1959, menjatuhkan présidén [[Fulgencio Batista]], nu rezimnya teu populer jeung teu direstui ku Pamaréntahan Eisenhower.<ref>{{Cite book|last = Blumberg|first = Arnold|title = Great Leaders, Great Tyrants?: Contemporary Views of World Rulers Who Made History|publisher = Greenwood Press|year = 1995|location = Westport, Connecticut|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=nofUu5tvJ18C|id =|isbn = 978-0-313-28751-0|pages = 23–24}}</ref> Hubungan diplomatik antara Kuba jeung Amérika Sarikat terus berlanjut salila Babaraha waktu saenggeus kejatuhan Batista, namun présidén Eisenhower sengaja meninggalkan ibu kota pikeun menghinti pertemuan dengan pamingpin pemuda Révolusioner Kuba [[Fidel Castro]] dina bulan April, jeung memerintahkan Wakil présidén [[Richard Nixon]] pikeun mengadakan pertemuan dengan Castro di kediamana.<ref>{{Cite book|last = Lechuga Hevia|first = Carlos|title = Cuba and the Missile Crisis|publisher = Ocean Press|year = 2001|location = Melbourne, Australia|page = 142|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=aKLrYxcDg2wC|id =|isbn = 978-1-876175-34-4}}</ref> Eisenhower teu yakin, apakah Castro séorang komunis atawa bukan. Eisenhower ogé ngalawan upaya Kuba pikeun ngurangan ketergantungan ékonomi maranéhna dina Amérika Sarikat.<ref name = "Smith 1998, 95">{{Cite book|last = Smith|first = Joseph|title = The Cold War 1945–1991|publisher = Blackwell|year = 1998|location = Oxford|page = 95|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=FnnF9NKMJdkC|id =|isbn = 978-0-631-19138-4}}</ref> Kuba mulai ngalakukeun negosiasi pembelian senjata dengan Éropa Wétan dina bulan Maret 1960.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dominguez|1989|p=22}}</ref> Bulan Januari 1961, sesaat saméméh turun ti jabatana, Eisenhower sacara resmi memutuskan hubungan dengan Pamaréntah Kuba. Dina bulan April 1961, présidén Amérika nu anyar kapilih, [[John F. Kennedy]], dengan bantuan ti [[wCIA]], gagal [[Invasi Teluk Babi|menginvasi pulau-pulau]] di Playa Girón jeung Playa Larga di [[Provinsi Las Villas]]{{mdash}}kegagalan nu ngéra-ngérakeun Amérika Sarikat di mata dunya.<ref name = "Smith 1998, 95"/> Castro nanggepannya dengan mengadopsi paham [[Marxisme-Lenieusme]], jeung Soviét jangji pikeun méré dukungan leuwih lanjut ka Kuba.<ref name = "Smith 1998, 95"/> === Krisis Berlin 1961 === {{Main|Krisis Berlin 1961|Tembok Berlin|Pembelotan jeung emigrasi Blok Wétan}} [[Gambar:Checkpoint Charlie 1961-10-27.jpg|thumb|Tank Soviét berhadapan dengan tank Amérika Sarikat di [[Checkpoint Charlie]], 27 Oktober, salila berlangsungnya Krisis Berlin 1961]] [[Krisis Berlin 1961]] nyaéta insiden besar terahir nu terjadi dina masa Perang Tiis terkait dengan status [[Berlin]] jeung kondisi Jerman pasca-Perang Dunya II. Dina awal 1950-an, [[Pembelotan jeung emigrasi Blok Wétan|pendekatan Soviét ngeunaan kawijakan pembatasan emigrasi]] ditiru ku sebagéan besar nagara [[Blok Wétan]] lianna.<ref name="dowty114">{{Harvnb|Dowty|1989|p=114}}</ref> Namun, ratusan ribu warga [[Jerman Wétan]] bérémigrasi ke [[Jerman Kulon]] unggal tauna melalui "celah" nu terdapat dina sistem antara Berlin Wétan jeung Berlin Kulon jeung dengan bantuan ti pasukan Sekutu di Jerman Kulon.<ref name="harrison99">{{Harvnb|Harrison|2003|p=99}}</ref> Emigrasi ngabalukarkeun berpindahnya sumber daya manusia nu berpotensi seperti kalangan profesional terdidik ti Jerman Wétan ke Jerman Kulon, hampir 20% penduduk Jerman Wétan telah bermigrasi ke Jerman Kulon dina taun 1961.<ref name="dowty122">{{Harvnb|Dowty|1989|p=122}}</ref> Dina bulan Juni, Uni Soviét mengeluarkan ultimatum anyar nu nungtut panarikan pasukan [[Sekutu]] ti Berlin Kulon.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=114}}</ref> Permintaan éta ditolak, jeung dina tanggal 13 Agustus, Jerman Wétan ngawangun hahalang kawat cucukan nu diteruskeun konstruksina dilegaan nepi ka engké nyieun [[Tembok Berlin]], nu sacara épéktip nutupan "celah" antara kadua wilayah éta.<ref name="pearson75">{{Harvnb|Pearson|1998|p=75}}</ref> === Krisis Rudal Kuba jeung penggulingan Khrushchev === {{Main|Proyék Kuba|Krisis Rudal Kuba}} [[Gambar:P-2H Neptune over Soviét ship Oct 1962.jpg|thumb|Kapal [[P-2 Neptune|P-2]] milik [[Angkatan Laut Amérika Sarikat]] terbang di atas salah sahiji kapal barang Soviét salila Krisis Rudal Kuba.|pra=Special:FilePath/P-2H_Neptune_over_Soviét_ship_Oct_1962.jpg]] Saenggeus [[Invasi Teluk Babi]], Kennedy terus néangan cara pikeun ngagulingkeun [[Fidel Castro|Castro]], Kennedy jeung Pamaréntahana béréksperimen sacara diam-diam dengan memfasilitasi penggulingan Pamaréntahan [[Kuba]]. Harapan nu signifikan disematkan dina salah sahiji program rusiah bernama [[Proyék Kuba]], nu dirancang di handap Pamaréntahan Kennedy dina taun 1961. Dina bulan Februari 1962, Khrushchev mengetahui rencana Amérika ka Kuba: "proyék Kuba"{{mdash}}disetujui ku CIA jeung menetapkan penggulingan Pamaréntah Kuba dina bulan Oktober, kemungkinan melibatkan militer Amérika{{mdash}}jeung Kennedy mungkin memerintahkan operasi pembunuhan ka Castro.<ref name="Zubok 1994, 158-159">Zubok, Vladislav M. (1994). "Unwrapping the Enigma: What Was Behind the Soviét Challenge in the 1960s?". In Diane B. Kunz (Ed.), ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SiVTA31wrzEC The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decade: American Foreign Relations During the 1960s]''. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 158-159. ISBN 978-0-231-08177-1.</ref> Sebagai respon, Soviét mempersiapkan pemasangan rudal nuklirnya di Kuba.<ref name = "Zubok 1994, 158-159"/> Khawatir, Kennedy mutuskeun rupa-rupa réaksi pikeun nanggepannya, jeung ahirnya nanggepan instalasi rudal nuklir Soviét di Kuba dengan ngalakukeun blokade laut jeung méré ultimatum ka Soviét. Khrushchev mundur ti konfrontasi, jeung Uni Soviét membongkar rudalnya dengan imbalan janji Amérika agar teu deui menyerang Kuba.<ref>{{Cite book|last = Jones|first = Howard|title = Crucible of Power: A History of American Foreign Relations from 1945|publisher = Rowman & Littlefield|year = 2009|location = Lanham|page = 122|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=WwEu5Yv9KiUC|id =|isbn = 978-0-7425-6454-1}}</ref> [[Krisis Rudal Kuba]] (Oktober-November 1962) membawa dunya leuwih dekat ke arah [[perang nuklir]] tidina saméméhnya.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=82}}</ref> Leuwih lanjut, kajadian éta ogé nunjukkeun konsép silih yakinkeun bakal bahaya kaancuran, yén [[nagara adidaya]] teu siap pikeun menggunakan senjata nuklir maranéhna, takutbakal ayana kaancuran global total karena silih balas dendam.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=80}}</ref> Dampak ti krisis ieu ngabalukarkeun dilakukana upaya pertama dina membatasi [[perlombaan senjata nuklir]] dengan pelucutan senjata jeung perbaikan hubungan,<ref name = "Palmowski" /> meskipun upaya-upaya pikeun mencegah meletusnya perang nuklir telah ditetepkan sejak taun 1961 melalui [[Sistem Traktat Antarktika|Perjanjian Antartika]].<ref>National Research Council Committee on Antarctic Policy and Science, p. 33</ref> Taun 1964, rekan [[Kremlin]] Khrushchev berhasil [[Nikita Khrushchev#Penggulingan|ngagulingkeuna]], namun tetep mengizinkana pikeun pensiun dengan damai.<ref name="Gaddis119">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=119–120}}</ref> Khrushchev dituduh memerintah dengan kasar jeung inkompetensi, dia ogé dianggep telah menghancurkan sektor pertanian Soviét jeung membawa dunya ke ambang perang nuklir.<ref name="Gaddis119" /> Khrushchev ogé disebutkeun telah ngéra-ngérakeun dunya komunis ketika manéhna méré smikan pemwangunan Tembok Berlin, nu dianggep sebagai salah sahiji penghinaan publik pikeun Marxisme-Lenieusme.<ref name="Gaddis119" /> Posisi jabatan Nikita Khrushchev digantikan ku Léonid Brezhnev sebagai pamingpin partéy Komunis jeung sementara Alexei Kosygin menduduki kursi Perdana Menteri. == Konfrontasi melalui détente (1962–1979) == {{Main|Perang Tiis (1962–1979)}} [[Gambar:1973 NATO and WP troop strengths in Europe.svg|thumb|Kakuatan pasukan NATO jeung Pakta Warsawa di Éropa taun 1973.]] [[Gambar:Buzz salutes the U.S. Flag.jpg|right|thumb|Amérika Sarikat [[Apollo 11|mendarat pikeun pertama kalinya di bulan]] dina taun 1969—puncak ti [[perlombaan angkasa]].]] [[Gambar:F-4B VF-151 CV-41 TU-95.jpg|right|thumb| [[F-4 Phantom II]] milik US Navy menyadap pesawat [[Tupolev Tu-95]] D Soviét dina awal 1970-an.]] Dina périodeu 1960-an jeung 1970-an, peserta Perang Tiis berjuang pikeun menyesuaikan diri dengan pola anyar [[hubungan internasional]] nu leuwih rumit, dunya teu deui dibagi jadi dua blok besar nu bertentangan.<ref name = "Karabell" /> Ti awal périodeu pasca-perang, Éropa Kulon jeung [[Jepang]] dengan cepat pulih ti kaancuran Perang Dunya II jeung mulai mengalami pertumbuhan ékonomi nu kuat sepanjang taun 1950-an jeung 1960-an, dengan PDB per kapita nu hampir mendekati Amérika Sarikat, sadengkeun [[perékonomian Blok Wétan]] mengalami stagnasi.<ref name="Karabell" /><ref name="hardt16">{{Harvnb|Hardt|Kaufman|1995|p=16}}</ref> Sebagai akibat ti [[krisis minyak 1973]], dikombinasikan dengan beuki kuatnya pangaruh [[Dunya Katilu]] dengan ngawangun organisasi-organisasi seperti [[OPEC|Organisasi Nagara-Nagara Pengekspor Minyak]] (OPEC) jeung [[Gerakan Non-Blok]], nagara-nagara Dunya Katilu mibanda leuwih loba ruang pikeun memproklamirkan kemerdekaan maranéhna jeung beuki nunjukkeun yén maranéhna tahan banting ka tekanan ti nagara adidaya.<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 212"/> Sementara itu, [[Uni Soviét|Soviét]] dipaksa pikeun mengalihkan perhatiana dina isu-isu internal seperti permasalahan ékonomi di dina negeri.<ref name="Karabell" /> Salila périodeu ieu, pamingpin Soviét seperti [[Leonid Brezhnev]] jeung [[Alexei Kosygin]] mulai menerapkan pamarekan[[détente]].<ref name = "Karabell" /> === Pengunduran diri Perancis ti NATO === {{Main|NATO#Pengunduran diri Perancis ti NATO}} Keberlangsungan [[NATO]] sudah menghadapi tantangan dina awal sejarahnya, krisis terjadi salila kepamingpinan [[Charles de Gaulle]] ti [[Perancis]] dina taun 1958 jeung seterusnya. De Gaulle protes ngeunaan kuatnya peran Amérika Sarikat dina organisasi jeung cemburu atas "[[hubungan istimewa]]" antara Amérika Sarikat jeung Britania Raya. Dina salah sahiji memo nu dikirimkan dina présidén [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] jeung Perdana Menteri [[Harold Macmillan]] dina tanggal 17 Séptémber 1958, manéhna berpendapat pikeun nyieun tiga serangkai direktorat nu bakal memposisikan Perancis dina kedudukan nu sama dengan Amérika Sarikat jeung Britania Raya, jeung ogé perluasan cakupan NATO ke wilayah géografis nu mibanda kapentingan dengan Perancis, seperti [[Aljazair Perancis]], nu pemberontakana di dukung ku Perancis.<ref name=deGuaulle>{{Cite book |last = Menon‏ |first = Anand |title = France, NATO, and the limits of independence, 1981–97: the politics of ambivalence |publisher = Palgrave Macmillan |year = 2000 |page = 11 |url = |id = |isbn = 0-312-22931-3}}</ref> Karena respon nu diberikan teu memuaskan, de Gaulle mulai mengembangkan [[penangkal nuklir]] Perancis sacara independen jeung dina taun 1966, Perancis mengundurkan diri ti NATO, diikuti dengan pengusiran sakabéh pasukan NATO ti daratan Perancis.<ref>Crawley p.431</ref> === Invasi Cekoslowakia === {{Main|Musim Semi Praha|Invasi Pakta Warsawa ke Cekoslowakia}} Dina taun 1968, périodeu liberalisasi pulitik di [[Cekoslowakia]], nu dijuluki dengan [[Musim Semi Praha]], berlangsung dengan rupa-rupa aksi, di antaranya "[[Program Aksi (1968)|Program Aksi]]" liberalisasi, nu nungtut perluasan kebébasan pers, kebébasan berbicara jeung kebébasan bergerak, ogé penekanan ékonomi dina barang-barang konsumsi, kemungkinan sistem multi partéy, membatasi kakuasaan polisi rusiah,<ref>Ello (ed.), Paul (April 1968). Control Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, "Action Plan of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (Prague, April 1968)" in ''Dubcek’s Blueprint for Freedom: His original documents leading to the invasion of Czechoslovakia.'' William Kimber & Co. 1968, pp 32, 54</ref><ref>{{cite web| last = Von Geldern| first = James| last2 = Siegelbaum| first2 = Lewis| publisher = Soviéthistory.org| title = The Soviét-led Intervention in Czechoslovakia| url = http://Soviéthistory.org/index.php?action=L2&SubjectID=1968czechoslovakia&Year=1968| accessdate = March 7, 2008}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> jeung kemungkinan Cekoslowakia pikeun menarik diri ti [[Pakta Warsawa]].<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 150">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=150}}</ref> Sebagai jawaban atas aksi Musim Semi Praha, tentara Soviét bersama dengan sebagéan besar sekutu Pakta Warsawa maranéhna, [[Invasi Pakta Warsawa ke Cekoslowakia|menyerbu Cekoslowakia]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/21/newsid_2781000/2781867.stm|title=Russia brings winter to Prague Spring|publisher=BBC News|date=August 21, 1968|accessdate=June 10, 2008}}</ref> Invasi ieu diikuti ku gelombang emigrasi, sekitar 70.000 warga Ceko jeung Slowakia melarikan diri, jeung total ahirnya mencapai 300.000 jiwa.<ref>{{cite web | last = Čulík| first = Jan| title = Den, kdy tanky zlikvidovaly české sny Pražského jara| url = http://www.britskelisty.cz/9808/19980821h.html| publisher = Britské Listy| accessdate =January 23, 2008 }}</ref> Invasi ieu memicu protes keras ti Yugoslavia, Rumania, Cina, jeung ogé ti partéy-partéy komunis di Éropa Kulon.<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 154">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=154}}</ref> === Doktrin Brezhnev === {{Main|Doktrin Brezhnev}} [[Gambar:Leonid Brezhnev and Richard Nixon talks in 1973.png|left|thumb|[[Leonid Brezhnev]] jeung [[Richard Nixon]] salila kunjungan Brezhnev ke [[Washington]] dina Juni 1973; kunjungan ieu nyaéta permulaan ''détente'' antara Amérika Sarikat jeung Soviét.]] Dina bulan Séptémber 1968, dina pidatonya di Kongres Kelima [[Partei Persatuan Pekerja Polandia]], sebulan saenggeus [[Invasi Pakta Warsawa ke Cekoslowakia|menginvasi Cekoslowakia]], Brezhnev menyampaikan [[Doktrin Brezhnev]]; nu mengklaim yén "hak kami pikeun melanggar kedaulatan nagara manapun jika ada nu berupaya pikeun menggantikan Marxisme-Lenieusme dengan kapitalismeu". Dina pidatonya, Brezhnev nyatakeun:<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 150"/> {{cquote|Ketika kakuatan nu memusuhi sosialisme mencoba pikeun ngarobah haluan Babaraha nagara sosialis menuju kapitalismeu, itu bukan hanya jadi masalah bagi nagara nu bersangkutan, namun masalah umum jeung kepedulian ti sakabéh nagara-nagara sosialis.}} Doktrin éta dilatarbelakangi ku kegagalan Marxisme-Lenieusme dina ningkatkeun kesejahteraan di nagara-nagara seperti Polandia, [[Hongaria]] jeung Jerman Wétan, nu mengalami penurunan standar hirup nu kontras dengan kemakmuran Jerman Kulon jeung nagara Éropa Kulon lianna.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=153}}</ref> === Krisis di Dunya Katilu === {{See also|Operasi Power Pack|Pembantaian di Indonesia 1965–1966|Perang Vietnam|Kudéta Chili 1973|Operasi Burung Kondor|Perang Enam Hari|Perang Atrisi|Perang Yom Kippur|Perang Ogaden|Perang Saudara Angola|Invasi Indonésia ke Timor Wétan}} [[Gambar:Glassboro-meeting1967.jpg|thumb|right|[[Alexei Kosygin]] (kiri) di samping Presiden AS [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] (kanan) dina [[Konferensi Tingkat Tinggi Glassboro]].]] [[Gambar:Corpse of Ngô Đình Diệm in the 1963 coup.jpg|thumb|right|Mayat Presiden Vietnam Kidul [[Ngo Dinh Diem]].]] Dina ahir April 1965, présidén [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] mendaratkan 22.000 tentaranya di [[Republik Domieuka]] jeung kemudian mendudukinya salila satu taun melalui invasi nu diberi kode [[Operasi Power Pack]]. Operasi ieu dilakukan pikeun membendung ancaman menyebarnya Révolusi bergaya Kuba di Amérika Latin.<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> Pemilihan présidén diselenggarakan dina taun 1966, nu ngahasilkeun kemenangan bagi konservatif [[Joaquín Balaguer]]. Meskipun Balaguer mendapat dukungan ti sektor-sektor elit jeung kelompok petani, lawan pulitiknya ti partéy PRD, mantan présidén [[Juan Bosch]], teu aktif berkampanye.<ref name = "Itzigsohn 2000, 41-42">{{Cite book|last = Itzigsohn|first = José|title = Developing Poverty: The State, Labor Market Deregulation, and the Informal Economy in Costa Rica and the Domieucan Republic|publisher = Penn State University Press|year = 2000|location = University Park, Pennsylvania|pages = 41–42|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=b7Jo9GtxMEcC|id =|isbn = 978-0-271-02028-0}}</ref> Aktivis PRD dilumpuhkan dengan kekerasan ku polisi Domieuka jeung angkatan bersenjata.<ref name = "Itzigsohn 2000, 41-42"/> <!-- Sebagai bagéan ti minoritas Katolik Vietnam, usaha Diệm pikeun mengembangkan kawijakan pro-Katolik membangkitkan amarah orang-orang Buddhis Vietnam. Polisi nagara seringkali dituduh menyerang orang-orang Buddhis (agama mayoritas nagara itu). Para aktivis Buddhis ngalakukeun protes-protes massal jeung bahkan penyiksaan diri nu berpuncak dina Babaraha upaya kudéta, jeung nu terahir mengakibatkan kematian Diệm sendiri. Ketika rezim ieu membangkitkan salah sahiji protes nu dilakukan ku para biarawan Buddhis dina Mei 1963, AS menghentikan bantuana. Sejumlah biarawan sacara terbuka membakar diri maranéhna sebagai protes, jeung AS semakin merasa terganggu ku citra publik Diệm nu teu populer. Diệm jeung Madame Nhu mengklaim yén pihak Komunis telah menyusup ke dina kelompok-kelompok Buddhis. Tindakan maranéhna pikeun menghancurkan protes-protes ieu sesuai dengan kawijakan anti-komunis nu telah disetujui saméméhnya. Madame Nhu konon merujuk kejadian ieu sebagai "barbecue" ("memanggang daging"). Berdasarkan paréntah ti Presiden A.S. John F. Kennedy, Henry Cabot Lodge, duta besar Amérika pikeun Vietnam Kidul, nolak pikeun papanggih dengan Diệm. Saenggeus ngadéngé yén Angkatan Darat Republik Vietnam keur ngarancang kudéta nu dipimpin ku Jenderal Dương Văn Minh, AS méré jaminan-jaminan rusiah ka para jenderal itu yén AS moal bakal pipilueun. Dương Văn Minh jeung komplotana ngagulingkeun Pamaréntahan jeung menghukum mati Presiden Diệm jeung adiknya, Ngô Đình Nhu, dina 2 November 1963. Amérika Sarikat sacara terbuka mengungkapkan rasa terkejut jeung kekecewaana yén Diệm telah dibunuh. Kaberan, Presiden John F. Kennedy ogé dibunuh hanya 20 hari kemudian. Babaraha orang Vietnam percaya yén hantu Diemlah nu ngalakukeun pembalasan karena Presiden Kennedy menyetujui kudéta itu. Ketika Madame Nhu, mengunjungi Amérika Sarikat dina waktu itu, saenggeus mengetahui tentang kudéta éta, manéhna segera menyebut Amérika Sarikat sebagai pelakunya. manéhna belakangan mengatakan, "Barangsiapa jadi sekutu Amérika teu ngabutuhkeun musuh." Madame Nhu lalu meramalkan masa depan nu gelap pikeun Vietnam jeung yén, karena kemiluanana dina kudéta itu, masalah-masalah AS di Vietnam kakara dimulai. Saenggeus dibunuhnya Ngô Đình Diệm, AS dapat tetep mangaruhan Pamaréntahan Vietnam Kidul, ngabantuan pemilihan para pejabat nu ngadukung kawijakan-kawijakan AS. Di antara loba orang nu tahu tentang situasi pulitik di sekitar kematiana (1963), pembunuhan Ngô Đình Diệm dianggep sebagai momen pulitik nu nangtukeun nu, ceuk sebagéan orang, pelan-pelan ngabalukarkeun kekalahan Perang Vietnam 12 taun kemudian (1975), namun, ceuk nu lianna deui, mencegah Vietnam Kidul direbut pihak komunis 10 taun leuwih awal karena Diệm telah memutuskan pikeun menyerah ka ambisi-ambisi invasi Ho Chi Minh. Akibat ti kuatnya kehadiran Amérika saenggeus pembunuhan Diệm, terjadilah pergolakan intern di antara para pamingpin Vietnam Kidul, sementara tentara manggih diri maranéhna dipaksa pikeun memilih antara kapentingan-kapentingan komunis jeung kapentingan-kapentingan Amérika. Pembunuhan ieu ogé memperkuat upaya-upaya Vietnam Kalér pikeun melukiskan Vietnam Kidul sebagai pendukung kolonisasi. Dina tanggal 30 Séptémber - 1 Oktober 1965, di 2 Dayeuh di Indonésia, PKI (Partei Komunis Indonésia) berusaha membunuh 7 Jenderal Angkatan Darat di Jakarta jeung 2 Jenderal di Yogyakarta dengan alasan Kudéta. PKI mendakwa yén Jenderal-Jenderal Angkatan Darat nu pro-CIA berusaha ngagulingkeun Presiden Soekarno. --> Di Indonésia, anti-komunis garis keras [[Soeharto|Jenderal Soeharto]] meraih kendali Pamaréntahan ti pendahulunya, [[Soekarno]], jeung kemudian mulai ngawangun "[[Orde Baru]]". Ti taun 1965 sampai 1966, militer Indonésia [[Pembantaian di Indonésia 1965–1966|ngalakukeun pembunuhan massal]] ka sekitar setengah juta anggota jeung simpatisan [[Partei Komunis Indonésia]] sarta organisasi-organisasi sayap kiri lianna.<ref name="Farid 2007">Farid, Hilmar (2007). "Mass Killings and Capitalist Expansion, 1965–1966". In Kuan-Hsing Chen & Chua Beng Huat (Ed.), ''[The Inter-Asia Cultural Studies Reader]''. London: Routledge. pp. 207–222. ISBN 0-415-43134-4.</ref> Ningkatna konflik nu keur berlangsung antara pamingpin [[Vietnam Kidul]] [[Ngô Đình Diệm]] dengan komunis [[Viet Cong|Front Nasional pikeun Pembébasan Vietnam Kidul]] (NLF) membuat Johnson ngirimkan 575.000 tentara Amérika ke Asia Tenggara pikeun melumpuhkan NLF jeung sekutu Vietnam Kalér maranéhna dina [[Perang Vietnam]], namun kawijakan ieu ngakan loba biaya jeung ngalemahkeun perékonomian AS, jeung dina taun 1975, krisis ieu memuncak dengan kegagalan Amérika Sarikat. Dunya mandang kajadian ieu sebagai kekalahan bagi salah sahiji nagara adidaya nu paling kuat di tangan salah sahiji nagara termiskin dunya.<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> Vietnam Kalér menerima persetujuan Soviét pikeun memulai perang dina taun 1959. Uni Soviét ngirimkan 15.000 penasihat militer jeung bantuan dana sebesar $ 450 juta ka Vietnam Kalér salila perang, sadengkeun Cina ngirimkan 320.000 tentara jeung bantuan dana senilai $180 juta.<ref>Qiang Zhai, ''China and the Vietnam Wars, 1950-1975'' (University of North Carolina Press, 2000), p135; Gen. Oleg Sarin and Col. Lev Dvoretsky, ''Alien Wars: The Soviét Union’s Aggressions Against the World, 1919 to 1989'' (Presidio Press, 1996), pp93-4.</ref> Di [[Chili]], kandidat [[Partei Sosialis Chili|Partei Sosialis]] [[Salvador Allende]] meunangkeun pemilihan présidén taun 1970, jadi [[Marxis]] kapilih demokratis pertama nu jadi présidén di nagara-nagara Amérika.<ref name="BBC Allende Profile 2003">{{cite news|title = Profile of Salvador Allende|date = Séptémber 8, 2003|publisher=BBC|agency = [[BBC]]|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3089846.stm|accessdate =January 25, 2011 }}</ref> Jenderal [[Augusto Pinochet]] ngalakukeun [[Kudéta Chili 1973|kudéta ka Pamaréntahan]] dina tanggal 11 Séptémber 1973 jeung dengan cepat mengambilalih sakabéh kakuasaan pulitik jadi kediktatoran militer, tindakana ieu direstui ku AS. Reformasi Allende ékonomi diurungkan jeung lawan sayap kiri tewas atawa ditahan di kamp-kamp interniran di handap arahan ti [[Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional]] (DINA). [[Gambar:Henry Kissinger.png|thumb|left|[[Henry Kissinger]], [[Penasihat Kaamanan Nasional (Amérika Sarikat)|Penasihat Kaamanan Nasional]] jeung [[Sekretaris Nagara Amérika Sarikat]] dina masa Pamaréntahan Presiden Nixon jeung Ford, mangrupa salah sahiji tokoh kunci dina Perang Tiis (1969-1977).]] Sementara itu, [[Operasi Burung Kondor]] di Amérika Kidul{{mdash}}nu dipaké ku para diktator di [[Argentina]], [[Brasil]], [[Bolivia]], Chili, [[Uruguay]], jeung [[Paraguay]] pikeun menekan perbédaan pendapat dengan sayap kiri{{mdash}}ogé mendapat dukungan ti Amérika Sarikat, jeung (kadang-kadang akurat) diperkirakan ogé terdapat Kuba atawa Soviét di belakang gerakan oposisi éta.<ref>McSherry, p. /ref> Sebagai respon, Soviét mempersiapkan pemasangan rudal nuklirnya di Kuba.13</ref> Amérika Sarikat ogé teu senang saat [[Jamaika]] mulai menjalin hubungan nu leuwih érat dengan Pamaréntah Kuba saenggeus pemilihan [[Michael Manley]] dina taun 1972.<ref name="Mars & Young 2004, xvi">Mars, Perry & Alma H. Young (2004). [http://books.google.com/books?id=F4lJBFU-k1wC ''Caribbean Labor and Politics: Legacies of Cheddi Jagan and Michael Manley'']. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. p. xvi. ISBN 978-0-8143-3211-5.</ref> Amérika Sarikat méré spona dengan mendanai lawan-lawan pulitik Manley, mendorong pemberontakan dina tubuh [[tentara Jamaika]], jeung menyewa tentara bayaran pikeun ngalawan Pamaréntahan Manley.<ref name="Mars & Young 2004, xviii"/> Kekerasan pun terjadi. Situasi di [[Wétan Tengah]] terus jadi sumber persengketaan. [[Mesir]], nu menerima loba bantuan senjata jeung bantuan ékonomi ti Uni Soviét, nyaéta klien Soviét nu méré potkan. Dengan terpaksa, Uni Soviét berkewajiban pikeun ngabantuan Mesir dina [[Perang Enam Hari]] (dengan ngirimkan penasihat militer jeung teknisi) jeung [[Perang Atrisi]] (dengan ngirimkan pilot jeung pesawat) pikeun ngalawan [[Israel]] nu pro-Kulon.<ref>Stone, p. 230</ref> Di samping pembelotan Mesir, ti nu saméméhnya pro-Soviét jadi pro-Amérika dina taun 1972 (di handap kepamingpinan [[Anwar El Sadat]]),<ref name="Grenville & Wasserstein 1987, 701">Grenville, J.A.S. & Bernard Wasserstein (1987). ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=RYyyAAAAIAAJ Treaties of the Twentieth Century: A History and Guide with Texts]'', Volume 2. London and New York: Methuen. ISBN 978-0-416-38080-4.</ref> rumor ngeunaan intervensi Soviét dina [[Perang Yom Kippur]] dina taun 1973 ngabalukarkeun terjadinya pengiriman tentara Amérika besar-besaran jeung mengancambakal menghancurkan ''détente''.<ref>Kumaraswamy, p. 127</ref> Meskipun dina éra pra-Sadat Mesir mangrupa penerima bantuan terbesar Soviét di Wétan Tengah, Soviét ogé sukses menjalin hubungan érat dengan komunis di [[Yaman Kidul]], sarta Pamaréntahan nasionalis [[Aljazair]] jeung [[Irak]].<ref name = "Grenville & Wasserstein 1987, 701"/> Soviét sacara langsung memihak jeung ngabantuan [[Palestina]] dina menghadapi [[Konflik Israel-Palestina|konflik dengan Israel]], kaasup dukungan pikeun [[Yasser Arafat]] jeung [[Organisasi Pembébasan Palestina]].<ref>Friedman, p. 330</ref> Ti taun 1973-1975, CIA berkolusi dengan Pamaréntah [[Iran]] pikeun membiayai jeung mempersenjatai pemberontak [[Kurdi]] dina [[Perang Irak–Kurdi Kadua]] dengan tujuan pikeun melumpuhkan pamingpin Irak [[Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr]]. Saat Iran jeung Irak nandatanganan [[Perjanjian Aljazair (1975)|Perjanjian Aljazair]] dina taun 1975, dukungan pikeun Iran pun ogé turut berhenti.<ref name="The Ugly Truth About Gerald Ford">Hitchens, Christopher, [http://www.slate.com/id/2156400 "The Ugly Truth About Gerald Ford"], ''Slate,'' December 29, 2006.</ref> [[Gambar:Marine da nang.jpg|thumbnail|170px|Seorang tentara Amérika dina [[Perang Vietnam]], 3 Agustus 1965.]] Di Afrika, militer [[Somalia]] nu dipimpin ku [[Mohamed Siad Barre]] ngalakukeun kudéta tak berdarah dina taun 1969 jeung ngawangun [[Republik Demokratik Somalia]] nu berpaham sosialis. Uni Soviét jangji pikeun ngadukung Somalia. Opat taun kemudian, Kaisar Ethiopia [[Haile Selassie]] nu pro-Amérika digulingkan dina kudéta taun 1974 ku kelompok [[Derg]], salah sahiji kelompok militer radikal pro-Soviét nu dipimpin ku [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]]. Mariem menjalin hubungan dengan Kuba jeung Soviét.<ref name = "Erlich 2008, 84-86">{{Cite book|last = Erlich|first = Reese|title = Dateline Havana: The Real Story of U.S. Policy and the Future of Cuba|publisher = PoliPoint Press|year = 2008|location = Sausalito, California|pages = 84–86|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=7q3ibcq_vxQC|id =|isbn = 978-0-9815769-7-8}}</ref> Saat [[Perang Ogaden|peperangan antara Somalia jeung Ethiopia pecah dina taun 1977-1978]], Barre keleungitan dukungan Soviét jeung kemudian bersekutu dengan Amérika Sarikat. Tentara Kuba ogé berperan dina perang ieu dengan memihak Ethiopia.<ref name = "Erlich 2008, 84-86"/> [[Révolusi Anyelir]] di [[Portugis]] dina taun 1974 nu ngalawan kéotoriteran ''[[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Estado Novo]]'' membuat Portugis kembali ke sistem multi-partéy jeung sekaligus memfasilitasi kemerdekaan koloni Portugis di [[Angola]] jeung [[Timor Wétan]]. Di Afrika, pemberontak Angola mengobarkan [[Perang Kemerdekaan Angola|perang kemerdekaan multi-faksi ngalawan kakuasaan Portugis]] sejak taun 1961, saenggeus perang ieu usai, [[Perang Saudara Angola|perang dua dasawarsa]] menggantikan perang anti-kolonial, nu ditandai dengan peperangan antara komunis [[Gerakan Rakyat Pembébasan Angola]] (MPLA), nu didukung ku Kuba jeung Soviét, dengan [[Front Pembébasan Nasional Angola]] (FNLA), nu didukung ku Amérika Sarikat, Républik Rakyat Tiongkok, jeung Pamaréntahan Mobutu di [[Zaire]]. AS, [[Apartheid di Afrika Kidul|Pamaréntahan apartheid Afrika Kidul]], jeung Babaraha nagara Afrika lianna ogé ngadukung faksi Katilu, [[Uni Nasional pikeun Kemerdekaan Penuh Angola]] (UNITA). Tanpa berkonsultasi dengan Soviét, Kuba ngirimkan tentaranya pikeun berjuang bersama MPLA.<ref name = "Erlich 2008, 84-86"/> Pamaréntah apartheid Afrika Kidul ogé ngirimkan tentara pikeun ngabantuan UNITA, namun MPLA aya di atas tangan karena didukung ku Kuba jeung Soviét.<ref name = "Erlich 2008, 84-86"/> Di Asia Tenggara, koloni [[Timor Wétan]] sacara sepihak memproklilasikan kemerdekaana ti Portugis di handap sayap kiri [[Fretilin]] dina bulan November 1975. Dengan dukungan ti Australia jeung Amérika Sarikat, [[Soeharto]] [[Invasi Indonésia ke Timor Wétan|menginvasi Timor Wétan]] dina bulan Désémber{{mdash}}nu memulai [[Jajahan Indonésia di Timor Wétan|Jajahan Indonésia di Timor Wétan salila sepÉropat abad]].<ref>{{Cite book|last = Doyle|first = Randall Jordan|title = America and China: Asia-Pacific Rim Hegemony in the Twenty-First Century|publisher = Lexington Books|year = 2007|location = Lanham|page = 119|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=Z_W7u44IjK8C|id =|isbn = 978-0-7391-1702-6}}</ref> Salila [[Perang Vietnam]], Vietnam Kalér menginvasi jeung menduduki sebagéan Kamboja pikeun dipaké sebagai pangkalan militer, nu ogé berperan dina memicu pecahnya [[Perang Saudara Kamboja]] antara Pamaréntah pro-Amérika [[Lon Nol]] jeung pemberontak [[Maoist]] [[Khmer Beureum]]. Dokumen nu ditemukan ti arsip Soviét mengungkapkan yén invasi Vietnam Kalér ke Kamboja dina taun 1970 dilaksanakan atas permintaan ti Khmer Beureum saenggeus bernegosiasi dengan [[Nuon Chea]].<ref>Dmitry Mosyakov, "The Khmer Rouge and the Vietnamese Communists: A History of Their Relations as Told in the Soviét Archives," in Susan E. Cook, ed., ''Genocide in Cambodia and Rwanda'' (Yale Genocide Studies Program Monograph Series No. 1, 2004), p54ff. Can be accessed at: www.yale.edu/gsp/publications/Mosyakov.doc "In April–May 1970, many North Vietnamese forces entered Cambodia in response to the call for help addressed to Vietnam not by Pol Pot, but by his deputy Nuon Chea. Nguyen Co Thach recalls: “Nuon Chea has asked for help and we have liberated five provinces of Cambodia in ten days.”"</ref> AS jeung Vietnam Kidul nanggepannya dengan melancarkan [[Operasi Menu|kampanye pengeboman]] jeung [[Kampanye Kamboja|serangan darat]], efek ti operasi ieu masih diperdebatkan ku para sejarawan.<ref>Chandler, David 2000, ''Brother Number One: A Political Biography of Pol Pot'', Revised Edition, Chiang Mai, Thailand: Silkworm Books, pp. 96-7.</ref> Di handap kepamingpinan [[Pol Pot]], Khmer Beureum membantai 1-3 juta, ti 8,4 juta total penduduk Kamboja, di [[ladang pembantaian]].<ref name="Heuveline, Patrick 2001">Heuveline, Patrick (2001). "The Demographic Analysis of Mortality in Cambodia." In Forced Migration and Mortality, eds. Holly E. Reed and Charles B. Keely. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Heuveline suggests that a range of 1.17-3.42 million people were killed.</ref><ref name="Marek Sliwinski 1995">Marek Sliwinski, Le Génocide Khmer Rouge: Une Analyse Démographique (L'Harmattan, 1995).</ref><ref name="Banister, Judith 1993">Banister, Judith, and Paige Johnson (1993). "After the Nightmare: The Population of Cambodia." In Genocide and Democracy in Cambodia: The Khmer Rouge, the United Nations and the International Community, ed. Ben Kiernan. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies.</ref> Sosiolog [[Martin Shaw (sosiolog)|Martin Shaw]] ngagambarkeun kekejaman ieu sebagai "[[genosida]] paling murni ti éra Perang Tiis".<ref>''Theory of the Global State: Globality as Unfieushed Revolution'' by [[Martin Shaw (sosiolog)|Martin Shaw]], [[Cambridge University Press]], 2000, pp 141, ISBN 978-0-521-59730-2</ref> Vietnam ngagulingkeun Pol Pot dina taun 1979 jeung nyieun Pamaréntah boneka di handap pimpinan [[Heng Samrin]]. === Perbaikan hubungan Cina-Amérika === {{Main|Kunjungan Nixon ke Tiongkok taun 1972}} Sebagai akibat ti [[perpecahan Sino-Soviét]], kategangan nu berlangsung di sepanjang tapel wates Cina-Soviét [[Konflik perbatasan Sino–Soviét|mencapai puncaknya]] dina taun 1969, jeung présidén Amérika Sarikat [[Richard Nixon]] memutuskan pikeun memanfaatkan konflik éta sebagai alat pikeun menggeser keseimbangan kakuasaan ke arah Kulon dina Perang Tiis.<ref>Dallek, Robert (2007), p. 144.</ref> Cina ogé berusaha ningkatkeun hubungan dengan Amérika Sarikat dina upayanya pikeun mengambil keuntungan ti Soviét. Dina bulan Februari 1972, Nixon mengumumkan pemulihan hubungan dengan Cina.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=149–152}}</ref> manéhna ngalakukeun kunjungan ke [[Beijing]] jeung papanggih dengan [[Mao Zedong]] jeung [[Zhou Enlai]]. Dina saat itu, sumber daya nuklir Uni Soviét telah setara dengan Amérika Sarikat, [[Perang Vietnam]] ogé telah ngalemahkeun pangaruh Amérika di [[Dunya Katilu]] jeung menTiiskan hubungana dengan Éropa Kulon.<ref>Buchanan, pp. 168–169</ref> Meskipun konflik tak langsung antara dua adidaya dina Perang Tiis terus berlanjut sampai ahir 1960-an jeung awal 1970-an, kategangan perlahan-lahan mulai méré da.<ref name = "Palmowski" /> === Nixon, Brezhnev, détente, jeung Panembakan Pesawat Korean Air Lines Penerbangan 902 === {{Main|Perundingan Pembatasan Senjata Strategis|Perjanjian Helsinki|Organisasi pikeun Kaamanan jeung Kerjasama di Éropa}} [[Gambar:Carter Brezhnev sign SALT II.jpg|thumb|right|[[Leonid Brezhnev]] jeung [[Jimmy Carter]] nandatanganan traktat SALT II, 18 Juni 1979 di [[Wina]]]] Saenggeus kunjungana ke Tiongkok, Nixon papanggih dengan para pamingpin Soviét, kaasup Brezhnev di Moskow.<ref name="bbc-nb">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/22/newsid_4373000/4373149.stm|title=President Nixon arrives in Moscow|publisher=BBC News|date=May 22, 1972|accessdate=June 10, 2008}}</ref> [[Perundingan Pembatasan Senjata Strategis]] (SALT) antara kadua pihak ngahasilkeun dua kamupakatan ngeunaan pengawasan penggunaan senjata, nyaéta [[SALT I]], pakta pembatasan senjata komprehensif pertama nu ditandatangani ku kadua nagara adidaya,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thepresident/index.php|title=The President|accessdate=March 27, 2009|publisher=Richard Nixon Presidential Library}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012100741/https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thepresident/index.php |date=October 12, 2017 }}</ref> jeung [[Traktat Peluru Kendali Anti-Balistik]], nu mengatur ngeunaan pembatasan sistem peluru kendali anti-balistik nu dipaké pikeun mempertahankan wilayah ka senjata nuklir nu dibawa misil. Ieu bertujuan pikeun membatasi pengembangan peluru kendali anti-balistik jeung rudal nuklir berbiaya mahal.<ref name = "Karabell" /> Nixon jeung Brezhnev mengumumkan éra anyar "hirup berdampingan sacara damai" jeung ngawangun pamarekanhubungan anyar nu disebut ''[[détente]]'' (peredaan kategangan) antara dua nagara adidaya. Sementara itu, Brezhnev berusaha pikeun memperbaiki kembali perékonomian Soviét nu mengalami penurunan akibat besarnya pengeluaran militer.<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> Antara taun 1972 jeung 1974, kadua pihak ogé paheut pikeun memperkuat hubungan ékonomi maranéhna,<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> di antaranya dengan ngalakukeun perjanjian dina rangka paningkatan aktivitas perdagangan. Sebagai hasil ti perundingan maranéhna, ''détente'' menggantikan éra permusuhan ti Perang Tiis jeung kadua nagara bisa hirup sacara berdampingan.<ref name="bbc-nb"/> Sementara itu, perkembangan hubungan AS jeung Soviét ogé bertepatan dengan "[[Ostpulitik]]" Kanselir Jerman Kulon [[Willy Brandt]].<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 154"/> Perjanjian lianna nu disahkan pikeun menstabilkan situasi di Éropa nyaéta [[Perjanjian Helsinki]], nu ditandatangani dina [[Organisasi pikeun Kaamanan jeung Kerjasama di Éropa|Konferensi Kaamanan jeung Kerjasama di Éropa]] dina taun 1975.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=188}}</ref> <!-- '''[[Korean Air Lines Penerbangan 902]]''' mangrupa [[pesawat]] [[Boeing 707]] nu menerbangi jalur [[Paris]]-[[Anchorage]]-[[Seoul]]. Dina [[20 April]] [[1978]], Namun tragisnya, Radar [[Uni Soviét]] pun mengira yén [[Pesawat]] [[Korean Air Lines Penerbangan 902]] nyaéta [[Pesawat]] Mata-Mata [[Amérika Sarikat]]. Kemudian [[Uni Soviét]] ngirim [[Pesawat Tempur]] [[Sukhoi Su-15]] pikeun menembakin jeung nyegat [[Pesawat]] éta. Saenggeus [[Pesawat]] [[Korean Air Lines Penerbangan 902]] ditembak ku Sukhoi Su-15 nu Uni Soviét, Kecelakaan ieu mupuskeun 2 urang panumpang jeung 107 panumpang salamet di talaga beku.--> === Memburuknya hubungan dina ahir 1970-an === Dina taun 1970-an, KGB, nu dikepalai ku [[Yuri Andropov]], terus menekan kritikus-kritikus terkenal nu mengkritik kepamingpinan Soviét seperti [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]] jeung [[Andrei Sakharov]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=186}}</ref> Salila périodeu ''détente'' ieu, konflik tak langsung antara kadua nagara adidaya masih terus terjadi di Dunya Katilu, khususnya dina krisis pulitik di Wétan Tengah, Chili, Ethiopia, jeung Angola.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=178}}</ref> présidén [[Jimmy Carter]] berusaha pikeun menetapkan pembatasan perlombaan persenjataan leuwih lanjut dengan mengesahkan [[Perundingan Pembatasan Senjata Strategis|SALT II]] dina taun 1979,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/18/newsid_4508000/4508409.stm|title=Leaders agree arms reduction treaty|publisher=BBC News|date=June 18, 2008|accessdate=June 10, 2008}}</ref> namun upayanya ieu dirusak ku kajadian lianna dina taun itu, nyaéta [[Révolusi Iran]] nu didukung ku [[KGB]],<ref>Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''The KGB and the World: The Mitrokhin Archive II'' (Penguin, 2006), pp41, 120-1.</ref> [[Révolusi Nikaragua]] pikeun ngagulingkeun rezim pro-AS, jeung nu paling membuat AS berang; intervensi Soviét dina [[Perang Afganistan]] dina bulan Désémber.<ref name = "LaFeber 1991" /> == "Perang Tiis Kadua" (1979-1985) == {{Main| Perang Tiis (1979–1985)}} Istilah "Perang Tiis Kadua" merujuk dina périodeu paningkatan kembali kategangan Perang Tiis jeung konflik antara kadua pihak dina ahir 1970-an jeung awal 1980-an. Kategangan sangat meningkat antara Amérika Sarikat jeung Uni Soviét jeung masing-masingnya jadi leuwih ter-militeristik.<ref name = "Halliday" /> Diggins mengungkapkan: "Reagan mengerahkan segalanya pikeun berjuang dina 'Perang Tiis Kadua' dengan ngadukung kontra-pemberontakan di Dunya Katilu."<ref>{{cite book|author=John P. Diggins|title=Ronald Reagan: Fate, Freedom, And the Making of History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=N-bQtjYcy0AC&pg=PA267|year=2007|publisher=W. W. Norton|page=267}}</ref> Sementara Cox nyatakeun: "Intensitas 'Perang Tiis Kadua' sehebat durasinya nu singkat."<ref>{{cite book|author=Michael Cox|title=Beyond the Cold War: Superpowers at the Crossroads|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cUsOYWpQZbAC&pg=PR18|year=1990|publisher=University Press of America|page=18}}</ref> === Perang Soviét-Afganistan === {{Main|Perang Saudara Afganistan|Perang Soviét-Afganistan}} [[Gambar:Reagan sitting with people from the Afghanistan-Pakistan region in February 1983.jpg|thumb|Presiden Reagan nunjukkeun dukungana dina pertemuan dengan para pamingpin [[Mujahidin|Mujahidin Afganistan]] di [[Gedung Bodas]], 1983.]] [[Gambar:Evstafiev-spetsnaz-prepare-for-mission.jpg|thumb|left|Tentara Soviét di [[Afganistan]].]] Dina bulan April 1978, [[Partei Démokrasi Rakyat Afganistan]] (PDPA) nu berhaluan komunis méré but kakuasaan atas [[Afganistan]] melalui [[Révolusi Saur]]. Dina hitungan bulan, penentang Pamaréntahan komunis melancarkan pemberontakan di Afganistan Wétan, nu dengan cepat berkembang jadi [[Perang Saudara Afganistan|perang saudara]] antara gerilyawan [[mujahidin]] ngalawan tentara Pamaréntah. Pamaréntah [[Pakistan]] memfasilitasi para pemberontak dengan pusat-pusat pelatihan rusiah, sadengkeun Uni Soviét ngirim rébuan penasihat militer pikeun ngadukung Pamaréntahan PDPA.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hussain|2005|pp=108-109}}</ref> Sementara itu, ningkatna gesekan antara faksi-faksi nu bersaing di PDPA{{ndash}}faksi [[Khalq]] nu dominan jeung [[Parcham]] nu leuwih moderat {{ndash}} ngabalukarkeun pemberhentian anggota kabinét jeung penangkapan perwira militer Parchami dengan dalih kudéta ka Parchami. Dina pertengahan 1979, Amérika Sarikat memulai salah sahiji program rusiah pikeun ngabantuan mujahidin.<ref>{{Harvnb|Meher|2004|pp=68-69, 94}}</ref> Bulan Séptémber 1979, présidén Khalqist [[Nur Muhammad Taraki]] dibunuh dina salah sahiji kudéta PDPA nu diatur ku rekana sesama anggota Khalq bernama [[Hafizullah Amin]], nu kemudian jadi présidén. Amin dibunuh ku pasukan khusus Soviét dina bulan Désémber 1979. Saenggeus kematiana, salah sahiji Pamaréntahan nu diorganisir ku Soviét, di handap pimpinan [[Babrak Karmal]], mengisi kekosongan kakuasaan. Pasukan Soviét dikerahkan pikeun menstabilkan Afganistan di handap Pamaréntahan Karmal, nu telah jadi boneka Soviét. Akibatnya, Soviét miluan langsung dina apa nu kemudian jadi perang domestik di Afganistan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kalinovsky|2011|pp=25-28}}</ref> Carter nanggepan intervensi Soviét di Afganistan dengan cara menarik kembali perjanjian SALT II ti [[Senat Amérika Sarikat|Senat]], ngalakukeun embargo dina pengiriman gandum jeung barang-barang téhnologi dina Uni Soviét, sarta ningkatkeun pengeluaran militer. Amérika Sarikat ogé ngalakukeun pemboikotan ka [[Olimpiade Musim Panas 1980|Olimpiade Moskow 1980]]. Carter nyatakeun yén tindakan Soviét mangrupa "ancaman nu paling serius ka perdamaian salila Perang Tiis Kadua".<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=211}}</ref> === Reagan jeung Thatcher === {{Main| Doktrin Reagan}} [[Gambar:Reagan-Thatcher cabinet talks.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Thatcher nyaéta satu-satunya wanita di ruangan ieu, jeung selusin pria dina setelan duduk di sekitar méja oval. Regan jeung Thatcher duduk berlawanan satu sama lain di tengah-tengah meja panjang. Ruangan ieu dihiasi dengan cat warna Bodas, dengan tirai, salah sahiji lampu emas jeung potret Lincoln.|Kabinét [[Margaret Thatcher|Thatcher]] papanggih dengan Kabinét [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] di Gedung Bodas, 1981.]] Dina bulan Januari 1977, opat taun saméméh jadi présidén, [[Ronald Reagan]] mengungkapkan dina percakapana dengan [[Richard V. Allen]], ngeunaan harapan dasarnya terkait dengan Perang Tiis: "Ide saya ngeunaan kawijakan Amérika ka Uni Soviét sederhana, jeung Babaraha orangbakal menyebutnya sangat sederhana, nyaéta: Kita menang jeung maranéhna kalah. Bagaimana ceuk Anda?".<ref>{{cite web |last=Allen |first=Richard V. |url=http://www.hoover.org/publications/hoover-digest/article/7398 |title=The Man Who Won the Cold War |publisher=Hoover.org |accessdate=November 3, 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501052925/http://www.hoover.org/publications/hoover-digest/article/7398 |date=May 1, 2011 }}</ref> Taun 1980, Ronald réagan ngéléhkeun [[Jimmy Carter]] dina [[Pemilihan umum Presiden Amérika Sarikat 1980|pemilu presiden 1980]]. Saenggeus kemenangana, manéhna bersumpahbakal ningkatkeun anggaran militer jeung menghadapi Soviét di manapun.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=189}}</ref> Baik réagan maupun [[Perdana Menteri Britania Raya]] nu baru, [[Margaret Thatcher]], sama-sama mengecam Uni Soviét jeung idéologinya. réagan menyebut Uni Soviét sebagai salah sahiji "kekaisaran jahat" jeung meramalkan yén [[komunisme]]bakal hancur jadi "tumpukan abu sejarah".<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 197">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=197}}</ref> Meskipun sentimen anti-Amérika di Iran saenggeus [[Révolusi Iran]] meningkat, Pamaréntahan réagan tetap mengulurkan tangan ka Pamaréntah anti-komunis [[Ayatollah Khomeieu]] dina upayanya pikeun méré krut téokrasi bagi Amérika dina taun 1980-an. Direktur CIA [[William J. Casey|William Casey]] ngagambarkeun Pamaréntahan Khomeieu sebagai Pamaréntahan nu "goyah jeung [mungkin] dina pergerakan ke arah kebeneran... AS hampir teu ngabogaan kartu pikeun dimainkan; sementara Uni Soviét ngabogaan loba kartu."<ref name="Fawaz 1999, 72">Gerges, Fawaz A. (1999). [http://books.google.com/books?id=w-l6M4pOnUkC America and Political Islam: Clash of Cultures or Clash of Interests?]''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-521-63957-6.''</ref> Salah sahijimétodeunu dilakukan Amérika pikeun ngadukung Iran nyaéta dengan penjualan senjata sacara rusiah. Dina taun 1983, CIA merilis daftar panjang komunis Iran jeung aktivis sayap kiri lianna nu dicurigai bekerja dina Pamaréntahan Khomeieu.<ref name="Beieun & Stork 1997, 11-12">Beieun, Joel & Joe Stork (1997). "On the Modernity, Historical Specificity, and International Context of Political Islam". In Joel Beieun & Joe Stork (Eds.), ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=6H7tYLVwVFkC Political Islam: Essays from the Middle East Report]''. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-520-20448-5.</ref> Salah sahiji komisi khusus kemudian melaporkan yén daftar itu disusun pikeun mengambil "langkah-langkah, kaasup eksekusi massal, pikeun mengeliminasi sakabéh infrastruktur pro-Soviét di Iran."<ref name = "Beieun & Stork 1997, 11-12"/> Dina awal 1985, prinsip anti-komunis réagan telah berkembang jadi sikap nu dikenal sebagai [[Doktrin Reagan]]{{mdash}}nu mana, selain penahanan, ogé dirumuskan hak tambahan pikeun menumbangkan Pamaréntahan komunis nu ada.<ref name="Graebner, Burns & Siracusa 2008, 76">Graebner Norman A., Richard Dean Burns & Joseph M. Siracusa (2008). ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=r71u_AgE7iYC Reagan, Bush, Gorbachev: Revisiting the End of the Cold War].'' Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-313-35241-6.</ref> Selain melanjutkan kawijakan Carter nu ngadukung penentang Islam dina ngalawan Soviét jeung PDPA di Afganistan, CIA ogé berusaha ngalemahkeun Uni Soviét dengan cara mempromosikan [[pulitik Islam]] di mayoritas Islam [[Asia Tengah Soviét|Soviét Asia Tengah]].<ref name="Singh 1995, 130">Singh, Bilveer (1995). "Jemaah Islamiyah". In Wilson John & Swati Parashar (Eds.) ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cAE-bxSXayMC Terrorism in Southeast Asia: Implications for South Asia]''. Singapore and Delhi: ORF-Pearson-Longman. p. 130. ISBN 978-81-297-0998-1.</ref> Di samping itu, CIA mendorong anti-komunis ISI di Pakistan agar bersedia melatih Muslim ti sakabéh dunya pikeun berpartisipasi dina [[jihad]] ngalawan Uni Soviét.<ref name = "Singh 1995, 130"/> A === Gerakan solititas jeung darurat militer di Polandia === {{main|Solidarność|Darurat militer di Polandia}} Kunjungan [[Paus Yohanes Paulus II]] ke nagara kelahirana, [[Polandia]], dina taun 1979 telah mendorong kebangkitan spiritual jeung nasionalis nu memicu lahirnya [[Solidarność|gerakan solititas jeung semangat anti-komunisme]]. Hal ieu diperkirakan mangrupa penyebab dilakukana [[Percobaan pembunuhan ka Paus Yohanes Paulus II|upaya pembunuhan]] ka Paus Yohanes Paulus II dua taun kemudian.<ref>Henze‏, p. 171</ref> Dina bulan Désémber 1981, [[Wojciech Jaruzelski]] beréaksi ka krisis di Polandia dengan memberlakukan masa [[darurat militer]]. Pikeun nanggepannya, réagan memberlakukan sanksi ékonomi ka Polandia.<ref name="Gaddis219" /> [[Mikhail Suslov]], idéolog top di Kremlin, menyarankan agar pamingpin Soviét teu campur tangan jika Polandia jatuh di handap kendali gerakan Solititas, karena takut hal itubakal menimbulkan sanksi ékonomi nu leuwih berat deui, nu hartinabakal jadi malapetaka bagi perékonomian Soviét.<ref name="Gaddis219">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=219–222}}</ref> === Isu ékonomi jeung militer Soviét jeung AS === {{See|Era stagnasi|Strategi Ieusiatif Pertahanan|RSD-10 Pioneer|MGM-31 Pershing|Kematian Leonid Brezhnev|Yuri Andropov|Konstantin Chernenko}} [[Gambar:US and USSR nuclear stockpiles.svg|thumb|right|Perbandingan stok senjata nuklir AS jeung Soviét/Rusia, 1945–2006]] [[Gambar:SDIO Delta Star.jpg|thumb|upright|Delta 183 diluncurkan, membawa sensor eksperimen [[Strategi Ieusiatif Pertahanan]] "Delta Star".]] Moskow telah ngawangun sumber daya militer nu menghabiskan 25 persen ti produk nasional bruto Uni Soviét, dengan mengorbankan barang-barang konsumsi jeung investasi di sektor sipil.<ref name="LaFeber 2002, p. 332">{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|p=332}}</ref> Pengeluaran Soviét pikeun [[perlombaan senjata]] jeung kompétisi Perang Tiis lianna beuki diperparah ku masalah struktural dina sistem perékonomian Soviét,<ref>{{cite book|last1 = Towle|first1 = Philip|title = The Oxford History of Modern War|page = 159}}</ref> nu mengalami [[Era Stagnasi|stagnasi ékonomi salila satu dekade]] dina taun-taun terahir Pamaréntahan Brezhnev. [[Gambar:Olympic boycotts 1976 1980 1984.PNG|thumb|left|300px|Pemboikotan [[Olimpiade Musim Panas 1980|Olimpiade Moskow 1980]] (biru) jeung [[Olimpiade Musim Panas 1984|Olimpiade Los Angeles 1984]] (Beureum).]] Investasi Soviét dina sektor pertahanan teu didorong ku kapentingan militer, namun sebagéan besar pikeun ngadukung kapentingan partéy-partéy besar jeung birokrasi nagara, nu bergantung dina sektor militer pikeun ngadukung kakuasaan jeung hak istimewa maranéhna.<ref>{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|p=335}}</ref> [[Militer Uni Soviét]] mangrupa militer terbesar di dunya dina hal jumlah jeung jenis senjata, jumlah tentara, jeung jumlah pangkalan militer nu maranéhna miliki.<ref name = "Odom">{{Harvnb|Odom|2000|p=1}}</ref> Namun, keuntungan kuantitatif nu dipegang ku militer Soviét seringkali dirusiahkan kéayaana, sehingga Blok Wétan sacara dramatis tertinggal ku Kulon.<ref>{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|p=340}}</ref> [[Gambar:USSR stamp S.Smith 1985 5k.jpg|thumb|upright|Saenggeus seorang anak Amérika berusia sepuluh taun bernama [[Samantha Smith]] ngirimkan surat ka [[Yuri Andropov]], nu mengungkapkan kasieunana atas perang nuklir, Andropov mengundang Smith ke Uni Soviét.]] Dina awal 1980-an, Uni Soviét telah ngawangun persenjataan jeung pasukan militer nu meleuwihi Amérika Sarikat. Segera saenggeus Soviét menginvasi Afganistan, présidén Carter memulai pemwangunan besar-besaran militer Amérika Sarikat. Upaya ieu beuki diintensifkan ku Pamaréntahan réagan, nu ningkatkeun pengeluaran [[militer]] ti 5,3 persen/total GNP dina taun 1981 jadi 6,5 persen dina taun 1986,<ref>{{Cite book |last = Carliner‏ |first = Geoffrey |coauthors = Alberto Alesina‏ |title = Politics and economics in the eighties: edited by Alberto Alesina and Geoffrey Carliner |publisher = University of Chicago Press |year = 1991 |page = 6 |url = |id = |isbn = 0-226-01281-6}}</ref> jumlah anggaran militer terbesar sepanjang sejarah Amérika Sarikat.<ref>{{cite news|work=The Boston Globe|publisher=Encyclopedia.com|accessdate=June 21, 2008|date=March 29, 2006|title=Caspar W. Weinberger, 88; Architect of Massive Pentagon Buildup|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1P2-7946374.html|author=Feeney, Mark}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090817163633/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1P2-7946374.html |date=August 17, 2009 }}</ref> Kategangan terus meningkat dina awal 1980-an ketika réagan mengaktifkan kembali program [[B-1 Lancer]] nu saméméhnya dibatalkan ku Pamaréntahan Carter, memproduksi [[LGM-118 Peacekeeper]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/icbm/lgm-118.htm|title=LGM-118A Peacekeeper|accessdate=April 10, 2007|date=August 15, 2000|publisher=Federation of American Scientists}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516205937/https://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/icbm/lgm-118.htm |date=May 16, 2020 }}</ref> menginstal rudal jelajah AS di Éropa, jeung mengumumkan program eksperimental [[Strategi Ieusiatif Pertahanan]], nu dijuluki "Star Wars" ku media, nyaéta program pertahanan pikeun menembak jatuh rudal musuh di tengah-tengah penerbangana.<ref name="ShieldSpace?">Lakoff, p. 263</ref> Dilatarbelakangi ku ningkatna kategangan antara Soviét jeung Amérika Sarikat, sarta dipasangnya [[rudal balistik]] [[RSD-10 Pioneer]] milik Soviét nu mengarah ke [[Éropa Kulon]], NATO memutuskan{{ndash}}di handap dorongan ti présidén Carter{{ndash}}pikeun menginstal rudal jelajah jeung [[MGM-31 Pershing]] milik Amérika Sarikat di Éropa, terutama di [[Jerman Kulon]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=202}}</ref> Rudal-rudal ieu ditopatkan dengan jarak mencolok, hanya berjarak 10 menit ti [[Moskow]].<ref>Garthoff, p. 88</ref> Saenggeus pemwangunan militer réagan selesai, Soviét teu nanggepannya dengan mengembangkan sumber daya militernya leuwih besar deui karena pengeluaran militer Soviét sudah sangat besar.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.theatlantic.com/past/politics/foreign/reagrus.htm|title=Reagan and the Russians|date=February 1994|work=The Atlantic|author=Lebow, Richard Ned and Janice Gross Stein|accessdate=May 28, 2010}}</ref> Besarnya anggaran militer Soviét mengakibatkan teu efisiena pemwangunan dina sektor [[manufaktur]] jeung pertanian, nu ahirnya jadi beban berat bagi [[Perékonomian Uni Soviét|perékonomian Soviét]].<ref name="Gaidar, Yegor"/> Di saat nu bersamaan, produksi minyak di [[Arab Saudi]] meningkat,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iet.ru/files/persona/gaidar/un_en.htm|title=Public Expectations and Trust towards the Government: Post-Revolution Stabilization and its Discontents|accessdate=March 15, 2008|author=Gaidar, Yegor|publisher=The Institute for the Economy in Transition}}</ref> bahkan produksi minyak di nagara-nagara non-[[OPEC]] ogé meningkat dina périodeu éta, kaasup Soviét.<ref name="EIA">"[http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/contents.html Official Energy Statistics of the US Government]", EIA&nbsp;— International Energy Data and Analysis. Retrieved on July 4, 2008.</ref> Perkembangan ieu méré kontribusi ka fénoména[[banjir minyak 1980-an]] nu mempangaruhi Uni Soviét. Minyak mulai jadi sumber utama pendapatan ekspor Soviét.<ref name="LaFeber 2002, p. 332"/><ref name="Gaidar, Yegor"/> Namun, permasalahan [[perékonomian komando]],<ref name="hardt1">{{Harvnb|Hardt|Kaufman|1995|p=1}}</ref> turuna harga minyak, jeung pengeluaran militer nu tetap besar sacara bertahap membawa perékonomian Soviét menuju stagnasi.<ref name="Gaidar, Yegor">Gaidar 2007 pp. 190–205</ref> Dina tanggal 1 Séptémber 1983, Uni Soviét menembak jatuh [[Korean Air Penerbangan 007]], pesawat [[Boeing 747]] nu mengangkut 269 penumpang, kaasup anggota Kongres [[Larry McDonald]]. Pesawat itu ditembak karena melanggar wilayah udara Soviét dengan melewati pantai Kulon [[Sakhalin|pulo Sakhalin]], di dekat [[Kepulauan Moneron]]&nbsp;—tindakan nu ku réagan dianggep sebagai "pembantaian". Tindakan Soviét ieu beuki ningkatkeun dukungan bagi AS supaya segera menerjukan militernya.<ref name="DoernerFive">{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,926169-5,00.html|title=Atrocity in the skies|work=Time|date=Séptémber 12, 1983|accessdate=June 8, 2008|first1=Strobe|last1=Talbott|first2=Jerry|last2=Hannifin|first3=Ed|last3=Magnuson|first4=William R.|last4=Doerner|first5=Joseph J.|last5=Kane}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521063516/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,926169-5,00.html |date=May 21, 2013 }}</ref> NATO mengadakan latihan militer [[Able Archer 83]] dina bulan November 1983, nu mangrupa simulasi peluncuran nuklir sacara nyata. Paristiwa ieu disebut-sebut sebagai saat nu paling berbahaya bagi dunya sejak [[Krisis Rudal Kuba]] dina taun 1962. Saenggeus pamingpin Soviét memahami maksud ti latihan militer éta, maka diputuskan yén perang nuklir beuki dekat.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=228}}</ref> Kehenteusetujuan publik AS ngeunaan campur tangan AS dina konflik nagara lain sudah berlangsung sejak ahir [[Perang Vietnam]].<ref name="LaFeber323">{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|p=323}}</ref> Pamaréntahan réagan menekankan taktik [[kontra-pemberontakan]] jeung penyelesaian cepat dina mencampuri konflik asing.<ref name="LaFeber323" /> Dina taun 1983, Pamaréntahan réagan pipilueun tangan dina [[Perang Saudara Lebanon]], menginvasi [[Grenada]], membom [[Libya]], jeung ngadukung gerakan [[Contras]] di Amérika Tengah{{ndash}}paramiliter anti-komunis nu berusaha ngagulingkeun Pamaréntahan pro-Soviét [[Sandieusta]] di [[Nikaragua]].<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 212"/> Intervensi réagan ka Grenada jeung Libya mendapat dukungan ti publik AS, namun dukungana dina Contra [[Skandal Iran Contra|mengundang kontroversi]].<ref name = "Reagan">{{cite book|author=Reagan, Ronald|editor=Foner, Eric; Garraty, John Arthur|title=The Reader's companion to American history|url=http://books.google.com/?id=KrWDw-_devcC|accessdate=June 16, 2008|year=1991|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Books|isbn=0-395-51372-3}}</ref> Sementara itu, Soviét sendiri mengeluarkan biaya tinggi dina memfasilitasi intervensi maranéhna ka asing. Meskipun Brezhnev meyakieu dina taun 1979 yén [[Perang Soviét-Afganistan]]bakal berlangsung singkat, gerilyawan [[Muslim]], nu dibantu ku AS jeung nagara-nagara lianna, mengobarkan perlawanan sengit ka invasi éta.<ref name="LaFeber314">{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|p=314}}</ref> Kremlin ngirimkan hampir 100.000 tentara pikeun ngadukung rezim boneka di Afganistan, nu dijuluki ku para pengamat luar dengan "perang 'Vietnam'-nya Soviét".<ref name="LaFeber314" /> Namun, dampak perang Afganistan ieu jauh leuwih parah bagi Soviét ketimbang dampak Perang Vietnam bagi Amérika Sarikat, karena konflik ieu ogé bertepatan dengan périodeu kekacauan jeung krisis internal dina birokrasi jeung perékonomian Soviét.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=292}}</ref> Séorang pejabat senior di [[Departemen Luar Negeri Amérika Sarikat|Departemen Luar Negeri AS]] memprediksikan dina awal 1980-an, manéhna nyatakeun yén "invasi nu mengakibatkan krisis dina negeri bagi Soviét... mungkin itu nyaéta hukum termodinamika [[entropi]]... nu terjebak dengan sistem Soviét, nu ayeuna tampaknya leuwih loba mengeluarkan energi pikeun menjaga keseimbangana ketimbang pikeun memperbaikinya. Kita bisa menempo periode kebangkitan asing dina saat mengalami keruntuhan internal".<ref name=" Dobrynin">{{Harvnb|Dobrynin|2001|pp=438–439}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Maynes|1980|pp=1–2}}</ref> == Taun-taun terahir (1985–1991) == {{Main|Perang Tiis (1985–1991)}} [[Gambar:Reagan and Gorbachev signing.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mikhail Gorbachev]] jeung Ronald Reagan nandatanganan [[Traktat INF]] di Gedung Bodas, 1987]] === Reformasi Gorbachev === {{See|Mikhail Gorbachev|perestroika|glasnost}} Saenggeus tanggal 11 Maret 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev jadi Sekretaris Jenderal partéy Komunis Uni Soviét nu kelima pikeun menggantikan Konstantin Chernenko nu sudah wafat. Dina saat [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], nu relatif masih muda, jadi [[Sekretaris Jenderal Partei Komunis Uni Soviét|Sekretaris Jenderal]] dina taun 1985,<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 197" /> perékonomian Soviét keur stagnan jeung mengalami penurunan tajam dina penerimaan mata uang asing akibat turuna harga minyak dunya dina taun 1980-an.<ref name="LaFeber331" /> Masalah ieu memaksa Gorbachev pikeun mengambil langkah-langkah guna membangkitkan kembali keterpurukan Soviét.<ref name="LaFeber331">{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|pp=331–333}}</ref> Gorbachev nyatakeun yén pikeun membangkitkan kembali Soviét, diperlukan perobahan nu mendina dina struktural Soviét. Dina bulan Juni 1987, Gorbachev mengumumkan agenda reformasinya nu disebut ''[[perestroika]]'' atawa restrukturisasi.<ref name="Gaddis231">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=231–233}}</ref> Perestroika ngamungkinkeun leuwih épéktipnya sistem [[kuota produksi]], kepemilikan swasta atas bisnis jeung ogé membuka jalan bagi [[investor]] asing. Langkah ieu dimaksudkan pikeun mengarahkan sumber daya nagara ti pembiayaan militer nu mahal pikeun menunjang Perang Tiis ke pengembangan sektor sipil nu leuwih produktif.<ref name="Gaddis231" /> Meskipun muncul skeptisisme ti nagara-nagara Kulon, pamingpin Soviét nu anyar ieu terbukti berkomitmen pikeun memperbaiki kondisi perékonomian Soviét nu buruk, bukana melanjutkan perlombaan senjata dengan Kulon.<ref name="Palmowski" /><ref name="LaFeber2002">{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|pp=300–340}}</ref> Pikeun ngalawan penentang reformasinya nu berasal ti internal partéy, Gorbachev sacara bersamaan memperkenalkan ''[[glasnost]]'', atawa keterbukaan. Kawijakan ieu ngamungkinkeun ningkatna kebébasan [[pers]] jeung transparansi lembaga-lembaga nagara.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gibbs|1999|p=7}}</ref> ''Glasnost'' dimaksudkan pikeun ngurangan [[korupsi]] dina tubuh [[Partei Komunis Uni Soviét|Partei Komunis]] jeung memoderasi penyalahgunaan kakuasaan di [[Komite Sentral]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gibbs|1999|p=33}}</ref> ''Glasnost'' ogé ngamungkinkeun ningkatna kontak antara warga Soviét jeung [[Dunya Kulon]], khususnya dengan Amérika Sarikat, nu méré kontribusi bagi paningkatan ''[[détente]]'' antara kadua nagara.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gibbs|1999|p=61}}</ref> === Perbaikan hubungan === {{See|Konferensi Tingkat Tinggi Reykjavík|Traktat INF|START I}} Nanggepan [[Konsesi (pulitik)|konsesi pulitik]] jeung militer [[Kremlin]] nu baru, réagan setuju pikeun mengadakan kembali perundingan dengan Soviét terkait dengan isu-isu ékonomi jeung perlombaan senjata.<ref name="Gaddis229">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=229–230}}</ref> Perundingan pertama diadakan dina bulan November 1985 di [[Jenewa|Jenewa, Swiss]].<ref name="Gaddis229" /> Dina perundingan éta, kadua pamingpin nagara, disertai ku séorang penerjemah, paheut pikeun ngurangans persenjataan nuklir di masing-masing nagara sebesar 50 persen.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/21/newsid_2549000/2549897.stm 1985: "Superpowers aim for 'safer world'"], BBC News, November 21, 1985. Retrieved on July 4, 2008.</ref> Perundingan kadua, [[Konferensi Tingkat Tinggi Reykjavík]], diselenggarakan di [[Islandia]]. Perundingan éta berjalan lancar hingga pembicaraan bergeser ke arah Strategi Ieusiatif Pertahanan réagan nu hayang dieliminasi ku Gorbachev, namun réagan nolak.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE0DA1F3BF93AA15756C0A96E948260|title=Toward the Summit; Previous Reagan-Gorbachev Summits|work=The New York Times|accessdate=June 21, 2008|date=May 29, 1988}}</ref> Negosiasi ahirnya gagal, namun dina perundingan Katilu dina taun 1987, kadua pihak berhasil ngahasilkeun terobosan dengan ditandatanganinya [[Traktat Angkatan Nuklir Jangka Menengah]] (INF). Traktat ieu menghapuskan kéayaan sakabéh senjata nuklir, rudal balistik, jeung rudal jelajah di kadua pihak dengan jarak antara 500 jeung 5.500 kilométer beserta infrastrukturnya.<ref name="fas">{{cite web|url=http://www.fas.org/nuke/control/inf/index.html|title=Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces|accessdate=June 21, 2008|publisher=Federation of American Scientists}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724134840/http://www.fas.org/nuke/control/inf/index.html |date=July 24, 2008 }}</ref> Kategangan antara Wétan dengan Kulon méré da dengan cepat dina pertengahan 1980-an. Taun 1989, bertopat di Moskow, Gorbachev jeung gagantina réagan, [[George H. W. Bush]], nandatanganan perjanjian [[START I]], nu mengahiri perlombaan senjata antar kadua nagara.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=255}}</ref> Salila taun-taun saterusna, Soviét dihadapkan dina keruntuhan perékonomian nu dibalukarkeun ku turuna harga minyak dunya jeung besarnya pembiayaan militer.<ref name="Shearman76"/> Selain itu, penopatan militer di nagara sekutunya diakui teu relevan deui bagi Soviét, jeung dina taun 1987, Soviét [[Doktrin Sinatra|sacara resmi mengumumkan]] kalau manéhna moal bakal pipilueun deui dina urusan dina negeri nagara-nagara sekutunya di [[Éropa Wétan]].<ref name="Gaddis248">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=248}}</ref> Taun 1989, pasukan Soviét mundur ti Afganistan,<ref name="Gaddis 2005, pp. 235–236">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=235–236}}</ref> jeung setaun kemudian Gorbachev menyetujui [[reunifikasi Jerman]],<ref name="Shearman76">{{Harvnb|Shearman|1995|p=76}}</ref> satu-satunya alternatif pikeun nanggepan [[Protes Tiananmen Square 1989|skenario Tianmen]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Shearman|1995|p=74}}</ref> Ketika [[Tembok Berlin]] runtuh, konsép "[[Common European Home]]" nu dicetuskan ku Gorbachev mulai terbentuk.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.ena.lu/?doc=11160| title=Address given by Mikhail Gorbachev to the Council of Europe| publisher=[[European NAvigator|Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l'Europe]]| date=July 6, 1989| accessdate=February 11, 2007}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927220033/http://www.ena.lu/?doc=11160 |date=September 27, 2007 }}</ref> Dina tanggal 3 Désémber 1989, dina [[Konferensi Tingkat Tinggi Malta]], Gorbachev jeung [[George H. W. Bush]] sacara resmi nyatakeun yén Perang Tiis sudah berahir.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/3/newsid_4119000/4119950.stm Malta summit ends Cold War], BBC News, December 3, 1989. Retrieved June 11, 2008.</ref> Setaun kemudian, dua nagara éta bermitra dina [[Perang Teluk]] ngalawan Irak.<ref>Goodby, p. 26</ref> === Goyahna sistem Soviét === {{see|Perékonomian Uni Soviét}} [[Gambar:West and East Germans at the Brandenburg Gate in 1989.jpg|thumb|right|Runtuhnya [[Tembok Berlin]] dina taun 1989.]] Dina taun 1989, sistem aliansi Soviét aya di ambang keruntuhan. Akibat leungitnya dukungan militer ti Soviét, satu-persatu para pamingpin nagara-nagara komunis [[Pakta Warsawa]] ogé keleungitan kakuasaan.<ref name="Gaddis 2005, pp. 235–236"/> Di Uni Soviét sendiri, kawijakan ''glasnost'' ngalemahkeun ikatan nu salila ieu menyatukan Soviét.<ref name="Gaddis248" /> Bulan Februari 1990, dengan beuki memuncaknya isu [[pembubaran Uni Soviét]], para pamingpin [[Partei Komunis Uni Soviét|Partei Komunis]] terpaksa menyerahkan tampuk kakuasaana nu telah bertahan salila 73 taun.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sakwa|1999|p=460}}</ref> Dina saat nu sama, isu kemerdekaan nu dipicu ku ''glasnost'' beuki mendorong nagara-nagara Soviét pikeun misahkeun diri ti Moskow. [[Nagara-nagara Baltik]] mulai menarik diri ti Soviét sepenuhnya.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=253}}</ref> [[Révolusi 1989|Gelombang Révolusi damai 1989]] nu melanda [[Éropa Tengah]] jeung Éropa Wétan meruntuhkan kedigjayaan komunisme Soviét di nagara-nagara seperti Polandia, Hongaria, Cekoslowakia jeung Bulgaria.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lefeber|Fitzmaurice|Vierdag|1991|p=221}}</ref> Rumania jadi satu-satunya nagara Blok Wétan nu ngagulingkeun kakuasaan komunis sacara keras dengan mengeksekusi kepala nagaranya.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=247}}</ref> === Pembubaran Uni Soviét === {{See|January 1991 events in Latvia|Upaya kudéta di Soviét 1991|Sejarah Uni Soviét (1982–1991)|Pembubaran Uni Soviét}} [[Gambar:CIS-Map 2.png|right|thumb|[[Persemakmuran Nagara-Nagara Merdeka]], ahir resmi ti [[Uni Soviét]]]] Sikap permisif Gorbachev ka Éropa Wétan awalna teu meluas ke wilayah Soviét, bahkan Bush, nu berjuang pikeun mempertahankan hubungan persahabatan dengan Soviét, mengutuk pembunuhan dina bulan Januari 1991 di [[Paristiwa Januari 1991 di Latvia|Latvia]] jeung [[Paristiwa Januari|Lituania]]. Bush memperingatkan yén hubungan ékonomibakal dibekukan jika kekerasan terus terjadi.<ref>Goldgeier, p. 27</ref> Uni Soviét sacara fatal dilemahkeun ku [[Upaya kudéta di Soviét 1991|kudéta nu gagal]] dina taun 1991 jeung ningkatna jumlah [[Republik Uni Soviét|republikan Soviét]], hususna di [[Republik Sosialis Federasi Soviét Rusia|Rusia]], nu mengancambakal misahkeun diri ti Uni Soviét. [[Persemakmuran Nagara-Nagara Merdeka]], nu didirikan dina tanggal 21 Désémber 1991, dipandang sebagai entitas penerus Uni Soviét, namun, ceuk para pamingpin Rusia, tujuana nyaéta pikeun "ngamungkinkeun perpisahan sacara ayab" antara republik-republik Soviét jeung ogé sebanding dengan kelonggaran konfederasi.<ref>[http://rferl.org/featuresarticle/2006/12/14b6b499-9eb2-4dee-b96c-784ec918969a.html Soviét Leaders Recall ‘Inevitable’ Breakup Of Soviét Union] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080615120212/http://rferl.org/featuresarticle/2006/12/14b6b499-9eb2-4dee-b96c-784ec918969a.html |date=2008-06-15 }}, [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]], December 8, 2006. Retrieved May 20, 2008.</ref> Uni Soviét sacara resmi [[Pembubaran Uni Soviét|dibubarkan]] dina tanggal 25 Désémber 1991.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|pp=256–257}}</ref> == Dampak == {{Main|Dampak Perang Tiis}} [[Gambar:Nato-csto.svg|thumb|right|600px|[[NATO]]/[[CSTO]]]] [[Gambar:North Atlantic Treaty Organization (orthographic projection).svg|thumb|right|[[NATO]] telah [[Perluasan NATO|memperluas cakupana]] ke nagara-nagara bekas [[Pakta Warsawa]] jeung bekas Uni Soviét sejak berahirnya Perang Tiis.]] Saenggeus Perang Tiis, [[Rusia]] sebagai ahli waris utama Uni Soviét memotong pengeluaran militer sacara drastis. Restrukturisasi ékonomi ngabalukarkeun jutaan warga di sakabéh Uni Soviét menganggur.<ref name = "Aslund">Åslund, p. 49</ref> Sadengkeun reformasi kapitalis mengakibatkan terjadinya resesi parah, leuwih parah tidina nu dialami ku AS jeung Jerman salila [[Depresi Besar]].<ref name = "Nolan">Nolan, pp. 17–18</ref> Saenggeus berahir, Perang Tiis masih terus mempangaruhi dunya.<ref name = "Halliday" /> Saenggeus pembubaran [[Uni Soviét]], dunya pasca-Perang Tiis sacara luas dianggep sebagai dunya nu [[Unipolaritas|unipolar]], nyésakeun [[Amérika Sarikat]] sebagai satu-satunya [[nagara adidaya]] di dunya.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1217752.stm Country profile: United States of America]. [[BBC News]]. Retrieved March 11, 2007</ref><ref>Nye, p. 157</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Blum|2006|p=87}}</ref> Perang Tiis ogé ngabantuan mendefenisikan peran pulitik Amérika Sarikat di dunya pasca-[[Perang Dunya II]]: dina taun 1989 AS menjalin kerjasama militer dengan 50 nagara jeung mibanda 526.000<ref name=Frontline>{{cite web | title = U.S. Military Deployment 1969 to the present | publisher = http://www.pbs.org | date = October 26, 2004 | url = http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/pentagon/maps/5.html | accessdate =November 30, 2010 }}</ref> tentara di luar negeri nu tersebar di puluhan nagara, dengan 326.000 terdapat di Éropa (dua pertiganya di Jerman Kulon),<ref>{{Cite book |last = Duke |first = Simón |title = United States military forces and installations in Europe |publisher = Oxford University Press |year = 1989 |page = 175 |url = |id = |isbn = 0-19-829132-9}}</ref> jeung sekitar 130.000 terdapat di Asia (terutama di Jepang jeung Koréa Kidul).<ref name=Frontline/> Perang Tiis ogé menandai puncak pengembangan industri-militer, terutama di Amérika Sarikat, jeung pendanaan militer sacara besar-besaran.<ref name = "Calhoun">{{cite encyclopedia|author=Calhoun, Craig|encyclopedia=Dictionary of the Social Sciences|title=Cold War (entire chapter)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=SvSZHgAACAAJ&dq=Dictionary+of+the+Social+Sciences|accessdate=June 16, 2008|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-512371-9|ref=harv}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Pengembangan industri militer ieu mibanda dampak besar ka nagara nu bersangkutan; ngabantuan nyieun kehirupan kemasyarakatan, kawijakan, jeung hubungan luar negeri nagara éta.<ref>{{Cite book |last = Pavelec |first = Sterling Michael |title = The Military-Industrial Complex and American Society |publisher = ABC-CLIO |year = 2009 |pages = xv–xvi |url = |id = |isbn = 1-59884-187-4}}</ref> Pengeluaran militer Amérika Sarikat salila berlangsungnya Perang Tiis diperkirakan sekitar $ 8 triliun, sadengkeun hampir 100.000 orang Amérika keleungitan nyawa maranéhna dina [[Perang Korea]] jeung [[Perang Vietnam]].<ref>{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|p=1}}</ref> Sulit pikeun memperkirakan jumlah korban jeung kerugian ti pihak Soviét, namun jika dinempo ti komparasi produk nasional bruto maranéhna, maka biaya keuangan nu dikeluarkan ku Soviét salila Perang Tiis jauh leuwih besar tidina nu dikeluarkan ku Amérika Sarikat.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=213}}</ref> Selain leungitnya nyawa warga sipil ku para tentara tak berseragam, jutaan jiwa ogé tewas dina [[perang proksi]] antar kadua nagara adidaya di rupa-rupa belahan dunya, terutama di Asia Tenggara.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=266}}</ref> Sebagéan besar perang proksi jeung bantuan pikeun konflik-konflik lokal turut berahir seiring dengan usainya Perang Tiis. Perang antar-nagara, perang etnis, perang Révolusi, sarta jumlah pengungsi menurun tajam dina taun-taun pasca-Perang Tiis.<ref name = "Marshall">[http://www.systemicpeace.org/PC2005.pdf Monty G. Marshall and Ted Gurr, ''Peace and Conflict 2005''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624210152/http://www.systemicpeace.org/PC2005.pdf |date=2008-06-24 }} (PDF), Center for Systemic Peace (2006). Retrieved June 14, 2008.</ref> Di sisi lain, konflik-konflik antar-nagara di [[Dunya Katilu]] teu sepenuhnya terhapus pasca-Perang Tiis. Kategangan ékonomi jeung sosial nu dulu dimanfaatkan sebagai "bahan bakar" Perang Tiis terus berlangsung di [[Dunya Katilu]].<ref name="Halliday" /> Kegagalan kontrol nagara di sejumlah wilayah nu dulunya dikuasai ku Pamaréntah komunis telah ngahasilkeun konflik sipil jeung etnis baru, terutama di nagara-nagara bekas [[Yugoslavia]].<ref name = "Halliday" /> Berahirnya Perang Tiis telah menghantarkan Éropa Wétan dina éra pertumbuhan ékonomi jeung paningkatan jumlah nagara [[démokrasi liberal]], sadengkeun di bagéan lain dunya, seperti di Afganistan, kemerdekaan diikuti dengan [[nagara gagal|kegagalan nagara]].<ref name = "Halliday" /> == Historiografi == {{Main| Historiografi Perang Tiis}} Saenggeus istilah "Perang Tiis" dipopulerkan pikeun merujuk dina kategangan antara AS-Soviét pasca-Perang Dunya II, penafsiran ka asal usul konflik telah jadi sumber perdebatan di kalangan [[sejarawan]], ilmuwan pulitik, jeung jurnalis.<ref name = "Nashel">{{cite encyclopedia|author=Nashel, Jonathan|editor=Whiteclay Chambers, John|encyclopedia=The Oxford Companion to American Military History|title=Cold War (1945–91): Changing Interpretations (entire chapter)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xtMKHgAACAAJ&dq=The+Oxford+Companion+to+American+Military+History|accessdate=June 16, 2008|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-507198-0|ref=harv}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Sacara khusus, sejarawan teu paheut ngeunaan saha nu bertanggung jawab atas kerusakan hubungan Soviét-AS saenggeus Perang Dunya II, jeung apakah konflik antara dua adidaya éta tak terelakkan atawa bisa dihinti.<ref name="Brinkley">Brinkley, pp. 798–799</ref> Para sejarawan ogé teu paheut ngeunaan apa defenisi persisnya Perang Tiis itu, apa-apa saja nu jadi sumber-sumber konfliknya, jeung bagaimana pikeun menguraikan pola aksi jeung réaksi antara kadua pihak.<ref name = "Halliday" /> Meskipun penjelasan tentang asal usul ti konflik Perang Tiis dina diskusi akademik berlangsung dengan kompleks jeung beragam, Babaraha sekolah umum menetapkan pemikiran dina subjek nu dapat diidentifikasi. Sejarawan umumnya berpendapat yén terdapat tiga pamarekannu berbéda pikeun mempelajari Perang Tiis, nyaéta: pamarekan"ortodoks", "revisionisme", jeung "pasca-revisionisme".<ref name = "Calhoun" /> pamarekan"ortodoks" nyatakeun yén Uni Soviét jeung ekspansinya ke Éropa Wétan lah nu memicu berkobarnya Perang Tiis.<ref name = "Calhoun" /> Kalangan "revisionis" menganggep yén Amérika Sarikat bertanggung jawab atas kerusakan perdamaian pasca-Perang Dunya II karena berupaya pikeun mengkonfrontasi jeung mengisolasi Uni Soviét saméméh ahir Perang Dunya II.<ref name = "Calhoun" /> Sadengkeun "pasca-revisionis" mandang Perang Tiis sebagai kajadian nu leuwih bernuansa, jeung berusaha pikeun leuwih menyeimbangkan ngeunaan saha pihak nu bertanggung jawab dina Perang Tiis.<ref name = "Calhoun" /> Kelobaan [[historiografi]] ngeunaan Perang Tiis menggunakan dua atawa kesakabéhan pamarekanieu.<ref name = "Byrd" /> == Nempo ogé == {{div col|colwidth=25em}} * [[Permainan Besar]] * [[Imperialisme Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Kanada dina Perang Tiis]] * [[Perang Tiis (istilah umum)]] * [[Perang Tiis (serial TV)|''Perang Tiis'' (serial TV)]] * [[Kebudayaan salila Perang Tiis]] * [[Konferensi Danube River 1948]] * [[Daftar konferensi Uni Soviét-Amérika Sarikat]] * [[McCarthyisme]] * [[Intervensi luar negeri Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Ekspansi ékonomi pasca-Perang Dunya II]] * [[Kekaisaran Soviét]] * [[Garis waktu kejadian dina Perang Tiis]] * [[Eksperimen manusia nu teu etis di Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Perang Dunya III]] * [[:Kategori:Perang Tiis]] {{div col end}} == Catatan kaki == {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} == Referensi jeung bacaan lanjutan == {{Main|Daftar sumber primer jeung sekunder Perang Tiis}} {{refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * {{cite book|last=Applebaum|first = Anne|title=Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe, 1944-1956|publisher= Doubleday|year=2012|isbn= 0-385-51569-3}} * Davis, Simon, and Joseph Smith. ''The A to Z of the Cold War'' (Scarecrow, 2005), encyclopedia focused on military aspects * {{cite book|last=Dominguez|first = Jorge I.|title= To Make a World Safe for Revolution: Cuba's Foreign Policy|publisher= Harvard University Press|year=1989|isbn=0-674-89325-0}} * {{cite book|last=Friedman|first = Norman|title= The Fifty-Year War: Conflict and Strategy in the Cold War|publisher= Naval Institute Press|year=2007|isbn=1-59114-287-3}} * {{Cite book|title=Russia, the Soviét Union and the United States. An Interpretative History|last=Gaddis|first=John Lewis|year=1990|publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn=0-07-557258-3|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * {{cite book|title=We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History|author=[[John Lewis Gaddis|Gaddis, John Lewis]]|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-878070-2}} * {{Cite book|title=The Cold War: A New History|last=Gaddis|first=John Lewis|year=2005|publisher=Penguin Press|isbn=1-59420-062-9|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * {{Cite book|last=Garthoff|first=Raymond|title=Détente and Confrontation: American-Soviét Relations from Nixon to Reagan|year=1994|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|isbn=0-8157-3041-1|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * Haslam, Jonathan. ''Russia's Cold War: From the October Revolution to the Fall of the Wall'' (Yale University Press; 2011) 512 pages * Hoffman, David E. ''The Dead Hand: The Untold Story of the Cold War Arms Race and Its Dangerous Legacy'' (2010) * {{cite book|last=Hussain|first =Rizwan|title= Pakistan And The Emergence Of Islamic Militancy In Afghanistan|publisher= Ashgate Publishing|year=2005|isbn=0-7546-4434-0}} * Judge, Edward H. ''The Cold War: A Global History With Documents'' (2012) * {{cite book|last=Kalinovsky|first =Artemy M.|title= A Long Goodbye: The Soviét Withdrawal from Afghanistan|publisher= Harvard University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0-674-05866-8}} * {{cite book|last=LaFeber|first=Walter|title= America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945–2002|publisher= McGraw-Hill|year=2002|isbn=0-07-284903-7|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * {{Cite book|last=Leffler|first = Melvyn|title= A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Admieustration, and the Cold War|publisher= Stanford University Press|year=1992|isbn=0-8047-2218-8|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * Leffler, Melvyn P. and Odd Arne Westad, eds. ''The Cambridge History of the Cold War'' (3 vol, 2010) 2000pp; new essays by léading scholars * {{Cite book|last=Lewkowicz|first = Nicolas|title= The German Question and the International Order, 1943–48|publisher= Palgrave Macmillan|year=2010|isbn=978-0-230-24812-0|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * {{cite book|author=[[Geir Lundestad|Lundestad, Geir]]|title=East, West, North, South: Major Developments in International Politics since 1945|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=1-4129-0748-9}} * {{cite book|last=Lüthi|first =Lorenz M|title= The Sino-Soviét split: Cold War in the communist world|publisher= Princeton University Press|year=2008|isbn=0-691-13590-8}} * {{cite book|last=McMahon|first=Robert|title=The Cold War: A Very Short Introduction|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-280178-3|year=2003}} * {{cite book|last=Meher|first =Jagmohan|title= America's Afghanistan War: The Success that Failed|publisher= Gyan Books|year=2004|isbn=81-7835-262-1}} * {{cite book|last=Lüthi|first =Lorenz M|title= The Sino-Soviét split: Cold War in the communist world|publisher= Princeton University Press|year=2008|isbn=0-691-13590-8}} * {{Cite book|last=Malkasian|first=Carter|title= The Korean War: Essential Histories|publisher= Osprey Publishing|year=2001|isbn=1-84176-282-2|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * Mastny, Vojtech. ''The Cold War and Soviét insecurity: the Stalin years'' (1996) [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;view=toc;idno=heb00281.0001.001 online edition] * {{Cite book|title=Russian Image on the Western Screen: Trends, Stereotypes, Myths, Illusions|last=Fedorov|first=Alexander|year=2011|publisher=Lambert Academic Publishing,|isbn=978-3-8433-9330-0}} * {{Cite book|last=Miller|first=Roger Gene|title=To Save a City: The Berlin Airlift, 1948–1949|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|year=2000|isbn=0-89096-967-1|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * {{Cite book|last=Njolstad|first=Olav|title= The Last Decade of the Cold War|publisher= Routledge|year=2004|isbn=0-7146-8371-X|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * {{cite book|last=Nolan|first=Peter|title=China's Rise, Russia's Fall|year=1995|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=0-312-12714-6}} * {{Cite book|last=Pearson|first=Raymond|title=The Rise and Fall of the Soviét Empire|publisher=Macmillan|year=1998|isbn=0-312-17407-1|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * {{cite book|last=Porter|first = Bruce|coauthors=Karsh, Efraim|title= The USSR in Third World Conflicts: Soviét Arms and Diplomacy in Local Wars|publisher= Cambridge University Press|year=1984|isbn=0-521-31064-4}} * {{Cite book|last=Puddington|first=Arch|title= Broadcasting Freedom: The Cold War Triumph of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty|publisher= University Press of Kentucky|year= 2003|isbn=0-8131-9045-2|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * {{Cite book|last=Roberts|first=Geoffrey|title=Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2006|isbn=0-300-11204-1|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * {{cite book|last=Stone|first=Norman|title= The Atlantic and Its Enemies: A History of the Cold War|publisher= Basic Books Press|year=2010|isbn=0-465-02043-7}} * {{Cite book|last=Taubman|first=William|title=Khrushchev: The Man and His éra|year=2004|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=0-393-32484-2|ref=harv|postscript=.}}; Pulitzer Prize * Tucker, Spencer, ed. ''Encyclopedia of the Cold War: A Political, Social, and Military History'' (5 vol. 2008), world coverage * Walker, Martin. ''The Cold War: A History'' (1995), British perspective * {{Cite book|last=Wettig|first=Gerhard|title=Stalin and the Cold War in Europe|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2008|isbn=0-7425-5542-9|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * {{Cite book|last=Zubok|first = Vladislav|coauthors=Pleshakov, Constantine|title= Inside the Kremlin's Cold War: From Stalin to Khrushchev|publisher= Harvard University Press|year=1996|isbn=0-674-45531-2|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * Zubok, Vladislav M. ''A Failed Empire: The Soviét Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev'' (2008) === Historiografi jeung memori === * Hopkins, Michael F. "Continuing Debate and New Approaches in Cold War History," ''Historical Journal,'' Dec 2007, Vol. 50 Issue 4, pp 913–934, * Isaac, Joel, and Duncan Bell, eds. ''Uncertain Empire: American History and the Idea of the Cold War'' (2012) [http://www.amazon.com/Uncertain-Empire-American-History-Idea/dp/0199826145/ excerpt and text search] * Johnston, Gordon. "Revisiting the cultural Cold War," ''Social History,'' Aug 2010, Vol. 35 Issue 3, pp 290–307 * Nuti, Léopoldo, et al., eds. ''Europe and the End of the Cold War: A Reappraisal'' (2012) [http://www.amazon.com/Europe-End-Cold-War-ebook/dp/B008VSEJBO/ excerpt and text search] * Wiener, Jon. ''How We Forgot the Cold War: A Historical Journey across America'' (2012) [http://www.amazon.com/How-Forgot-Cold-War-Historical/dp/0520271416/ excerpt and text search] === Sumber primer === * {{cite book|author=[[Christopher Andrew (historian)|Andrew, Christopher]]|coauthors=[[Vasili Mitrokhin|Mitrokhin, Vasili]]|title= The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB|publisher= Basic Books|year=2000|isbn=0-585-41828-4}} * {{Cite book|last=Dobrynin|first=Anatoly|title=In Confidence: Moscow's Ambassador to Six Cold War Presidents|publisher=University of Washington Press|year=2001|isbn=0-295-98081-8|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * Hanhimaki, Jussi and Odd Arne Westad, eds. ''The Cold War: A History in Documents and Eyewitness Accounts'' (Oxford University Press, 2003). ISBN 0-19-927280-8. * {{cite book|author=Sakwa, Richard|title= The rise and fall of the Soviét Union, 1917–1991|publisher=Routledge|year=1999|isbn=0-415-12290-2|ref=harv|postscript=.}} * {{cite book|author=Cardona, Luis|title= Cold War KFA|publisher=Routledge|year=2007|ref=harv|postscript=.|unused_data=Barcelona, Spain}} * [http://www.jfklibrary.org/Events-and-Awards/Forums.aspx?f=2009 "Presidency in the Nuclear Age"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618021017/http://www.jfklibrary.org/Events-and-Awards/Forums.aspx?f=2009 |date=2013-06-18 }}, conference and forum at the [[John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum|JFK Library]], Boston, October 12, 2009. Four panels: "The Race to Build the Bomb and the Decision to Use It", "Cuban Missile Crisis and the First Nuclear Test Ban Treaty", "The Cold War and the Nuclear Arms Race", and "Nuclear Weapons, Terrorism, and the Presidency". ( [http://www.jfklibrary.org/Events-and-Awards/~/media/assets/Education%20and%20Public%20Programs/Forum%20Transcripts/Cold%20War%20and%20Nuclear%20Arms%20Race.pdf transcript of "The Cold War and the Nuclear Arms Race"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117035929/http://www.jfklibrary.org/Events-and-Awards/~/media/assets/Education%20and%20Public%20Programs/Forum%20Transcripts/Cold%20War%20and%20Nuclear%20Arms%20Race.pdf |date=2013-01-17 }}) {{refend}} == Pranala luar == {{Sister project links|Perang Tiis}} ;Arsip * [http://www.osaarchivum.org/guide/ Open Society Archives, Budapest (Hungary), one of the biggest history of communism and cold war archives in the world] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511130424/http://www.osaarchivum.org/guide/ |date=2011-05-11 }} * [http://www.cybertrn.demon.co.uk/ An archive of UK civil defence material] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081222065026/http://www.cybertrn.demon.co.uk/ |date=2008-12-22 }} * [http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552679 Post-Cold War World Economy] from the [http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494 Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives] * [http://www.conelrad.com/ CONELRAD Cold War Pop Culture Site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729202943/http://www.conelrad.com/ |date=2020-07-29 }} * [http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/war-conflict/cold-war/cold-war-culture-the-nuclear-fear-of-the-1950s-and-1960s/topic---cold-war-culture-the-nuclear-fear-of-the-1950s-and-1960s.html CBC Digital Archives{{spaced ndash}}Cold War Culture: The Nuclear Fear of the 1950s and 1960s] * [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/program/cold-war-international-history-project The Cold War International History Project (CWIHP)] * [http://coldwarfiles.org/ The Cold War Files] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918203432/http://coldwarfiles.org/ |date=2008-09-18 }} * [http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/ CNN Cold War Knowledge Bank] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217154418/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/ |date=2008-12-17 }} comparison of articles on Cold War topics in the Western and the Soviét press between 1945 and 1991 * [http://community.theblackvault.com/articles/entry/The-CAESAR-POLO-and-ESAU-Papers- The CAESAR, POLO, and ESAU Papers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090710182023/http://community.theblackvault.com/articles/entry/The-CAESAR-POLO-and-ESAU-Papers- |date=2009-07-10 }}–This collection of declassified analytic monographs and reference aids, designated within the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Directorate of Intelligence (DI) as the CAESAR, ESAU, and POLO series, highlights the CIA's efforts from the 1950s through the mid-1970s to pursue in-depth reséarch on Soviét and Chinese internal politics and Sino-Soviét relations. The documents reflect the views of séasoned analysts who had followed closely their special aréas of reséarch and whose views were shaped in often héated debate. * [http://eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/aerial_intelligence.html Documents available online regarding aerial intelligence during the Cold War, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library] ;Bibliografi * [http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=issues/Arms+Race Annotated bibliography for the arms race from the Alsos Digital Library] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060203121815/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=issues%2FArms+Race |date=2006-02-03 }} ;Berita * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/themes/world_politics/cold_war/default.stm Video and audio news reports from during the cold war] ;Sumber edukasional * [http://www.nps.gov/history/NR/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/128mimi/ ''Minuteman Missile National Historic Site: Protecting a Legacy of the Cold War'', a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan] {{Perang Tiis}} {{Tokoh Perang Tiis}} {{Topik Amérika Sarikat}} {{Uni Soviét handap}} {{komunisme handap}} {{Artikel Geulis}} [[Kategori:Perang Tiis| ]] [[Kategori:Konflik global]] [[Kategori:Masa bersejarah]] [[Kategori:Perang melibatkan Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Perang melibatkan Uni Soviét]] [[Kategori:Abad ke-20]] [[Kategori:Hubungan internasional]] svu49m73bb2esmq10s4wevu83mh3l04 0 98838 710211 707786 2026-06-09T20:24:31Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710211 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Historic Site |name = Chaco Culture National Historical Park |image = Chaco Canyon Chetro Ketl great kiva plaza NPS.jpg |image_size = 300 |alt=Large circular depression outlined by a stone wall. The bottom is flat and grassy, and has a collection of rectangular stone foundations and smaller circles of stone. A great sandstone cliff towers in the background, and beneath the cliff are other stone foundations that are larger and higher. |caption=Great kiva [[Chetro Ketl]] | image_map = File:NPS map of Chaco Culture National Historic Park.png | image_map_size = 300 | image_map_caption = Park map | image_map_alt = A color map of the area around Chaco Canyon, New Mexico |location=[[San Juan County, New Mexico|San Juan County]] jeung [[McKinley County, New Mexico|McKinley County]], [[New Mexico]], [[Amérika Sarikat]] |coordinates = {{coord|36.06|-107.97|region:US-NM_dim:20000|display=inline,title}} |locmapin= New Mexico#USA |architecture = Ancient Puebloan |area = {{cvt|33977.8|acre|km2|2}} |visitation_num = 39,175 |visitation_year = 2011 |governing_body = [[National Park Service]] |website = [http://www.nps.gov/chcu/ Chaco Culture National Historical Park] |designation1=WHS |designation1_offname=Chaco Culture |designation1_type=Cultural |designation1_criteria=iii |designation1_number=[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/353 353] |designation1_date=1987 <small>(11th [[World Heritage Committee|session]])</small> |designation1_free1name=State Party |designation1_free1value=Amérika Sarikat |designation1_free2name=Region |designation1_free2value=[[List of World Heritage Sites in North America|Europe and North America]] |designation2=NRHP |designation2_date=15 Oktober 1966 |designation2_type=[[Distrik sajarah di Amérika Sarikat|Distrik sajarah]] |designation2_number=[http://focus.nps.gov/AssetDetail/NRIS/66000895 66000895]<ref name="nris">{{NRISref|version=2010a}}</ref> |designation3=NMON |designation3_date=11 Maret 1907 |delisted3_date=19 Désémber 1980 |designation3_free1name=Didésain ku |designation3_free1value=Présidén [[Theodore Roosevelt]] |designation4=NHP |designation4_date=19 Désémber 1980 |designation5=New Mexico |designation5_date=21 Méi 1971 |designation5_number=[https://web.archive.org/web/20141110122215/http://www.nmhistoricpreservation.org/assets/files/registers/2012%20Report_%20Section%203_%20Arranged%20by%20Number.pdf 57] }} '''Taman Sajarah Nasional Chaco Culture''' nyaéta hiji situs arkéologi anu perenahna di nagara bagian [[New Mexico]], [[Amérika Sarikat]]. Tempat ieu mangrupa tempat mekarna kabudayaan urang Chacoan salila [[abad ka-10]] nepi ka [[abad ka-13]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/chcu/learn/historyculture/index.htm|title=History & Culture - Chaco Culture National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)|last=Nageezi|first=Mailing Address: PO Box 220|last2=Us|first2=NM 87037 Phone:786-7014 Contact|website=www.nps.gov|language=en|accessdate=2020-01-26}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/353/|title=Chaco Culture|last=Centre|first=UNESCO World Heritage|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|accessdate=2020-01-28}}</ref> == Sajarah == Tempat ieu mangrupa tempat mekarna budaya [[urang Chacoan]] ti mimiti taun 800-an sarta lumangsung nepi ka 300 taun. Kabudayaan urang Chacoan bisa kawilang maju di jamanna. Éta kabuktian ku gaya artsitékturna anu geus maju. Maranéhna nyieun gedong tina batu anu eusina mangratus-ratus kamar. Éta gedong jeung kamar-kamar téh geus dirancang ti mimiti. Ieu konstruksi téh malahan awét nepi ka mangabad-abad.<ref name=":0" /> Salilal patengahan sarta ahir taun 800-an, imah-imah gedé anu diaranan Pueblo Bonito, Una Vida, jeung Peñasco Blanco diwangun, tuluy diwangun Hungo Pavi, Chetro Ketl, Pueblo Alto, jeung nu lianna. Struktur ieu biasana ngaoriéntasi ka arah panonpoé, bulan, jeung kardinal. Gurat pandang antara imahi-imah éta nagmungkinkeun pikeun komunikasi. Pananda astronomi anu canggih, fitur komunikasi, pakakas pikeun ngendalikeun cai, sarta gundukan taneuh ngurilingan imah maranéhanana. Wangunan ieu ditempatkeun di tempat anu dikurilingan ku gunung-gunung suci jeung tempat-tempat suci anu masih boga ma'na spiritual anu jero pikeun katurunan maranéhna.<ref name=":0" /> Di taun [[1050]], Chaco geus jadi pusat upacara, administrasi, jeung ékonomi daérah San Juan. Lingkup pangaruhna lega pisan. Babaraha losin imah-imah gedé di Chaco Canyon anu dihubungkeun ku jalan ka 150 leuwih imah nu lianna di sakabéh wewengkon. Imah-imah éta kira-kira lain lembur, tapi mangrupa kota anu geus maju.<ref name=":0" /> Di tuan [[1100]] jeung [[1200-an]], Chao mimiti robah nalika konstruksi anyar ngalaunann sarta lakon Chaco salaku puseur wewengkon ngagésér. Pangaruh Chaco ngalaju ka Aztec, Mesa Verde, Pagunungan Chuska, sarta puseur-puseur séjénna di kalér, kidul, jeung kulon. Tuluy jalma-jalma ngagésér ti Chaco, migrasi ka daérah anyar, tuluy papanggih jeung kabudayaan asing. Katurunan maranéhna nyaéta urang Indian Kalér-Kulon modéren. Loba urang Indian anu mandang Chaco minangka tempat pangeureunan anu penting di jalur migrasi suci maranéhna, sarta mangrupa tempat pikeun dipihormat.<ref name=":0" /> Di ahir [[abad ka-13]], sakabéh imah-imah ieu ditaringgalkeun, ku sabab di daérah ieu geus euweuh deui cai. Hal éta anu nyababkeun urang Chacoa parindah ka Mesa Verde anu masih aya cai.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/59218-chaco-culture.html|title=Chaco Culture: Pueblo Builders of the Southwest|last=Jarus 2017-05-23T04:46:18Z|first=Owen|website=livescience.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-01-28}}</ref> Chaco jadi bagian ti taman nasional (minangka monumén nasional) di taun [[1907]] sarta ditetepkeun jadi [[Loka Warisan Dunya]] di taun [[1987]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.americansouthwest.net/new_mexico/chaco_culture/national_historical_park.html|title=Chaco Culture National Historical Park, New Mexico|last=Southwest|first=The American|website=www.americansouthwest.net|accessdate=2020-01-28}}</ref> Kiwari, [[urang Indian Pueblo]] di New Mexico ngaku-ngaku jadi katurunan urang Pueblo Kuna anu nyieun paradaban di Chaco Canyon.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aztecnm.com/fourcorners/newmexico/chaco.html|title=Chaco Culture National Historical Park, NM|website=www.aztecnm.com|accessdate=2020-01-28}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128205525/http://www.aztecnm.com/fourcorners/newmexico/chaco.html |date=2020-01-28 }}</ref> == Tapak arkéologi == Di tempat ieu aya tapak [[arkéologi]] mangrupa wangunan-wangunan anu baheulana dijadikeun tempat upacara, tempat dagang, imah, sarta wangunan umum anu lianna. Anu unikna, ieu wangunan téh disusun ku batu-bata anu kawilang canggih. Tuluy konstruksina ogé anu geus bisa ngawangun babaraha undakan dina wangunan. Ieu nyirikeun yén paradaban urang Chacoan geus kawilang maju di jamanna.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalparks.org/explore-parks/chaco-culture-national-historical-park|title=Chaco Culture National Historical Park|last=Nageezi|first=Address Chaco Culture National Historical Park P. O. Box 220|last2=NM|website=National Park Foundation|language=en|accessdate=2020-01-28}}</ref> Loba imah anu diwangun di Cacho Canyon, salah sahiji imah, anu kiwari diaranan "''Pueblo Bonito''", kamungkinan boga 600 kamar. Di Pueblo Bonito ogé aya nau disebut "''Great Kiva''" anu mangrupa rohangan gedé anu ngabuleud pikeun panglawungan jeung upacara.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-americas/early-cultures/ancestral-puebloan/a/chaco-canyon|title=Chaco Canyon (article)|website=Khan Academy|language=en|accessdate=2020-01-28}}</ref> Pueblo Bonito ogé kaasup crypts anu nampung leuwih ti 100 astana.<ref name=":2" /> ''Pueblo Bonito'' diwangun di sisieun monolit batu anu jangkungna 30 [[méter]]. anu runtuh di taun [[1920-an]]. Titinggal anu kapanggih di ''Pueblo Bonito'' saperti sésa-sésa tangkal pines, kamungkinan boga ma'na simbolis. Salian ti éta, ''Pueblo Bonito'' ogé dimangpaatkeun jadi tempat nyimpen barang.<ref name=":2" /> Tapi, jumlah jalma nau nempatan ''Pueblo Bonito'' ieu can pasti, aya arkéolog anu nyebut 1000 jalma, aya ogé anu nyebut ngan ku 70 urang.<ref name=":2" /> Kiwari, [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]], [[Donald Trump]], nimbang-nimbang pikeun naghapus status monumén nasional ti Chaco Culture.<ref name=":2" /> == Kaayaan alam == Salian ti tapak arkéologi, di taman sajarah ieu ogé loba [[sasatoan]] jeung [[tutuwuhan]] anu hirup. Urang bisa manggihan [[uncal]], [[ucing]] [[leuweung]], [[kelenci]], [[musang]], [[landak]], [[kalong]], [[oray]], [[kadal]], sarta [[ampibi]] anu lianna. Panalungtikan ilmiah di ieu taman eukeur lumangsung, tapi pasalingsingan jeung proyék ngeunaan sumber daya budaya. Panalungtikanna nyaéta inventarisasi fosil, survéy tutuwuhan asli, jumlah [[manuk]] taunan, sarta ngawaskeun babatuan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/chcu/learn/nature/index.htm|title=Nature - Chaco Culture National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)|last=Nageezi|first=Mailing Address: PO Box 220|last2=Us|first2=NM 87037 Phone:786-7014 Contact|website=www.nps.gov|language=en|accessdate=2020-01-28}}</ref> == Masalah lingkungan == Sanajan geus ditetepkeun jadi Loka Warisan Dunya, angger baé teu bisa ngalindungan Chaco Canyon tina tekanan pangwangunan. Kamari-kamari, ''fracking'', pangeboran minyak atawa gas di handap taneuh diijinan pikeun dilakukeun di deukeut Chaco Canyon. [[Urang Navajo]] nolak kaputusan ieu ku sabab bakal aya pencemaran anu disababkeun ku fracking anu dampakna ka taman sajarah jeung urang-urang di sabudeureunana.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite news|title='As close as the US gets to Egypt’s pyramids': how Chaco Canyon is endangered by drilling|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/nov/08/chaco-canyon-national-park-new-mexico-drilling|newspaper=The Guardian|date=2017-11-08|access-date=2020-01-28|issn=0261-3077|language=en-GB|first=Elizabeth|last=Miller}}</ref> == Tingali ogé == * [[Taman sajarah]] * [[Taman nasional]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Taman Sajarah]] [[Kategori:Taman Nasional]] [[Kategori:Taman Nasional di Amérika Sarikat]] ifd054ymv41pab9zex1a7ezedlgyrnv 0 99827 710202 704663 2026-06-09T13:56:42Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710202 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement | official_name = Kota Palopo | settlement_type = [[Daptar kabupatén jeung kota di Indonésia|Kota]] | motto = "Palopo Kota IDAMAN" (Indah, Damai, Nyaman) | image_seal = Lambang Kota Palopo.png | pushpin_map = Indonesia Sulawesi | pushpin_map_caption = Lokasi di [[Sulawesi]] jeung [[Indonésia]] | subdivision_type = Nagara | subdivision_name = {{flag|Indonésia}} | subdivision_type1 = [[Propinsi di Indonésia|Propinsi]] | subdivision_name1 = [[Sulawesi Kidul]] | leader_title = Walikota | leader_name = Asrul Sani (Pj.) | established_title = Diadegkeun | established_date = c. 1620 | established_title2 = Status Kota | established_date2 = 14 Juli 2002 | area_total_km2 = 247.52 | area_footnotes = <ref name="luas">{{cite web|url=https://palopokota.go.id/|title=Profil Kota Palopo|publisher=Pemerintah Kota Palopo|accessdate=26 Januari 2026}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230711230539/https://palopokota.go.id/ |date=2023-07-11 }}</ref> | population_as_of = 2023 | population_total = 190867 | population_density_km2 = auto | population_footnotes = <ref name="BPS">{{cite web|title=Kota Palopo Dalam Angka 2024|url=https://palopokota.bps.go.id/|publisher=BPS Kota Palopo|accessdate=26 Januari 2026}}</ref> | timezone = [[Waktu Indonésia Tengah|WITA]] | utc_offset = +8 | area_code_type = [[Daptar kode telepon di Indonésia|Kode aréa]] | area_code = +62 471 | website = [https://palopokota.go.id/ palopokota.go.id] }} '''[[Kota Palopo]]''' mangrupikeun salah sahiji [[kota]] di [[propinsi]] [[Sulawesi Kidul]], [[Indonésia]]. Kota Palopo sateuacanna ngagaduhan status [[kota administratif]] ti saprak taun [[1986]] anu janten bagian tina [[Kabupatén Luwu]], saterasna dirobih janten kota otonom dina taun [[2002]] luyu sareng UU Nomer 11 Taun 2002 tanggal [[10 April]] [[2002]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Undang-Undang Nomor 11 Taun 2002 ngeunaan Pembentukan Kota Palopo |url=https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Home/Details/44449/uu-no-11-taun-2002 |website=BPK RI |accessdate=26 Januari 2026}}</ref> == Sajarah == Kapungkur, Palopo mangrupikeun puseur pamaréntahan sarta budaya [[Kasultanan Luwu]]. Salah sahiji titinggal sajarah anu kawéntar nyaéta [[Masjid Jami Tua Palopo]] anu diwangun dina taun 1604.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pelras |first=Christian |title=The Bugis |year=1996 |publisher=Blackwell Publishers |isbn=978-0631172314 |language=en}}</ref> == Pamaréntahan == Kota Palopo dibagi kana 9 kacamatan, di antarana: * [[Bara, Palopo|Bara]], [[Mumu, Palopo|Mumu]], [[Sendana, Palopo|Sendana]], [[Tellu Wanua, Palopo|Tellu Wanua]], [[Wara, Palopo|Wara]], [[Wara Barat, Palopo|Wara Barat]], [[Wara Selatan, Palopo|Wara Selatan]], [[Wara Timur, Palopo|Wara Timur]], sarta [[Wara Utara, Palopo|Wara Utara]]. == Atikan sarta Kuliner == Kota ieu kawéntar salaku puseur atikan di wilayah Luwu Raya kalayan ayana paguron luhur sapertos IAIN Palopo sarta Universitas Andi Djemma. Dina widang kuliner, Palopo kawéntar ku '''[[Kapurung]]''', nyaéta kadaharan has anu dijieun tina sagu.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kuliner Khas Palopo Kapurung |url=https://www.indonesia.travel/ |website=Indonesia Travel |accessdate=26 Januari 2026}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Tumbu luar == * {{id}} [https://palopokota.go.id/ Ramat loka resmi Kota Palopo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230711230539/https://palopokota.go.id/ |date=2023-07-11 }} {{Sulawesi Kidul}} {{Indonésia-pondok}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Palopo}} [[Kategori:Kota Palopo| ]] [[Kategori:Kota di Indonésia|Palopo, Kota]] [[Kategori:Kota di Sulawesi Kidul|Palopo, Kota]] [[Kategori:Kota di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Palopo]] [[Kategori:Pamekaran wilayah taun 2002]] [[Kategori:Kota di Sulawesi Kidul]] == Réferénsi == {{reflist}} 3ydjhueofmygolucas3sfdb2fdvwgdb 0 106293 710215 705935 2026-06-09T22:06:59Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710215 wikitext text/x-wiki == Latar Belakang == '''Yunani kuno''' nyaeta salah sahiji nagara anu aya di wilayah Eropa Tenggara. Dina bahasa Yunani, Yunani kuna sok dikenal oge ku sebutan ''Hellas'' atawa ''Ellada.'' Yunani kuna miboga salah sahiji budaya anu kuat di zaman harita. Yunani kuna téh kabagi ti wilayah daratan anu utama jeng sababaraha hiji Pulo. Yunani kuno kasohor ku elmu pangaweruhna anu ngalahirkeun tokoh tokoh gedé. Siga Filsafat Barat nyaeta aya Socrates, Aristoteles, Jeung Plato), aya dinu widang sastra nyaeta aya (Homer, Jeung Hesoid), dinu elmu matematika aya (Phythagoras jeung Aristoteles), tur dina widang Sajarah aya Bapak Herodotous. Yunai kuna kasohor ku kabudayaan anu megah tur bisa jadi kiblat kabudayaan dunya Yunani kuna salah sahiji nagara anu miboga pangaweruh gedé dina sajarah peradaban dunya. [[Gambar:Erechtheum Acropolis Athens.jpg|jmpl|Arsitektur Yunani Kuno]] Bangsa Yunani miboga pangaweruh anu kuat dina midangkeun kabudayaan jeung elmu pangaweruh dina zaman poék basa éta. Hasil tina kabudayaan yunani bisa ngamekarkeun jeng salah sahiji jalan kaluar tina zaman poék di sajarah paradaban eropa. Peradaban Yunani mimitina mekar di wilayah Pulau Kreta di wilayah kidul Yunani Kuno. Peradaban Kreta ieu anu jadi cikal bakal Yunani kasohor di Benua Eropa. Peradaban Yunani teh sabenerna henteu miboga wilayah anu subur, wilayahna aya di dataran luhur, loba katutupan ku gunung gunung, tebing tapi bisa jadi salah sahiji aset peradaban dunia anu kasohor tur kahontal dina zaman na. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/id/1-119/yunani-kuno/|title=Yunani Kuno|last=Mark|first=Joshua J.|website=Ensiklopedia Sejarah Dunia|language=id|accessdate=2025-02-22}}</ref> == Perkembangan Peradaban Yunani Kuno di Pulau Kret == Sajarah Eropa Kuno dimimitian ku kahirupan Masarakat Pulau Kreta anu aya di wilayah kidul Pusat Yunani nu pusat pamarentahanna aya di wilayah Knossus. Salian ti Knossus masih aya wilayah kota-kota gede nyaeta Phaestos, Tylissos, Hanos. Pulau Kreta anu jadi awal peradaban Yunani Kuno teh nyaeta wilayah anu miboga pulau strategis, sabab aya di wilayah pulau pulau anu sok dipake dagang di pasaran Eropa. Pulau Kreta aya di hapit di antara Mesir, Yunani, Jeung Mesopotamia.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Peradaban Dunia Yunani Kuno|last=Ali|first=Purtanto|publisher=Sindur Press|year=2007}}</ref> Masarakat Pulau Kreta asalna ti wilayah Asia. Kira kira taun 3000-1500 SM, maranehna miboga kabudayaan anu luhur jeung gede. Kabudayaan diwangun sabab ayana kakuatan maritim laut anu kuat jeng mempertahankeun daerah kakuasaanna. Kabudayaan Kreta disebut oge "Kabudayaan Minos", sabab ngaran Minos, nyaeta "Rajana Pulau Kreta" nu miboga kakuasaan di Kota Knosus. Hasil tina kabudayaan nyaeta arsitektur, seni patung, jeung seni kerajinan. Tembok tembok nu aya di Pulau Kreta diwarnaan ku Lukisan tina cet cai. Di Wilaya Knosuss oge kapanggih tempat pamandian masarakat. Ngaran Minos anu ges dibahas saacanna, nyaeta asal muasal tina ngaran Raja gede di Pulau Kreta, malahan Kabudayaan Kreta tungtungna di sebut Kabudayaan Minoa. == Tumuwuh Jeung Mekarna Peradaban Yunani == Yunani nyaeta salah sahiji pusat peradaban pangkolotna di Eropa. Wilayah Yunani patokanna aya di tungtung kaler Benua Eropa. Lolobana wilayah laut Aegea jeung Laut Ionia abus ka wilayah Yunani. Di wilayah kaler, yunani babatesan jeung Albania, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Jeung Turki di wilayah daratan Eropa. Di wilayah wetan, Yunani di kurilingan Ku Laut Aegea, Jeung Yunani teh salah sahiji wilayah anu miboga iklim Laut tengah Anu nyaman tur ngenah. Yunani sabenerna lahir heunteu di wilayah anu boga letak geografis alus siga Mesopotamia, Huang Ho jeng sajabanna. Yunani nyaeta wilayah anu miboga tanah tandus, jeung loba pagunungan jeng tebing tebing anu jangkung nutupan wilayah hiji ka wilayah sejen. === Pola Kahirupan Masarakat === Taneh Yunani anu gunung gunung jeung umumna kurang subur, masarakat diditu melak gandum jeung anggur. Pikeun neangan daerah anu subur, Patani diditu (disebut ''colonus)'' ninggalkeun daerahna jeung ngadirikeun wilayah jajahan di sabudureun wilayah Yunani. Daerah jajahanan Yunani diantarana nyaeta aya Italia Kidul, Mesir, Palestina, Jeung Asia Leutik (Turki ayeuna). Tinu kagiatan anu dilakukeun eta, pucunghul istilah Kolonialisme. Salian ti kagiatan Tani, masarakata Yunani ngembangkeun ekonomi ku jalan perairan laut anu miboga iklim meditarian anu alus. Ku sabab eta di wilayah Athena mekar pesat kabudayaan nu alus di widang seni atawa di widang elmu pangaweruh. [https://www.pijarbelajar.id/blog/peradaban-yunani-kuno] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250929182202/https://www.pijarbelajar.id/blog/peradaban-yunani-kuno |date=2025-09-29 }} === ''Polis'' === Bangsa Yunani Kuno ngawengku suku bangsa. Maranehna nyicingan wilayah nu disebut "nagara kota" atawa anu disebut "''Polis"'' nyaeta kota anu ngabentang pusat kota jeung daerah padesaan sabuderenna. ''Polis'' anu dicicingan ku masarakat Yunani nyaeta nagara letik anu merdeka. Di Yunani aya tilu polis gede jeung kuat yaitu Athena, Sparta, Jeung Thebe.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Peradaban Yunani Kuno II|first=Herly|publisher=PT Gramedia|year=2007}}</ref> [[Gambar:Polis scene4.jpg|jmpl|Polis Polis Yunani]] Kalolobaan na wilayah Yunani Kuno loba ku gunung gunung nepi ka antar daerah teh kapisah pisah. Nepi ka 30% tinu legana wilayah na nyaeta dataran pendek anu aya di deket laut jeung kabentuk ku endepan lumpur sungai. Sisana nyaeta Jazirah, Peloponessos Jeung Attica. Gunung Gunung jeung teluk di Yunani henteu kaitung pisan sabab kulobana jeung kahalangan komunikasi ngaliwatan darat. Wilayah wilayah lembah anu aya kapisah pisah kabentuk sacara alami henteu di pengaruhi ku faktor faktor sejen. === Serangan Ti Bangsa Pérsia === Ayana Polis Polis di Yunani ngakibatkeun maranehna saingan dina ngarebutkeun kakuasaan jeung kakayaan anu aya di wilayah Yunani Kuno. Teu aneh lamun di Yunani remen aya kaributan di antara ''Polis Polis.'' Sanajanm kapisah dina wilayah wilayahna, ngan pas aya serangan ti Persia manehna ngahiji pikeun ngelehkeun serangan anu aya, Sparta jeung Athena ngahiji pikeun bisa ngalawan serangan ti Persia. Periode serangan Persia ka Yunani bisa di kelompokkeun ka sababaraha hiji periode nyaeta, Perang Persia Yunani I sakitaran taun (492 SM), Perang Persia II sakitar (490 SM), jeung Perang Persia III nungakibatkeun Raja Sparta kabunuh dinu perang pamungkas eta. [https://nationalgeographic.grid.id/read/133982457/sejarah-yunani-kuno-hancurnya-peradaban-hingga-pengaruh-di-era-modern?page=all]<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sejarah Pulau Kreta|last=Kuntowijoyo|publisher=2011}}</ref> == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:Sajarah Éropa]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Yunani kuno]] [[Kategori:WikiLatih Unsil]] 1e97vshpaz6wysxsvfdsg3eozd3bfvp 0 108535 710201 709770 2026-06-09T13:27:23Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 2 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710201 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kokoplak''' nyaéta salah sahiji situs cagar budaya di [[Kota Banjar]], [[Jawa Barat]], anu patali jeung sajarah [[Perang Pataruman]] dina naskah ''[[Kidung Lakbok]]'' taun 1956. == Dina Kidung Lakbok == Dina pupuh 5-7 ''Kidung Lakbok'' disebatkeun: <blockquote>"Silih sUrung di tjikawung, silih dupak di Kokoplak, silih sered di Kawasen"</blockquote> Ieu nunjukkeun yén Kokoplak mangrupikeun salah sahiji medan perang antara [[Ratu Inggeung Buana]] jeung [[Ratu Agung Tambakbaja]].<ref name="kidung1956">Prawiraatmadja, M. Karso. ''Kidung Lakbok''. 1956. Hlm. 5-6.</ref> == Situs Cagar Budaya Embah Dalem Adipati Tambakbaya == Situs ieu sacara resmi dingaranan '''Situs Cagar Budaya Embah Dalem Adipati Tambakbaya''', tapi leuwih dikenal ku masarakat salaku '''Situs Kokoplak'''.<ref name="fokusjabar">[https://fokusjabar.id/situs-cagar-budaya-kokoplak-banjar-butuh-perhatian Irfansyah Riza. "Situs Cagar Budaya Kokoplak Banjar Butuh Perhatian dan Sentuhan Pemerintah". ''Fokus Jabar'', 3 Februari 2025.]</ref> Lokasina aya di Dusun Pananjung, Kelurahan Sinartanjung/Desa Mulyasari, Kacamatan [[Pataruman]], [[Kota Banjar]], lega ±1 héktare.<ref name="swara">[https://swarabjbnews.com/2021/12/cagar-budaya-situs-kokoplak-akan-di-rehabilitasi-pemdes-sinar-tanjung-kota-banjar-jabar/ Swara. "Cagar Budaya Situs Kokoplak Akan di Rehabilitasi Pemdes Sinar Tanjung Kota Banjar Jabar". ''Swarajabbarnews.com'', 15 Desember 2021.]{{Dead link|date=June 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Situs ieu perenahna teu jauh ti [[Sungai Citanduy]].<ref name="kabarpriangan">[https://www.kabar-priangan.com/berita/terkini/19-januari-2023/dua-pemburu-blawok-di-kawasan-keramat-kokoplak-banjar-tenggelam-saat-menyeberangi-sungai-citanduy D. Iwan. "Dua Pemburu Biawak di Kawasan Keramat Kokoplak Banjar Tenggelam Saat Menyeberangi Sungai Citanduy". ''Kabar Priangan'', 19 Januari 2023.]{{Dead link|date=June 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Numutkeun sumber lokal, situs ieu patali jeung makam '''Raden Adipati Singaperbangsa II''' alias Dalem Tambakbaya, tokoh abad ka-17 anu dipikawanoh salaku pelopor pertanian tambak di kawasan Liunggunung.<ref name="fokusjabar" /> Situs ieu kerap dikunjungi peziarah ti luar daerah pikeun menta berkah usaha sareng jabatan.<ref name="harapan2015">[https://www.harapanrakyat.com/2018/09/janji-penghuni-situs-kokoplak-untuk-kota-banjar/ Eva Latifah. "Aroma Kemenyan di Situs Kokoplak Banjar". ''Harapan Rakyat'', 25 Januari 2018.]</ref> == Kuncen jeung Tradisi Lisan == Dina Juni 2020, kuncen situs nyaéta '''Bapa Siram''' (80 taun), warga Dusun Pananjung Barat, Desa Sinar Tanjung.<ref name="harapan2020">[https://www.harapanrakyat.com/2020/06/adipati-tambak-baya-dan-asal-usul-nama-desa-di-kota-banjar/ Ngadimin. "Adipati Tambak Baya dan Asal-usul Nama Desa di Kota Banjar". ''Harapan Rakyat'', 10 Juni 2020.]</ref> Numutkeun anjeunna, kecap "Galuh" hartina ''uluh, weruh sedurung winara'', atawa dina basa Arab ''ma'rifat''.<ref name="harapan2020" /> Konon, wilayah Kokoplak duluna mangrupa wilayah anu dipimpin ku Adipati Tambak Baya.<ref name="harapan2020" /> == Rehabilitasi jeung Fungsi Ayeuna == Dina Désémber 2021, [[Pamaréntah Désa]] Sinar Tanjung ngarencanakeun rehabilitasi sareng perbaikan jalan di lingkungan situs.<ref name="swara" /> Situs Kokoplak ogé tos dipaké salaku sumber belajar sejarah lokal ku [[SMKN 2 Banjar]].<ref name="unigal">Sholihah, Salma Rahmillah. "Pemanfaatan Situs Kokoplak Sebagai Sumber Belajar Sejarah". Skripsi, Universitas Galuh, 2024.</ref> == Tingali ogé == * [[Perang Pataruman]] * [[Kidung Lakbok]] * [[Pataruman]] * [[Kota Banjar]] == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:Tempat di Kota Banjar]] [[Kategori:Sejarah Sunda]] [[Kategori:Situs cagar budaya di Jawa Barat]] [[Kategori:Kidung Lakbok]] rjle5g0wib52bvvyn1u7m7rs5n4bf9p 0 108606 710200 710059 2026-06-09T12:43:05Z HenriPurwanto 36661 Nambihan bagian Wisata jeung Budaya, nyambung ka artikel Candi Ronggeng jeung Désa Sukajaya. 710200 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width: 25em; font-size: 90%; text-align: left; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border: 1px solid #aaa; border-collapse: collapse;" ! colspan="2" style="background: #b0c4de; text-align: center; font-size: 125%;"| Kacamatan Pamarican<br>ᮕᮙᮛᮤᮎᮔ᮪ |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| [[Berkas:Pamarican_map.png|250px]] |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #dcdcdc; text-align: center;"| Inpormasi Umum |- ! Nagara | Indonésia |- ! Propinsi | Jawa Barat |- ! Kabupatén | Kabupatén Ciamis |- ! Puseur Pamaréntahan | Désa Pamarican |- ! Camat | Drs. Bangbang Mohamad Sobar Gumilar |- ! Luas | 107,76 km² |- ! Pangeusi (2023) | 69.929 jiwa |- ! Kapadetan | 648,9 jiwa/km² |- ! Koordinat | {{Coord|7|27|28|S|108|31|22|E|type:adm2nd}} |- ! Ketinggian | 27 mdpl |- ! Situs Web | [https://kecamatan-pamarican.ciamiskab.go.id kecamatan-pamarican.ciamiskab.go.id] |} '''Kacamatan Pamarican''' nyaéta salah sahiji kacamatan di Kabupatén Ciamis, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia. Puseur pamaréntahan kacamatan ieu aya di Désa Pamarican. == Sajarah == Kacamatan Pamarican diadegkeun saprak taun 1945. Mimitina ngan ukur ngawengku 8 désa, ayeuna geus ngembang jadi 14 désa. == Géografi == Kacamatan Pamarican ayana di bagian tenggara Kabupatén Ciamis kalawan luas wilayah 107,76 km² dumasar data BPS taun 2023. Ketinggian wilayahna rupa-rupa ti 26 nepi ka 600 méter di luhur beungeut laut. == Iklim == Kacamatan Pamarican mibanda iklim tropis baseuh kalawan dua usum, nyaéta usum hujan jeung usum halodo. Suhu rata-rata sapopoé antara 22–31 °C kalawan kalembaban hawa anu cukup luhur, nyaéta 66–98%. Data iklim pangénggalna tiasa ditingali dina situs resmi [[Badan Meteorologi, Klimatologi, jeung Geofisika|BMKG]]. == Démografi == Dumasar data BPS taun 2023, jumlah pangeusi Kacamatan Pamarican nyaéta 69.929 jiwa, kalawan kapadetan 648,9 jiwa/km² jeung rasio jenis kelamin 100,3. Rincian per désa: {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Désa !! Laki-laki !! Perempuan !! Jumlah !! Persentase !! Kapadetan (/km²) !! Rasio JK |- | Sidamulih || 1.735 || 1.780 || 3.515 || 5,03% || 299,7 || 97,5 |- | Margajaya || 2.043 || 1.980 || 4.023 || 5,75% || 282,9 || 103,2 |- | Neglasari || 3.367 || 3.496 || 6.863 || 9,81% || 613,7 || 96,3 |- | Pamarican || 2.788 || 2.876 || 5.664 || 8,11% || 841,9 || 96,9 |- | Sukahurip || 2.587 || 2.532 || 5.119 || 7,32% || 549,5 || 102,2 |- | Kertahayu || 4.175 || 4.099 || 8.274 || 11,83% || 1.030,7 || 101,9 |- | Sukajadi || 3.158 || 3.026 || 6.184 || 8,86% || 1.657,6 || 104,4 |- | Sukamukti || 2.476 || 2.471 || 4.947 || 7,08% || 2.140,3 || 100,2 |- | Sidaharja || 2.010 || 1.885 || 3.895 || 5,57% || 972,1 || 106,6 |- | Bangunsari || 3.831 || 3.855 || 7.686 || 10,99% || 894,5 || 99,4 |- | Sukajaya || 2.146 || 2.238 || 4.384 || 6,27% || 736,6 || 95,9 |- | Bantarsari || 1.223 || 1.268 || 2.491 || 3,56% || 481,8 || 96,5 |- | Pasirnagara || 1.749 || 1.721 || 3.470 || 4,97% || 585,0 || 101,6 |- | Mekarmulya || 1.721 || 1.693 || 3.414 || 4,88% || 314,5 || 101,7 |- ! Jumlah !! 35.009 !! 34.920 !! 69.929 !! 100,00% !! 648,9 !! 100,3 |} == Pamaréntahan == Kacamatan Pamarican diwangun ku 14 désa. Daptar désa sareng luas wilayah dumasar data taun 2023: {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Désa !! Luas (km²) !! Persentase |- | Sidamulih || 11,73 || 10,89% |- | Margajaya || 14,22 || 13,20% |- | Neglasari || 11,20 || 10,39% |- | Pamarican || 6,73 || 6,25% |- | Sukahurip || 9,32 || 8,65% |- | Kertahayu || 8,02 || 7,44% |- | Sukajadi || 3,73 || 3,46% |- | Sukamukti || 2,31 || 2,14% |- | Sidaharja || 4,01 || 3,72% |- | Bangunsari || 8,59 || 7,97% |- | Sukajaya || 5,95 || 5,52% |- | Bantarsari || 5,17 || 4,80% |- | Pasirnagara || 5,93 || 5,50% |- | Mekarmulya || 10,85 || 10,07% |- ! Jumlah || 107,76 || 100,00% |} == Pertanian jeung Panggunaan Lahan == Dumasar data BPS taun 2020, luas panggunaan lahan di Kacamatan Pamarican nyaéta 13.346,32 ha, kalawan 2.916 ha sawah, 10.361,32 ha tanah kering, jeung 69 ha perairan umum. == Wisata jeung Budaya == Kacamatan Pamarican miboga situs arkéologi penting ti jaman [[Karajaan Galuh]], nyaéta [[Candi Ronggeng]] (atawa Situs Pamarican). Candi ieu lokasina di [[Sukajaya, Pamarican, Ciamis|Désa Sukajaya]], Kampung Kedungbangkong, deukeut lebak walungan Ciseel. Candi Ronggeng kasohor ku penemuan tilu arca [[Nandi]] sakaligus taun 2019, padahal biasana candi Hindu ngan boga hiji Nandi. Hasil panalungtikan nunjukkeun yén ieu wangunan punden berundak ti abad ka-9 nepi ka abad ka-14 Masehi, dipaké keur pemujaan ka [[Déwa Siwa]].<ref name="kompas">{{cite web |url=https://www.kompas.com/stori/read/2023/05/22/140000379/sejarah-candi-ronggeng-di-ciamis |title=Sejarah Candi Ronggeng di Ciamis |website=Kompas.com |date=22 Méi 2023 |access-date=9 Juni 2026}}</ref> Ayeuna Candi Ronggeng geus didaftarkeun minangka Cagar Budaya. Dumasar papan informasi di lokasi, taneuhna milik Pamaréntah Kabupatén Ciamis, kalayan Sertipikat Hak Paké No. 1 Taun 2022, legana 1.669 méter pasagi. == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} <ref>{{cite web |title=Kecamatan Pamarican Dalam Angka 2024 |url=https://web-api.bps.go.id/download |publisher=Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupatén Ciamis |access-date=24 Méi 2026 }}{{Dead link|date=June 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |title=Prakiraan Cuaca Kacamatan Pamarican |url=https://www.bmkg.go.id/cuaca/prakiraan-cuaca/32.07.19 |publisher=BMKG |access-date=24 Méi 2026 }}{{Dead link|date=June 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Tumbu kaluar == * [https://kecamatan-pamarican.ciamiskab.go.id Situs resmi Kacamatan Pamarican] [[Kategori:Kacamatan di Kabupatén Ciamis]] [[Kategori:Kacamatan di Jawa Barat]] 6hhfrsuoyrew3a8zvz29zlzlfxdwnhz 0 108625 710213 709837 2026-06-09T21:44:40Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710213 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Walungan Cikawung''' nyaéta walungan anu ngalir di wates [[Jawa Kulon]] jeung [[Jawa Tengah]], utamana di wewengkon [[Cilacap]], [[Ciamis]], jeung [[Banyumas]]. Walungan ieu mangrupa bagian tina sistem [[Daérah Aliran Sungai]] (DAS) [[Citanduy]].<ref name="jurnalsda">{{cite journal | last1 = Irawan | first1 = Pengki | title = Analisis Pola Distribusi Curah Hujan Lebat Dominan di Daerah Aliran Sungai (DAS) Citanduy Hulu | journal = Jurnal Sumber Daya Air | volume = 20 | number = 2 | year = 2024 | doi = 10.32679/jsda.v20i2.894 | url = https://ejournal.brin.go.id/jsda/article/view/894 }}</ref><ref name="bbws">{{cite web | title = Wewengkon Kerja BBWS Citanduy | website = BBWS Citanduy - Kementerian PUPR | url = https://citanduy.bbwsciptanjung.com/ | access-date = 29 Méi 2026 }}{{Dead link|date=June 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Bendung Cikawung == Di walungan ieu aya [[Bendung Cikawung]] anu perenahna di Kacamatan Cipari, [[Kabupatén Cilacap]]. Bendung ieu ngawengku daérah tadah hujan (catchment area) 121,12 km² sarta ngairi leuwih ti 1.020 héktar lahan pertanian di sakurilingna.<ref name="bendung">{{cite journal | last1 = Herdiarti | first1 = Etika | title = Perencanaan Bendung Cikawung pada Daerah Non-cekungan Air Tanah di Kabupaten Cilacap, Jawa Tengah | journal = Jurnal Karya Teknik Sipil | volume = 2 | number = 1 | pages = 43-51 | year = 2013 | url = https://ejournal3.undip.ac.id/index.php/jkts/article/view/4026 }}</ref> == Hidrologi == Dumasar data Kementerian PUPR taun 2013, Walungan Cikawung boga daérah aliran sungai (DAS) seluas 531,80 km². Volume sedimen anu dibawa ku walungan ieu kira-kira 813.440,50 m³ per taun sarta ketebalan sedimen rata-rata 1,57 mm per taun.<ref name="pupr">{{cite web | title = Pola PSDA Citanduy 2013 | website = Kementerian PUPR - Direktorat Sumber Daya Air | url = https://sda.pu.go.id/assets/uploads/files/2013_Pola%20PSDA%20Citanduy.pdf | pages = 48 | access-date = 29 Méi 2026 }}</ref> == Tradisi Lisan == Dina tradisi lisan masarakat [[Lakbok]], Walungan Cikawung dipatalikeun jeung naskah [[Kidung Lakbok]], sabuah wawacan anu kacatet dina [[Perpustakaan Digital Budaya Indonesia]].<ref name="kidung">{{cite web | title = Kidung Lakbok | website = Perpustakaan Digital Budaya Indonesia | url = https://budaya-indonesia.org/lkk-cms2013-agk16 | access-date = 29 Méi 2026 }}</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Walungan di Jawa Kulon]] [[Kategori:Walungan di Jawa Tengah]] [[Kategori:Cilacap]] [[Kategori:Ciamis]] [[Kategori:Banyumas]] [[Kategori:DAS Citanduy]] 4lvt45tvch55v40f7z2tagtwy5kt69u 3 108682 710214 710165 2026-06-09T22:02:05Z Zulf 21463 /* Ondangan Pamilihan Kuncén */ Bales 710214 wikitext text/x-wiki == Ondangan Pamilihan Kuncén == Sampurasun, anjeun di undang kanggo masihan sora di pamilihan pikeun jadi kuncén [https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Kunc%C3%A9n/Pamundut_jadi_kunc%C3%A9n#Zulf%20kanggo%20jadi%20Kunc%C3%A9n didieu] Hatur nuhun <span style="border:3px outset;border-radius:9pt 0;padding:1px 7px;background:linear-gradient(to bottom right, blue,#00FF7F)">[[User:Zulf|<span style="color:#fff;font:1em Lucida Sans">🍃Zulf🍃</span>]]</span>^{[[User talk:Zulf|''talk'']]} 6 Juni 2026 23.04 (UTC) :Sampurasun Kang Zulf, :Hatur nuhun pisan pikeun undanganna. Punten telat walerna. :Qobiltu, abdi mah ngadukung pinuh kapamimpinan kuncén nu amanah biar suwiki urang langkung maju. :Hormat abdi, :HenriPurwanto [[Pamaké:HenriPurwanto|HenriPurwanto]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:HenriPurwanto#top|sawala]]) 6 Juni 2026 23.53 (UTC) ::Hatur nuhun Tiasa nyatakeun satuju sareung ttd di kaca iyeu kang [https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Kunc%C3%A9n/Pamundut_jadi_kunc%C3%A9n#Zulf%20kanggo%20jadi%20Kunc%C3%A9n ] <span style="border:3px outset;border-radius:9pt 0;padding:1px 7px;background:linear-gradient(to bottom right, blue,#00FF7F)">[[User:Zulf|<span style="color:#fff;font:1em Lucida Sans">🍃Zulf🍃</span>]]</span>^{[[User talk:Zulf|''talk'']]} 7 Juni 2026 01.57 (UTC) :::Satuju Kang Zulf. Abdi siap diajar sareng ngabantosan ngajaga suwiki. Hatur nuhun pisan kasempetanna. [[Pamaké:HenriPurwanto|HenriPurwanto]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:HenriPurwanto#top|sawala]]) 7 Juni 2026 02.07 (UTC) :::Hapunten Kang, maksad abdi "siap ngabantosan" sanés "siap janten pangurus". Abdi teu acan siap janten pangurus. Hapunten pisan 🙏 [[Pamaké:HenriPurwanto|HenriPurwanto]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:HenriPurwanto#top|sawala]]) 7 Juni 2026 02.28 (UTC) ::::muhun urang babareungan ngajaga wikipedia iyeu supados leuwih sae deui. Jeung ogé maksadna akang tiasa masihan sora di https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Kunc%C3%A9n/Pamundut_jadi_kunc%C3%A9n#Zulf_kanggo_jadi_Kunc%C3%A9n sabagai bukti nu sah pikeun syarat pamilihan. <span style="border:3px outset;border-radius:9pt 0;padding:1px 7px;background:linear-gradient(to bottom right, blue,#00FF7F)">[[User:Zulf|<span style="color:#fff;font:1em Lucida Sans">🍃Zulf🍃</span>]]</span>^{[[User talk:Zulf|''talk'']]} 9 Juni 2026 22.02 (UTC) 6lf8ri622cb5mzei8026u9rjwy7axiq 0 108687 710197 710196 2026-06-09T12:02:40Z HenriPurwanto 36661 Nambahan poto papan katerangan lokasi jeung nomer sertipikat 710197 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Candi Ronggeng''' atawa '''Situs Pamarican''' nyaéta salah sahiji cagar budaya ti jaman Hindu-Buddha nu lokasina di Désa Kertajaya, [[Kacamatan Pamarican]], [[Kabupatén Ciamis]], [[Jawa Kulon]]. Situs ieu kapanggih taun 2016 jeung kasohor ku penemuan tilu arca Nandi. [[File:Papan informasi Candi Ronggeng, Pamarican Ciamis.jpg|thumb|Papan informasi tanah milik Pemerintah Kabupaten Ciamis untuk Situs Candi Ronggeng, yang berlokasi di Desa Sukajaya, Kecamatan Pamarican, Kabupaten Ciamis, Jawa Barat. Nomor Sertipikat: 1 Tahun 2022.]] == Sajarah jeung Kapanggihna == Situs ieu kapanggih sacara teu kahaja ku warga taun 2016 pas keur ngagali taneuh. Saterusna diteliti ku Balai Pelestarian Cagar Budaya Jawa Barat taun 2016-2017. Hasil panalungtikan nunjukkeun yén ieu mah wangunan punden berundak tina batu andesit ti abad ka-9 nepi ka abad ka-14 Masehi, mangsa [[Karajaan Galuh]]. Ngaran "Candi Ronggeng" dipaké ku masarakat sabab aya kaitan jeung legenda jeung tarian tradisional Ronggeng Gunung.<ref name="kompas">{{cite web |url=https://www.kompas.com/stori/read/2023/05/22/140000379/sejarah-candi-ronggeng-di-ciamis |title=Sejarah Candi Ronggeng di Ciamis |website=Kompas.com |date=22 Méi 2023 |access-date=9 Juni 2026}}</ref> == Ciri jeung Penemuan == Teu kawas candi di [[Jawa Tengah]] nu wangunna gedé, Candi Ronggeng wangunna leuwih sederhana. Sababaraha penemuan penting di ieu situs nyaéta: * Tilu arca [[Nandi]] – biasana dina candi Hindu ngan aya hiji arca Nandi, tapi di dieu kapanggih tilu sakaligus taun 2019<ref name="tribun">{{cite web |url=https://jabar.tribunnews.com/2019/07/01/temuan-mencengangkan-di-situs-candi-ronggeng-sudah-3-arca-nandi-yang-ditemukan-biasanya-cuma-1 |title=Temuan Mencengangkan di Situs Candi Ronggeng, Sudah 3 Arca Nandi yang Ditemukan, Biasanya Cuma 1 |website=Tribun Jabar |date=1 Juli 2019 |access-date=9 Juni 2026}}</ref> * Fragmén gerabah jeung bata * Batu nu wangunna kawas kenong/gong leutik Ayana arca Nandi nunjukkeun yén ieu situs dipaké keur pemujaan ka [[Déwa Siwa]]. == Mitos jeung Tradisi Lisan == Numutkeun carita masarakat sabudeureun, unggal peuting Jumaah Kliwon jeung tanggal 1 Suro sok kadéngé sora gamelan jeung tarian Ronggeng ti arah situs. Aya ogé kapercayaan ngeunaan sosok "Eyang Ronggeng" nu jadi penjaga ieu tempat. Tapi ieu mah bagian tina tradisi lisan jeung can kabuktian sacara ilmiah.<ref name="harapan">{{cite web |url=https://www.harapanrakyat.com/2019/06/situs-candi-ronggeng-di-pamarican-ciamis-dibongkar-arkeologi-jabar/ |title=Situs Candi Ronggeng di Pamarican Ciamis Dibongkar Arkeologi Jabar |website=Harapan Rakyat |date=21 Juni 2019 |access-date=9 Juni 2026}}</ref> == Status jeung Perlindungan == Ayeuna Candi Ronggeng geus didaftarkeun minangka Cagar Budaya. Dumasar kana papan informasi di lokasi, taneuhna milik Pamaréntah Kabupatén Ciamis, kalayan Sertipikat Hak Paké No. 1 Taun 2022, legana 1.669 méter pasagi. Dumasar [[Undang-Undang Nomor 11 Tahun 2010]] ngeunaan Cagar Budaya, saha waé nu ngaruksak, ngagali, atawa mindahkeun benda cagar budaya tanpa idin bisa dipidana panjara 1 nepi ka 15 taun jeung denda 500 juta nepi ka 5 miliar rupiah. == Rujukan == <references/> [[Kategori:Cagar budaya di Ciamis]] [[Kategori:Situs arkeologi di Jawa Kulon]] [[Kategori:Karajaan Galuh]] [[Kategori:Situs Hindu di Indonésia]] [[id:Candi Ronggeng]] fjbywpoohbxs5zt5tihqglsdlh4k0ym 710199 710197 2026-06-09T12:34:55Z HenriPurwanto 36661 Ngalereskeun lokasi désa jadi Désa Sukajaya jeung nyambung ka artikel Sukajaya (saluyu jeung papan informasi) 710199 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Candi Ronggeng''' atawa '''Situs Pamarican''' nyaéta salah sahiji cagar budaya ti jaman Hindu-Buddha nu lokasina di [[Sukajaya, Pamarican, Ciamis|Désa Sukajaya]], [[Kacamatan Pamarican]], [[Kabupatén Ciamis]], [[Jawa Kulon]]. Situs ieu kapanggih taun 2016 jeung kasohor ku penemuan tilu arca Nandi. [[File:Papan informasi Candi Ronggeng, Pamarican Ciamis.jpg|thumb|Papan informasi tanah milik Pemerintah Kabupaten Ciamis untuk Situs Candi Ronggeng, yang berlokasi di Desa Sukajaya, Kecamatan Pamarican, Kabupaten Ciamis, Jawa Barat. Nomor Sertipikat: 1 Tahun 2022.]] == Sajarah jeung Kapanggihna == Situs ieu kapanggih sacara teu kahaja ku warga taun 2016 pas keur ngagali taneuh. Saterusna diteliti ku Balai Pelestarian Cagar Budaya Jawa Barat taun 2016-2017. Hasil panalungtikan nunjukkeun yén ieu mah wangunan punden berundak tina batu andesit ti abad ka-9 nepi ka abad ka-14 Masehi, mangsa [[Karajaan Galuh]]. Ngaran "Candi Ronggeng" dipaké ku masarakat sabab aya kaitan jeung legenda jeung tarian tradisional Ronggeng Gunung.<ref name="kompas">{{cite web |url=https://www.kompas.com/stori/read/2023/05/22/140000379/sejarah-candi-ronggeng-di-ciamis |title=Sejarah Candi Ronggeng di Ciamis |website=Kompas.com |date=22 Méi 2023 |access-date=9 Juni 2026}}</ref> == Ciri jeung Penemuan == Teu kawas candi di [[Jawa Tengah]] nu wangunna gedé, Candi Ronggeng wangunna leuwih sederhana. Sababaraha penemuan penting di ieu situs nyaéta: * Tilu arca [[Nandi]] – biasana dina candi Hindu ngan aya hiji arca Nandi, tapi di dieu kapanggih tilu sakaligus taun 2019<ref name="tribun">{{cite web |url=https://jabar.tribunnews.com/2019/07/01/temuan-mencengangkan-di-situs-candi-ronggeng-sudah-3-arca-nandi-yang-ditemukan-biasanya-cuma-1 |title=Temuan Mencengangkan di Situs Candi Ronggeng, Sudah 3 Arca Nandi yang Ditemukan, Biasanya Cuma 1 |website=Tribun Jabar |date=1 Juli 2019 |access-date=9 Juni 2026}}</ref> * Fragmén gerabah jeung bata * Batu nu wangunna kawas kenong/gong leutik Ayana arca Nandi nunjukkeun yén ieu situs dipaké keur pemujaan ka [[Déwa Siwa]]. == Mitos jeung Tradisi Lisan == Numutkeun carita masarakat sabudeureun, unggal peuting Jumaah Kliwon jeung tanggal 1 Suro sok kadéngé sora gamelan jeung tarian Ronggeng ti arah situs. Aya ogé kapercayaan ngeunaan sosok "Eyang Ronggeng" nu jadi penjaga ieu tempat. Tapi ieu mah bagian tina tradisi lisan jeung can kabuktian sacara ilmiah.<ref name="harapan">{{cite web |url=https://www.harapanrakyat.com/2019/06/situs-candi-ronggeng-di-pamarican-ciamis-dibongkar-arkeologi-jabar/ |title=Situs Candi Ronggeng di Pamarican Ciamis Dibongkar Arkeologi Jabar |website=Harapan Rakyat |date=21 Juni 2019 |access-date=9 Juni 2026}}</ref> == Status jeung Perlindungan == Ayeuna Candi Ronggeng geus didaftarkeun minangka Cagar Budaya. Dumasar kana papan informasi di lokasi, taneuhna milik Pamaréntah Kabupatén Ciamis, kalayan Sertipikat Hak Paké No. 1 Taun 2022, legana 1.669 méter pasagi. Dumasar [[Undang-Undang Nomor 11 Tahun 2010]] ngeunaan Cagar Budaya, saha waé nu ngaruksak, ngagali, atawa mindahkeun benda cagar budaya tanpa idin bisa dipidana panjara 1 nepi ka 15 taun jeung denda 500 juta nepi ka 5 miliar rupiah. == Rujukan == <references/> [[Kategori:Cagar budaya di Ciamis]] [[Kategori:Situs arkeologi di Jawa Kulon]] [[Kategori:Karajaan Galuh]] [[Kategori:Situs Hindu di Indonésia]] [[id:Candi Ronggeng]] nv92i6h9uwwylny2xi3ls1vc7wmgyp9 0 108688 710216 2026-06-10T09:47:04Z HenriPurwanto 36661 Nyieun artikel anyar ngeunaan Pasir Lulumpang Garut, situs megalitikum Cagar Budaya 710216 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width: 250px; font-size: 90%; background-color: #f8f9fa; border-collapse: collapse; float: right; margin-left: 1em;" |+ '''Pasir Lulumpang''' |- ! Nami | Pasir Lulumpang |- ! Lokasi | Kampung Cimareme, Désa Cimareme, [[Kacamatan Banyuresmi]], [[Kabupatén Garut]], [[Jawa Kulon]] |- ! Koordinat | {{Coord|7|16|6|S|107|57|09.1|E|display=inline,title}} |- ! Jinis | [[Punden berundak]] |- ! Panjang | 73 m |- ! Lebar | 38 m |- ! Jangkung | 680 mdpl |- ! Bahan | Batu andesit |- ! Jaman | Tradisi Megalitikum / Paleometalik |- ! Ekskavasi | Balai Arkeologi Bandung (1994, 1995) |- ! Kondosi | Terawat |- ! Milik | Pamaréntah |- ! Aksés publik | Bisa (Muhun) |} '''Pasir Lulumpang''' nyaéta situs purbakala wangun punden berundak anu aya di Désa Cimareme, [[Kacamatan Banyuresmi]], [[Kabupatén Garut]], [[Jawa Kulon]]. Situs ieu mangrupa peninggalan jaman [[megalitikum]] jeung [[paleometalik]] anu dicirikeun ku ayana batu-batu andesit gede kalayan liang di tengahna, mirip [[lumpang]].<ref name="budaya">[https://budaya-indonesia.org/Punden-Barundak-Pasir-Lulumpang Punden Barundak Pasir Lulumpang]. Perpustakaan Digital Budaya Indonesia. Diaksés 10 Juni 2026.</ref> == Struktur jeung Ciri Khas == Situs ieu boga punden berundak kalayan 13 undakan/teras dijieun tina batu andesit. Ciri anu pang kasohorna nyaéta ayana sababaraha batu lumpang - batu andesit gede anu boga liang buleud di tengahna.<ref name="detik2022">[https://www.detik.com/jabar/budaya/d-6244897/cerita-penemuan-pasir-lulumpang-tempat-pemujaan-prasejarah-di-garut Cerita Penemuan Pasir Lulumpang, Tempat Pemujaan Prasejarah di Garut]. detikJabar. 18 Agustus 2022. Diaksés 10 Juni 2026.</ref> Salian ti batu lumpang, tina hasil ékskavasi ogé kapanggih fragmen gerabah, fragmen beusi, batu giling (gandik), jeung fragmen batu obsidian. == Fungsi == Numutkeun para ahli, Pasir Lulumpang dipaké salaku tempat pamujaan atanapi ritual anu aya hubunganana jeung kasuburan jeung tatanén dina jaman megalitikum. == Status jeung Kajian == Ayeuna Pasir Lulumpang tos ditetepkeun janten Cagar Budaya Kabupatén Garut.<ref name="potret">[https://www.potretjabar.com/2022/08/batu-berlubang-pasir-lulumpang-peninggalan-sejarah.html Batu Berlubang Pasir Lulumpang Peninggalan Sejarah]. Potret Jabar. 2022. Diaksés 10 Juni 2026.</ref> Dina 8-9 Agustus 2025, Menteri Kabudayaan [[Fadli Zon]] ngalaksanakeun kunjungan langsung ka situs ieu di Garut. Anjeunna nekenkeun pentingna riset jeung kajian anu jero pikeun ngawangun deui narasi sajarah anu leungit.<ref name="antaranews2025">[https://jabar.antaranews.com/berita/634197/menbud-sebut-kajian-situs-pasir-lulumpang-garut-bisa-bangun-narasi-yang-hilang Menbud sebut kajian situs Pasir Lulumpang Garut bisa bangun narasi yang hilang]. ANTARA Jabar. 9 Agustus 2025. Diaksés 10 Juni 2026.</ref><ref name="okezone2025">[https://m.rctiplus.com/news/detail/travel/4828518/tinjau-situs-pasir-lulumpang-menbud-tekankan-perlunya-riset-dan-kajian-mendalam Tinjau Situs Pasir Lulumpang, Menbud Tekankan Perlunya Riset dan Kajian Mendalam]. Okezone. 8 Agustus 2025. Diaksés 10 Juni 2026.</ref> == Rujukan == <references/> [[Kategori:Situs megalitikum di Jawa Barat]] [[Kategori:Cagar budaya di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Kabupatén Garut]] qxjniukk29zyvqz5i26tprclr118fad