Wikipedia suwiki https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tepas MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.7 first-letter Média Husus Obrolan Pamaké Obrolan pamaké Wikipedia Obrolan Wikipedia Gambar Obrolan gambar MédiaWiki Obrolan MédiaWiki Citakan Obrolan citakan Pitulung Obrolan pitulung Kategori Obrolan kategori Portal Obrolan portal TimedText TimedText talk Modul Pembicaraan Modul Acara Pembicaraan Acara 0 5997 710683 705282 2026-06-22T06:36:34Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710683 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Country| native_name = ''Türkiye Cumhuriyeti''| conventional_long_name = Républik Turki| common_name = Turki| national_motto = [[basa Turki]]: ''Yurtta Sulh, Cihanda Sulh''<br>([[basa Sunda]]: "Damai di Imah, Damai di Dunya") | national_anthem = ''[[İstiklâl Marşı]]''<br>(basa Sunda: "Mars Kamerdikaan") | image_flag = Flag of Turkey.svg | image_coat = Emblem of Turkey.svg | image_map = LocationTurkey.png| capital = [[Ankara]]|latd=52|latm=31|latNS=N|longd=13|longm=24|longEW=E| largest_city = [[Istanbul]]|latd=41|latm=1|latNS=N|longd=28|longm=57|longEW=E| official_languages = [[basa Turki]]| government_type = [[Républik]]| leader_title1 = [[Présiden of Turki|Présidén]] | leader_title2 = Vice-Présidén| leader_name1 = [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]] | leader_name2 = [[Fuat Oktay]]| sovereignty_type = [[Ngadegna]]| established_event1 = Ottoman Empire | established_event2 = Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire | established_event3 = Formation of Parliament | established_event4 = Start of War of Independence | established_event5 = Victory Day | established_event6 = Declaration of Republic| established_date1 = [[1299]] | established_date2 = [[1908]]–[[1922]] | established_date3 = [[23 April]] [[1920]] | established_date4 = [[19 Méi]] [[1919]] | established_date5 = [[30 Augustus]] [[1922]] | established_date6 = [[29 Oktober]] [[1923]]| area = 783,562| areami²= 302,534 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->| area_rank = ka-37| area_magnitude = 1 E11| percent_water = 1.3| population_estimate = 73,193,000<!--UN WPP-->| population_estimate_year = 2005| population_estimate_rank = 17th ¹| population_census = 67,844,903| population_census_year = 2000| population_density = 93| population_densitymi² = 241 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->| population_density_rank = 102nd ¹| GDP_PPP_year = 2006| GDP_PPP = $612.3 billion<!--http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2006&ED=2006&R1=1&R2=1&CS=3&SS=2&OS=C&DD=0&OUT=1&C=941-914-946-137-962-122-181-124-963-138-918-964-182-968-960-423-935-128-965-936-961-939-184-172-132-134-174-144-944-186-178-136-112&S=PPPWGT&CMP=0&x=59&y=11-->| GDP_PPP_rank = 19th| GDP_PPP_per_capita = $8,385<!--2006 IMF-->| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank =75th| HDI_year = 2003| HDI = 0.750| HDI_rank = 94th| HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font>| currency = [[Turkish new lira|New Turkish Lira]]²| currency_code = TRY| time_zone = EET| utc_offset = +2| time_zone_DST = EEST| utc_offset_DST = +3| cctld = [[.tr]]| calling_code = 90| footnotes = 1.&nbsp;Population & Density ranks based on 2005 figures.<br>2.&nbsp;Since [[1 January]] [[2005]], the [[New Turkish Lira]] (''Yeni Türk Lirası'') replaced the old [[Turkish Lira]]. }} <!--{{External_Timeline|Template:Timeline of History of the Republic of Turkey|History of the Republic of Turkey}}--> '''Turki''' ([[basa Turki]]: ''Türkiye''), resmina '''Républik Turki''' ({{Audio|Tur-Türkiye_Cumhuriyeti.ogg|''Türkiye Cumhuriyeti''}}), nyaéta hiji nagara di [[Eurasia]] nu ngampar sapanjang ''[[semenanjung]]'' [[Anatolia]] di [[Asia]] [[Asia kulon kidul|kulon kidul]] sarta wewengkon [[Balkan]] ti [[Éropa]] [[Éropa wétan kidul|wétan kidul]]. Wates-wates Turki nyaéta dalapan nagara: * [[Bulgaria]] di beulah kulon kalér; * [[Yunani]] di beulah kulon; * [[Georgia (nagara)|Georgia]] di beulah wétan kalér; * [[Arménia]], [[Iran]] jeung ''[[exclave]]'' [[Nakhichevan]] ti [[Azerbaijan]] di beulah wétan; * [[Irak]] jeung [[Syria]] di beulah wétan kidul. Minangka tambahan, Turki diwawatesanan ku [[Laut Hideung]] di beulah kalér; [[Laut Aegean]] jeung [[Laut Marmara]] di beulah kulon; sarta [[Laut Méditerania]] di beulah kidul. Républik Turki netepkeun dirina minangka [[républik]] nu [[démokrasi|démokratis]], [[sékulérisme|sékulér]], jeung [[konstitusi]]onal nu mana sistim pulitikna diadegkeun dina taun 1923. Turki mangrupa nagara anggota [[PBB]], [[NATO]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], [[OECD]], [[Organisi Konferensi Islam|OKI]], sarta [[Déwan Éropa]]. Ogé mangrupa nagara calon pikeun ngagabung jeung [[Uni Éropa]]. Alatan lokasina nu stratégis, [[nagara transbuana|ngajagangan Éropa jeung Asia]] sarta aya di antara tilu sagara, Turki geus jadi jalan nyabrang bersajarah antara budaya [[budaya wétan|wétan]] jeung [[budaya kulon|kulon]]. Turki mangrupa tempat keur sababaraha peradaban sarta jadi tempat bitotama antar maranéhannana. {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} <!-- == Étimologi == The Turkish name ''Türkiye'' subdivides into two words: ''Türk'', means "strong" in [[Old Turkic]] and usually signifies the habitants of Turkey or a member of the Turkish nation; and the suffix ''-iye'' which means "owner" or "related to". The root appears commonly among early Altaic tribal ethnonyms, and also appears notably in the name of [[Turkmenistan]]. A common point of confusion that arises is the relationship between the country and the bird called "Turkey". European explorers who first encountered the bird in the [[New World]] named it as such, mistakenly believing it to have come from Turkey. The term "Türk" or "Türük" predates this by a long way, an example being the [[Göktürks]] (Sky Turks). Ironically, the Turkish name for the bird, turkey, is "Hindi" (meaning "Indian") which can be attributed to the belief that it originated in [[India]]. == Sajarah == {{main2|History of Turkey|History of the Republic of Turkey}} Because of its strategic location at the intersection of [[Asia]] and [[Europe]], [[Anatolia]] has been a cradle for several [[civilization]]s since [[prehistoric]] ages, with [[Neolithic]] settlements such as [[Çatalhöyük]] (Pottery Neolithic), [[Çayönü]] ([[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A]] to pottery Neolithic), [[Nevali Cori]] ([[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]]), [[Hacilar]] (Pottery Neolithic), [[Göbekli Tepe]] ([[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A]]) and [[Mersin]]. The settlement of [[Troy]] starts in the Neolithic and continues forward into the Iron Age. Through recorded history, Anatolians have spoken [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]], [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] and [[South Caucasian languages|Kartvelian]] languages, as well as many languages of uncertain affiliation. In fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European [[Hittite language|Hittite]] and [[Luwian]] languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical center from which the [[Indo-European language]]s have radiated. Other authors have proposed an Anatolian origin for the [[Etruscans]] of ancient [[Italy]]. Iron Age peoples that have settled in or conquered Anatolia include the [[Phrygia]]ns, [[Hittite]]s, [[Lydia]]ns, [[Lycia]]ns, [[Celt]]s, [[Mushki]], [[Urartians]], [[Kurds]], [[Cimmerian]]s, [[Armenians]], [[Persians]], [[Tabal]]s and [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]]. [[Image:Ottoman 1683.png|thumb|right|200px|The [[Ottoman Empire]] c. [[1683]]]] The gradual conquest of Anatolia from the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] by [[Turkic peoples]], under the [[Seljuks]] with the [[Battle of Manzikert]] and the rise of the [[Seljuk Empire]] in the [[11th century]] was finalized by the rise of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. By the end of the 16th century, at the height of its power, the Ottoman Empire grew to cover Anatolia, the [[Balkans]], [[North Africa]], the [[Middle East]], [[Eastern Europe]] and the [[Caucasus]]. It comprised an area of about 5.6 million [[Square kilometer|km²]]<ref>Regnal Chronologies. [http://www.hostkingdom.net/earthrul.html "To Rule the Earth..."]. Retrieved 6 April 2006.</ref>, though it controlled a much larger area, if adjoining areas dominated mainly by [[nomad]]ic tribes, where the empire's [[suzerainty]] was recognized, are included. The empire interacted with both [[Eastern world|Eastern]] and [[Western culture|Western]] cultures throughout its 624-year history. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman Empire was among the world's most powerful political entities, often locking horns with the powers of eastern Europe in its steady advance through the [[Balkan Peninsula|Balkans]] and the southern part of the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. Its navy was also a powerful force in the Mediterranean. On several occasions, the Ottoman army reached central Europe, laying [[siege]] to [[Vienna]] in 1529 and again in 1683 in an attempt to conquer the [[Habsburg]] domain, and was finally repulsed only by grand coalitions of European powers at sea and on land. Following years of decline, the Ottoman Empire entered [[World War I]] in an alliance with [[German Empire|Germany]] in 1914, in which it was ultimately defeated. After the war, western powers sought to partition the empire through the [[Treaty of Sévres]]. With the support of the Allies, Greece had occupied [[İzmir]] as provided for in the Treaty. On [[19 May]] [[1919]] this prompted the beginning of a nationalist movement under the command of [[Mustafa Kemal Pasha]], a military commander who had distinguished himself in the [[Battle of Gallipoli]] (see [[Rise of Nationalism under the Ottoman Empire]]). Kemal Pasha sought to revoke the terms of the treaty signed by the Sultan in [[Istanbul]]. This involved mobilizing every available part of Turkish society in what would become the [[Turkish War of Independence]] (Turkish: ''Kurtuluş Savaşı''). [[Image:MustafaKemalATATURK.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] - Founder and first [[President of Turkey|President]] of the Republic of Turkey]] By [[18 September]] [[1922]] the occupying armies were repelled and the country saw the birth of a Turkish state. On [[1 November]] [[1922]] the [[Turkish Grand National Assembly]] formally abolished the office of the Sultan, ending 631 years of Ottoman rule. In 1923 the [[Treaty of Lausanne]] recognized the sovereignty of the new Republic of Turkey. Kemal Pasha became the Republic's first President and instituted [[Atatürk's reforms|far reaching reforms]] with the aim of modernizing the new Republic from the remnants of its Ottoman past. According to the Law on Family Names, the Turkish Grand Assembly presented Mustafa Kemal with the honorific name "Atatürk" (meaning ''Father of the Turks'') in 1934. Turkey entered [[World War II]] on the Allied side in the latter stages of the war and became a charter member of the United Nations. Difficulties faced by Greece after World War II in quelling a communist rebellion and demands by the [[Soviet Union]] for military bases in the Turkish Straits prompted the United States to declare the [[Truman Doctrine]] in 1947. The doctrine enunciated American intentions to guarantee the security of Turkey and Greece and resulted in large scale U.S. military and economic support. After participating with United Nations forces in the [[Korean War|Korean conflict]], Turkey in 1952 joined the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)]]. Turkey intervened and militarily invaded [[Cyprus]] in July 1974 in response to a Greek Cypriot coup by [[EOKA-B]]. The resultant breakaway de-facto independent [[TRNC|Northern Cyprus]] is not officially recognised by any country except Turkey itself. Turkey experienced a series of [[Coup d'état|coups]]: [[Military coup in Turkey, 1960|Coup of 60]], [[Coup by Memorandum]], [[Military coup in Turkey, 1980|Coup of 80]] and [[Postmodern Coup D'etat]]. The period of the 70s ([[Left-right clashes (Republic of Turkey)|Left-Right clashes]]) and 80s was marked by political instability and rapid, but at times erratic economic growth. A series of economic shocks led to new elections in [[2002]], bringing into power the conservative [[Justice and Development Party]] led by the former mayor of Istanbul, [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]]. In October 2005, the [[European Union]] opened accession negotiations with Ankara and thus Turkey is a candidate country to join the European Union as a full member, having been an associate member since [[1964]]. {{see also|History of Anatolia|History of the Turkish people|Atatürk's reforms}} == Politics == <!--Please add new information into relevant articles of the series--> {{morepolitics|country=Turkey}} The Politics of Turkey takes place in a framework of a [[secularism|secular]] [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of Turkey]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature. ===Executive branch=== The function of Héad of State is performed by the [[List of Presidents of Turkey|President]] ''(Cumhurbaşkanı)''. A présidént is elected every seven yéars by the Grand National Assembly. The présidént does not have to be a member of parliament. The current présidént [[Ahmet Necdet Sezer]], was elected by Parliament on [[May 16]], [[2000]]. Executive power rests in the [[List of Prime Ministers of Turkey|Prime Minister]] ''(Başbakan)'' and the Council of Ministers ''(Bakanlar Kurulu)''. The Ministers have to be members of Parliament; however, the Prime Minister is no longer required to be an MP. The Prime Minister is elected by the parliament through a vote of confidence in his government. The Prime Minister is [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]], whose Islamic conservative [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)|AKP]] won a majority of parliamentry séats in the [[2002]] general elections. The Chairman of the Parliament is [[Bülent Arinç|Bülent Arınç]] from the same party. The current présidént of the Constitutional Court is [[Mustafa Bumin]]. ===Legislative branch=== <!-- [[Image:TBMM.jpg|thumb|right|180px|The [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]] (''Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi'')]] --> [[Legislature|Legislative]] power is invested in the 550-séat [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]] (''Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi''), representing 81 provinces. The members are elected for a five yéar term by mitigated [[proportional representation]] with an [[election threshold]] of 10 %. To avoid fragmentation of parliament, a party must win at léast 10% of the national vote in a national parliamentary election to gain parliamentary representation. Independent candidates may run, and to be elected, they must only win 10% of the vote in the province from which they are running. The Turkish military plays an informal political role, seeing itself as the guardian of the secular, unitary nature of the republic. Political parties deemed anti-secular or [[separatist]] by the judiciary can be banned. Turkey has a [[multi-party]] system, with several strong [[political parties|parties]].. ==Foreign Relations== {{utama|Foreign relations of the Republic of Turkey}} ===Turkish-EU relations=== Turkey's main political, economic and military relations remain rooted within [[Western Europe]] and the [[United States]]. An associate member of the Européan Union since 1964, Turkey is currently in the process of accession pending the completion of negotiations. A major source of tension in its EU aspirations is the [[Cyprus dispute|issue of Cyprus]], a member of the EU which Turkey does not recognise, but instéad supports the ''de facto independent '' [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus|Turkish Cypriot north]]. Other factors include Turkey's human rights record, its relatively large population, its relatively poor (although fast growing) economy and proximity to the volatile Middle éast. Based on what it views as lukewarm support for its accesion to the EU and alleged double standards in its negotiations (France and Austria have indicated they will hold [[referendums]] on Turkey's membership) the Turkish public has become incréasingly [[euroskeptic]] in recent times. A mid-[[2006]] [[Eurobarometer]] survey revéaled that 43% of Turkish citizens view the EU positively; just 35% trust the EU, 45% support enlargement and just 29% support an EU constitution <ref>[http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/english/4713737.asp?gid=74 New Eurobarometer poll results show a drop in Turkish support for the EU] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215224600/http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/new-eurobarometer-poll-results-show-a-drop-in-turkish-support-for-the-eu-4713737 |date=2018-12-15 }} ''Hurriyet''' Sunday, July 09, 2006</ref>. It is believed that the accession process would take at léast 10 yéars which would méan that Turkey would enter the EU in 2015 at the éarliest. ===Turkish-American relations=== Turkey has remained a close ally of the United States, supporting it in the [[war on terror]] in the post [[September 11th]] climate. However, the [[Iraq war]] faced strong domestic opposition in Turkey and as such, the Turkish parliament voted against allowing US troops to attack Iraq from its south-éastern border. This led to a period of cooling in relations, but soon regained momentum through diplomatic, humanitarian and indirect military support. Turkey is particularly cautious about an independent Kurdish state arising from a destabilised [[Iraq]]. Turkey has fought an insurgent war against the Kurdistan Workers Party ([[PKK]]), that seeks Kurdish independence, in which some estimated 30,000 péople have lost their lives. This has led Ankara to pressure the US into clamping down on guerrilla training camps in northern Iraq, though it remains reluctant due to its relative stability compared to the rest of Iraq. Turkey must therefore balance domestic pressures with commitments to its strongest ally. === Greco-Turkish relations === Historically, relations with neighbour [[Greece]] have been strained and occasionally close to war. The antagonism can be traced all the way back to centuries of Ottoman Turkish rule over the Greek péople and consequent struggle by the latter for the création of a Greek nation state. The last one emerged over the [[Cyprus dispute]] and conflicts on the status of the [[Aegean Sea]] are the current main points of contention. Cyprus remains divided between a Greek Cypriot south, and a [[TRNC|Turkish Cypriot north]] recognized only by Turkey. Efforts to reunite the island under the auspices of the [[United Nations]] have failed thus far. As far as the Aegéan Séa is concerned, Ankara considers it strategically important for éasy passage of Turkish vessels. Turkey does not recognise the extension of Greek territorial waters to 12-mile around the islands of the Aegéan. Ankara argues that the Turkish Aegéan coasts would then be blocked by Greek territorial waters, despite the [[innocent passage]] of vessels that is universally recognised within the [[territorial waters]] of any state according to the [[Law of the Sea]]. Turkey has warned that such an act would be considered a ''[[casus belli]]'' or an act of war on Turkey. Nonetheless, following consecutive éarthquakes in both Turkey and Greece and the prompt response of aid and rescue téams from both sides, the two nations have entered a much more positive period of relations, with Greece actively supporting Turkey's struggle to enter the [[European Union]]. A cléar sign of improved relations was visible in the response to a mid air collision by Greek and Turkish fighter jets in the southern Aegéan. While the Turkish pilot ejected safely, the Greek pilot lost his life. However, both countries agreed that the event should not affect their bilateral relations.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/5008178.stm BBC News Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061113035800/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/5008178.stm |date=2006-11-13 }} May 23, 2006.</ref> {{see also|Accession of Turkey to the European Union|Cyprus dispute|Greco-Turkish relations}} == Military == {{utama|Turkish Armed Forces}} The [[Turkish Armed Forces]] ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''Türk Silahlı Kuvvetleri'' or abbreviated as TSK) consists of the [[Turkish Army|Army]], [[Turkish Navy|Navy]] (includes Naval Air and Naval Infantry) and [[Turkish Air Force|Air Force]]. The [[Turkish Gendarmerie|Gendarmerie]] and [[Turkish Coast Guard|Coast Guard]] operate as the part the Department of Internal Affairs in péacetime and are subordinate to the Army and Navy Commands respectively. In wartime, both have law enforcement and military functions. The Turkish Armed forces, with a combined troop strength of 1,043,550<ref>Economist Intelligence Unit: Turkey 2005 p.23.</ref> péople, is the second largest standing force in NATO after the United States. Currently, 36,000<ref>Ibid.</ref> troops are stationed in Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Every fit male Turkish citizen has to serve military service for varying time periods ranging between 1 month to 15 months depending on his education, job location, and occasional paid options. The Turkish Armed Forces became a member of the NATO Alliance on [[February 18]], [[1952]]. In 1998, Turkey announced a modérnisation programme worth some $31 billion over a period of ten yéars including tanks, helicopters and assault rifles. Turkey is also a level three contributor to the [[F-35 Lightning II|Joint Strike Fighter]] (JSF) program, gaining an opportunity to develop and influence the création of the next generation fighter spéarhéaded by the United States. The Armed forces have traditionally been a politically powerful institution, considering itself the guardian of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]]'s legacy. They have staged three coups between 1960 and 1980, whilst also influencing the removal of the Islam-oriented government of [[Necmettin Erbakan]] in 1997. Through the [[National Security Council (Turkey)|National Security Council]], the army has influenced policy on issues it deems a thréat to the country, including those relating to Kurdish insurgency and Islamism. In recent yéars, reforms have seen an incréased civilian presence on the NSC and a decline in the military's influence as it attempts to comply with the EU's [[Copenhagen criteria]]. Despite its influence in civilian affairs, the military continues to enjoy strong support from the nation, frequently seen as Turkey's most trusted institution.<ref>A poll published in September 2005 in the national Hürriyet paper found the army to be Turkey's most trusted national institution. {{cite journal | last = Aydinli | first = Ersel | coauthors = Nihat Ali Özcan, and Dogan Akyaz | title = The Turkish Military's March Toward Europe | url = http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20060101faessay85108/ersel-aydinli-nihat-ali-ozcan-dogan-akyaz/the-turkish-military-s-march-toward-europe.html | journal = Foreign Affairs | issue = Jan/Feb | year = 2006 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106040555/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20060101faessay85108/ersel-aydinli-nihat-ali-ozcan-dogan-akyaz/the-turkish-military-s-march-toward-europe.html |date=2009-01-06 }}</ref> The Commander of The Turkish Armed Forces is [[Chief of the Turkish General Staff|The Chief of the General Staff]] [[General]] [[Yaşar Büyükanıt]] who succeeded General [[Hilmi Özkök]] on August 30, 2006. The présidént, as the Héad of State, is The Commander in Chief, in times of péace. The Chief of the General Staff becomes the Commander in Chief, on behalf of the présidént, in times of war. {{clr}} ==Geography== {{Main|Geography of Turkey}} [[Image:Anatolia composite NASA.png|thumb|right|240px|Physical map of Turkey]] [[Image:NEO ararat big.jpg|thumb|right|240px|[[Mount Ararat]] (''Ağrı Dağı'') - the tallest peak in Turkey at 5137m]] The territory of Turkey extends from 36° to 42° N and from 26° to 45° E in [[Eurasia]]. It is roughly rectangular in shape and is 1,660 [[kilometer]]s (1,031&nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) wide. Turkey's aréa inclusive of lakes is 814,578 [[square kilometre]]s<!--source needed--> (314,510&nbsp;[[square mile|sq&nbsp;mi]]), of which 790,200 square kilometres (305,098&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi) occupies the [[Anatolia]]n [[peninsula]] (also called Asia Minor) in [[Western Asia]], and 3% or 24,378 square kilometres (9,412&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi) are located in [[Europe]]. Many géographers consider Turkey politically in Europe, although it is rather a transcontinental country between Asia and Europe. The land borders of Turkey total 2,573 kilometres (1,599&nbsp;mi), and the [[coastal|coastlines]] (including islands) total another 8,333 kilometres (5,178&nbsp;mi). Turkey is generally divided into seven regions: the [[Sea of Marmara|Marmara]], the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]], the [[Mediterranean]], Central Anatolia, éast Anatolia, Southéast Anatolia and the [[Black Sea]] region. The uneven north Anatolian terrain running along the [[Black Sea]] resembles a long, narrow belt. This region comprises approximately 1/6 of Turkey's total land aréa. As a general trend, the inland Anatolian platéau becomes incréasingly rugged as it progresses éastward Turkey forms a bridge between Europe and Asia, with the division between the two running from the [[Black Sea]] (''Karadeniz'') to the north down along the [[Bosporus]] (''Istanbul Boğazı'') strait through the [[Sea of Marmara]] (''Marmara Denizi'') and the [[Dardanelles]] (''Çanakkale Boğazı'') strait to the Aegéan Séa (''Ege Denizi'') and the larger Mediterranéan Séa (''Akdeniz'') to the south. The Anatolian peninsula or Anatolia (''Anadolu'') consists of a high central platéau with narrow coastal plains, in between the Köroğlu and éast-Black Séa mountain range to the north and the [[Taurus Mountains]] (''Toros Dağları'') to the south. To the éast is found a more mountainous landscape, home to the sources of rivers such as the [[Euphrates]] (''Fırat''), [[Tigris]] (''Dicle'') and the [[Araks]] (''Aras''), as well as [[Lake Van]] (''Van Gölü'') and [[Mount Ararat]] (''Ağrı Dağı''), Turkey's highest point at 5,137 metres (16,853&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). Turkey's varied landscapes are the product of complex éarth movements that have shaped the region over thousands of yéars and still manifest themselves in fairly frequent éarthquakes and occasional volcanic eruptions. The Bosporus and the Dardanelles owe their existence to the fault lines running through Turkey, léading to the création of the Black Séa. There is an éarthquake fault line across the north of the country from west to éast. The [[climate]] is a Mediterranéan [[temperate climate]], with hot, dry summers and mild, wet and cold winters, though conditions can be much harsher in the more arid interior. Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterranéan influences from extending inland, giving the interior of Turkey a continental climate with distinct séasons. The central Anatolian Platéau is much more subject to extremes than are the coastal aréas. Winters on the platéau are especially severe. Temperatures of -30&nbsp;°C to -40&nbsp;°C can occur in the mountainous aréas in the éast, and snow may lie on the ground 120 days of the yéar. In the west, winter temperatures average below 1&nbsp;°C. Summers are hot and dry, with temperatures above 30&nbsp;°C. Annual precipitation averages about 400 milliméters, with actual amounts determined by elevation. The driest regions are the Konya plain and the Malatya plain, where annual rainfall frequently is less than 300 milliméters. May is generally the wettest month and July and August, the driest. == Administrative divisions == [[Image:Turkey Cities.gif|300px|right|Provincial map of Turkey]] {{utama|Provinces of Turkey}} Turkey is subdivided into 81 provinces (''iller'' in Turkish; singular ''il''). éach province is divided into subprovinces (''ilçeler''; singular ''ilçe''). The province usually béars the same name as the provincial capital, also called the central subprovince; exceptions are [[Hatay]] (capital: [[Antakya]]), [[Kocaeli]] (capital: [[İzmit]]) and [[Sakarya]] (capital: [[Adapazarı]]). Major provinces include: [[Istanbul Province|İstanbul]] 11 million, [[Ankara Province|Ankara]] 4 million, [[Izmir Province|İzmir]] 3.5 million, [[Bursa Province|Bursa]] 2.1 million, [[Konya Province|Konya]] 2.2 million, [[Adana Province|Adana]] 1.8 million. ===Cities=== [[Image:Istanbul bridge.jpg|thumb|right|240px|İstanbul over the Bosporus]] [[Image:Ankara-anitkabir.jpg|thumb|right|240px|[[Ankara]] in the foreground of the [[Anıtkabir]]]] The capital city of Turkey is [[Ankara]], but the historic capital [[İstanbul]] remains the financial, economic and cultural centre of the country. Other important cities include [[İzmir]], [[Bursa, Turkey|Bursa]], [[Adana]], [[Trabzon]], [[Malatya]], [[Gaziantep]], [[Erzurum]], [[Kayseri]], [[Izmit|İzmit (Kocaeli)]], [[Konya]], [[Mersin]], [[Eskişehir]], [[Diyarbakir|Diyarbakır]], [[Antalya]] and [[Samsun]]. An estimated 68% of Turkey's population live in urban centers.<ref>[http://globalis.gvu.unu.edu/indicator_detail.cfm?IndicatorID=30&Country=TR Globalis - an interactive world map - Turkey - Urban Population] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060920233803/http://globalis.gvu.unu.edu/indicator_detail.cfm?IndicatorID=30&Country=TR |date=2006-09-20 }}</ref> In all, 12 cities have populations exceeding 500,000 and 48 cities have more than 100,000 péople. '''Major Cities :''' :''Note:Population figures given are those according to the [[2000]] census'' *[[İstanbul]] - 10,041,000 *[[Ankara]] - 4,319,000 *[[İzmir]] - 2,409,000 *[[Bursa, Turkey|Bursa]] - 1,195,000 *[[Adana]] - 1,131,000 *[[Gaziantep]] - 854,000 *[[Konya]] - 743,000 *[[Antalya]] - 603,000 {{see also|List of cities in Turkey}} {{clr}} == Economy == {{Infobox Country Economy |country=Republic of Turkey |image= |caption= |Fiscal_year=Calendar year |Trade_organisations= [[BSEC]], [[OECD]], [[OID]], [[WTO]], customs union with the [[EU]] |Pop_poverty=20%(2002) |GDP_by_sector= |Inflation=7.7% (2005) |Labour_force=25,900,000 |Labour_force_by_occupation= |Unemployment=10% (plus underemployment of 4.0%) (2005 est.) |Main_industries= |Exports=$82bn |export_partners=[[Germany]] 13.9%, [[United Kingdom|UK]] 8.8%, <br>[[United States|U.S.]] 7.7%, [[Italy]] 7.4%, [[France]] 5.8%, <br>[[Spain]] 4.2% |Imports=$137bn |import_partners=[[Germany]] 12.9%, [[Russia]] 9.3%, [[Italy]] 7.1%, <br>[[France]] 6.4%, [[United States|U.S.]] 4.8%, <br>[[China]] 4.6%, [[United Kingdom|UK]] 4.4% |Public_debt=57.8% of GDP (2005) |External_debt= $145B |Revenues= $190B |Expenses= $210B }} {{utama|Economy of Turkey}} Turkey's economy is a complex mix of modérn industry and commerce along with a traditional [[agriculture]] sector that in [[as of 2005|2005]] still accounted for 30% of employment. Turkey has a strong and rapidly growing private sector, yet the state still plays a major role in basic industry, [[banking]], [[transport]], and [[communications]]. Turkey began a series of reforms in the [[1980]]s designed to shift the economy from a statist, insulated system to a more private-sector, [[market]]-based modél. The reforms spurred rapid growth, but this growth was punctuated by sharp [[recession]]s and financial crises in [[1994]], [[1999]], and [[2001]]. Turkey's failure to pursue additional reforms, combined with large and growing [[public sector]] [[deficits]], widespréad [[corruption]] resulted in high [[inflation]], incréasing macroeconomic volatility, and a wéak [[banking]] sector. [http://earthtrends.wri.org/text/economics-business/variable-638.html Current GDP per capita] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504135206/http://earthtrends.wri.org/text/economics-business/variable-638.html |date=2012-05-04 }} soared by 210% in the Seventies. But this proved unsustainable and growth scaled back sharply to 70% in the Eighties and a disappointing 11% in the Nineties. The [[Ecevit]] government, in power from 1999 through [[2002]], restarted structural reforms in line with ongoing [[economic]] programs under the standby agreements signed with the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), including passage of [[social security]] reform, public finance reform, state banks reform, banking sector reform, incréasing transparency in public sector, and also introduction of related legislation to liberalize telecom, and energy markets. Under the IMF program, the government also sought to use [[exchange rate]] policies to curb inflation. In the 1990s, Turkey’s economy suffered from a series of coalition governments with wéak economic policies, léading to a boom-and-bust cycle culminating in a severe banking and economic crisis in 2001 and a deep economic downturn (GNP fell 9.5% in 2001) and incréase in unemployment. The government was forced to float the lira and adopt a more ambitious economic reform program, including a very tight [[fiscal policy]], enhanced structural reforms, and unprecedented levels of IMF lending. Large IMF loans tied to implementation of ambitious economic reforms, enabled Turkey to stabilize interest rates and the currency and to meet its debt obligations. In [[2002]] and [[2003]], the reforms began to show results. With the exception of a period of market jitters in the run-up to the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Iraq war]], inflation and interest rates have fallen significantly, the currency has stabilized, and confidence has begun to return. Turkey's economy grew an average of 7.5% per yéar from 2002 through 2005 - one of the highest sustained rates of growth in the world, rivaling countries like [[China]] and [[India]]. Inflation and interest rates have fallen significantly, the currency has stabilized, government debt has declined to more supportable levels, and business and consumer confidence have returned. At the same time, the booming economy and large inflows of portfolio investment have contributed to a growing current account deficit. Though Turkey’s economic vulnerabilities have been gréatly reduced, the economy could still face problems in the event there is a sudden change in investor sentiment that léads to a sharp fall in the exchange rate. Continued implementation of reforms, including tight fiscal policy, is essential to sustain growth and stability. On 1 January 2005, the Turkish Lira was replaced by the [[New Turkish Lira]] by dropping six zeroes. That is, 1 new lira is equal to 1,000,000 old lira. Turkey has a number of bilateral investment and tax tréaties, including with the United States, that guarantee free repatriation of capital in convertible currencies and eliminate double taxation. After yéars of low levels of foreign direct investment ([[FDI]]), in [[2005]] Turkey succeeded in attracting $9.6 billion in FDI and is expected to attract a similar level in 2006. A series of large privatizations, the stability fostered by the start of Turkey’s EU accession negotiations, strong and stable growth, and structural changes in the banking, retail, and telecommunications sectors have all contributed to the rise in foreign investment. Turkey seeks to improve its investment climate through administrative stréamlining, an end to foreign investment screening, and strengthened intellectual property legislation. However, a number of disputes involving foreign investors in Turkey and certain policies, such as high taxation of cola products and continuing gaps in the intellectual property regime, inhibit investment. The Turkish privatization board is in the process of privatizing a series of state-owned companies, including the state [[alcohol]] and [[tobacco company]] and the oil refining parastatal. In [[2004]], the Privatization Board privatized the telephone company and some of the state-owned banks. The government also committed in the [[WTO|World Trade Organization]] to liberalize the telecommunications sector at the beginning of 2004. {{See also|Economic history of Turkey}} ==Society== === Demographics === {{Infobox Country Demographics |country=Republic of Turkey |image=[[image:Turkey-demography.png|180px]] |caption=1961-2005 |size_of_population=70,413,958 <br>(2006 est.) |growth=1.06% (2006 est.) |birth=16.62 births/1,000 <br>population (2006 est.) |death=5.97 deaths/1,000 <br>population (2006 est.) |life=72.62 years (2006 est.) |life_male=70.18 years |life_female=75.18 years |fertility=1.92 children born/woman (2006 est.) |age_0-14_years=25.5% (male 9,133,226; female 8,800,070) |age_15-64_years= 67.7% (male 24,218,277; female 23,456,761) |age_65_years=6.8% (male 2,198,073; female 2,607,551) (2006 est.) |sr_total_mf_ratio=1.02 male(s)/female |sr_at_birth=1.05 male(s)/female (2006 est.) |sr_under_15=1.04 male(s)/female |sr_15-64_years=1.03 male(s)/female |sr_65_years=0.84 male(s)/female |nation=''noun'': Turk(s) ''adjective'': Turkish |major_ethnic=Turks |minor_ethnic=Abkhazians, Albanians, Arabs, Armenians, Bosniaks, Chechens, Circassians, Georgians, Greeks, Hamshenis, Jews, Kabardin, Kurds, Laz, Levantines, Ossetians, Pomaks, Roma and Zazas.<ref>Within the defition established and internationally agreed in the [[1923]] [[Lausanne Treaty]], three minority groups are officially recognized in Turkey, namely [[Armenians]], [[Greeks]] and [[Jews]].</ref> |official=Turkish |spoken=Turkish, Kurdish, Azeri, Kabardian }} {{utama|Demographics of Turkey}} The legal use of term "Turkish" (a citizen of Turkey) is different from the ethnic definition (an [[Turkish people|ethnic Turk]]). However, the majority of the Turkish population are of Turkish ethnicity. Besides the minorities that have legal status as defined and internationally recognized by the [[Treaty of Lausanne]]; namely [[Greeks in Turkey|Greeks]], [[Armenians in Turkey|Armenians]] and [[Jews]]; [[ethnic groups]] include [[Abkhaz people|Abkhazians]], [[Albanians]], [[Arabs]], [[Bosniaks]], [[Chechen people|Chechens]], [[Circassians]], [[Georgians]], [[Hamshenis]], [[Kabard]]in, [[Kurdish people|Kurds]], [[Laz people|Laz]], [[Ossetians]], [[Pomaks]], [[Roma people|Roma]] and [[Zaza people|Zazas]], the largest non-Turkic ethnicity being the Kurds, a distinct ethnic group concentrated in the southéast. While the term "[[minority]]" itself remains a sensitive issue in Turkey, it is to be noted that the degree of [[assimilation]] within various [[ethnic groups]] outside the recognized minorities is high, the following generations generally adding into the melting-pot of the [[Turkish people|Turkish]] main body. Within that main body, certain distinctions based on diverse [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] origins could be made as well by taking account of the same tendency as mentioned. Though [[Turkish language|Turkish]] is the sole official language throughout Turkey, broadcasts in local languages and dialects on State media outlets include [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] (essentially [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]]), [[Circassian language|Circassian]] and [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]]. Radio broadcasts are 60 minutes a day, five hours a week, 45 minutes a day, and four hours a week on television.<ref>[http://www.byegm.gov.tr/REFERENCES/radyo-tv2002.htm Directorate General of Press and Information - Historical background of radio and television broadcasting in Turkey] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060830170539/http://www.byegm.gov.tr/REFERENCES/radyo-tv2002.htm |date=2006-08-30 }}</ref> The Turkish population is relatively young with over a quarter falling within the [0-14] age bracket. Life expectancy stands at 70.2 yéars for males and 75.2 yéars for females, giving an overall 72.6 yéars for the populace. Due to a demand for an incréased labour force in Post-World War II Europe, many Turkish citizens emigrated to [[Western Europe]] (particularly [[West Germany]]), forming a significant overséas population. {{see also|Peoples of the Caucasus in Turkey}} ===Education=== {{utama|Turkish education system}} Education is compulsory and free from ages 7 to 15. There are around 820 higher education institutes including universities, with a total student enrollment of over 1 million. The 15 main universities are in [[Istanbul]] and [[Ankara]]. Tertiary education is the responsibility of the Higher Education Council, and funding is provided by the state. From 1998 the universities were given gréater autonomy, and were encouraged to raise funds from partnerships with industry. There are approximately 85 [[List of universities in Turkey|universities in Turkey]]. There are two types of universities, state and (private) foundational. State universities charge very low fees and foundationals are highly expensive with fees up to $15 000 or sometimes even more. The capacity in total of Turkish universities is approximately 300.000. Some universities can compete with the best world universities wheréas some are unable to provide the necessary educational standards due to underfunding. However, university students are a lucky minority in Turkey. Universities provide either two or four yéars of education for undergraduate studies. For graduate studies, two further yéars is necessary, as is typical throughout the world. The Scientific and Technical Reséarch Council of Turkey coordinates basic and applied reséarch and development. There are 64 reséarch institutes and organisations. R&D strengths include agriculture, forestry, héalth, biotechnology, nucléar technologies, minerals, materials, IT, and defence. {{see also|Education in Turkey}} ===Culture=== {{utama|Culture of Turkey}} [[Image:Whirlingdervishes.JPG|thumb|right|270px|[[Whirling Dervishes]]]] Turkey has a very diverse culture derived from various elements of the Ottoman Empire, Européan, and the Islamic traditions. As Turkey successfully transformed from the religion-driven former Ottoman Empire into a modérn nation-state with a very strong separation of state and religion, the incréase in the methods of artistic expression followed. During the first yéars of the republic, the government invested a large amount of resources into the fine arts, such as paintings, sculptures and architecture amongst other things. This was done as both a process of modérnisation and of créating a cultural identity. Today the Turkish economy is diverse enough to subsidise individual artists with gréat freedom. Because of different historical factors playing an important role in defining a Turkish identity, the [[culture of Turkey]] is an interesting combination of cléar efforts to be "modern" and [[Western culture|Western]], combined with the necessity felt to maintain traditional religious and historical values. [[Turkish cuisine]] is one of the world's most famous, blending ingredients and recipes inherited from the territories covered by the Ottoman Empire. Turkish Cuisine generally consists of sauced dishes prepared with ceréals, various vegetables and some méat (usually [[Lamb (food)|Lamb]]), soups, cold dishes cooked with [[olive oil]] and pastry dishes. {|style="border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:2px; font-size:85%;" align=center | colspan="6" rowspan="1" style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);" |[[Culture of Turkey]] |- |style="text-align: center;" | [[Music of Turkey|Music]] |style="text-align: center;" | [[Cinema of Turkey|Cinema]] |style="text-align: center;" | [[Poetry of the Republic of Turkey|Poetry]] |style="text-align: center;" | [[Prose of the Republic of Turkey|Prose]] |style="border-left: 3px solid #ddd; text-align: center;background-color: rgb(204, 204, 255)" |[[Cuisine of Turkey|Turkish Cuisine]] |style="border-left: 3px solid #ddd; text-align: center;background-color: rgb(204, 204, 255)" |[[Turkish literature|History of Turkish Literature]] |} {{clear}} ===Religion=== {{utama|Islam in Turkey}} Nominally, 99% of the population is [[Islam|Muslim]]. Most belong to the [[Sunni]] branch of Islam. About 15-20% of the population are [[Alevi]] Muslims. There is also a small but significant [[Twelver]] [[Shi'a]] minority, mainly of [[Azeri]] descent. The remaining 1% of the population are of other religions, mostly [[Christian]] ([[Eastern Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]], [[Armenian Apostolic]] (Gregorian), [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriac Orthodox]], [[Molokans]], [[Roman Catholic]]s and [[Protestant]]s), [[Jewish]], [[Bahá'ís]] and [[Yezidis]]. [[Image:Bluemosquefront.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The [[Sultan Ahmed Mosque|Blue Mosque (''Sultanahmet Camii'')]]]] Unlike in other [[Muslim]]-majority countries, there is a strong tradition of [[secularism]] in Turkey. Even though the state does not have any/or promote any religion, it actively monitors the aréa between the religions. The constitutional rule that prohibits discrimination on religious grounds is taken very seriously. The Turkish constitution recognises [[freedom of religion]] for ''individuals'', and the ''religious communities'' are placed under the protection of state, but the constitution explicitly states that they cannot become involved in the political process, by forming a religious party for example. No party can claim that it represents a form of religious belief. However, the religious sensibilities are generally represented through conservative parties. The mainstréam [[Hanafi]]te school of [[Sunni Islam]] is largely organised by the state, through the ''[[Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı]]'' (Department of Religious Affairs). The Diyanet is the main Islamic framework established after abolition of the ''[[Ulama]]'' and [[Seyh-ul-Islam]] of the old régime. As a consequence, they control all [[mosque]]s and Muslim clerics. [[Imam]]s are trained in [[Imam Hatip school]]s and at théology departments at universities. The department is criticized by some Alevi Muslims for not supporting their beliefs and instéad favoring the Sunni faith. The [[Patriarch of Constantinople|Orthodox Patriarch]] (''Patrik'') is the héad of the Greek-Orthodox Church in Turkey and serves as the [[Primus inter pares#Religion|spiritual leader]] of all [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox churches]] throughout the world. The [[Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople|Armenian Patriarch]] is the héad of the Armenian Church in Turkey, while the Jewish community is led by the ''[[Hakham Bashi|Hahambasi]]'', Turkey's [[Chief Rabbi]], based in İstanbul. :{{see also|Jews of Turkey|Roman Catholicism in Turkey|Orthodox Church of Constantinople}} ==Images of Turkey== <center> <gallery> Image:Istanbulmetros.jpg|[[Public transport in Istanbul|İstanbul metro]] Image:Galata tower istanbul.jpg|İstanbul's [[Galata Tower]] Image:Ankarafromabove.jpg|[[Ankara]] from Atakule tower Image:Ankaracenter.jpg|[[Ankara]]'s [[Kızılay]] central business district Image:Izmir coast.jpg|[[Izmir]]'s Aegéan coastline Image:Pamukkale3.jpg|Limestone formations and thermal springs in [[Pamukkale]] (cotton castle) Image:Çeşme.jpg|[[Çeşme]] (Marina) Image: Ephesus Celsus Library Façade.jpg |Ancient ruins of [[Efes]] </gallery> </center> ==See also== {{portal}} *[[Festivals in Republic of Turkey]] *[[Holidays in Turkey]] *[[Human rights in Turkey]] *[[Gay rights in Turkey]] *[[Laicism]] *[[List of Turkey-related topics]] *[[Media in Republic of Turkey]] *[[Museums in Republic of Turkey]] *[[Peoples of the Caucasus in Turkey]] *[[Sports in Turkey]] *[[Türkiye İzcilik Federasyonu]] *[[Music of Turkey]] *[[Turkish pop music]] *[[Anatolian rock]] *[[Turkish Grand Prix]] ==References== {{Reflist}} ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Turkey}} '''Official Web Pages ''' *[http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/english/english.htm The Grand National Assembly of Turkey] *[http://www.mgk.gov.tr/Ingilizce/index_en.htm/ Official website of the National Security Council] *[http://www.tsk.mil.tr/eng/index.htm Turkish Armed Forces] *[http://www.turkishembassy.org Turkish Embassy in Washington D.C.] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20060929142214/http://www.mfa.gov.tr/mfa National Ministry of Foreign Affairs] *[http://www.msb.gov.tr/ National Ministry of Defense] '''Public Offices''' *[http://www.icisleri.gov.tr Ministry of Interior Affairs] *[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/eng/index.html Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey] *[http://www.rekabet.gov.tr/ebaskanmesaj.html Competition Authority] '''Online Profiles''' *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/1022222.stm BBC News country profile] *[http://www.economist.com/countries/Turkey/ Economist.com country briefing] *[http://www.ekodialog.com Turkey Economy and Statistics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060928095432/http://www.ekodialog.com/ |date=2006-09-28 }} '''News''' *[http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/english/ Hurriyet] *[http://english.sabah.com.tr/ Sabah] *[http://www.thenewanatolian.com/main.php?section=homepage The New Anatolian] *[http://www.cumhuriyet.com Cumhuriyet Online] *[http://www.zaman.com Zaman Online] *[http://ansiklopedi.turkcebilgi.com/Türkiye Information about Turkey in Turkish language] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060906143129/http://ansiklopedi.turkcebilgi.com/T%C3%BCrkiye |date=2006-09-06 }} '''Travellers sites''' *[http://www.icep.org.tr Cultural Exchange Programs in Turkey] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025191034/http://www.icep.org.tr/ |date=2016-10-25 }} *[http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/root Turkey Pictures] {{Middle East}} {{Laut Hideung}} [[Kategori:Nagara dua buana]] [[Kategori:Turki| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara D8]] 780zawdms67th7ipkzaox000n9f652u 0 20235 710682 710588 2026-06-22T04:19:01Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710682 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} '''Organisasi Pangbébasan Macan Tamil Eelam''' ({{lang-en|Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam; LTTE}}, Basa Tamil: ''தமிழீழ விடுதலைப் புலிகள்''), nu leuwih kasohor minangka '''Macan Tamil''' diadegkeun taun [[1976]] kalayan tujuan utama pikeun ngadegkeun nagara [[Tamil]] nu merdika jeung berdaulat di wetan kalereun [[Sri Langka]]. Pamingpin organisasi ieu nyaéta Pupuhu Nasionalis Tamil [[Velupillai Prabakharan]] nu ditéangan ku [[Interpol]] kalayan tuduhan "maehan, kajahatan terorganisasi, jeung terorisme" [https://web.archive.org/web/20060903121259/http://www.interpol.int/public/Data/Wanted/Notices/Data/1994/54/1994_9054.asp]. LTTE ngarekrut sabagian gedé kaderna ti organisasi militan Tamil séjén, nu hayang ngadegkeun nagara merdeka di weta kalereun Sri Langka. == Tumbu luar == * {{en}} [http://www.ltteps.org/ LTTE] * {{en}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20060903121259/http://www.interpol.int/public/Data/Wanted/Notices/Data/1994/54/1994_9054.asp Interpol] * {{en}} [http://www.tamilnation.org/ltte/ Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam] [[Kategori:Kelompok séparatis]] [[Kategori:Sri Langka]] 255ifkukafbqf0nnzje9iwmaq5fnl42 0 24578 710680 704834 2026-06-22T01:55:56Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710680 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Table Mobile phone standards}} '''Global System for Mobile communications''' ('''GSM''': asalna mangrupa singketan tina ''Groupe Spécial Mobile'') nyaéta standar paling populér pikeun [[telepon sélulér]] (atawa telepon mobil) di sakuliah dunya. [[Asosiasi GSM]], ngira-ngira yén 82% tina pasar telepon sélulér di dunya ngagunakeun standar ieu<ref>{{cite web | title = GSM World statistics| publisher = GSM Association | date = [[2007]] | url = http://www.gsmworld.com/gsmastats.shtml| accessdate = 2007-01-10}}</ref>. GSM digunakeun ku leuwih ti 2 [[1000000000 (nomer)|miliar]] jelema di leuwih 212 nagara jeung wewengkon husus.<ref>{{cite web | title = About GSM Association | publisher = GSM Association | url = http://www.gsmworld.com/about/index.shtml | accessdate = 2007-01-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Two Billion GSM Customers Worldwide | publisher = 3G Americas | date = [[June 13]], [[2006]] | url = http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=109&STORY=/www/story/06-13-2006/0004379206&EDATE= | accessdate = 2007-01-08 }}</ref> Kahadiranana anu di mana-mana (basa Inggris: ''ubiquity'') ngajadikeun [[roaming]] internasional ilahar antara para [[operator telepon sélulér]], anu ngamungkinkeun para langganan ngagunakeun telepon di réa patempatan di dunya. GSM béda jeung téknologi anu leuwih ti heula lantaran [[Kanal (komunikasi)|kanal]] signalling katut kanal sora (ucapan) boga [[kualitas telepon digital]], antukna disebut sistem telepon sélulér ''generasi kadua'' ([[2G]]). [[Gambar:GSMLogo.svg|left|thumb|150px|Logo GSM digunakeun pikeun nandaan héndsét jeung alat-alat anu kompatibel jeung standar GSM]] Digunakeunana standar GSM di sakuliah dunya geus nguntungkeun pikeun para pamakéna lantaran meunangkeun kamampuhan pikeun ''roaming'' sarta pindah operator tanpa ngaganti telepon. Ari pikeun operator jaringan, standar GSM nguntungkeun lantaran bisa milih alat ti rupa-rupa pabrik anu ngagunakeun standar GSM)<ref>{{cite web | title = Texas Instruments Executive Meets with India Government Official to outline Benefits of Open Standards to drive mobile phone penetration | publisher = Texas Instruments | date = [[July 12]], [[2006]] | url = http://focus.ti.com/docs/pr/pressrelease.jhtml?prelId=sc06127 | accessdate = 2007-01-08 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061021025029/http://focus.ti.com/docs/pr/pressrelease.jhtml?prelId=sc06127 |date=2006-10-21 }}</ref>). GSM ogé geus naratas alternatif béaya ''rendah'' pikeun telepon sora, nyaéta [[Short message service]] (SMS, atawa disebut ogé "pesen singket"), anu kiwari dirojong ogé ku standar-standar telepon sélulér lianna. Kaol (''vérsi'') standar anu leuwih anyar tetep bisa diterapkeun (''kompatibel'') kana jaringan telepon GSM anu geus aya. Conto standar kasebut nyaéta ''vérsi'' [[3GPP#Standards|Release '97]] anu nambahkeun kamampuhan data pakét, ku cara maké [[General Packet Radio Service]] (GPRS). Conto lianna nyaéta Reléase '99 anu nawarkeun pangiriman data kalayan laju anu leuwih gancang ku cara ngagunakeun [[Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution]] (EDGE). == Sajarah == Dina taun 1982, ''[[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations]]'' (CEPT) ngadegkeun ''Groupe Spécial Mobile'' (GSM) pikeun nyieun hiji standar sistem telepon mobil anu bisa digunakeun di sakuliah [[Éropah]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Brief History of GSM & GSMA | publisher = GSM World | url = http://www.gsmworld.com/about/history.shtml | accessdate = 2007-01-08}}</ref> Dina taun 1987, hiji [[memorandum of understanding]] disaluyuan ku 13 nagara Éropah pikeun nyieun hiji sistem telepon [[sélulér]] anu ilahar di sakuliah Éropah.<ref>{{cite news | title = Happy 20th birthday, GSM | publisher = [[ZDNet]] | url = http://news.zdnet.co.uk/leader/0,1000002982,39289154,00.htm | date = 2007-09-07 | accessdate = 2007-09-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite pressrelease | title = Global Mobile Communications is 20 years old | publisher = [[GSM Association]] | url = http://www.gsmworld.com/news/press_2007/press07_48.shtml | date = 2007-09-06 | accessdate = 2007-09-07}}</ref> Dina taun 1989, tanggung jawab GSM kasebut dibikeun ka ''[[European Telecommunications Standards Institute]]'' (ETSI) sarta ''spésifikasi'' GSM fase I dikaluarkeun dina taun 1990. Jaringan GSM munggaran diwangun dina taun 1991 ku [[Radiolinja]] di [[Finlandia]] kalayan parawatan infrastrukturna ku Ericsson.<ref>{{cite web | title = Nokia delivers first phase GPRS core network solution to Radiolinja, Finland | publisher = Nokia | date = [[January 24]], [[2000]] | url = http://press.nokia.com/PR/200001/775038_5.html | accessdate = 2006-01-08 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060321231749/http://press.nokia.com/PR/200001/775038_5.html |date=2006-03-21 }}</ref> Nepi ka tungtun taun 1993, aya leuwih ti sajuta palanggan anu ngagunakeun jaringan telepon GSM anu dijalankeun ku 70 operator di 48 nagara.<ref>{{cite web | title = History and Timeline of GSM | publisher = Emory University | url = http://www.emory.edu/BUSINESS/et/P98/gsm/history.html | accessdate = 2006-01-09 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716063002/http://www.emory.edu/BUSINESS/et/P98/gsm/history.html |date=2014-07-16 }}</ref> == Wincikan téknis == '''GSM''' nyaéta [[jaringan sélulér]], di mana ''[[héndsét]]'' nyambung ka éta jaringan ku cara mancarkeun sinyal pikeun néangan sél-sél (''base station'') anu paling deukeut. Jaringan GSM jalan dina opat [[GSM frequency ranges|pita frékuénsi]] anu béda. lolobana jaringan GSM jalan dina pita frékuénsi 900&nbsp;MHz atawa 1800. Sababaraha nagara di benua Amérika (kaasup [[Kanada]] jeung [[Amérika Sarikat]]) ngagunakeun pita-pita frékuénsi 850&nbsp;MHz jeung 1900&nbsp;MHz lantaran pita-pita frékuénsi 900&nbsp;MHz jeung 1800&nbsp;MHz geus disadiakeun pikeun kaperluan lianna. Pita frékuénsi 400&nbsp;MHz jeung 450&nbsp;Hz, anu leuwih jarang dipaké, digunakeun di sababaraha nagara, utamana [[Skandinavia]], di mana frékuénsi-frékuénsi kasebut saacanna digunakeun pikeun sistem telepon sélulér generasi kahiji ([[1G]]). Dina pita 900&nbsp;MHz, pita frékuénsi [[uplink]] nyaéta 890–915&nbsp;MHz, ari pita frékuénsi [[downlink]] nyaéta 935–960&nbsp;MHz. Rubakpita 25&nbsp;MHz ieu dibagi kana 124 ''channel'' frékuénsi pamawa, anu masing-masingna dipisah ku 200&nbsp;kHz. [[Time division multiplexing]] digunakeun dina ieu sistem pikeun ngamungkinkeun dalapan ''full-rate'' atawa genepbelas ''half-rate'' ''channel'' sora (ucapan) pikeun tiap ''channel'' [[frékuénsi radio]]. Aya dalapan ''radio timeslot'' (anu ngahasilkeun dalapan perioda [[Burst transmission|burst]]) anu di''kelompok''keun kana ''frame'' [[Time division multiple access|TDMA]]. ''Channel'' ''half rate'' ngagunakeun ''frame'' anu robah-robah dina ''timeslot'' anu sarua. Laju data ''channel''na nyaéta 270.833&nbsp;kbit/s, ari ''durasi'' ''frame''na nyaéta 4615&nbsp;mdet. Daya anu dipancarkeun tina ''hendset'' diwatesan nepi ka 2 [[watt]] dina GSM850/900 sarta 1 watt dina GSM1800/1900. GSM ngagunakeun rupa-rupa ''[[codec]]'' sora pikeun madetkeun pita frékuénsi audio anu 3.1&nbsp;kHz jadi 5.6-13&nbsp;kbit/detik. Asalna, ngan dua ''codec'' anu digunakeun nyaéta ''codec'' [[Half Rate]] (5.6&nbsp;kbit/s) sarta ''codec'' [[Full Rate]] (13&nbsp;kbit/s). Dua ''codec'' ngagunakeun hiji sistem anu didasarkeun kana ''[[linear predictive coding]]'' (LPC). Salian ti éfisién dina hal laju bit (bitrate), dua ''codec'' ieu ngagampangkeun pikeun nga''idéntifikasi'' bagian-bagian sora anu leuwih penting, anu ngamungkinkeun lapis ''air interface'' méré ''prioritas'' sarta nangtayungan bagian-bagian éta sora. GSM satuluyna dironjatkeun kamampuhna dina taun 1997<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/Specs/archive/06_series/06.51/0651-401.zip |publisher=ETSI |title=GSM 06.51 version 4.0.1 |date=December 1997 |format=ZIP |accessdate=2007-09-05}}</ref> ku ditimukeunna ''codec'' [[Enhanced Full Rate]] (EFR), codec 12.2&nbsp;kbit/detik anu ngagunakeun ''channel'' full rate. Ahirna, ku ayana [[UMTS]], EFR bisa dirobah-robah lajuna ku ''codec'' anu disebut [[Adaptive Multi-Rate|AMR-Narrowband]], anu kualitasna alus sarta tahan tina gangguan mangsa digunakeun dina ''channel'' full rate. Sanajan kurang tahan tina gangguan lamun digunakeun dina ''channel'' half-rate tapi AMR-Narrowband tetep masih boga kualitas anu rélatif alus. Aya opat ukuran ''sél'' dina jaringan GSM—''sél'' ''macro'', ''sél'' ''micro'', ''sél'' ''pico'' sarta ''sél'' payung. Daérah anu kawengku ku masing-masing ''sél'' rupa-rupa gumantung lingkunganana. ''Sél'' ''macro'' dianggap minangka ''sél'' di mana [[anteneu (elektronik)|anténeu]] ''[[base station]]'' dipasang dina munara atawa gedong anu luhurna leuwih ti rata-rata. ''Sél'' ''micro'' nyaéta ''sél'' anu luhur anténeuna sahandapeun luhur rata-rata; umumna digunakeun di daérah pakotaan. ''Sél'' ''pico'' mangrupa ''sél'' leutik anu diaméter pancaranana ngan belasan atawa puluhan méter; umumna digunakeun di jero rohangan. ''Sél'' payung digunakeun pikeun ngeusian daérah nu leuwih leutik anu henteu kawengku ku ''sél'' lianna. Radius horizontal sél rupa-rupa ti mimiti ratusan [[méter]] nepi ka sababaraha puluh [[kilométer]] gumantung kana luhurna anteneu, ''gain'' anteneu sarta kondisi rambatan. Jarak pangjauhna anu dirojong ku standar GSM nyaéta {{convert|35|km|mi|0|lk=on}}. Pamakéan dina jero rohangan ogé kaci dina standar GSM téh. Hal ieu bisa dilaksanakeun ku cara ngagunakeun ''base station'' sél pico pikeun jero rohangan, atawa [[Cellular repeater|repeater jero rohangan]]. Cara ieu umumna digelar lamun dina jero rohangan diperlukeun kapasitas anu gedé pikeun ngalayanan pamaké nu loba, contona dina jero ''pusat perbelanjaan'' atawa terminal kapal udara. [[Modulasi]] anu digunakeun dina GSM nyaéta modulasi ''[[Gaussian minimum-shift keying]]'' (GMSK), hiji wanda tina modulasi [[frequency shift keying]] fase sinambung. Dina GMSK, sinyal anu arék ditumpangkeun kana sinyal pamawa awalna dihaluskeun heula ku hiji [[low-pass filter]] [[gaussian function|Gaussian]] saacan dieupankeun kana [[frequency modulation|frequency modulator]], anu bisa loba ngurangan [[interférensi]] kana ''channel'' sabudeureunana (adjacent channel interference). === Interférensi jeung alat audio === Kajadian anu lumrah lamun héndsét nga''induksi'' kaluaran sora "tut, tut tu-tut, tut tu-tut, tut tu-tut" kana alat audio anu padeukeut jeung héndsét saperti mikropon nirkabel, sistem ''home stereo'', télévisi, komputer, ''cordless phone'', sarta alat musik pribadi. Mangsa alat-alat audio kasebut aya dina ''[[Near and far field|near field]]'' anu dihasilkeun ku héndsét GSM, sinyal radio cukup kuat antukna ''solid state amplifier'' dina ranté audio lumaku minangka hiji [[Detector (radio)|detektor]]. Nois "tut, tut tu-tut, tut tu-tut, tut tu-tut" ieu mangrupa wujud letupan daya anu mawa sinyal [[Time division multiple access|TDMA]]. === Struktur Jaringan === [[Gambar:Gsm network.png|thumbnail|405px|Struktur jaringan GSM]] Sacara garis badag, jaringan GSM dibagi kana tilu bagian utama (sanajan masih aya bagian lain, saperti sub-sistem ''operation & maintenance'' sarta sub-sistem ''[[intelligent network]]''). ==== BSS ==== ''[[Base Station Subsystem]]'' (BSS) ngandung [[Base Station Controller]] ('''BSC''') sarta [[Base Transceiver Station]] (BTS) anu kabéhna disambungkeun kana ''antarmuka'' '''A-bis'''. [[Packet Control Unit]] (PCU) nyambung kana BTS. BSS disambungkeun ku ''antarmuka'' '''Air''' atawa '''Um''' kana ''héndsét'' sarta disambungkeun ku ''antarmuka'' '''A''' kana [[Network and Switching Subsystem|NSS]]. ==== NSS ==== [[Network and Switching Subsystem]] (NSS) ngandung [[Mobile Switching Center|MSC]] anu disambungkeun ku jalan jaringan [[SS7]] kana [[HLR]]. [[Authentication Center|AUC]] jeung [[EIR]], sanajan sacara téknis misah tina '''HLR''' digambarkeun ngahiji lantaran bakuna kabéh jaringan boga véndor ngahijikeun éta dua sub-sistem. NSS disambungkeun ku ''antarmuka'' '''A''' kana BSS. NSS boga sambungan langsung ka [[PSTN]] tina/ku jalan '''MSC'''. Aya ogé sambungan kana ''Packet Core'' (nu disebut '''Gs''') sanajan hal ieu mangrupa pilihan (opsional) sarta teu salawasna dipasang. ==== GPRS Core Network ==== [[GPRS Core Network]] dina gambar ieu disaderhanakeun antukna katingalina ngan mibanda [[SGSN]] (anu nyambung ka BSS ku jasana ''antarmuka'' '''Gb''') jeung [[GGSN]] wungkul. Dua sub-sistem ieu babarengan disambungkeun kana jaringan [[Internet Protocol|IP]] mandiri anu disebut '''GPRS backbone''' anu digambarkeun minangka ''titik referensi'' '''Gn'''. === Kartu SIM === {{utama|Subscriber Identity Module}} [[Gambar:Bell Mobility Canada SIM.jpg|thumb|200px|Kartu SIM pikeun Bell Mobility (Kanada)]] Hiji kaistiméwaan GSM nyaéta ayana [[Subscriber Identity Module]] (SIM), anu ilahar disebut '''Kartu SIM'''. SIM mangrupa [[kartu pinter]] anu bisa dibongkar-pasang sarta ngandung informasi langganan si pamaké katut buku telepon. Hal ieu ngamungkinkeun pamaké pikeun ngaropéa informasi kasebut saenggeus ganti héndsét. Kamungkinan lain, pamaké ogé bisa ganti operator bari tetep ngaropéa héndsét ngan ku ngarobah SIM. Sababaraha operator nutup kamungkinan ieu ku cara ngan ngaidinan telepon pikeun ngagunakeun sahiji SIM, atawa ngan SIM anu dikaluarkeun ku maranéhna; prakték ieu dikenal minangka ngonci SIM atawa [[SIM lock]]ing anu di sababaraha nagara tindakan ieu kaasup ilégal. Di [[Australia]], [[Kanada]], [[Éropah]] sarta [[Amérika Sarikat]] loba operator anu ngonci héndsét anu dijual ku maranéhna. Hal ieu dilakukeun lantaran harga héndsét umumna [[disubsidi]] ku panghasilan tina lalanggan, sarta operator kasebut nyoba nyingkahan ngasubsidi pasaingna. Palanggan biasana bisa ngadatangan operator pikeun muka konci sacara garatis, ngagunakeun jasa pihak lain pikeun muka konci, atawa ngagunakeun ''software'' sarta ''website'' anu aya di Internét pikeun muka konci ku sorangan. Sanajan lolobana ''website'' nawarkeun jasa muka konci kalayan garatis, sabagian deui méré jasa kalayan garatis. Koncian diterapkeun kana héndsét, anu dicirian ku nomer [[International Mobile Equipment Identity]] (IMEI), lain kana rekening tagihan (anu dicirikeun ku nomer kartu [[Subscriber Identity Module|SIM]] card). Salawasna dimungkinkeun pikeun ganti kana héndsét lian (anu teu dikonci). Sabagian operator bakal muka konci héndsét sacara garatis lamun palanggan geus lalanggan salila waktu tinangtu. Jasa muka konci anu disadiakeun ku pihak katilu mindeng leuwih gancang sarta leuwih murah ongkosna. Di lolobana nagara, muka konci héndsét téh légal. Di nagara-nagara saperti [[Bélgia]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], jeung [[Pakistan]], kabéh ''héndsét'' dijual tanpa dikonci. Di Bélgia, henteu dibeunangkeun pikeun para operator nggasupkeun naon waé wangun subsidi kana harga ''hendset''. Hal sarupa lumaku ogé di Finlandia nepi ka tanggal [[1 April]] [[2006]] mangsa subsidi dibeunangkeun, tapi para operator kudu muka konci telepon sacara garatis liwat hiji selang waktu (paling lila 24 bulan). === Kaamanan dina GSM === GSM dirarancang kalayan tingkat kaamanan anu sedeng. Sistem GSM dirancang pikeun nga-''auténtikasi'' (mariksa bener henteuna) palanggan ku cara ngagunakeun hiji [[pre-shared key]] jeung [[Challenge-response authentication|challenge-response]]. Komunikasi antara palanggan jeung ''base station'' bisa di-''énkripsi''. Kamajuan dina [[Universal Mobile Telecommunications System|UMTS]] nawarkeun [[USIM]] anu sifatna pilihan (opsional), nu maké konci ''auténtikasi'' nu leuwih panjang pikeun ngahasilkeun kaamanan anu leuwih tohaga, ogé nga-''auténtikasi'' jaringan jeung pamaké sacara babarengan ari GSM ngan ukur nga-''auténtikasi'' pamaké ka jaringan (sarta henteu sabalikna). Modél kaamananna jadina nawarkeun karusiahan jeung ''auténtikasi'', tapi kamampuh otorisasina kawates, jeung euwueh [[non-repudiation]]. GSM maké sababaraha algoritma ''cryptographic'' pikeun kaamanan. [[Stream cipher]] [[A5/1]] jeung [[A5/2]] digunakeun pikeun ngajamin ''privasi'' sora anu dipancarkeun. A5/1 dijieun leuwih tiheula sarta mangrupa hiji algoritma anu leuwih kuat nu digunakeun di [[Éropah]] jeung [[Amérika Sarikat]]; A5/2 leuwih lemah sarta digunakeun di nagara-nagara lianna. Kaleuwihan utama dina hal pangamanan GSM dibandingkeun jeung sistem-sistem nu leuwih ti heula nyaéta [[cryptographic key]] disimpen dina kartu [[Subscriber Identity Module|SIM]] henteu kungsi dikirimkeun ku jalan ''antarmuka'' nirkabel. Kalemahan utama dina dua algoritma kasebut nyaéta dimungkinkeun pikeun meupeuskeun A5/2 sacara réal-time dina hiji serangan [[ciphertext-only attack]]. Sistem GSM narima réa algoritma antukna operator bisa ngaganti hiji ''cipher'' ku anu leuwih tohaga. == Tempo ogé == * Teknologi inti: ** [[2G]] ** [[2.5G]] ** [[3G]] ** [[3.5G]] ** [[4G]] * Alternatif ka hareup pikeun GSM ** [[VoIP Mobil]] * Unsur-unsur jaringan GSM: ** [[Base Station Controller]] (BSC) ** [[Base Station Subsystem]] (BSS) ** [[Home Location Register]] (HLR) ** [[Mobile Switching Center]] (MSC) ** [[Subscriber Identity Module]] (SIM) ** [[Visitors Location Register]] (VLR) ** [[IMEI#Blacklist of stolen devices|Equipment Identity Register]] (EIR) * Radio: ** [[Pita frékuénsi GSM]] ** [[Frékuénsi sélulér]] * [[Cellular traffic]] * Layanan: ** [[Lokalisasi GSM]] ** [[Layanan GSM]] *** [[Kode-kode GSM pikeun layanan tambahan]] ** [[Multimedia Messaging Service|MMS]] ** [[Short message service|SMS]] ** [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]] Wireless Application Protocol ** [[General Packet Radio Service|GPRS]] ** [[Cell Broadcast]] * Standar: ** [[Babandingan standar-standar telepon sélulér]] ** [[European Telecommunications Standards Institute]] (ETSI) ** [[Intelligent network]] (IN) ** [[Parlay]] * Istilah umum: ** [[International Mobile Equipment Identity]] (IMEI) ** [[International Mobile Subscriber Identity]] (IMSI) ** [[MSISDN|Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number]] (MSISDN) ** [[Handoff]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Pustaka == {{refbegin}} * Siegmund M. Redl, Matthias K. Weber, Malcolm W. Oliphant (March 1995): "An Introduction to GSM", Artech House, ISBN 978-0-89006-785-7 * Siegmund M. Redl, Matthias K. Weber, Malcolm W. Oliphant (May 1998): "GSM and Personal Communications Handbook", Artech House, ISBN 978-0-89006-957-8 * Friedhelm Hillebrand, ed. (2002): "GSM and UMTS, The Creation of Global Mobile Communications", John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0470 84322 5 {{refend}} == Tumbu kaluar == <!-- This is not an SEO opportunity. Please discuss new links in [[Talk:Global System for Mobile Communications]]. Links relevant to the article may be more appropriately added as references to back up the points in the article they support. --> * [http://www.gsmworld.com/ GSM Association – the group representing GSM operators (official site)] – includes coverage maps for all members * [http://www.3gpp.org 3GPP The current standardization body for GSM with free standards available]. * [http://www.qrctech.com/freq_chart_24x36.pdf Most Widely Used Cellular Channelizations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327122221/http://www.qrctech.com/freq_chart_24x36.pdf |date=2009-03-27 }} <!--* [http://www.3gpp.org/specs/numbering.htm 3GPP numbering scheme] -- kind of redundant --> {{Pausahaan Telepon Usik di Indonesia}} [[Kategori:Telekomunikasi]] 5qmsw07lv5b6819mk3kgqp1kc22af06 0 26863 710678 115231 2026-06-22T01:27:44Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710678 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Universitas== {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} * [[Universitas Al 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Islam Wali Sembilan]] * [[Institut Keislaman Hasyim Asy`ari]] * [[Institut Pembina Rohani Islam Jakarta]] (IPRIJA) * [[Institut Pendidikan Darussalam]](IPD) * [[Institut Studi Ilmu Al Qur`an]] == Sakola Luhur == {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} * [[Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Tarbiyah (STIT)]] * [[STAI Sumatera Barat]] * [[STAI Al Azhar]] * [[STAI Al Falah Cicalengka]] * [[STAI Al Fatah]] * [[STAI Al Ghazali Bone]] * [[STAI Al Ghazali Bulukumba]] * [[STAI Al Ghazali Soppeng]] * [[STAI Al Ghazali Ujung Pandang]] * [[STAI Al Guraba]] * [[STAI Al Hikmah]] * [[STAI Al Hikmah]] * [[STAI Al I`anah Cianjur]] * [[STAI Al Khozimy]] * [[STAI Al Masturiyah]] * [[STAI Al Washliyah]] * [[STAI As`adiyah]] * [[STAI At Taqwa Bekasi]] * [[STAI Bakti Negara]] * [[STAI Balikpapan]] * [[STAI Bumi Silampari Lubuk Linggau]] * [[STAI Cirebon]] * [[STAI Darud Dakwah wal Irsyad]] * [[STAI Darud Dakwah wal Irsyad]] * [[STAI Darud Dakwah wal Irsyad]] * [[STAI Darud Dakwah wal Irsyad]] * [[STAI Darud Dakwah wal Irsyad]] * [[STAI DDI Pinrang]] * [[STAI Dr KH EZ Muttaqien]] * [[STAI Islamiyah Al Ihya]] * [[STAI Jama`iyah Mahmudiyah]] * [[STAI Kharisma Cicurug Sukabumi]] * [[STAI La Raiba Bogor]] * [[STAI Ma`arif Jambi]] * [[STAI Majalengka]] * [[STAI Mathla`ul Anwar]] * [[STAI Miftahul Huda Pamanukan]] * [[STAI Miftahul Ulum]] * [[STAI Muhammadiyah Bandung]] * [[STAI Muhammadiyah Bima]] * [[STAI Muhammadiyah Hasanuddin DT]] * [[STAI Muhammadiyah Klaten]] * [[STAI Muhammadiyah Lamongan]] * [[STAI Muhammadiyah Probolinggo]] * [[STAI Musaddadiyah]] * [[STAI Nahdlatul Ulama Kebumen]] * [[STAI Nahdlatul Ulama Purworejo]] * [[STAI Nahdlatul Ulama Surakarta]] * [[STAI Nahdlatul UlamaTemanggung]] * [[STAI Panca Wahana]] * [[STAI Pati]] * [[STAI Pemantang Siantar]] * [[STAI Persis Bandung]] * [[STAI PTDI Jakarta]] * [[STAI Rasyidiyah Khalidiyah Amuntai]] * [[STAI Sebelas April Sumedang]] * [[STAI Siliwangi Bandung]] * [[STAI Siliwangi Garut]] * [[STAI Sukabumi]] * [[STAI Sumatera]] * [[STAI Sumatera Barat]] * [[STAI Sunan Drajat]] * [[STAI Sunan Giri Bojonegoro]] * [[STAI Syeh Mansur]] * [[STAI Tasikmalaya]] * [[STAI Tiara Jakarta]] * [[STAI Wasilatul Falah]] * [[STAI Yamisa Soreang]] * [[STAI YAPPTI Pesisir Selatan]] * [[STAI Yayasan Kebangkitan Islam]] * [[STAI YPIQ]] * [[STAI Zainul Hasan]] * [[STKIP Muhammadiyah Aceh Tengah]] * [[STKIP Muhammadiyah Barru]] * [[STKIP Muhammadiyah Bone]] * [[STKIP Muhammadiyah Bulukumba]] * [[STKIP Muhammadiyah Enrekang]] * [[STKIP Muhammadiyah Kotabumi]] * [[STKIP Muhammadiyah Lumajang]] * [[STKIP Muhammadiyah Pagaralam]] * [[STKIP Muhammadiyah Pringsewu]] * [[STKIP Muhammadiyah Sampit]] * [[STKIP Muhammadiyah Sidrap]] * [[STKIP Muhammadiyah Sorong]] * [[STKIP Muhammadiyah Sungai Penuh]] * [[STI Dakwah Al Hikmah]] * [[STI Dakwah Al Hikmah]] * [[STI Dakwah Al-Hamidiyah Jakarta]] * [[STI Dakwah Bahriyatul Ulum Zainul Arifin]] * [[STI Dakwah DDI Mangkoso]] * [[STI Dakwah Hamzanwadi]] * [[STI Dakwah Madura]] * [[STI Dakwah Masjid Syuhada]] * [[STI Dakwah Moralita]] * [[STI Dakwah Muhammadiyah Jambi]] * [[STI Dakwah Surakarta]] * [[STI Dakwah Taruna]] * [[STI Syari`ah Al Furqon]] * [[STI Syari`ah Al Hilal]] * [[STI Syari`ah An Nuqoyah]] * [[STI Syari`ah Darul Ulum]] * [[STI Syari`ah Darunnajah]] * [[STI Syari`ah Darussalam]] * [[STI Syari`ah Darussalam]] * [[STI Syari`ah Ma`arif]] {{col-break}} * [[STI Syari`ah Malikus Shaleh]] * [[STI Syari`ah Mataram]] * [[STI Syari`ah Muhammadiyah Toli-Toli]] * [[STI Syari`ah Syarif Abdurrahman]] * [[STI Syari`ah Syekh Maulana Qori]] * [[STI Syari`ah Tapanuli]] * [[STI Syari`ah Tengku Cik Pante Kulu]] * [[STI Syari`ah YPI Samarinda]] * [[STI Syari`ah YUNISMA]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Agus salim]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Ahlussunah]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Al Azhar]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Al Falah]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Al Falah]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Al Ghozali]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Al Hilal Sigli]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Al Ikhlash Sidikalang]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Al Ishlahiyah]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Al Jami`]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Al Khaerat]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Al Muslihun]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Al Muslim]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Al Mustaqiem]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Al Nuqayah]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Al Washliyah]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Bahrul Ulum]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Baitul Arqom Al Islamy]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Bengkalis]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Daarul Arafah]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Darul Ma`arif]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Darul Ulum]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Darussalam]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Darussalam Sukabumi]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Diniyah Puteri Rahmah El Yunusiyah]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Diponegoro]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Gajah Putih]] * [[STI Tarbiyah GUPPI Sragen]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Hamzanwadi]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Hasanudin Kediri]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Hubbul Wathan]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Ibrahimy]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Imam Syafe`I]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Islamiyah Karya Pembangunan]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Kuala Kapuas]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Madiun]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Mahdum Ibrahim]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Maskumambang]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Miftahul Ulum]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Muara Bulian]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Muh Sibolga]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Muhammadiyah]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Muhammadiyah Bangil]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Muhammadiyah Blitar]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Muhammadiyah Blora]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Muhammadiyah Bojonegoro]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Muhammadiyah Kediri]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Muhammadiyah Kendal]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Muhammadiyah Kroya]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Muhammadiyah Kupang]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Muhammadiyah Lamongan]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Muhammadiyah Lumajang]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Muhammadiyah Mojokerto]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Muhammadiyah Ngawi]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Muhammadiyah Paciran]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Muhammadiyah Pacitan]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Muhammadiyah Sidoarjo]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Muhammadiyah Trenggalek]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Muhammadiyah Tulungagung]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Muhammadiyah Wates]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Muslim Asia Afrika]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Nazzatut Thullab]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Nurul Ihsan]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Padang Lawas]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Pasuruan]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Pertinu]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Qomarudin Gresik]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Raden Rahmat]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Raden Santri Gresik]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Raden Wijaya]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Serambi Mekah]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Serdang]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Shalahuddin Al Ayyubi]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Suanan Giri Trenggalek]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Sunan Giri]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Sunan Giri]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Syarif Abdurrahman]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Syekh Burhanuddin]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Taruna]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Tengku Dirundeng]] * [[STI Tarbiyah UNISDA]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Wonogiri]] * [[STI Tarbiyah YAPTIP]] * [[STI Tarbiyah YASNI]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Yayasan Pendidikan Islam]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Yayasan Pendidikan Islam Kerinci]] * [[STI Tarbiyah Yogyakrata]] * [[STI Tarbiyah YUNISMA]] * [[STI Ushuluddin An Nadwah]] * [[STI Ushuluddin Diniyah Muara Bungo]] * [[STI Ushuluddin Ibnu Rusyd]] * [[STI Ushuluddin La Tansa Mashira]] * [[STI Ushuluddin Mastal Musammid]] * [[STI Ushuluddin Thawalib]] {{col-end}} == Rujukan == * [http://www.ditpertais.net/06/ptis.asp Direktorat Pendidikan Tinggi Islam Depag RI] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080310091806/http://www.ditpertais.net/06/ptis.asp |date=2008-03-10 }} [[Kategori:Daptar paguron luhur di Indonésia|* Islam swasta di Indonésia]] 725fngujf0c78r3o7jzfm0o0jy6y2ng 0 34631 710676 652250 2026-06-21T20:34:30Z ~2026-36178-85 36984 710676 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[Gambar:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Groepsportret van een Minangkabau familie TMnr 60041723.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Urang Minang]], ngagem pisan kana adat nu aya dina Tambo Minangkabau.]] '''Tambo Minangkabau''' nyaéta karya [[sastra]] [[sajarah]] nu ngarekam kisah-kisah legenda-legenda nu pakaitna jeung asal-usul séké sélér, nagara jeung tradisi sarta alam [[Urang Minang|Minangkabau]]. Tambo Minangkabau ditulis dina basa Melayu ngawangun [[prosa]].<ref name="buku2" /> Dina tradisi masarakat [[Urang Minang|Minangkabau]], tambo mangrupa hiji warisan tungturunan nu ditepikeun sacara lisan<ref name="buku2">Sangguno Diradjo, Dt. (1954), ''Tambo Alam Minangkabau'', Balai Pustaka.</ref>. Kecap ''tambo'' atawa ''tarambo'' bisa ogé maksudna sajarah, hikayat atawa riwaya. Maknana saruan saperti kecap babad dina basa Jawa atawa basa Sunda. == Edisi == Panulisan Tambo Minangkabau, mimitina kapendak dina wangun aksara Arab nu basana basa Minang. Sedengkeun panulisan dina wangun latin, karék dipikawanoh di mimiti abad ka-20, anu eusina geis ngabandingkeun jeung sababaraha bukti sajarah nu aya patalina<ref>Batuah A. Dt., Madjoindo A, Dt., (1957), ''Tambo Minangkabau'', Jakarta: Balai Pustaka.</ref>. Naskah tambo Minangkabau sabagéan badag ditulis dina huruf Arab-Melayu (huruf Jami), jeung sabagéan leutik ditulis ku huruf latin. Jumlah naskah nu geus kapanggih nyaéta 83 naskah. Judulna variasi, antarana ''Undang-Undang Minangkabau'', ''Tambo Adat'', ''Adat Istiadat Minangkabau'', ''Kitab Kesimpanan Adat dan Undang-Undang'', ''Undang-Undang Luhak Tiga Laras'', jeung ''Undang-Undang Adat''. Tambo di Minangkabau sacara gurat badag dibagi dua bagéan nu utama:<ref name="Navis">[[A.A. Navis]], (1984), ''Alam Terkembang Jadi Guru: Adat dan Kebudayaan Minangkabau'', Jakarta: PT. Grafiti Pers.</ref> * Tambo alam, nu ngisahkeun asal-usul karuhun sarta ngeunaan Karajaan Pagaruyung. * Tambo adat, nu ngisahkeun adat, sistim pamaréntahan, jeung undang-undang pamaréntahan Minangkabau di mangsa baheula. Dina nepikeun kisahna, tambo umumna teu sistimatis, tatapi caritana sakapeung disaluyukeun jeung kaayaan sarta kaperluan, nepi ka eusina bisa dirobah nurutkeun kahayang nu ngupingkeun<ref name="Navis"/>. Ngan umumna Tambo Minangkabau nyaéta karangan saduran, ku nu ngarangna teu nyebutkeun sumberna nepi ka katingalina saperti hasil karyana. Aya 47 tambo asli Minangkabau nu disimpen di perpustakaan luar nagara, 10 di antarana aya di Perpustakaan Negara Jakarta, hiji jeung séjénna mangrupa karya saduran nu teu dipikanyaho ngaran asli pangarangna. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Bacaan Séjénna == * Djamaris, Edwar (1991). ''Tambo Minangkabau''. Jakarta: Balai Pustaka * Zuriati (2007). ''Undang-Undang Minangkabau dalam Perspektif Ulama Sufi''. Padang: Fakultas Sastra Universitas Andalas. == Tumbu Luar == * [http://www.cimbuak.net/content/view/1253/7/ Parole Tambo, da Matetika Alam Minangkabau] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011055840/http://www.cimbuak.net/content/view/1253/7/ |date=2008-10-11 }} * [http://www.jannaton.net/salasilah/RanjiTamboMinangkabau.pdf Ranji Tambo Minangkabau] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090420010220/http://www.jannaton.net/salasilah/RanjiTamboMinangkabau.pdf |date=2009-04-20 }} {{pondok}} {{Uncategorized|date=April 2017}} 8s58jmmxt29sj0w0o7uki72eq370xeh 0 35685 710677 671730 2026-06-22T01:12:23Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710677 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country |native_name = ''République du Bénin''<br/>''Orílẹ̀-édé Olómìnira ilẹ̀ Benin'' |conventional_long_name = Républik Bénin |common_name = Bénin |image_flag = Flag of Benin.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of Benin.svg |image_map = Location Benin AU Africa.svg |alt_map = Lokasi Bénini di Uni Afrika. |map_caption = {{map_caption |location_color = paul kolot |region=[[Afrika]] |region_color = kulawu kolot |subregion = [[Uni Afrika]] |subregion_color = paul |legend = Location Benin AU Africa.svg}} |national_motto = ''"Fraternité, Justice, Travail"''<br/><small>"Saduduluran, Kaadilan, Gawé"</small> |national_anthem = ''[[L'Aube Nouvelle]]''<br/><small>''Lahirna Dinten Anyar''</small> |official_languages = [[Basa Perancis|Perancis]] |demonym = Beninese; Beninois |capital = [[Porto-Novo]]¹ |latd= 6|latm=28 |latNS=N |longd=2 |longm=36 |longEW=E |largest_city = [[Cotonou]] |government_type = Démokrasi multipartéy |leader_title1 = [[Daptar pupuhu nagara Bénin|Présidén]] |leader_name1 = [[Patrice Talon]] |leader_title2 = [[Perdana Mentri Bénin|Prime Minister]] |leader_name2 = vacant |sovereignty_type = [[Kamerdikaan]] |established_event1 = ti [[Perancis]] |established_date1 = 1 Agustus 1960 |area_rank = ka-101 |area_magnitude = 1 E11 |area = 112.622 |areami² = 43.484 |percent_water = 0,02% |population_estimate = 8.791.832<ref name=cia>{{Cite web |author=Central Intelligence Agency |authorlink=Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=[[The World Factbook]] |title=Benin |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bn.html |year=2009 |accessdate=1 Pébruari 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070612212700/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bn.html |date=2007-06-12 }}</ref> |population_estimate_rank = ka-89 |population_estimate_year = 2009 |population_census = 8.500.500 |population_census_year = 2002 |population_density = 78,1 |population_densitymi² = 202,2 |population_density_rank = ka-120 |GDP_PPP = $13,993 milyar<ref name=imf2>{{Cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=78&pr.y=14&sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=638&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=|title=Benin|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2011-04-20}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504022422/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=78&pr.y=14&sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=638&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a= |date=2011-05-04 }}</ref> |GDP_PPP_rank = |GDP_PPP_year = 2010 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1.451<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = |GDP_nominal = $6,649 milyar<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_year = 2010 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $689<ref name=imf2/> |Gini = 36,5<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html|title=Distribution of family income – Gini index|work=The World Factbook|publisher=CIA|accessdate=2009-09-01}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090513124910/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html |date=2009-05-13 }}</ref> |Gini_year = 2003 |Gini_category = <span style="color:#fc0;">sedeng</span> |HDI = {{increase}} 0,492 |HDI_rank = ka-161 |HDI_year = 2007 |HDI_category = <span style="color:#e0584e;">handap</span> |currency = [[Franc CFA Afrika Kulon]] |currency_code = XOF |country_code = |time_zone = [[Wanci Afrika Kulon|WAT]] |utc_offset = +1 |time_zone_DST = ''teu kaobsérvasi'' |utc_offset_DST = +1 |drives_on = katuhu |cctld = [[.bj]] |calling_code = 229 |footnote1 = Cotonou mangrupa kadudukan pamaréntahan. |footnote2 = Pakiraan pikeun nagara ieu kuduna mah diperhatoskeun ogé kana lobana nu pupus akibat AIDS; hal ieu bisa nyababkeun ajén harepan hirup nu leuwih saeutik, tingkat pupusna orok jeung jalmi nu leuwih luhur, populasi jeung kamekaran populasi nu leuwih handap, jeung robihna panyebaran populasi dumasar umur jeung lalaki/awéwé tinimbang nu dikira. }} '''Bénin''' (baheulana, '''Dahomey'''), resmina '''Républik Bénin''', nyaéta hiji nagara di [[Afrika Kulon]]. Nagara ieu tepung wates jeung [[Togo]] di kulon, [[Nigeria]] di wétan, jeung [[Burkina Faso]] sarta [[Niger]] di kalér. Garis basisir kidulna dina [[Teluk Bénin]] di mana kalolobaannana ''populasi'' aya.<ref>R. H. Hughes, J. S. Hughes. A directory of African wetlands, p301. IUCN, 1992. ISBN 2880329493</ref> Ibu kota Bénin nyaéta [[Porto-Novo]], tapi [[kadudukan pamaréntahan]]na aya di [[Cotonou]]. Bénin miboga aréa kira-kira 110.000 kilométer pasagi (42.000 mil pasagi), kalawan jumlah populasi kira-kira 9,05 yuta. Bénin mangrupa hiji nagara [[tropis]], [[sub-Sahara]], loba gumantung kana [[tatanén]], kalawan panggawéan nu loba jeung pamasukan ti [[tatanén napkah]].<ref>[http://www.fao.org/isfp/country-information/benin/en/ "Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024021730/http://www.fao.org/isfp/country-information/benin/en/ |date=2012-10-24 }}. United Nations, June 29th, 2010</ref> Basa resmi Bénin nyaéta [[Basa Perancis]], tatapi, basa pribumi kawas [[basa Fon|Fon]] jeung [[basa Yoruba|Yoruba]] ilahar dipaké. Grup ageman nu panggedéna di Bénin nyaéta [[Katolik Roma]], dituturkeun ku [[Islam]], [[Vodun]], jeung [[Protéstan]]. <!-- From the 17th to the 19th century, modern day Benin was ruled by the [[Dahomey|Kingdom of Dahomey]]. This region was referred to as the [[Slave Coast]] from as early as the 17th century due to the large number of slaves shipped to the New World during the [[Trans-Atlantic slave trade]]. After the abolition of slavery, France took over the country and renamed it [[French Dahomey]]. In 1960, Dahomey gained full independence from France, bringing in a democratic government for the next 12 years.<ref name="Ibp Usa p85">Ibp Usa. Global Logistics Assesments Reports Handbook: Strategic Transportation and Customs Information for Selected Countries, p85. Int'l Business Publications, 2008. ISBN 0739766031</ref> --> ==Departmén jeung komune== <imagemap> File:Benin departments named.png|thumb|right|Departemén di Bénin rect 96 41 108 60 [[Departemén Alibori|Alibori]] rect 43 70 56 89 [[Departemén Atakora|Atakora]] rect 68 237 80 256 [[Departemén Atlantique|Atlantique]] rect 85 105 98 125 [[Departemén Borgou|Borgou]] rect 68 176 81 196 [[Departemén Collines|Collines]] rect 48 116 60 134 [[Departemén Donga|Donga]] rect 50 224 62 242 [[Departemén Kouffo|Couffo]] rect 84 254 97 271 [[Departemén Littoral|Littoral]] rect 53 242 65 257 [[Departemén Mono|Mono]] rect 98 237 118 255 [[Departemén Ouémé|Ouémé]] rect 98 206 117 224 [[Departemén Plateau|Plateau]] rect 62 211 78 229 [[Departemén Zou|Zou]] </imagemap> :''Artikel utama: [[Departemén di Bénin]], [[Komune di Bénin]]'' Bénin dibagi kana 12 [[departemén (éntitas subnasional)|departmén]] (Basa Perancis: ''départements''), jeung dibagi deui kana 77 [[komune (éntitas subnasional)|komune]]. #[[Departemén Alibori|Alibori]] #[[Departemén Atakora|Atakora]] #[[Departemén Atlantique|Atlantique]] #[[Departemén Borgou|Borgou]] #[[Departemén Collines|Collines]] #[[Departemén Donga|Donga]] #[[Departemén Kouffo|Kouffo]] #[[Departemén Littoral|Littoral]] #[[Departemén Mono|Mono]] #[[Departemén Ouémé|Ouémé]] #[[Departemén Plateau|Plateau]] #[[Departemén Zou|Zou]] ==Tempo ogé== *[[Daptar nagara kalawan ibu kota nu leuwih ti hiji]] ==Bacaan salajengna== * Butler, S., ''Benin (Bradt Travel Guides)'', (Bradt Travel Guides, 2006) * Caulfield, Annie, ''Show Me the Magic: Travels Round Benin by Taxi'', (Penguin Books Ltd., 2003) * Kraus, Erika and Reid, Felice, ''Benin (Other Places Travel Guide)'', (Other Places Publishing, 2010) * Seely, Jennifer, ''The Legacies of Transition Governments in Africa: The Cases of Benin and Togo'', (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009) ==Réferénsi== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Tumbu kaluar== {{SisterLinks}} * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1064527.stm Propil Nagara] ti [[BBC News]] * {{CIA World Factbook link|bn|Benin}} * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/benin.htm Benin] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Benin/|Benin|Bénin}} * {{Wikiatlas|Benin}} * [http://beninpolitics.spaces.live.com/default.aspx Benin Politics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100529175106/http://beninpolitics.spaces.live.com/default.aspx |date=2010-05-29 }} ; Pamaréntah *[http://www.gouv.bj/ Pamaréntah Bénin] (loka resmi dina basa Perancis) ; Pelesir *[http://www.wordtravels.com/Travelguide/Countries/Benin Benin Travel Guide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140710020008/http://www.wordtravels.com/Travelguide/Countries/Benin |date=2014-07-10 }} ti Word Travels *{{wikivoyage|Benin}} {{Countries of Africa}} {{OSI|state=collapsed}} {{African Union}} {{South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone}} {{Community of Sahel-Saharan States}} {{La Francophonie|state=collapsed}} {{Niger-Congo-speaking nations}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Benin}} [[Kategori:Bénin| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu tepung wates jeung Samudra Atlantik]] [[Kategori:Komunitas Ékonomi Nagara Afrika Kulon]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu maké basa Perancis]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu kirang kawangun]] [[Kategori:Démokrasi liberal]] [[Kategori:Anggota La Francophonie]] [[Kategori:Anggota Uni Afrika]] [[Kategori:Anggota OSI]] [[Kategori:Républik]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1960]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Bénin}} sm9n4anqcxrzboklp8xbr6zsh5du7m4 0 37597 710679 667886 2026-06-22T01:35:46Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710679 wikitext text/x-wiki {{For|UNHCR|Komisioner Luhur pikeun Pangungsi Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa}} [[File:Human Rights Room Overview.jpg|thumb|]] '''Déwan Hak Asasi Manusa Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa''' ({{lang-en|United Nations Human Rights Council}}; '''UNHRC''') nyaéta hiji lembaga antarpamaréntah dina [[Sistim Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]]. UNHRC nyaéta panerus [[Komisi Hak Asasi Manusa Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]], sarta mangrupa hiji lembaga handapeun [[Majelis Umum Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]]. Majelis Umum ngadegkeun UNHRC ku cara mngaresmikeun hiji résolusi (A/RES/60/251) dina 15 Maret 2006, sangkan ngagantian CHR, nu mana geus dikritik ku lantaran ngijinkeun nagara nu jujutan [[hak asasi manusa]]na goréng, jadi anggota.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4810538.stm|publisher=BBC|date=15 March 2006|title=UN creates new human rights body}}</ref><ref>http://daccess-ods.un.org/access.nsf/Get?Open&DS=A/60/PV.72&Lang=E {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419033234/https://daccess-ods.un.org/access.nsf/Get?Open&DS=A/60/PV.72&Lang=E |date=2023-04-19 }}</ref> ==Tingali ogé== {{Portal|Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa}} * [[Komunitas Démokrasi]] * [[Déklarasi Wina jeung Program Pagerakan]] * [[UN Watch]] ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} ==Tumbu kaluar== {{commonscat|United Nations Human Rights Council}} * [http://www.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/ UN Human Rights Council] – official website {{Wikinews|United Nations General Assembly votes to establish UN Human Rights Council}} * [http://city-journal.org/2009/19_2_UN-human-rights-council.html Inhuman Rights, ''City Journal,'' Spring 2009] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301060725/http://city-journal.org/2009/19_2_UN-human-rights-council.html |date=2012-03-01 }} * [http://www.unwatch.org UN Watch] A NGO based in Geneva monitoring the work of the Human Rights Council * [http://www.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/A.RES.60.251_En.pdf UN Resolution 60/251 establishing the Human Rights council] * [http://www.ohchr.org/english/bodies/chr/special/index.htm Special Procedures of the UN Human Rights Council] * {{Cite press release |publisher=[[United Nations]] |date=15 March 2006 |title=General Assembly establishes new Human Rights Council | url = http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/ga10449.doc.htm }} * [http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/currentawareness/unhumanrightscouncil.php UN Human Rights Council legal news and resources] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120825053334/http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/currentawareness/unhumanrightscouncil.php |date=2012-08-25 }} * [http://www.innercitypress.com/icg050906.html Report on election of Human Rights Council members] from [http://www.innercitypress.com/ InnerCityPress.com] accredited media at UN * {{Cite press release |publisher=[[United Nations]] |date=9 May 2006 |title=General Assembly Elects 47 Members of new Human Rights Council | url = http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/ga10459.doc.htm }} Includes voting results * [http://www.hrw.org/english/docs/2006/10/06/global14354.htm UN: Rights Council Disappoints Again], [[Human Rights Watch]], 6 October 2006 * [http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3381839,00.html UN is human rights nightmare], * [http://www.unwatch.org/site/apps/nl/content2.asp?c=bdKKISNqEmG&b=1313923&ct=3698367 The must-see speech at the Human Rights Council], * [http://www.wimklerkx.nl/EN/PROJECTS/HR.html The Human Rights Machine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306143049/http://www.wimklerkx.nl/EN/PROJECTS/HR.html |date=2012-03-06 }} Photo-documentary on the UN Human Rights machinery by photographer Wim Klerkx, 2005–'07. * [http://unelections.org/?q=node/720 HRC Elections] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322173211/http://unelections.org/?q=node/720 |date=2012-03-22 }}. * [http://www.sithi.org Cambodia Human Rights Portal (Sithi)] * [http://www.cchrcambodia.org Cambodian Center for Human Rights (CCHR)] * [http://www.upr-info.org UPR Info], website dedicated to promote and to provide information about the UPR mechanism {{International human rights organizations}} {{United Nations}} {{organisasi-stub}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Dewan Hak Asasi Manusa Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa}} [[Category:badan handapeun Majelis Umum Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] [[Category:organisasi hak asasi manusa antarpamaréntah]] [[Category:hak asasi manusa]] [[Category:Organisasi nu ngadeg taun 2006]] ahe1oakuedgirjbh1iiupaw2b0he10l 0 72337 710681 674222 2026-06-22T02:22:39Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710681 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Flock_of_sheep.jpg|ka|jmpl|362x362px|Domba minangkana mah sato ingon-ingon]] [[Gambar:Goat_family.jpg|jmpl|238x238px|Embé jeung anakna nu umurna kakarak saminggu]] <span>'''Ingon-ingon''' atawa '''sato ingon-ingon '''</span>([[basa Indonésia]]:'' '''ternak''''', '''''héwan ternak'''''<span>)</span> nyaéta sato nu sacara ngahaja diingu minangka sumber [[pangan]], sumber bahan baku industri, atawa minangka babantu pagawéan jalma. Usaha ngingu ingon-ingon disebut minangka [[paternakan]] (atawa [[palaukan]], pikeun gorombolan sato cai) jeung mangrupa bagéan tina kagiatan [[Agrikultur|patanian]] sacara umum. == Wangenan == Sato ingon bisa mangrupa satu naon baé (kaasup [[gegeremet]] jeung [[vertebrata]] undak landeuh kayaning [[lauk]] jeung [[bangkong]]). Ngan, dina hirup kumbuh mah biasana nujul kana [[unggas]] jeung [[mamalia]] [[doméstikasi|doméstik]], kayaning [[hayam]], [[soang]], [[kalkun]], [[Éntog|meri]], atawa [[manila]] mun unggas mah, sarta [[bagong]], [[sapi]], [[embé]], [[domba]], [[kuda]], atawa [[keledé]] mun mamalia mah. Sebagai tambahan, di beberapa daerah di dunia juga dikenal hewan ternak yang khas seperti [[Onta|unta]], [[llama]], [[bison]], [[manuk onta]], jeung [[beurit walanda]] meureun ngahaja diingu minangka ingon-ingon. Jinis ternak varéatif di sakuliah dunya téh, sarta gumantung kana sawatara faktor kauaning [[iklim]], pamundut [[Konsumen|konsumén]], daérah asal, budaya lokal, jeung [[topografi]]. Gorombolan sato salian unggas jeung [[mamalia]] nu diingu manusa ogé disebut (sato) ingon, hususna mah mun diingu di tempat husus jeung teu diantep ngencar di alam bébas. Sebutan "ingon" téh biasana mah dianggap "pas" mun sato nu diingu saeutik lobana geus ngalaman [[domestikasi]], teu saalakadar dicokot wéh ti alam liar tuluy diingu. Nu dimaksud kana ieu kelompok nyaéta [[hileud sutra]], rupa-rupa jenis lauk cai (kayaning [[lauk emas]], [[guramé]], [[mujaér]], [[nila]], atawa [[lélé]]), sawatara jinis [[bangkong]] (utamana ''bullfrog''), [[buhaya]], jeung sawatara jinis [[oray]]. Usaha ngingu lauk umumna mah disebut minangka [[palaukan]] atawa leuwih spésifikna mah [[budidaya lauk]]. == Sajarah == Sato [[doméstikasi|didoméstikasikeun]] nalika baranahan jeung kahirupanna diatur ku manusa. Salumangsungna, [[laku lampah sato]], [[siklus hirup]] sarta [[fisiologi]]na geus robah sacara signifikan. Kiwari loba pisan sato nu teu mampu deui hirup di alam liar. [[Anjing]] didoméstikasikeun di Asia Wétan 15000 taun ka tukang. [[Embé]] jeung [[domba]] didoméstikeun di [[Asia]] 8000 taun ka tukang. [[Bagong]] didoméstikasikeun 7000 taun ka tukang di [[Wétan Tengah]] jeung [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|Cina]].<ref name="BoL">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/|title=Breeds of Livestock - Oklahoma State University|publisher=Ansi.okstate.edu|accessdate=2011-12-10}}</ref> == Prakték iinguan == Prakték iinguan sato ingon varéatif pisan di sawatara wewengkon di sakuliah dunya, jeung varéatif ogé jenis satona. Sato ingun ilaharna di[[kandang]]<nowiki/>an jeung dibéré parab atawa dikéncarkeun (di[[angon]]). Sawatara mah teu dikandangan atawa ngantep satona rék iraha baé asup kandangna kumaha karepna ([[kéncar]]). Iinguan sato ingon dina sajarah mangrupa bagéan tina kahirupan kaum [[nomaden]] nu pundah-pindah nuturkeun usum-usuman. Sawatara kaum di [[Asia Tengah]] jeung [[Afrika Kalér]] masih kénéh hirup minangka kaum bareng jeung sato ingonna. [[Kandang]] sato mibanda wangun jeung jenis nu varéatif, ti mimiti nu dipageran, nu pagerna nutup, nu diloténgkeun nu mibanda mékanismeu pangaturan témpréatur jeung kabeueusan (tempo [[lingkungan jeung wangunan patanian]]). Kandang ilaharna ngan dipaké minangka tempat sato héés jeung diparaban, jinis kandang séjén dihususkeun pikeun [[jalangan]] éta sato jeung ngingu anak sato. Sato nu diingu dina kandang ilaharna mah inténsif, mun iinguanna di luar rohangan teu dianggap nguntungkeun lantaran merlukeun lahan nu lega. Ngan iinguan na kandang mah pemeliharaan di dalam kandang mah kontrovérsial lantaran ngahasilkeun rupa-rupa masalah kayaning [[bau]], [[limbah]], sumber panyakit sato, jeung [[kasejahteraan sato]] (tempo [[paternakan proyék]]). Sato ingon bisa diaawas kalawan rupa-rupa cara kayaning pamakéan labél (dicét di luhureun kulit sato atawa digantélkeun dina ceuli) atawa ku cara nu modérn jiga pamakéan [[RFID]] nu dipelak dina jero kulit. [[Implan microchip]] ogé bisa dipelak di jero awak sato ingon pikeun ngawas kondisi sato kayaning parobahan komposisi [[getih]], [[denyut jantung]], tempréatur awak, jeung sajabana sangkan jadi panginget mun sato ingon némbongkeun kasakit. Pamakéan hormon patumbuhan pikeun ngaronjatkeun laju patumbuhan sato ternah ogé dipilampah, ngan diwates lantaran bisa ngaganggu kaséhatan sato jeung kualitas [[produk sato]] bu dihasilkeun. Bahan kimia séjén nu dipaké dina paternakan nyaéta [[vaksin]] jeung [[Vitamin|multivitamin]] pikeung ngajaga kaséhatan sato, jeung [[péstisida]] pikeun nyegah ayana gegeremet di jero kandang. Ieu métodeu ilaharna dilakonan di jero [[paternakan proyék]] lantaran sacara alami sato teu bisa mersihan manéh di jero kandang nu heureut. == Nu diingu == Nu dimaksud jeung paternakan téh nyaéta kagiatan iinguan nu leuwih atawa mibanda pola nu kastruktur. Kaatur jeung kaukur Tina manajemen kandang jeung manajemen parab. Kandang dijieun kalawan desain jeung ukuran tinangtu. Kitu ogé paran jeung [[nutrisi]] nu kadar gizina kaitung luyu jeung kabutuhan ingon. Ilaharna nu dingonkeun téh nyaéta [[lauk]], unggas, jeung sato ingon ruminasia kayaning [[embé]], [[sapi]] kaasup [[uncal]]. Leueih spésifikna mah nyaéta mibanda ajén ékonomi. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-bottom: 10px;" !Sato<br>(jinis) !Baraya liar !Waktu doméstikasi munggaran !Wewengkon doméstikasi munggaran !Pamangpaatan kiwari !Gambar |- ! style="text-align:left;white-space:nowrap;font-weight:normal" |'''[[Alpaca]]'''<br> ([[mamalia]], [[Hérbivora|herbivora]]) |''Vikuna'' | style="text-align:center" | Antara 5000 SM jeung 4000 SM |[[Andés|Andes]] |[[Wol|wool]], [[daging]] |[[Gambar:Alpaca_by_Kjetil_André_Eilertsen.jpg|130x130px]] |- ! style="text-align:left;white-space:nowrap;font-weight:normal" |'''[[Anjing]]'''<br> ([[mammalia]], [[omnivora]]) |[[Ajag]] | style="text-align:center" | 12000 SM | |tanaga (anjing pamandu), sato piaraan |[[Gambar:Shiba_inu_taiki.jpg|153x153px]] |- ! style="text-align:left;font-weight:normal" |'''[[Hayam]]'''<br> (unggas, [[omnivora]]) |''Gallus gallus'' | style="text-align:center" | 6000 SM | [[India]] dan [[Asia Kidul Wétan|Asia Tenggara]] | [[daging]], [[endog]], bulu, sato piaraan |[[Gambar:Gallus_gallus_male_Kaziranga_1.jpg|130x130px]] |- ! style="text-align:left;font-weight:normal" |'''[[Bagong]]'''<br> ([[mammalia]], [[omnivora]]) |[[Céléng]] | style="text-align:center" |7000 SM |Anatolia |daging, kulit, sato piaraan |[[Gambar:Sow_with_piglet.jpg|130x130px]] |- ! style="text-align:left;white-space:nowrap;font-weight:normal" |'''[[Banténg]]'''<br> ([[mammalia]], [[Hérbivora|herbivora]]) |[[Banténg]] | style="text-align:center" | Teu dipikanyaho | [[Asia Kidul Wétan|Asia Tenggara]] |[[daging]], [[susu]], tanaga |[[Gambar:Zoo_de_Lunaret_-_Banteng_-_P1600311.jpg|173x173px]] |- ! style="text-align: left; white-space: nowrap;" |[[Meri ingon]]<br> (unggas, [[omnivora]]) | ''Anas platyrhnchos'' | style="text-align:center" | 4000 SM | [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|Cina]] | [[daging]], bulu, sato piaraan | [[Gambar:Tunnel_of_ducks.jpg|130x130px]] |- ! style="text-align:left;white-space:nowrap;font-weight:normal" |'''[[Bison Amérika]]'''<br> ([[mammalia]], [[Hérbivora|herbivora]]) | Euweuh | style="text-align:center" |Abad ka-19 katompérnakeun |Amerika Kalér |[[daging]], kulit |[[Gambar:A_bison_in_Caprock_Canyon_State_Park.jpg|130x130px]] |- ! style="text-align:left;font-weight:normal" |'''''Cavia porcellus'''''<br> (mammalia, [[Hérbivora|herbivora]]) |''Cavia tschudii'' | style="text-align:center" |5000 SM |Amerika Kidul |[[Daging]], sato piaraan |[[Gambar:Two_adult_Guinea_Pigs_(Cavia_porcellus).jpg|130x130px]] |- ! style="text-align:left;font-weight:normal" |'''Domba'''<br> (mammalia, [[Hérbivora|herbivora]]) |Domba mouflon | style="text-align:center" |Antara 11000 SM-9000 SM |Asia Kulon |[[Wol|Wool]], [[susu]], kulit, [[daging]] (daging domba ngora) |[[Gambar:Pair_of_Icelandic_Sheep.jpg|130x130px]] |- ! style="text-align:left;font-weight:normal" |'''[[Embé]]'''<br> (mammalia, [[Hérbivora|herbivora]]) |Embé liar | style="text-align:center" |8000 SM |Asia Kulon |[[Susu]], [[daging]], [[Wol|wool]], kulit, tanaga |[[Gambar:Domestic_goat_kid_in_capeweed.jpg|130x130px]] |- ! style="text-align:left;font-weight:normal" |'''Karibu'''<br> (mammalia, [[Hérbivora|herbivora]]) |Euweuh | style="text-align:center" |3000 SM |Rusia |[[Daging]], kulit, tanduk, [[susu]], tanaga, |[[Gambar:Caribou_using_antlers.jpg|130x130px]] |- ! style="text-align:left;font-weight:normal" |'''[[Keledé]]'''<br> (mammalia, [[Hérbivora|herbivora]]) |Keledai liar Afrika | style="text-align:center" |4000 SM |Mesir |tanaga, [[daging]], [[susu]] |[[Gambar:20110703_Huizingen_(0007).jpg|130x130px]] |- ! style="text-align:left;font-weight:normal" |'''[[Kelenci]]'''<br> (mammalia, [[Hérbivora|herbivora]]) |Kelenci liar | style="text-align:center" |Antara 400-900 masehi |Prancis |[[Daging]], bulu, kulit, sato piaraan |[[Gambar:Rabbit_in_montana.jpg|130x130px]] |- ! style="text-align:left;white-space:nowrap;font-weight:normal" |'''[[Kebo]]'''<br> ([[mammalia]], [[Hérbivora|herbivora]]) |Kebo liar Asia | style="text-align:center" |4000 SM |Asia Kidul |tanaga, [[daging]], [[susu]] |[[Gambar:BUFFALO159.JPG|130x130px]] |- ! style="text-align:left;white-space:nowrap;font-weight:normal" |'''[[Ucing]]'''<br> (mammalia, [[karnivora]]) |[[Méong Congkok|Méong congkok]] | style="text-align:center" |7500 SM <ref name="nationalgeographic2004">{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/04/0408_040408_oldestpetcat.html|title=Oldest Known Pet Cat? 9,500-Year-Old Burial Found on Cyprus|publisher=News.nationalgeographic.com|date=2010-10-28|accessdate=2011-12-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Hazel|last=Muir|title=Ancient remains could be oldest pet cat|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn4867.html|publisher=[[New Scientist]]|date=2004-04-08|accessdate=2007-11-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Marsha Walton|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2004/TECH/science/04/08/cats.cyprus/index.html|title=CNN.com - Ancient burial looks like human and pet cat - Apr 9, 2004|publisher=Edition.cnn.com|date=2004-04-09|accessdate=2011-12-10}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071222092756/http://edition.cnn.com/2004/TECH/science/04/08/cats.cyprus/index.html |date=2007-12-22 }}</ref> |Asia Wétan | Pangendalian hama, sato piaraan, [[daging]] | [[Gambar:Grumpy_Cat,_SXSW_(8575082965).jpg|130x130px]] |- ! style="text-align:left;font-weight:normal" |'''[[Kuda]]'''<br> (mammalia, [[Hérbivora|herbivora]]) |''Kuda liar'' | style="text-align:center" |4000 SM |Eurasian |tanaga, [[susu]], [[daging]] |[[Gambar:Biandintz_eta_zaldiak_-_modified2.jpg|130x130px]] |- ! style="text-align:left;font-weight:normal" |'''[[Llama]]'''<br> (mammalia, [[Hérbivora|herbivora]]) |Guanaco | style="text-align:center" |3500 SM |[[Andés|Andes]] |tanaga, [[daging]], [[Wol|wool]] |[[Gambar:Llama_lying_down.jpg|130x130px]] |- ! style="text-align: left;" |[[Uncal]]<br> (mammalia, [[Hérbivora|herbivora]]) |Euweuh | style="text-align:center" |Abad ka-1 maséhi |Inggris |[[Daging]], kulit, tanduk, velvet |[[Gambar:White-tailed_deer.jpg|130x130px]] |- ! style="text-align:left;font-weight:normal" |'''[[Sapi]]'''<br> (mammalia, [[Hérbivora|herbivora]]) |''Bos primigenius'' | style="text-align:center" |6000 SM |Asia Kulon, [[India]], Afrika Kalér |[[Daging]], [[susu]], kulit, tanaga sato |[[Gambar:Vache_d'Abondance.jpg|130x130px]] |- ! style="text-align:left;font-weight:normal" |'''[[Onta]]'''<br> (mammalia, [[Hérbivora|herbivora]]) |Onta Dromedari jeung Baktrian | style="text-align:center" |Antara 4000 SM jeung 1400 SM |Asia |tanaga, [[daging]], [[susu]], bulu |[[Gambar:Egypt.jpg|130x130px]] |- ! style="text-align:left;font-weight:normal" |'''[[Yak]]'''<br> (mammalia, [[Hérbivora|herbivora]]) |Euweuh | style="text-align:center" |2500 SM |Tibet, Népal |[[Daging]], [[susu]], [[Wol|wool]], tanaga |[[Gambar:Bos_grunniens_-_Syracuse_Zoo.jpg|130x130px]] |} == Kadaharan ingon == Unggal sato nu diingon diparaban ku kadaharan tinangtu. [[Nutrisi]] nu dibéré ngagunakeun bahan alam nu diolah jeung diropéa sangkan mibanda kualitas anu hadé kayaning [[pélét]] lauk, [[konsentrat]], vour atawa [[pur]] biasana pikeun unggas jeung sato rumninasia kayaning [[sapi]], [[embé]] ngagunakeun parab [[férméntasi]] == Dampak lingkungan == Hiji laporan nu dipedal ku [[Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa|PBB]] jeung [[EPA]] ngedalkeun yén sato ingon (utamana hayam, sapi, jeung bagong) mangrupa hiji ti tilu kontributor utama masalah lingkungan di dunya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/usinventoryreport.html|title=2011 U.S. Greenhouse Gas Inventory Report &#124; Climate Change - Greenhouse Gas Emissions &#124; U.S. EPA|publisher=Epa.gov|accessdate=2011-12-10}}</ref> Paternakan di Amérika Sarikat geus nyumbang émisi gas imah kaca gedéna 454.1 téragram ekuivalen CO₂ atawa 6 persén tina émisi gas imah kaca total Amérika Sarikat, ampir saparapat tina émisi transportasi. Ieu laporan ti WorldWatch Institute ngedalkeun yén 51% émisi gas imah kaca dunya asalna tina paternakan.<ref>http://www.worldwatch.org/node/6294</ref> Masalah sato ingon, utamana nalika dikaitkeun kana [[pangawaleuweungan|deforéstasi]], leungitna [[kaanékaragaman hayati]], [[degradasi lahan]], [[parobahan iklim]], [[polusi udara]], [[kalangkaan cai]], jeung [[polusi cai]] mangrupa masalah utama pikeun panyieun kawijakan di unggal nagara nagara panghasil sato ingon utama. Hiji panalungtikan di [[Hokkaido]] manggihan yén méré suplemén [[sistein]] jeung [[nitrat]] kana parab ingon téh bisa ngurangan émisi gas [[metana]] tina sato ingon tanpa ngurangan kualitas jeung kuantitas daging jeung susu.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/unusual-tales/global-warming-breakthrough-way-to-stop-cow-gas/2008/01/22/1200764221842.html|title=Global warming breakthrough: way to stop cow gas - Unusual Tales - Specials|publisher=Smh.com.au|accessdate=2011-12-10}}</ref> Polutan lianna nyaéta antibiotik jeung hormon. Di [[Asia Kidul]] kapanggih yén [[héring]] bakal nyingkahan bangké sato ingon nu geus disuntikkeun antibiotik [[Diclofenac]]. ; Deforéstasi : Deforéstasi jeung fragméntasi leuwung ngabalukarkeun siklus karbon global jeung nyumebabkeun leungitna/paburencayna habitat mangrupa-rupa spésiés. Leuweung mangrupa tempat [[Sekuestrasi karbon|teundeunan karbon]] dunya nu cukup penting. Leuweung ditugar atawa diduruk pikeun nyayagakeun tempat pikeun paternakan jeung [[pangangonan sato]].<ref name="fao.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a0701e/a0701e00.HTM|title=Livestock's long shadow: environmental issues and options|publisher=Fao.org|date=|accessdate=2011-12-10}}</ref> ; Dégradasi lahan : Hiji panalungtikan nu dileukeunan di [[Botswana]] dina taun 2008 manggihan yén patani nu ngalakukeun panumpukan sato ingon kaleuleuwihi pikeun ngantisipasi usum garing justru leuwih rentan kana kalumangsungan usaha paternakanna sahingga justru méakkeun biomassa jeung sumber daya cau nu leuwih gancang. Alatan parobahan iklim, kiwari usum garing di Botswana datang leuwih gancang batan biasana datang dua taun sakali ayeuna mah 18 bulan sakali atawa leuwih singget ti éta.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.scidev.net/en/sub-suharan-africa/news/sub-saharan-africa-news-in-brief-10-22-april-2008.html|title=Sub-Saharan Africa news in brief: 10–22 April 2008|publisher=SciDev.Net|accessdate=2011-12-10}}</ref> ; Parobahan iklim jeung polusi udara : [[Métana]] nu dihasilkeun tina caduk sato mangrupa gas imah kaca nu watekna persistén di [[atmosfir]]. Gas métana mangrupa salah sahiji gas imah kaca panglobana nomer dua di atmosfir sanggeus karbon dioksida, ngan kamampuhna dina ngepung panas 25 kali leuwih kuat tinimbang karbon dioksida.<ref name="globalmethane.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.globalmethane.org/gmi|title=Global Methane Initiative|publisher=[[:en:Global Methane Initiative]]|date=2010-10-01|accessdate=2011-12-10}}</ref> <div class="cx-template-editor-source-container" lang="id" dir="ltr" style="display: none;"><div class="cx-template-editor-source"><div class="cx-template-editor-title" title="Formats a citation to a website using the provided information such as URL and title. Used only for sources that are not correctly described by the specific citation templates for books, journals, news sources, etc.">Cite web</div><div class="cx-template-editor-param"><div class="cx-template-editor-param-title"><span id="url" class="cx-template-editor-param-key">URL</span><span data-key="url" title="The URL of the online location where the text of the publication can be found" class="cx-template-editor-param-desc"></span></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param-value" data-key="url" style="position: relative;"><nowiki>http://www.news.com.au/couriermail/story/0,23739,22880187-5013016,00.html</nowiki></div></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param"><div class="cx-template-editor-param-title"><span id="title" class="cx-template-editor-param-key">Source title</span><span data-key="title" title="The title of the source page on the website; will display with quotation marks added" class="cx-template-editor-param-desc"></span></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param-value" data-key="title" style="position: relative;">Kangaroo farts could fight global warming &#x7C; Courier Mail</div></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param"><div class="cx-template-editor-param-title"><span id="publisher" class="cx-template-editor-param-key">Publisher</span><span data-key="publisher" title="Name of the publisher; may be wikilinked" class="cx-template-editor-param-desc"></span></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param-value" data-key="publisher" style="position: relative;">News.com.au</div></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param"><div class="cx-template-editor-param-title"><span id="archive-url" class="cx-template-editor-param-key">Archive URL</span><span data-key="archive-url" title="The URL of an archived copy of a web page, if or in case the URL becomes unavailable; requires 'archive-date'" class="cx-template-editor-param-desc"></span></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param-value" data-key="archive-url" style="position: relative;"><nowiki>https://archive.is/fX4R</nowiki></div></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param"><div class="cx-template-editor-param-title"><span id="archive-date" class="cx-template-editor-param-key">Archive date</span><span data-key="archive-date" title="Date when the original URL was archived; do not wikilink" class="cx-template-editor-param-desc"></span></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param-value" data-key="archive-date" style="position: relative;">2012-12-03</div></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param"><div class="cx-template-editor-param-title"><span id="access-date" class="cx-template-editor-param-key">URL access date</span><span data-key="access-date" title="The full date when the original URL was accessed; do not wikilink" class="cx-template-editor-param-desc"></span></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param-value" data-key="access-date" style="position: relative;">2011-12-10</div></div></div></div><div class="cx-template-editor-source-container" lang="id" dir="ltr" style="display: none;"><div class="cx-template-editor-source"><div class="cx-template-editor-title" title="Formats a citation to a website using the provided information such as URL and title. Used only for sources that are not correctly described by the specific citation templates for books, journals, news sources, etc.">Cite web</div><div class="cx-template-editor-param"><div class="cx-template-editor-param-title"><span id="url" class="cx-template-editor-param-key">URL</span><span data-key="url" title="The URL of the online location where the text of the publication can be found" class="cx-template-editor-param-desc"></span></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param-value" data-key="url" style="position: relative;"><nowiki>http://www.news.com.au/couriermail/story/0,23739,22880187-5013016,00.html</nowiki></div></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param"><div class="cx-template-editor-param-title"><span id="title" class="cx-template-editor-param-key">Source title</span><span data-key="title" title="The title of the source page on the website; will display with quotation marks added" class="cx-template-editor-param-desc"></span></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param-value" data-key="title" style="position: relative;">Kangaroo farts could fight global warming &#x7C; Courier Mail</div></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param"><div class="cx-template-editor-param-title"><span id="date" class="cx-template-editor-param-key">Source date</span><span data-key="date" title="Full date when the source was published; if unknown, use access-date instead; do not wikilink" class="cx-template-editor-param-desc"></span></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param-value" data-key="date" style="position: relative;">2007-12-05</div></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param"><div class="cx-template-editor-param-title"><span id="publisher" class="cx-template-editor-param-key">Publisher</span><span data-key="publisher" title="Name of the publisher; may be wikilinked" class="cx-template-editor-param-desc"></span></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param-value" data-key="publisher" style="position: relative;">News.com.au</div></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param"><div class="cx-template-editor-param-title"><span id="archive-url" class="cx-template-editor-param-key">Archive URL</span><span data-key="archive-url" title="The URL of an archived copy of a web page, if or in case the URL becomes unavailable; requires 'archive-date'" class="cx-template-editor-param-desc"></span></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param-value" data-key="archive-url" style="position: relative;"><nowiki>https://archive.is/fX4R</nowiki></div></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param"><div class="cx-template-editor-param-title"><span id="archive-date" class="cx-template-editor-param-key">Archive date</span><span data-key="archive-date" title="Date when the original URL was archived; do not wikilink" class="cx-template-editor-param-desc"></span></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param-value" data-key="archive-date" style="position: relative;">2012-12-03</div></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param"><div class="cx-template-editor-param-title"><span id="access-date" class="cx-template-editor-param-key">URL access date</span><span data-key="access-date" title="The full date when the original URL was accessed; do not wikilink" class="cx-template-editor-param-desc"></span></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param-value" data-key="access-date" style="position: relative;">2011-12-10</div></div></div></div> ; Kalangkaan cai : Sato ingon merlukeun cai nu rada loba pikeun inumeun, sanitasi, ogé pikeun ngabudidayakeun pepelakan nu bakal dijadikeun parab. Di sakuliah dunya rata-rata 40% pepelakan panghasil sisikian jang parab. Sacara sagemblengna, rata-rata diperlukeun 100000 liter cai pikeun sakilo daging.<ref name="news.cornell.edu">{{cite web|url=http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/aug97/livestock.hrs.html|title=Cornell Science News: Livestock Production|publisher=News.cornell.edu|date=1997-08-07|accessdate=2011-12-10}}</ref> ; Polusi cai : Caduk sato nu diseblok bisa nyumebabkeun kandungan nitrogén jeung fosforna nyemaran parairan<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pnas.org.offcampus.lib.washington.edu/content/107/43/18371|title=Forecasting Potential Global Environmental Costs of Livestock Production 2000–2050. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107.43 (2010): 18371-8374|last=Pelletier Nathan and Peter Tyedmers|publisher=Web of Science}}</ref> jeung nyumebabkeun [[eutrofikasi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ase.tufts.edu/gdae/pubs/rp/AAI_Issue_Brief_2_1.pdf|title=LEVELING THE FIELD – ISSUE BRIEF #2 Environmental and Health Problems in Livestock Production: Pollution in the Food System|last=Starme|first=Elanor|publisher=American Journal of Public Health 94.10: 1703-709}}</ref> ; Alternatif : Para panalungtik di [[Australia|Australi]] néangan kamumkinan pangurangan gas métana tina sapi jeung domba ku cara ngasupkeun baktéri pencernaan tina usus [[kangguru]] ka beuteung sato ingon.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.news.com.au/couriermail/story/0,23739,22880187-5013016,00.html|title=Kangaroo farts could fight global warming &#124; Courier Mail|publisher=News.com.au|archiveurl=https://archive.is/fX4R|archivedate=2012-12-03|accessdate=2011-12-10}} {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.ph/20121203041656/www.news.com.au/couriermail/story/0,23739,22880187-5013016,00.html |date=2012-12-03 }}</ref> Di Amérika Sarikat, mertahankeun padang jukut dipikanyaho bisa nyiptakeun stok daging tina hasil [[moro]] sato nu hirup di luhurna sacara tuluy-tumuluy.<ref>Derner, Justin D., William K. Lauenroth, Paul Stapp, and David J. Augustine. "Livestock as Ecosystem Engineers for Grassland Bird Habitat in the Western Great Plains of North America." Rangeland Ecology & Management 62.2 (2009): 111-18. Web of Science. Web. Feb. 2011.</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist|2}} == Tutumbu luar == * [http://app.thearit.com/ilri/betterlivesthroughlivestockinternationallivestockresearchinstituteilri.html Better Lives Through Livestock] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224101510/http://app.thearit.com/ilri/betterlivesthroughlivestockinternationallivestockresearchinstituteilri.html |date=2013-12-24 }} by ILRI * [http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/livestock Livestock] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121123031456/http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/livestock |date=2012-11-23 }} - New South Wales Government * [http://www.havanatimes.org/?p=31372 Havana Livestock Fair (Photo Feature)] - ''Havana Times'', October 19, 2010 * [http://www.howtoraisecattle.com Guide On How To Raise Cattle] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190910081901/http://www.howtoraisecattle.com/ |date=2019-09-10 }} [[Kategori:Sato ingon]] grjdwns0mqf6ykmb9r5p60yxk0rddvd 0 108733 710684 710665 2026-06-22T06:42:17Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 710684 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:About indonesian culture.jpg|250px|thumbnail|Hiji pasangan Malayu [[Riau]] ngarasakeun Gambus tradisional. Panel latar tukang ngagabungkeun palét tilu warna Malayu.]] '''Urang Malayu Indonésia''' ([[Basa Malayu]]/[[Basa Indonésia]]: ''Orang Melayu Indonesia'') nyaéta [[urang Malayu|étnis Malayu]] anu cicing di sakuliah [[Indonésia]]. Aranjeunna salah sahiji masarakat pribumi nagara éta.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Badan Kesatuan Bangsa dan Politik|url=http://kesbangpol.riau.go.id/media.php?p=detail_artikel&id=272|access-date=20 Juni 2026|website=kesbangpol.riau.go.id|archive-date=8 Juli 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708112613/http://kesbangpol.riau.go.id/media.php?p=detail_artikel&id=272|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708112613/http://kesbangpol.riau.go.id/media.php?p=detail_artikel&id=272 |date=2022-07-08 }}</ref> [[Basa Indonésia]], basa nasional Indonésia, nyaéta wangun standar basa Malayu Riau.<ref name="Sneddon">Sneddon 2003, ''The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society'', p. 69–70</ref><ref>''Kamus Saku Bahasa Indonesia'', p. 272, PT Mizan Publika, {{ISBN|9789791227834}}</ref> Aya seueur karajaan anu aya patalina sareng urang Malayu Indonésia sareng étnis-étnis sanés di tempat anu ayeuna disebut [[Indonésia]], utamina di pulo [[Kalimantan]] sareng [[Sumatra]]. Di antarana [[Karajaan Sriwijaya|Sriwijaya]], [[Karajaan Malayu]], [[Dharmasraya]], Kasultanan Deli, Kasultanan Siak Sri Indrapura, Kasultanan Riau-Lingga, Kasultanan Bulungan, Kasultanan Pontianak, jeung Kasultanan Sambas. Sénsus taun 2010 nyatakeun yén aya 8 juta urang Malayu di Indonésia; angka ieu asalna tina klasifikasi urang Malayu di Sumatra Wétan sareng basisir Kalimantan anu diakui ku pamaréntah Indonésia. Klasifikasi ieu béda ti sénsus [[Malaysia]] sareng [[Singapura]] anu ngagolongkeun urang Malayu salaku kategori ras anu langkung lega, anu sajaba ti étnis inti Malayu ogé ngawengku sadaya kelompok étnis Muslim ti kapuloan Indonésia (kalebet urang Acéh, Banjar, Bugis, Mandailing, [[urang Minang|Minangkabau]] sareng [[urang Jawa|Jawa]]) salaku [[urang Malayu]]. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tautan éksternal == {{Commonscat|Malay people of Indonesia}} *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mW_l4fN1EIQ&t Malay dialects of Indonesia] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20090304100951/http://melayuonline.com/ MelayuOnline] {{DEFAULTSORT:Malayu}} [[Kategori:Grup étnis di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Sélér bangsa di Indonésia]] 29qgy0e3b81tbsdflbvcucfa8rbat9d